CHAPTER – 7- ALTERNATIING CURRENT

1. Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current is the current which varies in both magnitude as well as direction
alternatively and periodically. The instantaneous value of current is given by 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 or
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 where, 𝑰𝒎 = peak value or maximum value of AC.
2. Alternating emf or Voltage
It is the emf which varies in both magnitude as well as direction alternatively and periodically.
The instantaneous alternating emf is given by
𝑬 = 𝑬𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 𝑶𝑹 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 where 𝑬𝒎 peak value of alternating voltage.

3. Average or Mean Value of AC

Average value of a.c is defined as the value of AC which would send same amount of charge
through a circuit in half-cycle that is sent by steady current in the same time.
The 63.7% of peak value of AC gives average or mean value of AC.
Key point: In a complete cycle of AC, the mean value of AC or AC voltage is zero.
Relation between Peak Value and Average value of alternating current.
The instantaneous value of a.c is given by 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 where 𝑰𝒎 the peak value of a.c.
The charge flowing through the circuit for a small time dt seconds is given by
𝒅𝒒 = 𝑰𝒅𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The total charge following through the circuit for half the time period is given by
𝑻/𝟐 𝑻/𝟐
𝒒 = ∫𝟎 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 ⇒ 𝒒 = 𝑰𝒎 ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝒕

− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 𝑻/𝟐 −𝑰𝟎 𝑻 𝑰𝒎 𝟐𝝅 𝑻

𝒒 = 𝑰𝒎 [ ] = [𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎] = − 𝟐𝝅 [𝐜𝐨𝐬 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎]
𝝎 𝟎 𝝎 𝟐 𝑻 𝟐
𝑻

𝑰𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑰𝟎
𝒒=− 𝑻[𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎] = − 𝑻 × −𝟐 = 𝑻----------------------------equ (1)
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝝅

If 𝑰𝒂𝒗 is the steady current passing through the circuit for the same time, then
𝑻
𝒒 = 𝑰𝒂𝒗 × ------equation (2)
𝟐
𝑰𝟎 𝑻
From equation (1) and (2) 𝑻 = 𝑰𝒂𝒗 ×
𝝅 𝟐
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 𝟐𝑰𝒎 𝟐𝑰𝒎 𝟐𝑬𝒎
𝑰𝒂𝒗 = = 0.636𝑰𝒎 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = similarly 𝑬𝒂𝒗 =
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
4.Effective Value or root mean square Or virtual Value of AC
R.M.S value or Virtual value of a.c is defined as the value of AC over a complete cycle which would
generate same amount of heat in a given resistor that is generated by steady current in the same
resistor and in the same time during a complete cycle. The 70.7% of peak value of current gives
effective or rms value of AC.
5.Relation between Peak Value and RMS value of Alternating current
The instantaneous value of a.c Voltage is given by 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
Small amount of heat produced in a resistor R is 𝒅𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒅𝒕 = (𝑰𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕)𝟐 𝑹𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝑻
𝑯 = ∫ (𝑰𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕)𝟐 𝑹𝒅𝒕 = 𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝑹 ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝟎 𝟎

𝟐
𝑻 (𝟏
− 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝎𝒕) 𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝑹 𝑻 𝑰𝟐𝟎 𝑹 𝑻
𝑯= 𝑰𝟎 𝑹 ∫ 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝟏𝒅𝒕 − ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝟎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎
𝑻 𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝑹
But ∫𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎 ∴ 𝑯 = 𝑻 --------------- (3)
𝟐

If 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the rms value of current, then 𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑹𝑻-----------(4)

𝑰𝟐𝟎 𝑹
From equations (3) and (4) we get, 𝑻 = 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑹𝑻
𝟐

𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑰𝒎
√𝟐
𝑬𝟎
Similarly, rms voltage 𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑬𝒎
√𝟐
6.Phasors and phasor diagrams:
A phasor is a rotating vector rotating about an origin with an angular velocity.
The vertical and horizontal components of a phasor represent a sinusoidal varying quantity.
Phasor diagrams are the representations of current - voltage relationship in ac circuits.
The peak values of alternating current and voltages with the angle between them can be
represented as phasors.

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 7.A.C through a Resistor
Let an alternating voltage 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 be applied to a circuit containing a resistor R only.
Current flowing through the resistor is
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝐼(𝑡) =
𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 where 𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅

𝑉𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑚 are peak values of ac voltage and current respectively.

The voltage and current are in same phase. The phasor diagram(a) and graphical
representations(b)are shown in the diagram.

8.Average power dissipated in a resistor

The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor is 𝑝 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑚
2
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
The average value of power over cycle is 〈𝑃〉 = 〈𝐼 2 𝑅〉 = 〈𝐼𝑚
2
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉
2 1
〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 but 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 =
2
2
Im R 𝐼𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐸𝑚
〈P〉 = = = = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 2 √2 √2
2
〈P〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = Irms R

9. A.C through a pure inductor (Choke coil)

Let an alternating voltage 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 be applied to a pure inductor of inductance L.

