Engineering Geology BCV303

303
Semester III
Engineering Geology
Course Code BCV303 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P:S) 3:0:2:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 Hours Theory + 8-10 Lab slots Total Marks 100
Credits 04 Exam Hours 3
Examination nature Theory
Module-1
Introduction, scope of earth science in Engineering. 8 hrs
Earth’s internal structure and composition, internal dynamics and Plate tectonics, Earthquakes - types,
causes, iso-seismic lines, seismic zonation, seismic proof structures. Volcanic eruption - types, causes.
Landslides-causes types, preventive measures; Tsunami – causes, consequences, mitigation. Cyclones -
causes and management.

Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):

Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTVDiRtRook&list=PLDF5162B475DD915F
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EBiLLJAxBuU&index=2&list=PLDF5162B475DD915F
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sTY-ao4RZck&list=PLDF5162B475DD915F&index=3
https://nptel.ac.in/courses
https://youtu.be/fvoYHzAhvVM
https://youtu.be/aTVDiRtRook
Activity Based Learning (Suggested Activities in Class)/ Practical Based learning
https://www.earthsciweek.org/classroom-activities
Field Visits
https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/hazards/events/12262004.html?serc_source=recommendati on
https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/visualization/examples/CBezanson.html?serc_source=recom
mendation
https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/coursedesign/goalsdb/14712.html
Textbooks -
1.
Engineering Geology, by Parthasarathy et al, Wiley publications
2.
A textbook of Engineering Geology by Chenna Kesavulu, Mac Millan India Ltd
3.
Principle of Engineering Geology, by K.M. Bangar, Standard publishers
4.
Physical and Engineering Geology, by S.K. Garg, Khanna publishers
5.
Principles of Engineering Geology, by KVGK Gokhale, BS Publications
Reference books –
1. Introduction to Environmental Geology by Edward A Keller, Pearson publications.
2. Engineering Geology and Rock Mechanics B. P. Verma, Khanna publishers
3. Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics, Krynine and Judd,
CBSPublication

Department of Civil Engineering

 Module-1
Module-1 – Introduction, scope of earth science in Engineering 8 hrs
Earth’s internal structure and composition, internal dynamics and Plate tectonics, Earthquakes - types,
causes, iso-seismic lines, seismic zonation, seismic proof structures. Volcanic eruption - types, causes.
Landslides-causes types, preventive measures; Tsunami – causes, consequences, mitigation. Cyclones -
causes and management.

Introduction

The engineering geologist has to observe and record geological information and then translate this
data into practical engineering design, construction and maintenance of civil engineering projects.
The geological aspects of the civil engineering site have to be studied in detail before
commencement of the project. The civil engineer and the engineering geologist have to work
together in the field in various stages. However, in some stages they work separately, in other
jointly. The responsibilities and nature of the work in which both engineering geologist and civil
engineer are involved are listed below.

Scope of earth science in Engineering

1. Mapping: The engineering geologist has to prepare a geological map of the area based on
aerial photo and satellite imagery interpretation and field observation. Subsurface
geological features are also mapped.

2. Exploration: In this stage the engineering geologist explore the area based on exploration
techniques. The engineering geologist works from the planning stage. Supervise the
exploration works and records the data for further interpretation.

3. Project Planning: Project planning is the most important aspect in civil engineering. The
civil engineer plans the various stages. The engineering geologists plans and prepares
geologic feasibility and developmental parameters reports, which are useful to the civil
engineer for planning the project schedule.

4. Surface water: The engineering geologist and the civil engineer together prepare surface
–water mapping. Both study the volume of total runoff, drainage basin characteristics and
sedimentary process in the basin. Weathered areas, silting potential and erosion potential
are also estimated before planning any hydraulic structure in the basin.

5. Groundwater: Groundwater is the major problem in the majority of civil engineering

works. The engineering geologist studies in detail the occurrence, movement, structural
controls and hydro geological properties of the rocks. Hydro geological maps are prepared
for civil engineering purposes.

6. Slope Stability: Geological parameters of possible slide regions are to be studied in hilly
areas.
 7. Geological Structures: Field investigation is carried out for selection of a suitable area.
Detailed surface-subsurface studies are conducted and surface and subsurface maps are
prepared. The engineering geologist and the civil engineer conduct in-situ tests for
foundation materials, supervise the construction methods and monitor the structure after
completion of the work.

