A) Explain a definition of analogue and digital signal

- Analogue Signal: An analogue signal is a continuous signal that represents

physical quantities. It varies smoothly over time and can take on any value
within a given range. Common examples include sound waves, light intensity,
and temperature. Analogue signals are characterized by their amplitude and
frequency, which can change gradually.

- Digital Signal: A digital signal, on the other hand, represents data as discrete
values or binary numbers (0s and 1s). It is non-continuous and often involves
sampling the analogue signal at specific intervals to convert it into a series of
values. Digital signals are used in computers and digital communications, as
they are less susceptible to noise and can be easily processed and stored.

B) Characteristics of Analogue Signals

❖ Signal forms:

1- Sine wave
2- Square wave
3- Triangle wave
4- Sawtooth wave

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❖ Frequency (f):
- Frequency is the number of complete cycles a waveform completes in one
second, measured in Hertz (Hz). For example, a signal that completes 10 cycles
in one second has a frequency of 10 Hz.

❖ Period (T):
- The period is the duration of one complete cycle of the waveform, measured in
seconds. The relationship between frequency and period is given by the
formula: T=1/f
- For instance, if the frequency is 10 Hz, the period would be:
T=1/10=0.1 seconds

❖ Average Value (V-avg):

- Definition: The average value of a
signal over a specific time interval is
the mean of the signal's instantaneous
values during that interval. It provides
a measure of the signal's central
tendency.

❖ Amplitude
- The amplitude of a waveform is the maximum value or height of the wave from
its central axis or equilibrium position to its peak. It represents the signal's
strength or intensity and indicates how large or powerful the wave.

❖ The peak amplitude

- The peak amplitude of a waveform is the maximum value that the waveform
reaches from its baseline (or zero level) in either the positive or negative
direction. It indicates the highest level of signal intensity for that wave.

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❖ The peak-to-peak amplitude
- it represents the full range of the wave from its maximum positive to maximum
negative values.

❖ RMS value
- it represents the effective value or equivalent DC value that would produce the
same amount of power in a resistive load. RMS= 𝑉𝑝/√2.

❖ Signal Conditioning
- The process of preparing a signal for measurement or analysis by making
adjustments like filtering and amplification.

❖ Amplification
- Increasing the signal strength to match the input range of downstream systems.

❖ Level Shifting
- Adjusting the baseline voltage of a signal to make it compatible with different
components.

❖ Gain
- The amplification factor, representing how much a signal is strengthened in an
amplifier.

❖ Offset
- Shifting the signal up or down to fit the required measurement range.

❖ Filtering
- Filtering removes unwanted parts of the signal, typically noise or specific
frequency ranges. Common types include:

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1. Low-pass filters: Allow frequencies below a certain cutoff to pass, filtering out
higher frequencies.

2. High-pass filters: Allow higher frequencies and remove low-frequency signals.

3. Band-pass filters: Allow a specific range of frequencies while removing others.

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 4. Band-stop filter is an electronic filter that attenuates or rejects signals within a
specific frequency range while allowing signals outside of that range to pass through.

❖ Digital signal

• In most digital circuits,

the signal can have two
possible valid values;
this is called a binary
signal or logic signal.
They are represented by two
voltage bands: one near a reference value (typically termed as ground or zero
volts), and the other a value near the supply voltage. These correspond to the
two values "zero" and "one"

• Typical voltage assignment

- Binary 1: any voltage between 2v to 5v
- Binary 0: any voltage between 0v to 0.8v
- Not used: Voltage between 0.8v to 2v in CMOS and TTL logic

❖ Digital logic families

1. Diode logic (DL):

- In DL (diode logic), all the logic
is implemented using diodes and
resistors. One basic thing about
the diode, is that diode needs to
be forward biased to conduct. Below is the example of a few DL logic circuits

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2. Resistor Transistor Logic
- In RTL (resistor transistor logic),
all the logic are implemented
using resistors and transistors.
One basic thing about the
transistor (NPN), is that HIGH
at input causes output to be LOW
(i.e. like an inverter). Below is the
example of a few RTL logic circuits.

3. TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic)

- is a digital logic family using transistors
for logic operations and amplification,
with voltage levels typically at 5V for
High (1) and 0V for Low (0). Known
for its speed over earlier logic families,
TTL is widely used in computers and
digital systems but consumes more
power than CMOS.

4. CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)

- is a technology for integrated circuits
that uses complementary p-type and
n-type transistors. It features low
power consumption, high noise
immunity, and typically operates at
3.3V or 5V logic levels, making it
ideal for battery-operated and
digital devices.

