Solutions

Ans. 1 (a)

Components of Electromagnetic Spectrum:

All matters at a certain temperature radiate electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. The
electromagnetic spectrum is the full range of electromagnetic radiation, organized by frequency
or wavelength. The spectrum is divided into separate bands, with different names for the
electromagnetic waves within each band. However, there is no strict dividing line between one
spectral region and its adjacent one. The types of electromagnetic radiation from low to high
frequency are broadly classified into the following classes (regions, bands or types):

1. Gamma radiation
2. X-ray radiation
3. Ultraviolet radiation
4. Visible light (light that human’s eye can see)
5. Infrared radiation
6. Microwave radiation
7. Radio waves

Fig. 1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Importance of Atmospheric windows in Remote Sensing system:

The wavelength ranges in which the atmosphere is particularly transmissive of energy are
referred as atmospheric windows. Theses atmospheric windows are crucial in remote sensing
because they enable satellites and sensors to observe the earth’s surface and atmosphere with
high clarity and accuracy. Different parts of the spectrum are affected by various atmospheric
gases, but in these windows, the absorption by gases like water vapour, carbon dioxide and
ozone are minimal. Without these windows, much of the radiation would be absorbed by
atmospheric gases, limiting the range and accuracy of remote sensing observation in visible,
NIR, Thermal IR, Microwave regions. One cannot select the sensor to be used in remote
sensing task without considering the presence/absence of atmospheric windows.
Ans. 1 (b)

Classification of remote sensing system:

Based on Platform:

Satellite based

• Earth Resources Satellites: Primarily for obtaining information on earth resources

(land & water based)
• Meteorological Satellites: Weather monitoring & predication
• Satellite carrying Microwave Sensors: For sensing in microwave band
Airborne based
• Sensors mounted on aircraft, ballons and drones.

Based on Sensor Type: (Multispectral, Hyperspectral etc.)

• Discrete Detectors and Scanning Mirrors

Example: Landsat, NOAA, ATLAS
• Linear Array type
Example: IRS, SPOT, Ikonos, OrbView, Quickbird, ASTER
• Imaging Spectrometry using Linear and Area Arrays
Example: AVIRIS, MODIS, ALI
• Digital Frame Camera
• Satellite Photographic Systems

Based on Source of Energy:

• Passive Remote Sensing

• Active Remote Sensing

Fig. 2 Concept of Active and Passive Remote Sensing System

Ans. 2 (a)

Preprocessing of Remote Sensing data

Preprocessing of Remote Sensing data is the process of making the input image ready for
further analysis/processing for some specific applications. Prior to the preprocessing, it is
advisable to identify the two types of errors namely, Radiometric and Geometric. So,
preprocessing is carried out to correct radiometric, geometric, electronic and mechanical
distortions.

Radiometric Errors are caused because of

1. Internal Errors due to fault in detector Response and calibration source errors.

2. External Errors because of atmospheric attenuation and Sun elevation.

Geometric Errors are caused because of

1. Internal Errors in mirror scanning velocity and profile detector sampling delay.

2. External Errors because of

• Panoramic or cross track distortion
• Spacecraft geometry
• Perspective geometry
• Earth rotation
• Altitude
• Scan skew
• Attitude (Roll, Pitch, Yaw)

Radiometric corrections are related to information extraction by changing pixel intensity value
to achieve calibration corrections or intensity enhancement.

Geometric corrections involve repositioning the sample elements of the image from where they
are, to where they should be, by using the resampling techniques to achieve a desired geometry.

Ans. 2 (b)

Elements of Visual Image Interpretation:

• x, y or location: Latitude, Longitude or Easting, Northing
• Size: Length, width, perimeter, area
• Shape: linear, curvilinear, circular, elliptical, square, rectangle, triangular, hexagonal,
amorphous (no shape)
• Shadow: Silhouette (the dark shape and outline of someone or something visible in
restricted light against a brighter background)
• Tone/Color: gray tones, RGB, or HIS
• Texture: Smooth, rough, mottled, stippled
• Pattern: Systematic, random
• Height/depth/volume/slope/aspect
 • Site/Situation/Association: Adjacency, objects are in particular order, related
phenomena

Characteristics of Aerial Photography:

• Synoptic viewpoint: Aerial photographs give a bird’s eye view of large areas enabling
us to see surface features in their spatial context. They enable the detection of small-
scale features and spatial relationships that would not be found on the ground.

