Introduction to Social Research

MODULE 1 Definition, nature and purpose

Objectives of Research and significance

Approaches
RESEARCH
R –rational way of thinking
E-stands for expert and exhaustive treatment
S-search for solutions
E-exactness
A-analytical analysis of adequate data
R-relation between facts and theories
C-constructive attitude ,critical observation, condensed and compactly
stated generalisation ,cautious and careful recording
H-honesty and hard work
RESEARCH –DEFINITION
Word derived from French word “"recherche"-which means "to go about
seeking"
Search for new facts or to modify older ones in any branch of knowledge
Research is systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem
that needs a solution.
It contributes to the general body of knowledge. It also corrects human
knowledge.
It attempts to answer or solve social problems.
Research is highly relevant for understanding social life generally and to the
decisions you make each day.
SOCIAL RESEARCH –DEFINITION
“careful critical inquiry or examination seeking facts or principles diligent
investigation in order to ascertain something”-Webster’s international dictionary
According to C.A. Moser : “Social research is a systematized investigation to gain new
knowledge about social phenomenon and problems.”
“Social research can be defined as the systematic method of discovering new facts or
verifying old facts, their sequence , interrelationships , causal explanations and
natural law which govern them”-P.V.Young
“Research is a more systematic activity directed towards discovery and the
development of an organised body of knowledge”-John Best
MANY PEOPLE RELY ON TO ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE AND MAKE DECISIONS:

Four commonly used alternatives to social science research that

Personal experience and common sense
Experts and authorities
Popular and media messages
Ideological beliefs and values.
the research process tries to reduce errors such as
Overgeneralization -Statement that goes far beyond what can be justified based on the data or empirical
observations that one has.
Selective observation -Process of examination in a way that reinforces preexisting thinking rather than in a neutral
and balanced manner.
Premature closure - Act of making a judgment or reaching a decision and ending an investigation before gathering
the amount or depth of evidence required by scientific standards
Halo effect- Occurrence that allows the prior reputation of persons, places, or things to color one’s evaluations
rather than evaluating all in a neutral, equal manner.
False consensus A tendency to project one’s way of thinking onto other people. In other words, the person
assumes that everyone else thinks like he or she does.
Thus Research standards, rules, and principles are designed to reduce the misjudgment, bias, and distorted
thinking the frequently occurs with personal experience.
SOCIAL THEORY
A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can
incorporate laws, hypotheses and facts.
Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many
cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding
assumptions.
Scientific theory is a system of constructs (concepts) and propositions (relationships between those
constructs) that collectively presents a logical, systematic, and coherent explanation of a
phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and boundary conditions (Bacharach 1989).
Social theory A system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organizes the knowledge about
the social world and explains how it works.
Social theory refers to ideas, arguments, hypotheses, thought-experiments, and explanatory
speculations about how and why human societies—or elements or structures of such societies—come
to be formed, change, and develop over time or disappear.
Data Numerical (quantitative) and non-numerical (qualitative) information and evidence that have
been carefully gathered according to rules or established procedures.
Empirical Description of what we can observe and experience directly through human senses
(e.g.touch, sight, hearing, smell, taste) or indirectly using techniques that extend the senses
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Method is the way of doing something and methodology is a science or philosophy of that
method.
Research Methodology may be a standard, process or way of doing research. In its wider
sense methodology includes philosophy, investigation, description or scientific approach to
gain new knowledge.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It is science of
studying how research is done scientifically.
Methods refers to procedures(ways and means) for locating, collecting and analysing
information. Methodology is a broader term and its scope is wider compared with methods.
It refers to not only to the research methods followed but also the reasons why the
researcher selected a particular method or technique and why did not use others .
Methodology refers to broad scheme of ideas behind a researcher’s work.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH METHOD AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the researcher
to undertake research. Research methodology is a system of methods, used scientifically
for solving the research problem.
The research method is ways or tool, employed in selecting and building research
technique. Research methodology implies the science of analyzing, the manner in which
research is conducted appropriately.
The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test, surveys, interviews,
etc. As against this, research methodology is concerned with learning various techniques
which can be employed in the performance of experiment, test or survey.
Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike, research methodology,
which consists of complete approach aligned towards the attainment of purpose.
Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand. In contrast,
research methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures, with a view to
ascertaining solutions.
CHARACTERISTICS
Creative process-investigation or inquiry, discovery or invention or
experimentation to find out the truth with evidence
Direct method to solution of a problem
Find out the relationship between two or more variables or variabilities
Characterised by carefully designated procedure
Used to predict future occurrences
Logical and objective
Based on hypothesis and insight
Enables man to understand , explain control and cope up with any
situation
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
Manipulation of things, concepts or symbols
Purpose of generalisations
To extend correct or verify knowledge
The knowledge used for construction of a theory
Forms the basis for government policies
helps in solving social problems
Useful to students , professionals ,philosophers ,literary men , analysts and
intellectuals .
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
Good research must be systematic
Must be logical
Must be empirical
Must be one whose results can be verified by replicating the study and
thereby building a sound basis for decisions
Common concepts must be followed
Procedure followed in research work must be described in detail
Research procedure should be so designed that objective of research
can be achieved
QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCHER
Scientific mind and unbiased attitude-not influenced by superficial facts
Seeker of truth and knowledge
Alertness , insight and imagination-mind to work under any
circumstances and should be accurate in observation .
Quick power of understanding and ability for explaining .
Knowledge of the subject and possess intimate knowledge of the
technique that is to be applied to the problem
Personal interest in the study
LEGAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Legal Research Methodology may be applicable for interpretation or analysis of codes; Acts,
Rules etc. or to compare laws of different countries, or to compare more than two municipal laws
of the nation, to know the consequences of implementation of law, or effects of that law on the
society.
The methodology of legal studies involve their own rules. Thus separate study of legal
methodology is required.
The legal research basically involves two sources : 1. Legal Sources 2. Non Legal Sources
1) Legal Sources :
a) Primary authority of law – Primary authority constitutes the law. Bodies like the Judiciary, the
Legislature, and administrative agencies. E.g.Cases, Statutes, Regulations, Codes etc. declared by
primary authorities are the best legal source.
b) Secondary authority of law – Commentary of Non-Governmental bodies comes under this
category. Reports, Journals, Legal Treaties, Encyclopaedias, Dictionaries etc.
LEGAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2) Non Legal Sources – To get supporting information legal researcher takes help from non legal source such
as life style of people, memories, experiences etc.
The main methods which legal research scholar tries to follow are :
(i) Study the system of values: First, researcher should study the values of society from which the law is
derived. For example to understand the object of Dowry Prohibitions Act, you have to know the values of
Indian society and family.
(ii) Study the practice of law: Practical applicability is important in law. To know, does the practice follow the
principles of law. Researcher can study the practice of law by analysing the law.
(iii) Study the normative character : To study the legal discourse, scholars should learn the enactment, statute
etc. For example, the Indian Penal Code, Civil Procedure Code.
(iv) Study the procedural validity: Scholar can study the procedure followed by the legislature and also
validity of procedure, given under the particular Act. For example study of procedure of declaration of
emergency.
(v) Compare the international and municipal law: International law provides or recommends minimum
standard for municipal laws. By comparing both the laws, researcher can suggest the changes in municipal
laws.
(vi) Legal impact analysis: To record and explain how a particular law works within a particular society,
Legal Impact Analysis is the best procedure. This method is useful in study of law in action.
This method is also effective to examine the effect of law on the people or society. Before the commencement
of the new statutes or by introducing new laws we can change the old law by analysing impact of old laws
on people
 APPROACHES TO SOCIAL RESEARCH
There are various methods for studying a subject. A researcher may choose to analyze the
phenomenon in terms of its constituent parts in measurable or quantifiable terms, or they may choose t
examine the phenomenon as a whole and describe it as it is.
The former approach is termed as quantitative approach and the later is known as qualitative
approach.
1) Qualitative approach -The entire phenomenon is taken into account, and the researcher makes the
assumption that it possesses some quality.
A qualitative technique is used when a researcher seeks to preserve the entirety of a phenomenon
while confirming claims about it.
This approach describes the experiences of people in-depth and permits the researcher to record and
understand people in-depth in thei; own perceptions.
Qualitative approach helps us to examine the nature of human behaviour arid experience and social
conditions.
It also permits the researcher to study selected issues, cases or events in-depth.
2) Quantitative approach
APPROACHES TO SOCIAL RESEARCH
Quantitative Approach
Quantitative approach focuses on objective and standardized means of inquiry and
application of statistical analysis for attainment of objectivity and generalizations.
The researcher identified the various components of the problem and operationalize
the concepts into variables.
Quantitative researchers use interview, questionnaire and structured observation as
major methods to collect data. Quantitative approach use standardized measures
that fit diverse opinions and experiences into predetermined response categories.
measures the reactions of a large number of individuals to a limited set or questions,
thus facilitating comparison and analysis of data with the help of close-ended
questionnaires, attitude scales, rating scales and postal surveys.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results
are sound.
The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the world
based on empirical evidence.
It is defined by its commitment to systematic observation of the empirical world and
strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical.
Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also to interpret and
analyze the data.
TYPES OF RESEARCH- BROADLY CLASSIFIED AS