8. Tunneling: The tunnel site selected is based on a detailed study of the region. The civil
engineer and the geologist have to conduct in-situ tests for estimation of weathered zone
thickness, depth of hard rock, structural features etc.

9. Earthquake: The engineering geologist studies the seismic nature of the project site. He
examines the seismic zoning map of the country, evaluates active and inactive faults and
keeps the historical record of the earthquake of the region in which the civil engineer will
prepare a seismic design of structure.

Geological features of the civil engineering have to be studied a detail before execution of
the work. The engineering geologist must work from the exploration stage to the end of the
project. The civil engineer and the engineering geologist have to work in the field together
either good coordination in order in order to identify the field problems and to suggest
possible remedial measures in the case of problems of structures.

Earths internal dynamics

Our Earth is a cosmic body. It is one of the nine members of the Solar system of which Sun is the
central star. The nine planets constituting the Solar system has been named as Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.

In its shape, he Earth is commonly described as a spheroid; it has an equatorial diameter of

12,757.776km and a polar diameter of 12,713.824km and thus has an equatorial bulge. At present
the Earth is the only planet believed to be sustaining life other planets have shown no signs of life
on them.

For systematic scientific investigations, the earth is commonly differentiated into three parts; they
are atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. Each forms an extensive field of study, volumes of
information have been collected about each of these parts during last hundred years or so but
findings of last three decades have made our understanding about these parts very clear. Only most
important characteristics of these parts have been summarized below.

ATMOSPHERE

The outer gaseous part of earth starting from the surface and extending as far as 700km and beyond
is termed atmosphere. Although extending for such great distances, the atmosphere makes only
one-millionth part of the mass of earth; this is because of its gaseous composition. It is now fairly
established that the atmosphere possesses a layered structure. Their well-defined layers or zones
of the atmosphere are surface upward, troposphere, stratosphere and ionosphere.

LITHOSPHERE
It is the solid part of the earth and in a broader sense includes all the solid materials composing the
earth from surface downwards, although sometimes-specific terms are used for deeper earth zones.
Recent detailed seismic studies of the body of the earth have shown that it is composed of three
well-defined shells, Crust, Mantle and Core.

The Crust: - Is the topmost shell of the earth, which has a thickness of 30-40 km in the continents
and 5-6 km in the oceans. There is a striking variation in the materials or rocks, as they are called,
composing the crust over the continents and ocean floors. The oceanic crust is made up of heavier
and darker rocks called basalts compared to light-colored and light-density, granitic rocks of the
continental crust. When considered as a part of the total structure of the earth, crust makes only an
insignificant part represented by a thin layer, similar to the skin of an apple.

As regards he chemical composition of the crust, analyses made by Clarke and Gold Schmith,
using rocks from different geographic regions of the crust have all shown that when expressed in
terms of oxides, the crust has Silica as the most dominant component, its value lying above 50%
by volume in the oceanic crust and above 62% in the continental crust. Alumina is the next
important oxide, varying between 13-16% followed by Iron Oxides (8%), Lime (6%), Sodium
(4%), Magnesium (4%), Potassium (2.5%) & Titanium (2%). The crust itself shows a complicated
structure both in make-up and compositional variations.

The Mantle: - At the base of the crust materials of the earth become greatly different in many
properties from those overlying them in the crust. These materials appear to form a nearly
homogeneous zone till a depth of 2900 km is reached. This zone of materials lying between crust
and a depth of 2900 km is known a MANTLE. It is made up of extremely basic materials, called
ultra-basic rocks, which are believed to be very rich in iron and magnesium but quite poor in silica.
Such rock names as Peridotites, Dunite. This One is characterized with a high density,
increasing steadily with depth further; the mantle material is believed to be highly plastic in
nature. Many of the most important geological process such as earthquakes and formation of
mountains are believed to have their origin in this zone.

The Core: - It is the third and the innermost structure shell of the earth, which is clearly
marked by the seismic evidence. It starts at a depth of 2900 km below the surface and extends
right up to the center of the earth at 6370 km. The material making g the core is found to be
from seismic studies only strikingly different from that making the other two shells in one
major aspect, in elastic properties. The material has no shear resistance, which makes it
nearer to liquid than to a solid body. Nothing can be said about the composition of the core.
According to one, widely favored view, the core is made up of Iron and Nickel alloy material.