• Time freezing ability: They are virtually permanent records of the existing conditions
on the Earth’s surface at one point in time, and used as an historical document.

• Capability to stop action: They provides a stop action view of dynamic conditions and
are useful in studying dynamic phenomena such as flooding, moving wildlife, traffic,
oil spills, forest fires.

• Three-dimensional perspective: It provides a stereoscopic view of the Earth’s surface

and make it possible to take measurements horizontally and vertically - a characteristic
that is lacking for the majority of remotely sensed data.

• Spectral and spatial resolution: Aerial photographs are sensitive to radiation in

wavelengths that are outside of the spectral sensitivity of the human eye (0.3 µm to 0.9
µm versus 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm). They are sensitive to objects outside the spatial resolving
power of human eye.

• Availability: Aerial photographs are readily available at a range of scales for much of
the world.

• Economy: They are much cheaper than field surveys and are often cheaper and more
accurate than maps.

Ans. 3 (a)

The surface of the earth is curved but maps are flat therefore map projection systems are used
to convert feature locations from the spherical earth (3D) to a flat map (2D). Real-world
features must be projected with minimum distortion from a round earth to a flat map; and given
a grid system of coordinates. In map projections the Latitude and longitude coordinates from a
geographic coordinate system is converted to planar coordinate system.

Fig. 3 The Process of projection transforms the spherical Earth’s surface to a plane surface
Different properties of projection system:
• Equivalent projections (which preserve areal relationships),
• Conformal projections (angular relationships),
• Azimuthal projections (directional relationships), and
• Equidistant projections (distance relationships).
All the properties cannot be preserved for mapping earth on 2D-surface as some properties
create distortion in other properties. All the different map projection systems are designed to
produce the network of meridians and parallels that can achieve one or two of these properties.
Ans. 3 (b)

Fig. 4 Latitude, Longitude and UTM Zones of India

Ans. 4 (a)

End and Side Overlap

• The term refers to the overlapping coverage of images at the ends of adjacent flight
lines. In other words, a portion of an image from one flight line overlaps with the
corresponding portion of an image from the neighbouring flight line as shown in figure
below.

• End overlap is the amount of common area between adjacent images in the flight
direction, while side lap is the overlap between images along the cross-track direction.

• End overlap (forward overlap) should be 55-60% and side overlap (lateral overlap)
should be 20-40%
 (a) (b)

Fig. 5 Concept of (a) End Overlap and (b) Side Overlap

Reasons for Providing Overlap

These are provided so that total area would be covered without missing any area due to gaps
between the aerial photograph. Some more reasons are as follows.

• Stereoscopic Viewing
• Control Point Connectivity
• Feature Matching
• Redundancy for Accuracy
• Compensating for Distortions
• Ensuring Complete Coverage

Ans. 4 (b)

Significant Characteristics of LANDSAT

LANDSAT-1, 2 & 3

NASA started ERTS (Earth Resources Technology Satellites) Program in 1967. ERTS-1
launched in July 1972 with two sensors RBV (Return Beam Vidicon) & Multispectral Scanner
(MSS with four bands know as 4, 5, 6 & 7) using discrete detectors & scanning mirrors. ERTS-
2 was named Landsat-2 (ERTS-1 as Landsat-1) & launched in Jan. 1975. Landsat-3 was
launched in March 1978 with MSS contained band number 8. EOSAT (Earth Observation
Satellite Company) obtained control of Landsat Satellites in Sept. 1985.