- PMOS: Positive metal oxide semiconductor

that conducts when input is high
- NMOS: Negative metal oxide semiconductor that conducts when input is low

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 ❖ Compare between TTL and COMS

Comparison CMOS TTL

Cost More expensive individually, Less expensive individually
but cheaper at the system level but larger in chip size.
due to smaller chip size.

Propagation Delay Ranges between 20 to 50 Approximately 10

nanoseconds. nanoseconds.
Rise and Fall Times Longer times, making digital Shorter times.
signals simpler and less
expensive.
Voltage Level Range 0 to 1/3 VDD (Low), and 2/3 4.75V to 5.25V.
VDD to VDD (High).
Economy and Preference More economical and Less preferred in modern
preferred over TTL due to applications.
energy efficiency.
Power Consumption Low current requirement; Higher power consumption.
supports efficient power
management.
Electromagnetic Interference More sensitive to Less sensitive to interference.
Sensitivity electromagnetic interference.
Noise During Transmission Produces lower noise during Higher noise comparatively.
transmission.
Fan-Out (Number of Can connect up to 50 standard Can connect up to 10 standard
Standard Loads) loads. loads.
Fan-In (Number of Standard Approximately 10 standard Approximately 12-14 standard
Inputs) inputs. inputs.
Noise Immunity Better noise immunity than Lower noise immunity.
TTL.
Basic Logic Gates Uses both NAND and NOR Primarily uses NAND gates.
gates.

❖ CMOS and TTL Fan-In and Fan-Out

- In digital logic circuits, "fan-in" and "fan-out" refer to the number of inputs a
gate can accept and the number of gates that a single output can drive

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 Fan in Fan out

❖ In traditional TTL logic:

- Fan-In: TTL gates usually have a limited fan-in capacity due to

their design, typically supporting around 12 to 14 inputs or
fewer. If this limit is exceeded, performance may degrade, and
power consumption may increase.
- Fan-Out: TTL gates generally have a relatively low fan-out,
meaning they can only drive a limited number of inputs in other
gates. Typically, the fan-out capability for TTL gates is around
10 outputs or fewer, depending on the specific TTL subfamily
and gate type.

❖ In CMOS technology:
- Fan-In: CMOS gates typically support a much higher fan-in
compared to TTL. They can handle a larger number of inputs
without significant performance loss, often supporting between
20 and 50 inputs, depending on the specific CMOS technology
and gate design.
- Fan-Out: CMOS gates have a higher fan-out capacity than TTL
gates, often able to drive up to 50 outputs under normal
operating conditions.

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❖ To convert TTL to CMOS:

- Check Voltage Levels: TTL typically

operates at 5V, while CMOS can
be 3.3V or 5V.
- Direct Connection: If both are
5V, they might connect directly.
- Voltage Divider: Use resistors
to lower a 5V TTL signal to 3.3V for CMOS.
- Level Shifters: Use ICs like the 74HCT series for more reliable conversions.
- Transistor Conversion: Use a transistor circuit for voltage level shifting.

❖ To convert CMOS to TTL:

- Direct Connection: Works if both are at 5V.

- Pull-up Resistor: Helps for 3.3V
CMOS to 5V TTL but may not be reliable.
- Level Shifter IC: Best for precise,
reliable conversion (e.g., 74HCT series).
- Transistor Circuit: Use for shifting
3.3V CMOS up to a stable 5V TTL level.

❖ Block diagram of analog and digital system

• Complex analog system: Audio Amplification System

- The process of audio amplification involves increasing the strength (amplitude)
of an audio signal to drive speakers or headphones, allowing the sound to be
heard at higher volumes without distortion

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 Pre-Amplifier Tone
Audio Source
Control

Output Stage Power

Amplifier

- Audio Source: This could be a microphone, music player, or any other device
that generates audio signals.
- Pre-Amplifier: Boosts the weak input signal from the source to a level that can
be processed further.
- Tone Control: Allows adjustment of frequency ranges (bass, midrange, treble)
for personalized sound quality.
- Power Amplifier: Increases the signal's power to drive speakers or other output
devices.
- Output Stage: Directs the amplified audio signal to speakers, headphones, or
other output devices.

- Input: The audio amplifier's input

receives signals from an external
source, like a microphone or audio
player.

- Output: The amplified audio signal

exits through the output, which is
then connected to speakers or other
audio devices for sound reproduction.

