Renewable Energy Resources

Unit 3

Geothermal Energy, MHD and Fuel Cells

 Topics
1. Geothermal Energy and its Resources
2. Thermodynamics of Geothermal Energy Conversion,
3. Electrical Conversion,
4. Non Electrical Conversion
5. Environmental Consideration
6. Principle of Working of MHD Power Plant
7. Performance and Limitations of Geothermal Energy
8. Principle of Working of Various Types of Fuel Cells
9. Performance and Limitations of Fuel Cells
 Geothermal Energy

The enormous amount of energy available inside the earth in the form of heat
is known as geothermal energy.
Geothermal energy is the immense heat within the Earth, considered
renewable and not dependent on the sun.
Surface signs include hot water springs and geysers.
Earth's crust temperature rises with increasing depth.
Radial temperature gradient increases at about 30°C per km.
Water bubbles up at 3-4 km depth, and at 10-15 km, Earth's interior can reach
1000° to 1200°C.
Earth's core is magma, a liquid rock, with a temperature around 4000°C.
Geothermal heat transfers to underground water reservoirs circulating
beneath the Earth's crust.
Warm water and steam vent through fissures, creating hot springs and
geysers.
The Earth's limitless magma heat and heat from radioactive decay (K, Th,
U) in the crust are renewable geothermal energy sources.
 Classification of Geothermal Energy

1.Hydrothermal Resources
i. Hot Water Fields
ii. Wet Steam Fields
2. Vapour-Dominated Resources
3. Hot Dry Rock Resources
4. Geopressured Resources
5. Magma
 1. Hydrothermal Resources
Hot water and steam deposits at lesser depths are extracted through
production wells.
High-temperature water and steam (300°F to 700°F) are utilized for
electricity generation or space heating.
Only a part of the rock is permeable, forming the geo-fluid reservoir,
making the field commercially viable for resource extraction.
 i. Hot Water Fields
1. Hot Spring Characteristics:
a. Hot water below 100 °C emerges at specific locations, forming hot
springs.
b. Geothermal aquifers are covered by confining layers to maintain hot
water under pressure.
2. Examples of Hot Water Fields:
a. Sahestra Dhara near Dehradun, Sacred Kund at Badrinath
(Uttarakhand), Manikaran in Kullu Valley (Himachal Pradesh).
b. International examples include the Pannonian Basin (Hungary), Po
River Valley (Italy), and Klamath Falls, Oregon (USA).
 ii. Wet Steam Fields
1. Pressurized water in the geothermal reservoir exceeds 100 °C and contains
small amounts of steam and vapor (at 370 °C).
2. Sites where steam escapes through surface cracks are called fumaroles.
3. An impermeable cap-rock prevents fluid from escaping into the
atmosphere, and drilling is carried out to bring the fluid to the surface.
4. The fluid, consisting of steam and boiling water in the predominant phase,
is used to produce energy.
5. Examples of wet steam fields include Los Azufre (Mexico), Puna (Hawaii,
USA), Deing (Indonesia), Azores (Portugal), and Latera (Italy).
 2. Vapour-Dominated Resources

Vapour dominated reservoirs produce dry saturated steam at pressures

above atmospheric, with temperatures reaching about 350 °C.
Water and steam coexist, but steam is the dominant phase, regulating
pressure in the reservoir.
Steam from these geothermal fields directly drives a turbine for energy
generation.
Examples of vapour-dominated reservoirs include Malsukawa (Japan), The
Geysers in California (USA), Kamojang (Indonesia), etc.
 3. Hot Dry Rock Resources
Geological formation: Rocks at 650 °C, heated by magma, but no
water present.
Energy trapping: Impermeable rock is fractured, and water is injected
for an artificial reservoir.
Circulation: Water circulates; hot fluids return as steam and hot water
through another well.
Utilization: Steam and hot water generated are used for electricity
generation.
 4. Geopressured Resources