PLATE TECTONICS
Tectonic plates, large slabs of rock that divide Earth’s crust, move constantly to reshape the
Earth’s landscape. The system of ideas behind plate tectonics theory suggests that Earth's
outer shell (lithosphere) is divided into several plates that glide over the Earth’s rocky inner
layer above the soft core (mantle). The plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared to Earth's
mantle. The mantle sits between Earth's dense, very hot core and its thin outer layer, the crust.
Plate tectonics has become the unifying theory of geology. It explains the earth’s surface
movement, current and past, which has created the tallest mountain ranges and the deepest
oceans. Some scientists think that the shifting plates, which have the ability to help adjust our
planet’s temperature over billions of years, are a vital element for life.

Tectonic plates are gigantic pieces of the Earth's crust and uppermost mantle. They are made
up of oceanic crust and continental crust. Earthquakes occur around mid-ocean ridges and the
large faults which mark the edges of the plates. The World Atlas names seven major plates:
African, Antarctic, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, North American, Pacific and South American.
California is located at the seam of the Pacific Plate, which is the world’s largest plate at
39,768,522 square miles, and the Northern American plate.
Engineering Geology BCV303

EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is a sudden and rapid shaking of the ground due to passage of vibrations beneath
caused by transient disturbance of elastic or gravitational equilibrium of rocks.

Although earthquake occurs occasionally, but destruction they cause through loss of life and
property. The exact spot underneath the earth surface at which an earthquake originates is known
as its FOCUS, while the point on the earth surface lying above the focus is defined as the
EPICENTRE.

Depth of Focus: - Earthquake focus is described

Shallow: - When it is less than 70km below ground surface
Intermediate: - Between 70 and 30Deep: - below 300 to 700km most earthquakes originate within
the upper 250km and none below 700km below the ground surface.

EARTHQUAKE WAVES: - The strain energy released by an earthquake sets up several types of
pulses (wave motion) at the focus. These called seismic or earthquake waves travel in all directions
in different paths, modes and speeds proportional to the densities of the materials through which
they travel. The speed increases with density.

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When the waves reach the ground surface they spread out in ever widening circles around the
epicenter like water waves from a point of impact in a pond and cause that span of the ground to
shake.

P-waves (primary or push and pull waves): - These are high frequency short wavelength
longitudinal compressive type, like sound waves. These take the quickest path and are transmitted
by oscillations in the direction of propagation. P-waves travel through solids, semi-solids and
liquids, i.e the crust the mantle and the core of the earth at speeds 5 to 15km/s

S-waves (Secondary or shake waves): -These are high frequency short wave-length transverse
eaves like polarized light transmitted by oscillations perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
These also take the quickest path but travel through solids and semisolids, only, i.e the crust and
the mantle and are deflected at the core, S-waves travel at speeds 3 to 8km/s.

L-waves (Long or surface waves): - These are low frequency long wavelength waves produced
by reflections and refractions of P and S waves in the immediate neighborhood of the epicenter.
These travel with a rotary movement in the vertical plane, like sea waves and are transmitted along
the periphery of the earth at speeds 3 to 5km/s.

Types of Earthquakes

1. Tectonic Earthquakes
The earth’s crust is composed of loose, cracked fragments of land referred to as tectonic plates.
These plates are capable of moving slowly and gradually. The movement of these plates occurs in
different forms; towards each other, away from each other, sliding past each other or colliding with
each other. A huge tremor occurs when 2 moving tectonic plates slide over one another. This type
of earthquake is known as a tectonic earthquake.

Tectonic earthquakes are the most prevalent kinds of earthquakes in the world. Its magnitude may
be small or large. Tectonic earthquakes have caused most of the planet’s mass destruction. Tremors
triggered by tectonic earthquakes are always severe, and if their magnitude is high, they are capable
of bringing down an entire city in seconds.

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2. Volcanic Earthquakes

Compared to tectonic earthquakes, volcanic earthquakes are less prevalent. They typically take
place before or after an eruption. Volcanic earthquakes come in two forms: long-period volcanic
earthquakes and volcano-tectonic earthquakes. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes usually happen after
a volcanic eruption. During an earthquake, magma erupts from inside the earth’s crust leaving a
space behind. The space left after magma eruption must be filled. To fill it, rocks move towards
the space resulting in severe earthquakes.

On numerous occasions, magma blocks the vents during volcanic activity. This means that high
pressure fails to be released. The buildup of pressure becomes unbearable and releases itself with
a massive explosion. The massive explosion results in a ruthless earthquake. On the other hand, a
long period of volcanic earthquake takes place after a volcanic eruption. Some days prior to the
massive explosion, the magma inside the earth’s crust experiences rapid changes in heat. The
change in heat triggers seismic waves, resulting in an earthquake.

EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY

Magnitude: - Magnitude of an earthquake is an instrumental rating of the energy (the size or

strength of the quake) released by it. Magnitude varies with the wave amplitude of an
earthquake recorded by a seismograph. By knowing the distance from a seismograph station
to the epicenter and the maximum amplitude recorded, an empirical quantitative rating is
estimated.

The intensity of an earthquake is a numerical index describing the degree of ground shaking
and effects on life and property at any given locality. Intensity is essentially a function of an
earthquake and local geological conditions. Intensity is severe at and around the epicenter area
and decrease away from it.

DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE: - It is estimated that over 150000 quakes occur round

the world every year. Several of them are terribly destructive involving heavy tolls and property
damages.
World distribution
1). The Circum Pacific Seismic Belt,
2). The Mid Atlantic Seismic Belt,
3). The alpine-Himalayan trans Asiatic Seismic Belt

Indian distribution
1). Kutch Gujarat 1819
2). Assam, 1897
3). Bihar1934
4). Anjar-Gujarat,
5). Peninsular India (South India)

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Indian continent is divided into (based on earthquakes)

Zone of Maximum Intensity: - Which comprises the Northeastern regions, especially the folded
chains of Himalayas, geographically this area covers Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, U.P,
Nagaland.

Zone of Intermediate Intensity: - Which covers the regions of indo-Gangetic basin. This zone
of moderate Intensity comprises the remaining areas of Punjab, West Bengal and Bihar.

Zone of Minimum Intensity: - No land mass is free from earthquake; all the regions are
highly affected by this activity.

Safety measures to be adopted for buildings to be construction in seismic areas.

As stated earlier, an earthquake resultant building must be strong and sturdy. Hence, besides
incorporating these additional safety factors in the design of such buildings the following other
points must be given due attention to

 Good quality materials, strictly according to the specifications, should be used.

 The foundation should not be on soft ground and rather it should preferably be on the solid
rocks. The depth of foundation should also be uniform. The walls should be continuous in
nature. The long walls and cross wall be erected simultaneously without any joints.
 Doors and windows should be minimized.
 Height of the building should be kept uniform.
 All parts of the buildings, particularly its edges and corners should be well tied, so that it
moves as a single unit during an earthquake vibration.
 Construction of cantilevers, Chimneys, Arches and other extra projections should be
avoided.

Seismic Proof Structures

Quake proof models: - to bear the strain due to earthquake shocks and prevent or minimize
damages and death two opposite methods of anti-earthquake construction in earthquake regions
are recommended, they are Light and elastic constructions and Heavy and rigid constructions

Light and elastic constructions: - In India and elsewhere in earthquake countries most people in
countryside live in non-engineered mud huts or timber structures. The mud habitats usually are
constructed with mud walls and sloping thatched roof, in some cases bamboo walls with plaster or
crude brick or rubble masonry. These fail in earthquakes with disastrous effects. Mud structures
are very popular in India, especially in Kashmir, Kutch, Maharashtra, Bihar and Assam regions.
Timber frame structures and Brick Masonry

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Heavy and rigid constructions: - These are well built structures of brick and stone masonry, RCC
frames with filler brick walls, and single or multistoried buildings. The main object of these is to
construct stronger than ordinary building in order to prevent their collapse and loss of life and
property, especially those of large selling’s, schools, office building, hospitals, business complexes
community halls etc. Where commonly good number of people assembles at a time and also certain
vital or critical installations like power houses nuclear facilities.

EARTHQUAKE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

An earthquake is a vibratory motion having components in all directions. The vertical components
are more dominant near the epicentral tracts and the horizontal components away from these tracts.
Hence strong structures have to withstand bigger forces near the epicenter and soft and flexible
structures are safer, away from the epicenter flexi bile structure suffer severe damage while hard
structures as safer. Extensive research has been carried out in the last 50 years to develop new
methods to minimize losses.

Buildings: - Steel – framed tall buildings in which the frame supports all wall and floor loads
usually behave well during earthquake. Reinforced concrete buildings may develop cracks in walls
and piers houses with roofs; wall and foundations tied into one strong unit behave safely during
earthquake. Houses built with wood and flexible materials of construction absorb earthquake
shocks. In our country modern methods are increasingly being adopted and reinforced brick
buildings are built against earthquake forces.

