AIRCRAFT MECHANICAL SYSTEM 1
I. Aeroplane aerodynamics and flight control
1. Flight control
1) Operation and effect of:
a. Roll control:
Ailerons, are the primary control surface; hinged to outer wing and moving part of trailing edge,
providing control in roll (“longitudinal axis”). The aileron on the left wing moves up, decreasing the
camber or curvature of the left wing and decreasing the lift on the opposite wing. The airplane rolls
to the left about its longitudinal axis.
Spoilers, hinged surfaces located ahead of the flaps, they are used in conjunction with the ailerons to
assist in roll control. Movable surface on upper rear surface of wing, which when open reduces lift
and also increases drag.
b. Pitch control:
Elevator, movable control surface for governing aircraft in pitch
Stabilators, slab (flat) horizontal tail used as single primary control (stabilizer / elevator)
Variable incidence stabilizer, pivotally mounted so that angle of incidence can be altered (modified)
Canard, tail-first aerodyne, usually with auxiliary horizontal surface at front but vertical surface (fin,
rudder) at rear
c. Yaw control:
Control of rotation of aircraft about vertical (OZ) axis, positive yaw, clockwise seen from above
Rudder limiters, limited primary control surface in yaw
2) Control using elevons, wing control surfaces functions combining functions of ailerons and elevators, e g
on delta wing (one of basically triangular planform (geometric shape in plan, especially of wings): low aspect
ratio, sharply tapered leading edge, straight trailing edge, pointed tips
Ruddervators, movable flight-control surfaces of butterfly valve (fluid flow valve) in form of pivoted plate,
usually having circular form to close a pipe
3) High lift devices; system, device, configuration or mode giving lift greater than in clean or cruise
configuration. Include: leading-edge flaps, droops, slats, trailing-edge flaps, flap blowing, variable-sweep
(total angular movement of aerial)
Slots; gap between wing and hinged trailing-edge surface (e g flap or aileron)
Slats; movable portion of leading edge of aerofoil (especially wing), which in cruising flight is recessed against
main surface and forms part of profile
Flaps; movable surface forming part of leading or trailing edge of aerofoil (especially wing), able to hinge
downwards, swing down and forwards
Flaperons; surface combining roll-control function of aileron with increased lift and drag function of flap
4) Drag inducing devices; drag due to component of wing resultant force long line of flight, drag due to lift
a. Spoilers; hinged or otherwise movable surface on upper rear surface of wing which when open reduces
lift, and usually also increases drag
b. Lift dumpers; flat plate, usually long span and short chord (straight line joining two points on an arc /
curved line
c. Speed brakes; air brake, passive device extended from aircraft to increase drag
5) Effect of wing fences; wall-like plate mounted on upper surface of wing, often containing around leading
edge, substantially parallel to airstream and used to prevent spanwise flow, especially swept (cleaned) wing
at transonic speeds
a. Saw (thin) tooth leading edges, chordwise slot in leading edge of aerofoil to promote chordwise flow,
energize boundary layer
6) Boundary layer control using; control of boundary layer over aircraft surface to increase lift and / or
reduce drag and / or improve control under extreme flight condition
Boundary layer is layer of fluid in vicinity (near area) of a bounding surface, e g layer of air surrounding a body
moving through the atmosphere
a. Vortex generators; small blade perpendicular to skin of aircraft or other body set at angle to airflow to
cause vortex (whirl / spin rapidly wind) which stirs boundary layer
b. Stall wedges / leading edge devices; region beyond stall line of gas turbine at any altitude where at
tempted pressure ratio is too great for RPM and airflow
7) Operation and effect of trim tabs; small hinged portion of trailing edge of primary flight-control surface
whose setting relative to surface is set by pilot via screwhead
a. Balance and anti-balance (leading) tabs; balance tab is tab hinged to and forming part of trailing edge of
control surface; anti-balance tab is tab on control surface mechanically constrained to deflect in same sense
as parent surface to increase surface hinge-moment: opposite of servo tab
b. Servo tabs; tab in primary flight-control surface moved directly by pilot to generate aerodynamic force
moving main surface