MSS 1, 2, 3 Spectral Bands were:

• Band 4: Green, 0.5-0.6 m, 79 x 79 m
• Band 5: Red, 0.6-0.7 m, 79 x 79 m
• Band 6: NIR, 0.7-0.8 m, 79 x 79 m
• Band 7: NIR, 0.8-1.1 m, 79 x 79 m
• Band 8 (Landsat 3): Thermal IR, 10.4-12.6 m
• Radiometric Resolution: 6 bit (values between 0-63), Data rate: 15 Mb/s
• Temporal Resolution: 18 days (14 orbits/day)
• Altitude: 919 kms, Inclination: 990
 • Swath Width: 185 km

LANDSAT- 4 & 5

Landsat 4-5 carried TM (Thematic Mapper) in place of RBV. MSS bands 4, 5, 6 and 7 were
renumbered as Band 1, 2, 3 and 4.
TM has 7 Bands
• Band 1 (0.45-0.52 m, With spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 2 (0.52-0.60, m, With spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 3 (0.63-0.69, m, With spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 4 (0.76-0.90, m, With spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 5 (1.55-1.75, m, With spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 6 (10.4-12.5, m, With spatial resolution 120m)
• Band 7 (2.08-2.35, m, With spatial resolution 30m)
• Radiometric Resolution: 8 bit (85 Mb/s)
• Revisit: 16 Days, Altitude: 705 Km, Inclination: 98.2o

LANDSAT- 6 & 7

•Landsat 6 carried ETM (Enhanced TM) but failed in Oct. 1993

•Landsat 7 was launched in April 1999 with ETM+ (Band 6 has resolution of 60 m) &
has new panchromatic band with resolution of 15 m (0.52-0.90 m)
• Next satellite EO-1, as continued mission, was launched in Nov. 2000 and has ALI
(Advanced Land Imager) as sensor (10 Bands in visible, NIR & MIR)
• Orbit of EO-1 matches within one minute the Landsat 7 ground track so that both
instruments will be able to collect near simultaneous images of the same location (to
facilitate comparisons between the two instruments)
LANDSAT- 8 & 9

Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 have Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared
Sensor (TIRS). Images consist of nine spectral bands, and two thermal bands. Landsat 9
improvements include higher radiometric resolution for OLI-2 (14-bit quantization increased
from 12-bits for Landsat 8) allowing sensors to detect more subtle differences, especially over
darker areas such as water or dense forests.

• Band 1 - Coastal aerosol (0.43-0.45m, with spatial resolution 30m)

• Band 2 - Blue (0.45-0.51m, with spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 3 – Green (0.53-0.59m, with spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 4 - Red (0.64-0.67m, with spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 5 - Near Infrared (NIR) (0.85-0.88m, with spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 6 - Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) 1 (1.57-1.65m, with spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 7 - Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) 2 (2.11-2.29m, with spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 8 – Panchromatic (0.50-0.68m, with spatial resolution 15m)
• Band 9 – Cirrus (1.36-1.38m, with spatial resolution 30m)
• Band 10 - Thermal Infrared (TIRS) 1 (10.6-11.19m, with spatial resolution 100m;
resampled to 30m)
• Band 11 - Thermal Infrared (TIRS) 2 (11.50-12.51m, with spatial resolution 100m;
resampled to 30m)
Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites

• India launched their first experimental satellite, Aryabhatta on 19th April 1975. (7th
Nation to achieve orbital capabilities). It was launched by Soviet Intercosmos rocket
with the objectives to indigenously design and fabricate a space-worthy satellite system
and to evaluate its performance in orbit.

• Bhaskara I and II were launched in 1979 and 1981 respectively with Television
Cameras operating in visible and NIR bands to collect data related to hydrology,
forestry and geology.

• India launched three Rohini series satellites using indigenously developed SLV-3
rockets in 1980, 81 and 83. Two satellites from Stretched Rohini series known as
SROSS were launched in the years 1992 and 1994 using ASLV rockets.

IRS-1A
• India, successfully launched first indigenously built sun-synchronous polar orbiting
satellite IRS-1A in March 1988 using Russian Vostak Launch Vehicle. It carried LISS
(Linear Imaging Self-Scanning Sensor), CCD (charge coupled devices) Scanning
Systems, LISS-I (with resolution of 72.5 m & swath 148 Kms) and LISS-II.

• LISS-II has two separate imaging sensors LISS-IIA and LISS-IIB with spatial
resolution of 36.25 meters each. They are mounted on the spacecraft in such a way as
to provide a composite swath of 146.98 km. on ground. Both LISS-I and LISS-II
operate in four spectral bands covering visible and near infrared region. Characteristics
of the satellite were:

• Altitude: 904 Kms.