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- The transfer function (TF) of an audio amplification system defines the
relationship between the input and output signals. It explains how the amplifier
alters or processes the input audio signal to generate the amplified output. The
transfer function can be expressed in terms of gain as:

• Complex digital signal: 4-Bit Full adder

- A 4-bit adder is a digital circuit designed to add two 4-bit binary numbers. It
consists of multiple full adder circuits connected together, which add the
corresponding bits of the two numbers while managing any carry bits.

- Block diagram

- Inputs A and B: These are the two 4-bit binary numbers that are to be added
together.
- Four Full Adders: Each full adder takes one bit from each input, performing the
addition to produce a sum bit (S) and a carry-out bit (Cout). These full adders are
linked together to process all four bit pairs in sequence.
- Interconnections: The carry-out bit (Cout) from each full adder is passed as the
carry-in (Cin) to the next full adder, ensuring that carry propagation occurs
correctly throughout the addition.
- Sum Output (S): The sum output from each full adder forms the final 4-bit result
of the addition

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 • inputs:

- Two 4-bit binary numbers (A and B) to be added together.

- Carry-in (Cin), which indicates
- the carry from the previous stage (for the least significant bit) or serves as an
external carry-in for the first stage.

• Outputs:

- Sum outputs (S0 to S3): Four bits representing the final 4-bit sum resulting from
the addition.
- Carry-out (Cout): The carry-out from the most significant bit, which can be
passed to the next stage.
- Transfer Function: The transfer function of a 4-bit full adder is commonly
represented by the logic equations for the sum and carry-out:
- Sum (Si): The sum output is determined by the input bits (Ai, Bi) and the carry-in
(Cin) for each stage (i = 0 to 3).
- Carry-out (Cout): The carry-out is a function of the input bits (Ai, Bi) and the
carry-in (Cin) for each stage. The carry-out from each stage contributes to the
carry-in of the next stage.

❖ Logic gates

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 ❖ Control systems: Open loop – Closed loop systems

1. Open loop
- A system in which the control action is completely independent of the system's
output is referred to as an open-loop control system, often called a "manual
control system."

Advantages Disadvantages
Simplicity: Easy and simple design. Inaccuracy: Results may not be accurate.
Speed: Operates quickly without feedback Susceptibility to external factors: Cannot
or measurements. adapt to environmental changes.
Low cost: Does not require sensors or No error correction: Cannot automatically
complex components. correct mistakes.
Ease of maintenance: Less complex and Inefficiency: May lead to suboptimal use of
cheaper to maintain. resources.

- Example of open loop control system: Toaster

- The toaster operates without any feedback from the toasting process or the
bread's condition.

- Input (Setpoint): This is the

desired value or instruction given
to the system (e.g., time setting
on a toaster or washing machine).

- Controller: This processes the

input and sends commands to
the actuator. In an open-loop system,
there is no feedback from the output to adjust the input or control process.

- Actuator: This part performs the action based on the controller’s output (e.g.,
starting the motor in a washing machine or heating element in a toaster).

- Output: The result of the action, which is the final outcome, such as toast being
made or clothes being washed, but without feedback to adjust the process.

- In an open-loop system, the transfer function OLTF represents the relationship

between the input and the output without considering any feedback or
correction mechanism.

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 - Where OLTF =G(s)*H(s) where G(s) is represented as K and H(s) Is the
feedback transfer function

2. Close loop: A closed-loop system is a system that regulates its output using
feedback, where the output is measured and compared to the input or reference
value, and adjustments are made to the system's inputs or operations based on
this comparison to achieve the desired response.

Advantage Disadvantage
Accuracy: Achieves precise results due to Complexity: Requires a complex design
feedback. based on continuous measurements and
adjustments.
Adaptability: Adapts to changes in inputs or High Cost: Requires advanced sensors and
conditions. control devices, increasing the cost.
Stability: Maintains stable performance Response Delay: There may be a delay
through continuous corrections. between measuring and adjusting inputs.
Optimal Performance: Can dynamically Wear and Dependence on Devices: Relies on
improve performance based on actual sensors and actuators, which may wear out or
conditions. fail over time.
Control Over External Factors: Handles Maintenance Complexity: Maintenance is
errors or unexpected changes. more complex and requires specialized
knowledge.

- A thermostat system is an example of a closed-loop system. It measures the

temperature in a room (feedback) and adjusts the air conditioning settings based
on this measurement to maintain the desired temperature.

1. Input: The value or signal that

is fed into the system.
2. Controller: Processes the
input and determines the
necessary actions to achieve
the desired output.
3. Actuator: Executes the
commands issued by the controller to change the system's state or interaction with
the environment.
4. Output: The result or state that is output from the system.