Research type varies on the basis of objective, depth

of study, analysed data, time required
i)fundamental (basic or Pure research ) and Applied
research
Ii) Descriptive research and Analytical research
Ii) Quantitative research and Qualitative research
Iii) Conceptual or Empirical research
TYPES OF RESEARCH
According to purpose
Theoretical/pure/basic or Fundamental research
aims in achievement of knowledge.
Generalisations
Add to already existing knowledge
Designed to address fundamental knowledge of how world works
and build theoretical explanations by focusing on Why questions
Applied research
concerned with the solution of particular problem
Applied in real life situations
THREE TYPES OF APPLIED RESEARCH
Evaluation
Action oriented
Social Impact Assessment
Evaluation Research- Applied research in which one tries to examine how well
a program or policy is working or reaching its goals and objectives . Large
bureaucratic organisations usually adopt . Several techniques used in this
includes survey, ethnographic field research.
Two types of evaluation research are formative and summative
Formative –built in monitoring or continuous feedback on a programme used
for program management
Summative-reviews final program outcomes
APPLIED RESEARCH TYPES
Action research –primary goal is to facilitate social change or bring about a
value oriented political social goal.5 characteristics are as follows
People who are studied are active participants in the research process
Study incorporates popular knowledge and concerns of ordinary people
Examines power relations and documents social inequality or injustice
Tied directly to social –political action and achieving goals
Participatory action research-emphasises democratizing knowledge creation
process, revealing injustices, highlighting social inequality and conflict and
engaging in collective action to improve conditions
APPLIED RESEARCH TYPES
Social impact assessment estimates the likely social consequences in advance of a
planned change.
Is a part of larger environmental impact assessment
SIA –Applied research that documents the likely consequences for various areas of
social life if a major new change is introduced into a community
Both positive and negative impacts will be considered