c. Spring tabs; servo tab whose deflection relative to surface is resisted by spring, usually torsion bar which
is often preloaded so that at gentle inputs pilot moves surface and tab unaided; at higher inputs spring is
overcome and tab deflects to assist
d. Mass balance; mass attached to flight-control surface, typically ahead of hinge axis, to reduce or eliminate
inertial coupling with airframe flutter (irregularly move) modes
e. Control surface bias; any slanting line / diagonal on aerofoil or part thereof hinged near extremities of
airframe, imparts force tending to change aircraft attitude and thus trajectory
f. Aerodynamic balance panel; method of reducing control-surface hinge moment by providing aerodynamic
surface ahead of hinge axis; wind-tunnel balance for measurement of aerodynamic forces and moments
2. High speed flight
1) Speed of sound is the rate at which small pressure disturbances will be propagated (produced off spring)
through the air. This propagation speed is solely (alone) a function of temperature
a. Subsonic flight; flight with flow whose velocity is less than speed of sound within it
b. Supersonic flight; faster than speed of sound in surrounding medium
c. Critical Mach number; Mach number at which most-accelerated flow around a body first becomes locally
supersonic, for thin wing might be M0.9 while thick wing may have Mach below 0.75
d. Compressibility buffet; irregular oscillation (fluctuate) of structure caused by turbulent wake (become
alert) during an attempt to fly at too high a Mach number
e. Shock wave; boundary between pressure disturbance created by explosion and ambient surrounding
medium
f. Aerodynamic heating; as speed of body through gaseous medium is increased, surface temperature
increases roughly in proportion to square of speed
g. Area rule; formulated by Richard T Whitcomb at NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics), for
minimum transonic drag at zero lift aircraft should be so shaped that nose-to-tail plot of gross cross-section
areas should approximate to that of ideal body for chosen flight Mach number
2) Factors affecting airflow in engine intakes of highspeed aircraft
The axial-flow compressor is made up of a series of rotating airfoils called rotor blades, and a stationary set of
airfoils called stator vanes. The air is being compressed in a direction parallel to the axis of the engine.
A row of rotating and stationary blades is called a stage, the entire compressor is made up of a series of
alternating rotor and stator vane stages.
Axial compressors have the advantage of being capable of very high compression ratios with relatively high
efficiencies. The small frontal area created by this type of compressor lends (let another use temporarily)
itself to installation in high-speed aircraft.
3) Effects of sweepback on critical Mach number
Sweepback is visibly obvious backwards inclination of aerofoil from root to tip, so that leading edge meets
relative wind obliquely (not direct). The oblique shock wave stands off of the moving object at an oblique
angle, it occurs at high supersonic velocities, and the velocity drops across this shock is to lower supersonic
velocity.
II. Hydraulic system
1) Principles of hydraulics
a. Pascal’s law; a basic law of fluid power which states that the pressure in an enclosed container is
transmitted equally and undiminished (unreduced) to all points of the containers, and the force acts as right
angles to the enclosing walls
b. Relationship between pressure, force and a relating to differential areas; on the hydraulic jack, the small
piston with 1 inch2 area and the large piston has an area 10 square inches. When a force of 10 psi is applied
to small piston, a pressure of 10 psi is built up in the fluid. According to Pascal’s law, the pressure is the same
throughout the system, and 10 pound of force acts on each square inch of the large piston. This pressure
produces a force 100 pound on the large piston that lifts the weight
c. Pressures and mechanical advantages; when the small piston moves down 1 inch, 1 inch3 of fluid is force
out the small cylinder into the large cylinder. This fluid spreads out over the entire large piston and it raises
only 0.1 inch. The small piston must move down 10 inches to raise the large piston 1 inch.
The work down by small piston is = 10 inches x 10 pound = 100 pounds inch
Mechanical advantages of hydraulic system are quite efficient, and we do not usually consider system losses
in the study of practical hydraulic system.