1. Moderate temperature brines (160 °C) with dissolved methane are trapped
in deep sedimentary formations.
2. Geological sealing between impermeable shale and clay layers at significant
depths.
3. When trapped by boring wells, three sources of energy are available:
a. Thermal
b. Mechanical as pressure
c. Chemical as methane.
 5. Magma
1. Magma is a molten rock at temperature ranging from 900 °C to 1600 °C.
2. This hot viscous liquid comes out from active volcanic vents and
solidifies.
3. It may form reservoirs at some depth from the earth's surface and
magma chambers represent a huge energy source.
4. The existing technology does not allow recovery of heat from these
resources.
 Hot Water Fields
Hot Water Field: Reservoir at 50-100 °C.
Utilization: Useful for house heating and agriculture with less steam
content.
Reservoir Characteristics: Water in liquid phase below boiling point
under pressure.
Surface Features: Thermal springs with temperatures near boiling
point.
Depth: Occurs at depths less than 2 km.
Largest Plant: Geyser Plant in the USA is the world's largest.
 Wet Steam Field
Wet Steam Fields: Contain pressurized water above 100 °C.
Pressure Reduction: High-pressure hot water brought to the surface
reduces pressure, creating a mix of steam and boiling water.
Power Generation: The mixture is used for power generation.
Well Drilling: Pressurized water rises due to lower pressure above the well.
Utilization: Vapor used for power, separated hot water for thermal
applications.
Steam Percentage: More than 90% of exploited hydrothermal reservoirs
are of this type.
 Dry Steam Field
Enhanced Steam Fields: Similar to wet steam fields but with higher
heat transfer from depth.
Steam Characteristics: Reservoirs produce superheated steam at
pressures above atmospheric.
Permeability: These fields have lower permeability compared to wet
fields.
Well Drilling Effect: Drilling the well and fluid extraction create a
depressed zone, enhancing water boiling around the rocks.
Steam Expansion and Cooling: Steam flows through the dry bottom,
expands, and cools, but high-temperature rocks maintain superheated
state.
Degree of Superheating: The degree of superheating may reach up to
100 °C.
Geothermal Power Plants

1. Vapour-Dominated Power Plant

2. Liquid-Dominated Power Plants
i. Flashed steam system
ii. Binary cycle system
 Vapour-Dominated Power Plant
In a vapour-dominated power plant, steam is extracted from geothermal
wells, passed through a separator to remove particulate contents and flows
directly to a steam turbine.
Turbine Operation: Steam operates a turbine coupled with a generator at 245
°C and 7 bar pressure, lower than conventional steam cycle plants.
Efficiency: Geothermal plant efficiency is low, approximately 20%.
Condensation and Cooling: Exhaust steam passes through a condenser;
water formed circulates through a cooling tower.
Environmental Benefits: Enhances turbine efficiency and controls pollution
by avoiding direct steam release into the atmosphere.
Water Recycling: Waste water from the cooling tower is reinjected into the
geothermal well for a continuous water supply.
 Liquid-Dominated Power Plants

These plants are also called wet steam plants because they give wet
steam i.e., a mixture of hot water and steam under high pressure.

There are two types of liquid-dominated power plants:

i. Flashed steam system, and
ii. Binary cycle system.
 Flashed Steam System
Flashed System: Preferred for high-temperature geothermal brine and
steam with low dissolved impurities.
Process: Geothermal fluid (brine and steam mixture) passes through a
flash chamber, converting a significant portion into steam.
Power Generation: Dry saturated steam from the flash chamber goes
through a turbine coupled with a generator to produce electric power.
Reinjection: Hot brine and turbine discharge from the condenser are re-
injected into the ground, ensuring a continuous supply of geothermal fluid
from the well.
 Binary Cycle System
1. A binary cycle is used where geothermal fluid is hot water with temperature
less than 100 °C.
2. This plant operates with a low boiling point working fluid (Isobutene or
Freon) in a thermodynamic closed Rankine cycle.
3. Hot brine from underground reservoir circulates through a heat exchanger
and is pumped back to the ground.
4. In heat exchanger, hot brine transfers its heat to the organic fluid thus
converting it to a superheated vapour that is used in a standard closed Rankine
cycle.
 Applications of Geothermal Energy
1. Generation of electric power.
2. Industrial process heat
3. Space heating for buildings.
4. Production of salt from sea.
5. Extraction manufacturing.
6. Textile industry
7. Sewage heat treatment.
8. Geothermal water is utilized for greenhouse cultivation using
discharge water from a geothermal drill hole.
Geothermal Power Plant Thermal Power Plant
1. Uses inexhaustible source of energy. 1. Uses exhaustible source of energy.