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 5. Feedback: The output is measured and compared with the input or reference value to
adjust the inputs or commands accordingly.

- the Closed-Loop Transfer Function (CLTF) represents the relationship between

the system's input and output in the frequency domain. And can be represented
by

❖ Analyze Signals in Control systems

1. Open loop: Toaster

- In an open-loop automatic toaster system, the toasting cycle is controlled based

on preset time or temperature settings, without any feedback or monitoring of the
actual toasting process.

a) Input (R(s)): In the case of a toaster, the input represents the desired level of
toastiness, or the "ideal toastiness" we want to achieve. We can set this level
using a knob or button on the toaster to determine the time or level of toasting.

b) Controller: The controller in the toaster monitors the current toastiness level of
the bread. Based on the input that was set, the controller adjusts the amount of
power sent to the heating coils inside the toaster, increasing or decreasing the
heat to reach the desired toastiness level.

c) Plant ("Process"): The plant in the case of the toaster is the bread inside the
toaster itself. The toasting process is affected by the heat generated by the
heating coils, and this is the process being controlled to achieve the desired
toastiness.

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 d) Output (C(s)): The output here is the actual toastiness level of the bread after
the set time has passed. This is the result we see and evaluate when we take
the bread out of the toaster, and it should ideally match the toastiness level we
set as the input.

- User sets desired toastiness level → Control mechanism adjusts heating based on
settings → Heating elements apply heat to toast the bread → Completion signal
indicates that toasting is done.
- In this system, the Open-Loop Transfer Function (OLTF) represents the
relationship between the input signal and the output without considering any
feedback or correction mechanism
- By calculating the output using C(s)=G(s)*R(s)

• C(s) as the output, representing the completion of the toasting cycle.

• G(s) as the open-loop transfer function (OLTF), which is the constant relating
the toasting duration input to the completion of the cycle output.
• R(s) as the input, which represents the user-selected toasting duration.

▪ Assume:

• The user selects a toasting duration of R(s) = 3 minutes.

• G(s) = 1, meaning the system directly relates the input duration to the output
without modification.

▪ Then:

C(s)=G(s)×R(s)

▪ Substituting the values:

C(s)=1×3=3
So, C(s) = 3 minutes, representing the completion of the toasting cycle after the
user-set duration of 3 minutes. This means the toaster will stop toasting after 3
minutes, matching the user’s selected duration.

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2. Close loop: thermostat system is an example of a closed-loop system. It measures the
temperature in a room (feedback) and adjusts the air conditioning settings based on this
measurement to maintain the desired temperature.

1. Input: This represents the desired

temperature set by the user, often
called the "setpoint" or "reference
value."

2. Error Detector: This compares the

desired temperature with the actual
temperature in the room. The difference between these two values is called the "error
signal." If the actual temperature is lower than the desired temperature, a positive error
signal is generated; if it’s higher, a negative error signal is generated.

3. Controller: The controller responds to the error signal and produces an "actuating signal"
to control the system. In the case of a thermostat, if the temperature is too low, the
controller activates the heating system; if it's too high, it may turn it off.

4. Plant: This represents the system or device that controls the temperature, like the room
heater. The plant responds to the actuating signal from the controller by heating the room
or stopping once the desired temperature is reached.

5. Feedback Elements: The feedback elements include the temperature sensor, which
measures the current temperature in the room and sends it as a "feedback signal" to the
error detector.

6. Feedback Signal: This represents the actual measured temperature in the room, sent back
to the error detector for comparison with the desired temperature.

7. Output: This is the current temperature in the room, which is continuously regulated to
match the setpoint through the feedback loop.

- The closed-loop process continuously operates as the Temperature Sensor

measures the room temperature, providing feedback to the Controller. The
Controller adjusts the Heating System as needed to keep the room temperature
close to the set-point. In this digital closed-loop system, signals flow iteratively,
representing temperature measurements, control decisions, control signals for the
Heating System, and feedback from the Temperature Sensor, all working together
to maintain the desired temperature.

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- Calculating Output Using Closed-Loop Transfer Function (CLTF)

• The Closed-Loop Transfer Function (CLTF) is used to determine the

relationship between the output C(s) and the input R(s) in a feedback control
system. The output signal can be calculated by applying the CLTF to the input
signal.

▪ Let:

• G(s): the direct transfer function (or open-loop gain of the system without
feedback).
• H(s): the feedback transfer function.

- The open-loop transfer function is given by:

- The closed-loop transfer function (control ratio) is:

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