Foundations: - The amount of damage caused by ground shaking depends on the type of
foundation below the building or structure. These are built in low-strength roc materials such as
sand and silt tend to absorb much of the shaking motion, hence buildings have not been designed
to cope with strong shaking but rather to accommodate large foundation movements. Such
buildings have to provide competent footings, adequate drainage and flexible power, water and
sewage connections. Unconsolidated sandstone may saturate as a result of earthquake vibrations,
sometimes the entire structure is destroyed.

Slopes and embankments: -Settlement of embankments can be minimized by careful compaction

control during construction but even then settlement can occur. Landslides due to earthquakes have
resulted in loss of lives and property. So embankment has to be designed with extra care. Highways
and railway cuttings and avoidance of steep slopes for residential development re necessary in high
seismic areas.

Dams: -Rock fill dams usually stand up well to earthquake shocks. A river valley project may
consist of a dam or barrage, tunnel, powerhouses, buildings and bridges of various types, which
may fail during strong earthquake.

Tunnels: - Tunnels, which intersect at geological fault, are often seriously affected by earthquake
movement. Special tunnel deigns are necessary in seismically active zones. Generally, rupture of
the lining may cause flooding of partial dislocations. Earth tunnels are less affected by earthquake
movements but the chances of liquefaction of the surrounding materials are real.

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Seismic zonation

Seismic zonation is useful for hazard reduction such as earthquake-resistant design of structures,
risk analysis, land-use planning, etc. Many earthquake-prone countries developed seismic zonation
maps. Seismic zonation map is usually revised or updated periodically with the progress in
methodology and accumulation of new data. Seismic intensity) or ground motion parameters such
as peak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity (PGV), and spectral acceleration at
specific natural period are mostly adopted in seismic zonation map. In the early stage, most seismic
zonation maps were in terms of intensity, but since the 1980s, ground motion parameters have
become popular.

Seismic zonation Map

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Causes of Earthquake
Earthquakes are caused by a sudden release of stress along faults in the earth’s crust. The tectonic
plates are always slowly moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress
on the edge overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake. The resulting waves of seismic energy
propagate through the ground and over its surface, causing the shaking we perceive as earthquakes.
The main causes of earthquakes are:

 Plate tectonics: They account for most earthquakes worldwide and usually occur at the
boundaries of tectonic plates.
 Induced quakes: They are caused by human activity, like tunnel construction, filling
reservoirs and implementing geothermal or fracking projects.
 Volcanic quakes: They are associated with active volcanism. 
 Collapse quakes: They can be triggered by such phenomena as cave-ins, mostly in karst
areas or close to mining facilities, as a result of subsidence.

Isoseismal line

An isoseismal (line) is a contour or line on a map bounding points of equal intensity for a particular
earthquake. When an earthquake occurs, its intensity at a given site is determined through the
classification of observed effects on humans, buildings, and on the natural environment. Today,
these kinds of data are acquired from macroseismic surveys and, in some countries, also from
standard questionnaires distributed to the public. The results are then compared to the effects
classified in an intensity scale, in order to assign intensity values. All of the assigned values are
subsequently placed onto a map; the zones with the same intensities are then bounded by the
isoseismal lines and marked with a roman number (corresponding to the degree of intensity).

Isoseismal line

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VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Volcano, vent in the crust of Earth or another planet or satellite, from which issue eruptions of
molten rock, hot rock fragments, and hot gases. A volcanic eruption is an awesome display of
Earth’s power. Yet, while eruptions are spectacular to watch, they can cause disastrous loss of life
and property, especially in densely populated regions of the world. Sometimes beginning with an
accumulation of gas-rich magma (molten underground rock) in reservoirs near Earth’s surface,
they can be preceded by emissions of steam and gas from small vents in the ground. Swarms of
small earthquakes, which may be caused by a rising plug of dense, viscous magma oscillating
against a sheath of more-permeable magma, may also signal volcanic eruptions, especially
explosive ones.

In some cases, magma rises in conduits to the surface as a thin and fluid lava, either flowing out
continuously or shooting straight up in glowing fountains or curtains. In other cases, entrapped
gases tear the magma into shreds and hurl viscous clots of lava into the air. In more violent
eruptions, the magma conduit is cored out by an explosive blast, and solid fragments are ejected
in a great cloud of ash-laden gas that rises tens of thousands of meters into the air. One feared
phenomenon accompanying some explosive eruptions is the pyroclastic flow, a fluidized mixture
of hot gas and incandescent particles that sweeps down a volcano’s flanks, incinerating everything
in its path. Great destruction also can result when ash collects on a high snowfield or glacier,
melting large quantities of ice into a flood that can rush down a volcano’s slopes as an unstoppable
mudflow.