2. More environmentally friendly. 2. Less environmentally friendly.

3. In some cases, can cause 3. No such problem.

earthquakes in dangerous situations.
4. Can be used for various industrial
4. Mainly used for power generation.
processes.
5. Setup cost is high. 5. Setup cost is low.

6. Byproducts are not used. 6. Byproducts can be used.

7. Less flexible. 7. More flexible.

8. Requires a specified area. 8. No such restriction.

 Operational and Environmental Problems of
Geothermal Energy Sources
Geothermal energy isn't completely pollution-free.
Adverse effects include air and thermal pollution, surface disturbance,
and land subsidence.
Air pollution at geothermal sites involves emission of poisonous gases like
hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, methane, and carbon dioxide.
Extracting energy from hot rocks or magma involves forcing water down
boreholes and returning it to the surface for turbine use.
In highly permeable reservoirs, predicting the amount of water needed
for injection is challenging.
Escaping flash steam into the atmosphere could cause dense fog.
Harmful substances may escape into the air at geothermal sites, potentially
containing radioactive materials.
Systematic monitoring is advisable to address potential environmental
risks.
Geothermal water contains dissolved solids, with silica comprising 25-50%.
The amount of dissolved solids is in the range of 300-1500 ppm.
Possible solutions include reinjection, disposal into the sea, and the use of
evaporator ponds.
 Magneto Hydrodynamics (MHD)
1. Magneto hydrodynamics (MHD) involves generating an electric field
through the interaction of ionized fluid and a magnetic field, resulting in
the production of direct current at the expense of thermal energy.
2. MHD power generation is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction.
3. Requirements for an MHD generator include:
a. Magnet material with a high melting point.
b. Electrodes made of SiC or ZrC material to withstand high temperatures
and prevent chemical erosion.
c. Use of ceramics for duct construction to resist chemical erosion from hot
gases.
d. Duct material with high electrical and thermal insulation.
e. Insulation and conducting materials capable of withstanding
temperatures around 2500 °C.
 Working Principle of MHD Power Generation
1. In MHD power generation conversion process depends upon Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction, which states that when a conductor and a
magnetic field move relative to each other, a voltage is induced in the
conductor. This induced voltage produces an electric current.
2. The conductor may be solid, liquid or gas.
3. In MHD generator solid conductors are replaced by hot ionized gas.
4. The hot ionized gas (3000 °C) is passed through the MHD duct across
which a strong magnetic field is applied.
5. Since the gases are hot and ionized they form an electrically conducting
medium moving in a magnetic field, thus a voltage is generated.
6. The power generated by MHD generator is in the direct current form.
7. Now, if the electrodes are placed in a suitable position then generated
current can be extracted.
 Classification of Hydrodynamic System
1. Open Cycle MHD System
The open cycle MHD generator uses coal as a fuel as it produces
more conductive plasma. This is because of more carbon atom as
compared to hydrogen atom (as the presence of hydrogen is
undesirable in MHD).
The working temperature in the open cycle MHD generator lies approximately
in the range above 2300 °C.
This is a lower temperature limit and below this the effective electrical
conductivity becomes zero.
There may be no limit in the upper working temperatures; so far the materials
can stand with the high heat fluxes under high electrie field.
 Closed Cycle MHD System
Fig. 3.8.2 shows the schematic diagram of closed cycle MHD 3 generator.
Closed cycle MHD power plant achieves high thermal efficiency and low
cycle cost.
Operates at a low temperature of 1600 °C, with a small duct size due to high
pressure.
Helium or argon serves as the working fluid, heated in a heat exchanger and
ionized.
Inert gas mixed with less ionized substances (e.g., alkali metal) enhances
conductivity.
Classified into seeded inert gas systems and liquid metal systems.
Working fluid (e.g., argon or helium) is seeded with cesium and circulates in a
closed loop.
Combustor burns gas, supplying heat to the working fluid in the heat
exchanger.
Ionized working fluid passes through a magnetic field, generating DC power.
Combustion products are discharged to the atmosphere after heat removal
in the heat exchanger.
 Closed Cycle Liquid Metal MHD Generator
Fig. 3.8.3 shows the schematic diagram of closed cycle liquid metal MHD
generator.
The superheated metallic vapour is expanded through the supersonic nozzle
and enters in the generator in liquid form with velocity of 150 m/s.
The electrical conductivity of metallic vapour is poor. That brings the overall
conversion efficiency lower than that of gas as a working substance.
However it has the advantages to supply the AC current directly and there is
no need of inverter.
In nuclear fired MHD generator the high temperature nuclear reactor is used
to utilize solid fuel elements to meet the requirements.
The ceramic coated electrodes are film cooled by hydrogen to protect them
from unusual build up of uranium droplets.
The cyclonic separators are used to remove the uranium droplet from the
hydrogen gas and the hydrogen flows in the compressor expands through the
turbine, then is cooled in heat exchangers in multistage compression.

