Fundamentals

of Computer
 Introduction to Computer
❏ A computer is a programmable machine that processes data to perform tasks
according to defined instructions. It consists of hardware (physical components) and
software (programs and data).
❏ Computer : is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs
stored in its own memory unit.
❏ A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as
output.
❏ An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the influence of
a set of special instructions called Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to
as Information).

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Functions performed by Computer

1. Inputting
2. Storing
3. Processing
4. Outputting
5. Controlling

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Input: Entering data into the computer (e.g., typing text,
clicking with a mouse).
Storage: Saving data and programs for later use.
Processing: Performing calculations, manipulating data, and
executing instructions using the CPU and memory.
Output: Displaying results to the user (e.g., on a screen) or
storing them (e.g., saving a document).
Controlling: Control all the above mentioned functions.

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Input Process Output
Definition of Computer
A computer is a programmable electronic device capable of performing arithmetic and
logical operations, storing and manipulating data, and executing instructions to solve
problems or achieve specific tasks. It consists of hardware components such as the central
processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, input and output devices, and software
that controls and coordinates its operations. Computers play a pivotal role in modern
society, facilitating tasks ranging from basic calculations to complex simulations,
communication, entertainment, and data analysis.

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 Block Diagram of
Computer

There are 3 Components:

1.Input Unit
2.Central Processing Unit
● Memory
● ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
● Control Unit
3.Output Unit

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 Input Unit
The input unit of a computer is responsible for gathering data and instructions from
external sources and feeding them into the computer's memory for processing. It acts
as an interface between the external world and the computer system, allowing users
to input data and commands.

The input unit is made up of different devices that are responsible for transmitting
and receiving information between the memory of the computer and the outside
world.

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 Importance of
Input Unit
The input unit is crucial for enabling user interaction
with the computer system. It ensures that external
data and commands are accurately and efficiently
transferred into the computer's internal processing
environment, facilitating tasks such as data entry,
communication, control of peripheral devices, and
interaction with software applications. A
well-functioning input unit enhances the usability and
efficiency of a computer system, making it accessible
and responsive to user input.

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Components of the Input Unit:
Input Devices:

● These are physical devices that users interact with to input data and commands into the
computer. Common input devices include:
○ Keyboard: Used for entering text and commands.
○ Mouse: Used for pointing, clicking, and selecting objects on the screen.
○ Scanner: Used to convert physical documents or images into digital data.
○ Microphone: Used to input sound or voice commands.
○ Touchscreen: Allows users to interact directly with the computer screen by touching it.
○ Joystick, Gamepad: Used for gaming and other interactive applications.
○ Sensors: Used in specialized applications to input data from the environment (e.g.,
temperature sensors, motion sensors).

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Functionality:

● Data Input: The input unit captures data in various forms (text, images, sound, etc.)
from input devices.
● Command Input: It also receives commands from users through input devices,
such as keystrokes or mouse clicks.
● Signal Processing: Converts analog signals (e.g., from a microphone or scanner)
into digital form suitable for processing by the computer.
● Error Detection: Checks for errors in input data and may include mechanisms to
correct or flag errors for user intervention.
● Real-time Interaction: Provides real-time interaction between users and the
computer system, enabling dynamic input and response.

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 Output Devices
An output device is a computer hardware device that retrieves and presents the result of
the inserted input data from the computer system and further translates that data into
human-understandable language. The output or result is then presented to us in the form of
text, visuals, audio or a hard copy (printed on paper).
Output devices allow computers to communicate with users and with other devices.
Output devices do not always need a computer to operate as there’s no way of detecting
how the data is currently processed or what the system is doing. However, without output
devices, the aim of a computer may be beaten.Output devices are a type of peripheral
device connected to the computer system. It is used to display the results of the processed
data. We give input to the computer, and the CPU performs the operation on the output
and displays the result on output devices. Different output devices display text, images,
audio, videos, etc.