Types of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are grouped into four types: Cinder cones, Composite volcanoes, Shield volcanoes,
Lava volcanoes

Cinder Cones
Cinder cones are circular or oval cones made up of small fragments of lava from a single vent that
have been blown up. Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and
pyroclastic that build up around the vent.

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Composite Volcano
Composite volcanoes are steep-sided volcanoes composed of many layers of volcanic rocks,
usually made from high-viscosity lava, ash and rock debris. These types of volcanoes are tall
conical mountains composed of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers, the strata that give
rise to the name.

Shield Volcano
Shield volcanoes are volcanoes shaped like a bowl or shield in the middle with long gentle slopes
made by basaltic lava flows. These are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow
a great distance from a vent.

Lava Domes
Lava domes are formed when erupting lava is too thick to flow and makes a steep-sided mound as
the lava piles up near the volcanic vent. They are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava.

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Types of Volcanoes
Based on the frequency of eruption, there are three types of volcanoes:

1. Active Volcanoes: Volcanoes which erupt frequently are called active volcanoes. Generally,
their vent remains open. Mount Etna of Italy, Cotopaxi in Ecuador are some examples.

2. Dormant Volcanoes: These volcanoes may not have erupted in the recent past but there is a
possibility of eruption at any time. In other words, they may lie dormant awaiting active eruption
anytime. Sometimes gases and steam come out of them. They cause great destruction to life and
property once they become active again. Mt. Vesuvius of Italy and Mt. Fujiyama of Japan are
examples.

3. Extinct Volcanoes: These volcanoes have exhausted their energy and have not erupted during
the known geological period. The vent of these volcanoes remains closed with solidified lava. The
formations such as craters may be filled with water and crater lakes may be formed. The slopes of
these landforms may be covered with vegetation. Popa in Myanmar and Mt. Kenya in eastern
Africa are the examples of extinct volcano.

Types of Volcanic Eruptions

Types of volcanic eruptions depend on various factors such as the chemistry of magma,
temperature, viscosity, volume, presence of groundwater, and water and gas content.
Following are the different types of volcanic eruptions:

 Hydrothermal eruption: These eruptions include ash and not magma. They are driven by
the heat caused by hydrothermal systems.
 Phreatic eruption: This is driven when the heat of the magma interacts with the water.
These eruptions do not include magma and only ash.
 Phreatomagmatic eruption: This eruption takes place when there is an interaction
between the newly formed magma and water.
 Strombolian and Hawaiian eruption: Hawaiian eruption has fire fountains while the
Strombolian eruption has explosions due to lava fragments.
 Vulcanian eruption: These eruptions last for a short period of time and can reach up to a
height of 20 km.
 Subplinian and Phinian eruptions: Subplinian eruptions reach up to 20 km in height,
while Plinian eruptions reach up to 20-35 km.

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Causes of Volcanic Eruptions

The following are the causes of volcanic eruptions:

Weak Zones in the Earth Crust: The parts of the earth where two tectonic plates collide against
or drift apart from each other are considered very weak. Volcanoes may erupt in such zones, for
example, African and Eurasian plates.

Magma Saturated with Gases: The magma, in the interior of the earth, is often found saturated
with gases like carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. These gases together with water vapour
make the magma highly explosive. Magma is forced out as lava on the surface of the earth due to
the pressure exerted by these gases.

LANDSLIDES

A landslide, sometimes known as landslip, slope failure or slump, is an uncontrollable downhill

flow of rock, earth, debris or the combination of the three. Landslides stem from the failure of
materials making up the hill slopes and are beefed up by the force of gravity. When the ground
becomes saturated, it can become unstable, losing its equilibrium in the long run. That’s when a
landslide breaks loose. When people are living down these hills or mountains, it’s usually just a
matter of time before disaster happens.

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Types of Landslides

Falls
Falls are sudden movements of loads of soil, debris, and rock that break away from slopes and
cliffs. Falls landslides occur as a result of mechanical weathering, earthquakes, and force of
gravity.

Slides
This is a kind of mass movement whereby the sliding material breakaways from underlying stable
material. The kinds of slides experienced during this type of landslide include rotational and
transitional. Rotational slides are sometimes known as slumps since they move with rotation.