Function of Steam :
The steam is used partly for driving a steam turbine operating the compressor
and partly expanded in a steam turbine driving a three phase alternator.
 Practical Problems Associated with MHD

The main problem in the design of long-life MHD generators is to find the
materials that can survive high operating temperatures of these generators. Both
the insulator and conducting materials should sustain temperature of 2500 °C for
prolong duration.
Electrode materials are chemically eroded by combustion gases.
Seed material potassium attacks insulating materials and makes them
conducting.
The major problem forced by this generator is the economics. Although the
overall thermal efficiency is 60 %, against 40 % for conventional thermal plant,
additional investment in the magnet, generator, duct, compressors, scrubbers,
seed recovery plant and DC to AC converters may increase the plant cost and it
may be much higher than conventional plant.
 Fuel cell
A fuel cell is an electro-chemical device that converts chemical energy into
electricity and heat without combustion.
The conversion of chemical energy into electrical power in case of fuel cell
is an isothermal process.
Main components of a fuel cell are :
1. Anode (Fuel electrode)
2. Cathode (Oxidant electrode)
3. Electrolyte
4. Container
5. Separators
6. Sealings
7. Fuel supply, and
8. Oxidant supply
 Type of Fuel Cell
1. Alkaline fuel cells (AFC),
2. Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC)
3. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
4. Proton or polymer exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC),
5. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
6. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
7. Zinc air fuel cells (ZAFC), and
8. Regenerative fuel cells (RFC)
 Working Principle of Hydrogen Oxygen Cell
A basic hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell with phosphoric acid as electrolyte is
shown in Fig. 3.10.1.
In fuel cells, platinum coated special graphite plates are used as the
electrodes, separated by an electrolyte.
The fuel is hydrogen gas which is supplied at the anode side where the
hydrogen molecules are effectively reduced to hydrogen ions which move to
the electrolyte.

Electrons liberated at the anode build up a negative potential and travel

towards the cathode through an externally connected circuit.
Oxygen gas is supplied at the cathode where it is reduced by hydrogen ions
to produce water.
Electrochemical reactions coupled with movement of hydrogen ions through
the electrolyte generate an electric potential, which causes electric current to
flow through the load.
 This reaction is exothermic, which results in heating up the cell.