𝑑𝐼
The induced voltage across the inductor is −𝐿 .
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule, 𝑉𝑚 si n 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑𝐼 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐿 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 ⇒ dI = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡 ⇒ I = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿

𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
⇒𝐼= (− ) =− sin ( − 𝜔𝑡) = sin − ( − 𝜔𝑡)
𝐿 𝜔 𝜔𝐿 2 𝜔𝐿 2

𝑉𝑚 𝜋
= sin (𝜔𝑡 − )The quantity 𝜔𝐿 has the unit of resistance.
𝜔𝐿 2
𝑉𝑚
It is called inductive reactance(𝑋𝐿 ) of the inductor. = 𝐼𝑚 - peak value of current
𝜔𝐿

𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ), 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
2 𝑚
𝜋
From these two equations it is clear that the current lags the voltage by an angle radians.
2

The phasor diagram(a) and graphical representation(b) of current and voltages are shown in the
figure.

10. Inductive reactance(XL ):Inductive reactance is the opposition

offered by the inductor the flow of alternating current.
XL = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 where f is the frequency of a.c.
For a given inductor inductive reactance XL ∝ 𝑓
The graph between inductive reactance and frequency is shown.
Variation of inductive
11. Average power in an inductor reactance with frequency of
a.c
The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor is 𝑝 =
𝜋
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − ) × 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
2

𝑝 = −𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) × 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)

𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡)
𝑝 = −𝐼𝑚 × 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) ⇒ 𝑝 = −𝐼𝑚 × 𝑉𝑚
2
𝐼𝑚 ×𝑉𝑚
Average power 〈𝑝〉 = − 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡)〉 = 0 ∵ 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡)〉 = 0
2
Therefore, average power consumed in an inductor when a.c passes through it is zero.
The power, voltage and current as function of angle/time is shown in figure.
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Key points.
1. Average power consumed in an inductor when ac passes through it is zero.
2. When a.c passes through the inductor voltage leads the emf by an angle 900
3. For direct current f=0. Therefore, inductor offers zero reactance to direct current. Inductor
shorts direct current.
4. Inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency and inductance.
5. Graph between inductive reactance and frequency/ inductance is a straight line

Variation of power, voltage and current as a function of

angle.

12. A.C through a pure capacitor:

Let an alternating voltage𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 be applied to a pure capacitor of capacitance C.

The charge flowing through the capacitor is q(t) = CVm sin ωt
Current flowing through the capacitor is
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝐼= = ( 𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 (cos𝜔𝑡) × 𝜔 ⇒ 𝐼 = 1 cosωt , 𝐼 = 1 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
(𝜔𝐶) (𝜔𝐶) 2

1
The quantity ( ) has the unit of resistance. This quantity is called the capacitive reactance of the
ωC
1
circuit (XC = ).
ωC

𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝜋
𝐼= sin(𝜔𝑡 + ) ⇒ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
XC 2 2
V(t) = Vm sin ωt

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 𝜋
From these two equations it is clear that current leads the voltage by an angle - radians when
2
alternating current passes through a capacitor. The phasor diagram(a) and graphical
representation (b)of voltage and current are shown in the diagram.

13. Capacitive Reactance (𝑋𝐶 ): It is the effective opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of
alternating current
1 1
XC = = For a given capacitor the
ωC 2πfC
capacitive reactance is inversely and proportional
to the capacitance
14. Power consumed in a capacitor
Variation of capacitive reactance with frequency
The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor
𝜋 of a.c
is p = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + ) × 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
2

𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡)
𝑝 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) × 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) ⇒ 𝑝 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑣𝑚
2
Average value of power is
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
〈𝑝〉 = 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡〉 = 0
2

∵ 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡〉 = 0
Therefore Average power consumed in a capacitor when ac passes through it is = 0
The variation of power , voltage and current as a function of angle / time is shown in the diagram.

Key points:

1. For d.c f=0 ⇒ XC =

1
ωC
=
1
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
= ∞. The capacitor acts as open circuit to direct current. It
blocks d.c.
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 2. capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency /capacitance.
3. When ac. Passes through a capacitor thcurrent leads the emf by 900
4. Power consumed in a capacitor when ac passes through it is zero.
15. A.C through L. C.R series circuit
Consider a circuit containing an Inductor, a Resistor and a capacitor connected in series as shown
in the diagram. The phasor diagram for the circuit is also shown in the diagram. Across the resistor
current (I)and voltage (VR) are in Phase.