• Inclination: 99.049 degrees
• Period: 103.19266 minutes
• Receptivity: 22 days
• Equatorial crossing time: 10.25 AM descending
• Weight: 975 kg.

IRS-1B
IRS-1B with similar characteristics as of IRS-1A was launched on Aug. 1991. The IRS-1E
(Also referred as IRS-P1), an experimental satellite, was launched in Sept. 1993 by the first
Indian PSLV rocket but failure. IRS-P2 was launched in 1994.

LISS-I and LISS-II spectral bands were

• B1: 0.45 - 0.52 m
• B2: 0.52 - 0.59 m
• B3: 0.62 - 0.68 m
• B4: 0.77 - 0.86 m
• Equatorial crossing time : 9.40 AM descending
IRS-1C
IRS-1C was launched by Russian Molniya-M launcher in Dec. 1995
• Altitude: 817 kilometers
• Inclination: 98.69o
• Equatorial crossing time 10.30 a.m. descending node
• Orbit time 101 minutes, Orbit type Polar, sun-synchronous.

It carried three sensor systems.

a) LISS III with spatial resolution of 23.5 x 23.5m in
• Band 2 (green, 0.52-0.59),
• Band 3 (red, 0.62-0.68) &
• Band 4 (NIR, 0.77-0.86) and
• 70 x 70 m for Band 5 (Short wavelength SWIR, 1.55-1.70).
• Swath width 142 km,
• Radiometric Resolution: 7 bit.
• Repetivity: 24 days

b) Panchromatic Single Band (0.50-0.75) 5.8 x 5.8m, Swath: 70 km, Steering capabilities with
+260. Swath width: 70 km, Radiometric Resolution: 6 bit. Revisit capabilities: 5 days.

c) WiFS (Wide Field Sensor) with Band 3 & 4, 188 x 188m, Swath width: 810 km, Radiometric
Resolution: 7 bit. Receptivity: 3 days

In continuation, ISRO launched IRS-P3 (March 1996); IRS-1D (Sept. 1997); IRS-P4 (May
1999).

IRS-P6 (ResourceSat)

IRS-P6 was launched on 17th Oct. 2003 by PSLV-C5 launching vehicle as continuity mission
of IRS-1C/1D. It has three sensors

• LISS-IV (High res), spatial res. of 5.8 m at nadir with two modes. Multispectral mode
with three bands (Green, red & NIR) with Swath width of 23.9 kms

• LISS-III (Medium res.): Same as IRS-1C (with 4 bands, 2, 3, 4 and 5) with spatial
resolution of 23.5 m even in band 5

• AWiFS: Spatial resolution of 56 m, 4 bands, swath of 740 km.

IRS-P5 (Cartosat-1)
• Launch Date: May 5, 2005 by indigenous PSLV
• Payloads: two state-of-the-art Panchromatic (PAN) cameras with 2.5 m resolution with
fore-aft stereo capability. Swath is 30 km.
• This mission will cater the needs of cartographers and terrain modeling applications.
• The satellite will provide cadastral level information up to 1:5000 scale and will be
useful for making 2-5 m contour maps.
INSAT Series

The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is a multi-purpose satellite system for
telecommunications, meteorological observations and data relay, television broadcasting and
radio and television programme distribution

Details of INSAT series

• INSAT-1A: Apr 10, 1982 by Delta 3920. Could not fulfill mission
• INSAT-1B: Aug 30, 1983 by Space Shuttle.
• INSAT-1C: Jul 22, 1988 by Ariane-3. Premature termination after 6 months
• INSAT-1D: Jun 12, 1990 by Delta 2
• INSAT-2A: July 10, 1992 by Ariane 4
• INSAT-2B: July 23, 1993 by Ariane 4
• INSAT-2C: Dec 7, 1995 by Ariane 4
• INSAT-2D: Jun 4, 1997 by Ariane 4. Premature termination after 3 months
• INSAT-2DT: In-orbit procurement from Arabsat, in service
• INSAT-2E: Apr 3, 1999 by Ariane 4, in service
• INSAT-3B: Mar 22, 2000 by Ariane 5, in service
• INSAT-3C: Jan 24, 2002 by Ariane 4, in service
• KALPANA-1: Sep 12, 2002 by PSLV, in service
• INSAT-3A: April 10, 2003 by Ariane 5, in service