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Output Unit
● Monitor – It is also known as VDU (visual display unit). It is used to display the results of processed
data in a visual form.
● Printers – This is a type of device that is used to print hard copies of documents that are on the
computer.
● Projectors – It is another output device used to display results such as text and videos but on a
larger screen using the lenses.
● Speakers – It is another output device. Speakers associate with a PC to create sound, perhaps the
most widely recognized output gadget. A few speakers are intended to associate with sound
systems, while some can be attached distinctly with PCs.
● Touchscreen – Touchscreens are output devices usually used in mobile phones or desktop screens
that use receivers to receive outputs from the CPU and display visual images on the desktop.
● Headphones – When earphones are associated with a (PC, cell phone, and so on), they get data
output from the PC. It implies earphones are output devices.
● Plotters – Plotters are similar to printers. Working is also the same as printing, but where printers
are limited to printing on small papers, plotters are not. You can print high-quality posters or images
using plotters on large papers or canvas.
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Working Of Output Devices
Output devices are a major part of the computer system. These devices allow the system to function
properly. As mentioned above, the output devices allow the user to send outputs or signals to perform a
certain task. The CPU receives the signals of output devices and processes the raw data, and then sends it
to the output device that can process that data and displays it on the output device.

The method of output signalling generally follows these steps:

1. A signal is sent from an input tool to the computer.

2. The computer processes the input then sends a new signal to the output tool (e.g., the screen and audio

system).

3. The output gadgets receive the sign and show the output (e.g., the screen indicates the video, and the

audio system runs the audio sign).

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 Functions of Output Unit
1. User Interaction: The output unit is how a computer communicates information to the user. This
includes displaying text, graphics, and videos on a monitor, printing documents, or producing sound
through speakers. Without it, users would have no way to receive feedback or interact effectively with the
computer.
2. Data Representation: Output units convert digital information from the computer into human-readable
formats. For instance, a graphics card translates digital data into visual images on the screen, and a
printer converts digital files into physical documents. This representation is essential for tasks ranging from
reading emails to designing graphics.
3. Decision Making: Effective output is critical for decision-making. For instance, in business analytics, the
way data is presented can influence decisions. Clear and accurate visualizations (charts, graphs) can help
users understand trends and make informed decisions.

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4.Accessibility: Output devices contribute to accessibility for users with various needs. For
example, screen readers help visually impaired users by converting text on a screen into speech, while
Braille displays provide tactile feedback.

5. Feedback and Validation: Output units provide feedback on processes and tasks. For
instance, error messages, progress bars, and confirmation dialogs inform users about the status of
their actions or system operations, helping to validate that tasks are completed correctly.

6. Productivity: High-quality output devices can enhance productivity. For example, a

high-resolution monitor can improve detail work and reduce eye strain, while a fast printer can
streamline document handling tasks.

7. Entertainment and Media: For entertainment, output units like monitors, speakers, and
headphones are essential for enjoying multimedia content such as movies, music, and games. They
enhance the user experience by providing high-quality audio and visual experiences.

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Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is often described as the "brain" of a computer. It's a
crucial component responsible for executing instructions and managing the operations of
the computer. Here's an overview of its importance and function:

1. Core Functions

● Instruction Execution: The CPU interprets and executes instructions from

programs. This includes arithmetic operations, data processing, and
decision-making tasks.
● Control: It directs the operation of other components by sending control signals.
For instance, it tells the memory and input/output devices when to read or write
data.
● Data Handling: It processes data by performing calculations and logical
operations, such as comparing values or sorting data.

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2. Key Components

● Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical calculations and logical operations.
● Control Unit (CU): Directs the flow of data between the CPU and other components, and interprets
the instructions from programs.
● Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU that temporarily hold data and instructions
while they are being processed.

3. Performance Factors

● Clock Speed: Measured in gigahertz (GHz), it determines how many instructions the CPU can
process per second.
● Number of Cores: Modern CPUs have multiple cores, allowing them to handle multiple tasks
simultaneously. Each core can execute instructions independently, improving multitasking and
performance.
● Cache Memory: The CPU includes cache memory (L1, L2, and sometimes L3) which provides quick
access to frequently used data and instructions, enhancing processing speed.

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4. Impact on Computing

● Speed and Efficiency: A faster CPU can process instructions more quickly, leading to
better overall system performance.
● Multitasking: With multiple cores and threads, the CPU can handle several processes at
once, improving efficiency and responsiveness.
● Compatibility: The CPU affects the types of software and operating systems that can run
on the computer, as different CPUs have different architectures (e.g., x86, ARM).

5. Evolution and Innovation

● Architecture: CPU architecture evolves over time, with advancements in design improving
speed, energy efficiency, and capabilities.
● Integration: Modern CPUs often include integrated graphics and other features, reducing
the need for separate components and lowering costs.