Phasor diagram for LCR series circuit when VL>VC Phasor diagram for LCR series circuit
when VC>VL

Across the Inductor Voltage (VL) leads the current(I) by 900. 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿
Across the capacitor the Voltage (VC) lags the current (I) by 900. 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶
Assuming VL >VC ,
The Resultant Voltage(V) across the L-C-R series circuit is

𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅 2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2 ⇒ 𝑉 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (I𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶 )2 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝐼√𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

𝑉
= √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝐼

The quantity √R2 + (XL − XC )2 has the unit of

resistance and is called impedance(Z) of the circuit.
1 2
Z = √R2 + (XL − XC )2 ⇒ Z = √R2 + (ωL − )
𝜔𝐶

Phase angle between current and voltage is ∅,

𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶
ta n 𝜙 = =
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
tan 𝜙 = ⇒ ∅ = tan−1 ( )
𝑅 𝑅
Variation of impedance of LCR series circuit as a function of the frequency of a.c is shown in the
diagram.

Page 7 of 9
 16. Impedance (Z): Impedance is the effective resistance of an electric circuit or component to
alternating current, arising from the combined effects of ohmic resistance and reactance.
Note: Phasor diagram for L- R circuit
Impedance of L-R series circuit is Z =√R2 + (XL )2
Z = √R2 + (ωL)2
𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿
∅ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( )
𝑅 𝑅
Impedance of C- R series circuit is 𝒁 = √R2 + (XC )2
Phasor diagram for C- R circuit
1 2
Z = √R2 + ( )
𝜔𝐶
𝑋𝐶 1
∅ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( )
𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅
17. Resonance in L-C-R series circuit
When the capacitive reactance XC is equal to the Inductive
reactance XL , Z=R . When the capacitive reactance (0r voltage across the capacitor) is equal to
the inductive reactance (or voltage across the inductor), the impedance of the circuit becomes
minimum and is equal to the ohmic resistance. Current through the L-C-R circuit becomes
maximum. This phenomenon is called Resonance. At resonance the voltage and current in the
circuit are in same phase.
Expression for resonant frequency(f)
The impedance of L-C-R series circuit is Given The figure shows the variation of current
by Z = √R2 + (XL − XC )2 amplitude Im in a series LCR circuit with
At resonance, (XL − XC ) = 0 angular frequency for different values of R.
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
1
ωL =
𝜔𝐶

1
𝜔2 =
𝐿𝐶
1
ω=
√𝐿𝐶
1 1
2πf = ⇒f=
√𝐿𝐶 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Key points:
1. At resonance voltage are current are in phase
2. Impedance is equal to the ohmic resistance of the circuit,
3. Current through the circuit is maximum. The circuit is called acceptor circuit.
4. As the resistance of the circuit decreases, current amplitude decreases.
5. Algebraic sum of voltages across the three elements in not equal to the applied emf. Applied
emf is equal to the vector sum of the voltages across the three elements 𝑉=
√𝑉𝑅 2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2

Practical Applications of Resonance

LCR circuit is used for tuning of radio and television receivers.
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 18. Average power in L-C-R series circuit
The instantaneous power supplied by the source is given by
𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + Ф) × 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + Ф) × 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑝= {cos ∅ − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + ∅)}
2

Using the identity {cos(𝐴) − cos(𝐵)} = 2 sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) sin(𝐴 + 𝐵)

𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
Average power is 〈𝑝〉 = 〈cos ∅ − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + ∅)〉 𝑏𝑢𝑡 〈cos(2𝜔𝑡 + ∅)〉=0
2
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Therefor the average value power is 〈𝑝〉 = cos ∅ ⇒ 〈𝑝〉 = cos ∅
2 √2 √2

〈𝑝〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos ∅ where Cos ∅ is called Pwer Factor of the circuit.
19. Power Factor (cos𝜙):Power factor is the measure of how effectively the incoming power is used
in an electrical system. A high-power factor indicates that the power supplied to the electrical
system is effectively used.
𝑅
It can be shown that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ =
𝑍

Key point: A low power factor indicates high power loss in transmission.
𝑃 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Therefore, for constant P, high power factor cos∅ indicates low power loss.
20. Wattless current or Idle current: When allternating current Pass throug a pure
capacitor or Inductor , the average powwer consumed in it is zero.
Such currents does not do any work. The components of current which donot perform work are
called wattles current or idle current.
21. Quality Factor (Q - Factor):
Quality factor refers to the sharpness of resonant curve.
Higher quality factor, the sharper will be the resonant
curve.
Quality factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across the
inductor or voltage across the capacitor to the voltage
across the resistor.
VL or VC IXL 0r IXC 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝑐
𝑄= = 𝑄= 𝑂𝑅 𝑄 =
VR IR 𝑅 𝑅
𝜔𝐿 1 𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑄= = = √
𝑅 √𝐿𝐶 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶

Key points
Quality factor depends on the resistance of the circuit, its capacitance and the inductance.
Higher the resistance and capacitance of the circuit lower will be the Q - factor.
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