Transitional slides consist of a planer or 2 dimensional surface of rupture. They involve landslide
mass movement following a roughly planar surface with reduced rotation or backward slanting.
Slides occur when the toe of the slope is undercut. They move moderately, and the consistency of
material is maintained.

Topples
Topple landslides occur when the topple fails. Topple failure encompasses the forward spinning
and movement of huge masses of rock, debris, and earth from a slope. This type of slope failure
takes place around an axis near or at the bottom of the block of rock. A topple landslide mostly

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lead to formation of a debris cone below the slope. This pile of debris is known as a Talus cone.

Spreads
They are commonly known as lateral spreads and takes place on gentle terrains via lateral
extension followed by tensile fractures.

Flows
This type of landslide is categorized into five; earth flows, debris avalanche, debris flow,
mudflows, and creep, which include seasonal, continuous and progressive.

Flows are further subcategorized depending upon the geological material, for example, earth,
debris, and bedrock. The most prevalent occurring landslides are rock falls and debris flow.

Causes of Landslides

1. Deforestation
Landslides due to human intervention is one of the causes of landslides in India. One such is
deforestation. For example, the Himalayan region has become more vulnerable to landslides due
to the indiscriminate cutting of trees.

Removal of trees reduces the binding properties of soil and rocks. This enables the water to seep
into the sub-surface, making the topsoil vulnerable. Even GSI confirmed that increased
deforestation is one of the reasons for landslides in Western Maharashtra and the Konkan region.

2. Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation is common in hilly regions and Northeast areas. Every year, residents burn the
forests for cultivation purposes. However, this deteriorates the quality of topsoil, causing erosion
during heavy rainfall. This makes such regions more vulnerable to landslides.

3. Heavy Rainfall and Earthquakes

Above 40% of the Kumaon Himalayan region are vulnerable to landslides due to earthquakes.
Additionally, heavy rainfall often causes landslides. For example, heavy rain caused landslides in
Talai village of Maharashtra in 2021.

4. Mining
Human activities like mining or quarrying remove the vegetation cover and soil gravel. This lowers
the groundwater retention capacity. Also, it increases the risk of flooding. Therefore, landslides
occur due to loose debris or excess floods during an earthquake and heavy rainfall, respectively.

5. Urbanization
Increasing population pressure in few regions of India is alarming. For example, Dharamshala is
prone to landslides. It is one of the fastest developing cities in the Himalayan region. Here,
intensive urbanization activities such as establishing commercial housing projects and road
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construction reduce the vegetation cover. This leads to an increasing frequency of landslides in
this region.

Effects of Landslides

Lead to economic decline

Landslides have been verified to result in destruction of property. If the landslide is significant, it
could drain the economy of the region or country. After a landslide, the area affected normally
undergoes rehabilitation. This rehabilitation involves massive capital outlay. For example, the
1983 landslide at Utah in the United States resulted in rehabilitation cost of about $500 million.
Decimation of infrastructure
The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a landslide can cause serious damage to
property. Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure destinations, buildings and communication
systems can be decimated by a single landslide.
Loss of life
Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk of death by landslides.
A substantial landslide carries along huge rocks, heavy debris and heavy soil with it. This kind of
landslide has the capacity to kills lots of people on impact. For instance, Landslides in the UK that
happened a few years ago caused rotation of debris that destroyed a school and killed over 144
people including 116 school children aged between 7 and 10 years. In a separate event, NBC News
reported a death toll of 21 people in the March 22, 2014, landslide in Oso, Washington.

Affects beauty of landscapes

The erosion left behind by landslides leaves behind rugged landscapes that are unsightly. The pile
of soil, rock and debris downhill can cover land utilized by the community for agricultural or social
purposes.

Impacts river ecosystems

The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way into rivers and block their natural flow.
Many river habitats like fish can die due to interference of natural flow of water. Communities
depending on the river water for household activities and irrigation will suffer if flow of water is
blocked.

Landslide Mitigation
Change the Slope’s

Gradient
This may be accomplished by removing components from the slope’s top and repositioning them
at the bottom, hence lowering the slope’s gradient. Rather than doing it all on your own, get expert
assistance to avoid any more geohazards.

Afforestation
Make sure before the arrival of wet season no stumps, tree roots, or vegetation on the hill.
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Afforestation is a way that may aid the removal of landslides because the roots of the tree retain
the soil in place, minimizing soil erosion.