2) Hydraulic fluids
a. Types
- Vegetable-base hydraulic fluid; in Military Part Number MIL-H-7644, this fluid is essentially castor oil and
alcohol with dyed (colored) blue color.
– Mineral-base hydraulic fluid; MIL-H-5606 is still widely used for aircraft hydraulic system. A kerosene-type
petroleum product that has a good-lubricating characteristics, contains additives that inhibit foaming and
keep it from reacting with metal to form corrosion.
- Synthetic hydrocarbon-base hydraulic fluid; is familiar with “red oil” as MIL-H-5606 replaced with Part
Number MIL-H-83282 fluid. A synthetic hydrocarbon base, compatible with all material used with MIL-H-
5606 fluid, but 83282 fluid is fire resistance.
– Phosphate Ester hydraulic fluid; Mil-H-5606 can create a fire hazard if a line breaks and sprays the fluid out
under high pressure into an area near a hot engine. A phosphate ester fluid available as SKYDROL LD-4, and
“500B-4” from SOLUTIA Inc, “ Hy Jet V ” and “ Hy Jet IV-A” from Exxon.
These fluids are light purple in color, but this color may change toward yellow as it ages. One of the main
advantages, these ester fluids is wide range of operating temperature, it can function properly from – 650 F to
2250 F.
b. Contamination and protection of hydraulic fluids
Hydraulic systems operate with high pressures, if any components used in the systems have close fitting parts
that any contamination in the fluid will cause the components to fail.
When servicing a hydraulic system, be sure to use only the correct fluid, the specifies fluid type and on the
reservoir should have the required type of fluid plainly (clear) marked with a placard near the filler opening.
3) Hydraulic seals:
The seals are used throughout hydraulic and pneumatic system to minimize leakage and the loss of system
pressure. Gaskets are used when there is no relative motion between the parts that are being sealed, and
packing is a seal between two parts where there is relative motion.
a. Seals form:
a) Chevron seals (V-ring packings); are single -direction seals with the pressure applied to their open sides.
b) O -ring seals; these seals are fitted into grooves, that are usually about 10% wider than the width of the
o -ring seal
c) T-seals; the seal can fit in the standard o -ring grooves, and is backed up with two Teflon backup rings.
Spiraled Teflon back up rings are used for pressure higher than 1500 psi. The backup rings often have an
inner radius to match the fillet radius of the T-seal.
b. Seal identification
Correct seal and a wrong seal may look alike, and it is highly probable that if the wrong seal is installed, it may
appear to work. The material of seal, its age and its hardness are all important when making the proper
replacement.
c. Seal cure date is the date the seal was manufactured and it is given in quarters, example:
2 Q 05 indicates that seal was manufactured in the second quarter, during the months of April, May, or June
of 2005.
Hydraulic seals must be bought only from a reputable supplier, the old seal could be installed in good faith by
an aviation maintenance technician.
When installing o -rings, take extreme care that the ring is not twisted, nicked or damaged by either sharp
edges of the machine, threads over which the ring is installed, or by the installation tool.
O -ring seal marks
Color Use
Blue dot / stripe Air or MIL- H- 5606
Red dot / stripe Fuel
Yellow dot / stripe Synthetic engine oil
White dot / stripe Petroleum base
Green dash Phosphate ester
4) Fittings and flexible pipes:
There are two kinds of fluid lines used in aircraft systems, rigid and flexible. Rigid tubing is used where there
is no relative movement within the system, and flexible hoses are used when a piece of rigid tubing connects
to an actuator or other device with relative movement between the two.
a) Rigid tubing used in low-pressure hydraulic or pneumatic systems are made of 5052-0 aluminum
alloy. This metal is easy to form and enough strength for most of hydraulic system in smaller aircraft.
High pressure (3000 psi) hydraulic system often use 2024-T aluminum alloy, there are two methods of
attaching fittings to rigid tubing, flaring (curving outward) the tubing or flareless fitting.
b) Pipe fitting; some components in aircraft hydraulic system use NPT (National Pipe Taper) fittings
to attach fluid lines to castings. When it is installed in a casting, the first thread should be inserted into the
hole and approved thread lubricant applied sparingly to the second thread.
c) AN and AC flare fittings do not depend on any type of sealant to affect a good seal. They depend,
rather, on a good fit between the flare cone and the flare in the end of the tube.