A stream of air is circulated on the cathode side of the cell which absorbs
enough heat to maintain outlet air and steam at 180°C which is optimum for
best performance of the cell.
 Features of Hydrogen Oxygen Cell

1. High ionic conductivity,

2. Zero electronic conductivity,
3. Low permeability of fuel and oxidant,
4. Low degree of electro-osmosis,
5. High resistance to dehydration,
6. High resistance to its oxidation or hydrolysis and,
7. Mechanical stability.
 Advantages of Fuel Cell

Fuel cell has high efficiency.

Fuel cell is simple and safe.
Fuel cell does not have moving parts.
Fuel cells are compact and noiseless.
They are pollution free.
No cooling water needed.
The capacity can be increased as the demand grows.
Space requirement is much less.
It has long life.
It is odourless and quiet in application.
 Limitations of Fuel Cell
1. Reactivity and invariance are key requirements for fuel cells.
2. Reactivity demands proper stoichiometry and high electrode activity for
large current densities.
3. Invariance means the fuel cell should remain unchanged throughout its life
with no corrosion, side reactions, electrolyte or electrode changes.
4. Operating fuel cells near room temperature results in low electricity
output.
 Difference between Fuel Cell and Battery
Fuel Cell Battery
Fuel cell is a primary cell and cannot The battery is rechargeable.
be recharged but can be refueled.

Fuel and oxidizer do not mix Fuel and oxidizer are not used
together in a fuel cell. separately.

Fuel and oxidizer need continuous Battery stores fixed charges of

replacement as per requirement. chemical, used up during the reaction.

It produces electricity continuously as Battery stores energy.

long as fuel and oxidizer are supplied.
 Applications of Fuel Cell

It is used in automotive vehicles.

It is used in domestic power.
It is used in central power station.
It is used in military and aerospace.
For remote and inaccessible locations, fuel cell
can be used unattended for a long period.
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
It uses an electrolyte, which is a molten mixture of carbonate salts.
Two mixtures commonly used are:
a. Lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate, and
b. Lithium carbonate and sodium carbonate.
Since, these salts can act as electrolytes only in liquid phase; the operating
temperature should be as high as 650 °C.
Due to high temperature, these salts melt and become conductive to
carbonate ions (CO 3-- ).
These ions flow from the cathode to the anode where they combine with
hydrogen to give water, carbon dioxide and electrons.
The electrons flow through external circuit and reaches to cathode,
generating electricity and byproduct heat.

The emf produced by each cell is theoretically 1 V and actual emf of 0.8 V at
700 °C and the expected efficiency is about 60 %.
 Proton Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
In this type of fuel cell, electrolyte is a solid polymer membrane of an organic
material such as polystyrene sulphonic acid and this polymer is permeable to
protons when it is saturated with water but it does not conduct electrons.
In PEMFC, the fuel is hydrogen and charge carriers are hydrogen ions (protons).
At the anode, the hydrogen molecule is split into hydrogen ions and electrons.
The hydrogen ions penetrate across the electrolyte to cathode while the
electrons flow through an external circuit and produce electric power.
Oxygen is supplied to the cathode and combines with electrons and the
hydrogen ions to produce water.

The membrane is coated on its both sides with finely powdered platinum
which acts as a catalyst. These cells are also called ion exchange membrane
cell.
 Advantages of PEMFC
It has high power density.
It can be start rapidly.
Less expensive.
It has longer life.
It has less problems with corrosion.
It operates at low temperature i.e., usually below 100 °C.
Disadvantage
The main disadvantage of this type of cell is that due to low operating
temperature these are not enough to perform useful cogeneration.