Removing Loose or Heavy Material from the Slope’s Top

Rocks, fallen trees, and other debris at the top of a slope might cause a landslide on your property.
Clean off all the slopes on your property to eliminate any loose debris. Remove this debris from
the slope.

Construct Sheds or other structures away from the edge

Keep a new shed or similar structure away from the edge of a slope if you’re building one. Before
you begin constructing, don’t forget to consult with an expert to determine the safe distance from
the slope.

Tsunami
The series of extremely long waves, Tsunami are very long wavelengths of water caused by a large
and sudden displacement of the ocean due to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc. These are also
called seismic sea waves and are one of the most powerful and destructive natural forces.

When they reach the coast, they can cause dangerous coastal flooding and powerful currents that
can last for several hours or days. Most tsunamis are caused by large earthquakes. Though, not all
earthquakes cause tsunamis.

Causes of Tsunami

A Tsunami can be generated only through the vertical movement of the seafloor. Most Tsunamis
are generated by earthquakes. Volcanic eruption, underwater explosion, landslides and meteorite
impacts are some other causes of Tsunami.

Earthquake – Tsunami is generated by the earthquake because of the disturbance of the seafloor
and is formed generally with vertical displacement. Most Tsunami is generated by earthquakes
that occur along the subduction boundaries of plates along the ocean trenches. The size of the
Tsunami is related to the size of the earthquake.

Underwater explosion – A Nuclear Testing by the US generated Tsunami in 1940 and 1950s in
Marshall island.

Volcanic eruption – Volcanoes that occur along the Coastal waters can cause several effects that
can cause a tsunami.

Landslides – Earthquake and volcanic eruptions generally generate landslides, these landslides
when moving into the Oceans, bays and lakes can generate Tsunami.

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Meteorite Impacts – Though no historic example as such of meteorite impact has caused
Tsunami, the apparent impact of a meteorite about 5 million years ago produced Tsunami leaving
deposits along the Gulf Coast of Mexico and the United States.

Mitigation of Tsunami
Mitigation strategies may help lower the effect of damages and destructions caused by a tsunami.

Some of them are: –

 Land-use planning in coastal areas should include restricted development and sustainable
development strategies.
 Evacuation strategies should include the construction of tsunami evacuation structures and
improvement in evacuation routes.
 Construction of seawalls, breakwaters, tsunami river gates and developing forest barriers
may also help in preventing extensive damage.
 Proper planning before the construction of building structures and the adoption of building
codes should be done to prevent damage to life and property.
 Protection of coastal ecosystems like mangroves and coral reefs may help in lowering
tsunami-related hazards.
 Setting up tsunami prediction and warning systems.
 Movement of population and necessary community assets away from vulnerable regions
and planning for post-tsunami recovery should be done.
 Strong warning system
 Hazard mapping and risk assessment
 Promotion of tsunami preparedness by actively involving the public, community leaders,
and national and local emergency management agencies.

Cyclones
In meteorological terms, a cyclone is a wind system that rotates inwards (counter-clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern) around a strong low-pressure centre. Simplyput, inward-spiraling
winds that rotate about a low-pressure zone is known as a cyclone. Generally, when winds rise above 118
kmph, it is known as a cyclone. To understand the severity of this storm, one must learn in detail about
cyclone formation and its categories.

What Are the Causes of a Cyclone?

After knowing the answer to your question, "how are cyclones formed?" you might also like to
know about why a cyclone occurs or what causes it.
Here are the factors responsible for cyclone formation -
 Warm temperature at sea surfaces.
 Coriolis force impact area that forms a low-pressure zone.
 Atmospheric instability.
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 Increased humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere.
 Low vertical wind shear.
 Pre-existing low-level disturbance or focus.

Preventive Measures to Combat Cyclones

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) advises individuals to consider the
following steps to stay safe during cyclones -
 It is necessary to stay indoors during a cyclonic storm and keep away from electrical mains.
 In extreme situations, one must prepare an emergency kit that is essential for survival.
 It is also vital to keep tabs on regular updates and rely on official warnings.
 In case your house is unsafe, it is advisable to shift before the onset of a cyclone.
 Further, in collaboration with the NDMA, the Government carries out evacuation protocols
for fishermen and the coastal dwellers before the cyclone makes landfall.
 With a detailed knowledge of how cyclones are formed and their causes, one can take
sufficient precautions and avoid the harsh consequences.

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