The AN fitting has a short shoulder between the first thread and the base of flare cone, while the threads on
the AC fitting start right at flare cone.
d) Inspection and maintenance of pipes;
- No tube should be installed unless there is at least one bend in it, this bend allows for vibration
- Never attempt to pull a tube up to the fitting with the nut
- Where a fluid line is brought through a bulkhead, if it is not carried through with a bulkhead fitting, it must
be supported with bonded cushion clamps and centered in the hole in such a way that there is protection
against chafing
- All fluid lines should be identified at each end
- All fluid lines should be run below electrical wire bundles, so that there is no possibility of fluid dripping on
the wire
e) Accumulators; hydraulic fluid is not compressible, in order to keep it under pressure, it must be
stored against something compressible, such as the air or nitrogen in an accumulator. A hydraulic
component that consists of two compartments separated by a movable component such as a piston,
diaphragm, or bladder. One compartment is filled with compressed air or nitrogen, and the other is filled
with hydraulic fluid and is connected into the system pressure manifold
5) Hydraulic pump:
An engine-driven pump become the prime fluid mover, a hand pump was used as an emergency backup
source of pressure and to actuate the system when the engine was not running. Engine-driven pumps are
constant-displacement pumps that move a specific volume of fluid each time they rotate. An engine -driven
pump receives its fluid from the reservoir and moves it continually. When no unit is actuated, the fluid flows
through the pump control valve back to reservoir through the filter.
a) Reservoirs; is the component that stores the fluid end serves as an expansion chamber to provide
a space for the fluid when its volume increases because of temperature. The reservoir also serves as a point
at which the fluid can purge (cleanse) itself of any air it accumulates in its operational cycle.
b) Filter; cleansing medium in filter with dry matrix (within which a thing develops) a liquid film.
Cuno filter, the registered trade name for particular style of edge-type fluid filter. Cuno filters are made up of
a stack of thin metal disks that are separated by thin scraper blades. Contaminants collect on the edge of the
disk, and they are periodically scraped out and allowed to collect in the bottom of the filter case for future
removal.
c) Regulating valves; air valve used in accumulators maybe one of three types:
- AN 812 valve, this valve seals the air inside the accumulator with a high-pressure core that is similar in
appearance, but different in construction from the valve core that used in tires. To deflate an accumulator
equipped with an AN 812 valve, do not depress the valve stem, but loosen the valve body in the accumulator.
The bleed hole in the side of the valve allows the air to leak past the loosened threads.
- AN 6287-1 and MS 28889 valves seal the air inside the accumulator with a steel-against-steel seal. The AN
6287-1 valve has a valve core similar to the one used in the AN 812 valve, but it has a swivel nut around the
stem. To charge an accumulator with AN 6287-1 valve, remove the protective cap from the valve, attach the
charging hose to the valve, and loosen the swivel nut for one turn. Loosening the swivel nut backs the valve
body off enough to allow air into the accumulator.
- MS 28889 valve doesn’t use a valve core it depends entirely on the metal-to-metal seal to hold air in the
accumulator. To charge an accumulator equipped with this valve, remove the protective cap, install the
charging hose on the valve, loosen the swivel nut, and allow air to flow into the accumulator.
To discharge the accumulator, remove the protective cap and loosen the swivel nut.
d) Hydraulic Fuses; hydraulic system on modern jet aircrafts are extremely important, not only for
raising and lowering the landing gear, but also for operating boosted control systems, thrust reversers, flaps,
brakes and many of the auxiliary systems. Most aircraft have more than one independent hydraulic system,
and hydraulic fuses are used in these systems to block a line and shut off the flow of fluid if serious leak
should develop.
Two types of hydraulic fuses:
- Shuts off the flow after a specific amount of fluid has flowed through it
- Shuts off the flow if the pressure drop across the fuse indicates a broken line