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Advantages of Computer
⬡ High Speed
⬡ Accuracy
⬡ Storage
⬡ Reliability
⬡ Versatility
⬡ Automation
⬡ Diligence

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⬡ Data Base
⬡ Reduction in Paper Work
⬡ Reduction in Cost
⬡ Facilitates report preparation
⬡ Reduces Space Requirement
⬡ Reduces manpower requirement
⬡ Intangible Benefits
⬡ Increased ability to perform
computations

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Limitations of Computer
● NO I.Q
● The application logic must be
Understood
● Dependent on human being
● Requires close observation
● Environment
● No feelings/ Judgement

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Classification of Computer

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 Based on Size
a. Supercomputers:
The most powerful in terms of processing capacity.
Used for complex scientific calculations, weather forecasting, molecular modeling, etc.
b. Mainframe Computers:
Large and powerful machines capable of handling and processing huge amounts of data rapidly.
Often used by large organizations for bulk data processing like census, industry and consumer statistics, etc.
c. Minicomputers (Midrange Computers):
Smaller and less powerful than mainframes.
Serve as network servers and internet servers.
d. Microcomputers (Personal Computers):
Widely used by individuals and businesses.
Includes desktop computers, laptops,

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1. Supercomputers : The supercomputers are the most high performing system. A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared
to a general-purpose computer. The actual Performance of a supercomputer is measured in FLOPS instead of MIPS. All of the world’s fastest 500
supercomputers run Linux-based operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in China, the US, the EU, Taiwan and Japan to build even
faster, more high performing and more technologically superior supercomputers. Supercomputers actually play an important role in the field of
computation, and are used for intensive computation tasks in various fields, including quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, climate research, oil and
gas exploration, molecular modeling, and physical simulations. and also Throughout the history, supercomputers have been essential in the field of the
cryptanalysis. eg: PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.
2. Mainframe computers : These are commonly called as big iron, they are usually used by big organisations for bulk data processing such as statistics,
census data processing, transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a higher processing capability as compared to
the other classes of computers, most of these mainframe architectures were established in 1960s, the research and development worked continuously
over the years and the mainframes of today are far more better than the earlier ones, in size, capacity and efficiency. Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and
System z10 servers.
3. Mini computers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were sold at a much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually
designed for control, instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping, later they became
very popular for personal uses with evolution. In the 60s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of transistors and core
memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less expensive peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR.They usually took up one or
a few inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes that could fill a room, there was a new term “MINICOMPUTERS” coined Eg: Personal
Laptop, PC etc.
4. Micro computers : A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory,
and minimal I/O circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board.The previous to these computers, mainframes and minicomputers, were comparatively
much larger, hard to maintain and more expensive. They actually formed the foundation for present day microcomputers and smart gadgets that we use
in day to day life. Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

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Based on Work
1. Analog : An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-changeable aspects
of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being
solved. Any thing that is variable with respect to time and continuous can be claimed as analog just
like an analog clock measures time by means of the distance traveled for the spokes of the clock
around the circular dial.
2. Digital : A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as
digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer capable of solving problems by
processing information expressed in discrete form. from manipulation of the combinations of the
binary digits, it can perform mathematical calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial
and other processes, and simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.
3. Hybrid : A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is a digital
computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes them in digital form.

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Based on Purpose
General Purpose Computer: A general-purpose computer is built to do a variety of common
tasks. Computers of this type have the ability to store multiple programs. They can be applied in the workplace,
in science, in education, and even at home. Such computers are adaptable, but they are also less effective and
move more slowly.

Specific Purpose Computer: A single specific task can be handled by a specific-purpose

computer, which is designed to execute a certain task. They aren’t made to manage several programs. They
were therefore not adaptable. Since they are made to handle a specific task, they are more efficient and faster
than general-purpose computers. These computers are utilized for things like airline reservations, air traffic
control, and satellite tracking.

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 SuperComputer

Mini Computer

Mainframe

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 Analog
Computer

Hybrid
Computer
Digital
Computer

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Elements of Computer

⬡ Hardware
⬡ Software
⬡ DATA
⬡ USER

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Hardware: Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical
components of an analog or digital computer. The term hardware distinguishes the tangible
aspects of a computing device from software, which consists of written, machine-readable
instructions or programs that tell physical components what to do and when to execute the
instructions.

Software: Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer. Software
is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a device. It can be thought
of as the variable part of a computer, while hardware is the invariable part.

DATA: Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, observations or just descriptions of
things.Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner, which
should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or electronic machine.Data is
represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,=
etc.)

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