Desirable Properties of an Ideal PEMFC Electrolyte:

High ionic conductivity.
Zero electronic conductivity.
Low permeability of fuel and oxidant
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
The electrolyte in this cell is a solid, non porous metal oxide that is
conductive to oxygen ions and these cells are operate at high temperature
between 650 °C to 1000 °C.
At the cathode, the oxygen molecules from the air are split into oxygen ions
with the addition of four electrons.
The oxygen ions are conducted through the electrolyte and combine with
hydrogen at the anode releasing four electrons.
The electrons move through the external circuit producing electric power
and byproduct heat.
The output voltage is about 0.65 V at about 800 °C and a tubular type of
SOFC system has been developed which operates at high temperature of
about 900 °C - 1000 °C.
Difference between AFC and PEMFC
 Performance Analysis for Fuel Cell
In a fuel cell, a chemical reaction takes place where the reactants are converted
into products in a steady flow process.
The work is obtained by combining the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.
According to first law of thermodynamics for a steady flow process,
ΔQ - ΔW= ΔH + (ΔKE) + (ΔPE)
where, ΔQ = Heat transferred to the steady flow stream from the
surroundings,
ΔW= Workdone by the flow stream from entrance to exit,
ΔH= Change in enthalpy of the flow stream from entrance to exit,
KE = Kinetic energy of the stream, and
PE = Potential energy of the stream.
In this case, KE and PE are usually negligible. Hence equation can be
written as,
ΔW= ΔQ - ΔH ...(3.17.1)
According to second law of thermodynamics,
ΔQ = T ΔS ...(3.17.2)
On combining equation (3.17.1) and (3.17.2), we get
ΔWmax = TΔS - ΔH ...(3.17.3)
The Gibbs free energy is given by
ΔG = ΔH-T ΔS (where T is constant) ...(3.17.4)
From equation (3.17.3) and equation (3.17.4), we get
ΔWmax =- ΔG
 Efficiency
The efficiency (nF ) of energy conversion of a fuel cell is defined as the
ratio of the useful work to the heat of combustion of the fuel.
Mathematically,
...(3.17.5)

For hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell, ΔG is (-237191) J/kg-mol at 25 °C while its heat

of reaction ΔH is about (-285838) J/kg-mol.
 EMF of a Fuel Cell
The electromotive force that will drive electrons through external load is
proportional to Gibbs free energy change.
Mathematically,

From equation (3.17.5) and equation (3.17.6), we get

The overall efficiency of fuel cell is given as

The power output of a reversible fuel cell is given by

Where, molar mass of hydrogen = 2.018 kg/mole

 Current-Voltage Characteristics
The actual cell potential is decreased from its equilibrium potential
because of irreversible losses, activation polarization, internal polarization
and concentration polarization. These losses are called polarization voltage
losses.
These losses cause cell voltage (VC ) to get reduced.
The cell voltage drops with increase in current density because of
polarization losses and it is given by

Where, E is an ideal or no load voltage potential of cell.

With increase in load on the cell, the internal losses increase and drop
in cell terminal voltage occurs.
 Power-Current Characteristics
The power of fuel cell increases in cell current density and decreases
after saturation point is reached, because of polarization effect.
The power of cell starts decreasing with increase in cell current after
saturation point, because of high thermal losses. The power of cell is
given by :
Therefore, power of cell increases with increase in cell current, but this will
also increase the polarization losses and saturation point will be reached
where power of the cell will be maximum.
 Previous Year Question
2 Marks
Enlist the sources of Geothermal energy in our environment. (2022-23)
Enlist the types of MHD system. (2022-23)
What is meant by dry steam, wet steam and hot water in geothermal
system? (2021-22)
Write the chemical reaction takes place in Alkaline Fuel Cell. (2021-22)

10 Marks
Illustrate briefly about different geothermal energy resources and
mention its direct uses. (2022-23)
Explain in detail about Flash steam and Dry steam plant systematic
process with clear flow chart diagram. (2022-23)
Illustrate in detail about MHD Power generation system. Classify its systems
with clear flow chart diagram, applications and its uses. (20222-23)
With the help of a schematic diagram, explain the operation of closed cycle
MHD generating system? (2021-22)
Explain the working of geothermal power plants. Discuss the various
technical developments. (2021-22)
Explain the working of molten carbonate fuel cells using appropriate
diagram and write various chemical reactions involved in this type of fuel
cell. (2021-22)
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