VOLUME 4 - IOM World Migration Report Series

This volume is the fruit of a collaborative effort by a team of contributing authors and the editorial team under the direction of the
Editors-in-Chief. The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of IOM or its
Member States. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the work do not imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or
concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

Unless otherwise stated, this volume does not refer to events occurring after August 2008.

IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental
organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration;
advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human
dignity and well-being of migrants.

Publisher: International Organization for Migration

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© 2008 International Organization for Migration (IOM)

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Cover concept and design: Dominique Cherry, DEC Creatives, Bonnell’s Bay, Australia

Printed in Switzerland by SRO-Kundig

33_08
 World Migration 2008

IOM Editorial Team

Editors-In-Chief and Concept Gervais Appave, Ryszard Cholewinski

Editorial Board Michele Klein Solomon, Frank Laczko, Sophie

Nonnenmacher, Jobst Köhler, Nilim Baruah

Steering Committee Juan Artola, William Barriga, Jean-Philippe Chauzy,

Shahidul Haque, Jill Helke, Bernd Hemingway,
Irena Omelaniuk, Robert Paiva, Richard Perruchoud,
Jillyanne Redpath-Cross, Peter Schatzer, Irena
Vojackova- Sollorano, Thomas Weiss

Editorial Assistance Juan Artola, William Barriga, Shahidul Haque, Jill

Helke, Michele Klein Solomon, Frank Laczko, Sophie
Nonnenmacher, Irena Omelaniuk, Robert Paiva, Irena
Vojackova-Sollorano, Elizabeth Warn

Publications Assistance and Layout Clara Francia Anaya, Anna Lyn Constantino, Valerie
Hagger, Caroline San Miguel, Alma Sy, Carmelo Torres

Executive Assistance Dominique Jaud-Pellier, Antoinette Wills

Regional Overviews Verónica Escudero, Claudia Natali

Cartography Jana Hennig

English Language Editor Ilse Pinto-Dobernig

[iii]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Editorial Team wishes to thank all contributing authors and is especially grateful to Brunson McKinley, former IOM
Director General, for his vision and encouragement to produce this publication.

The Editorial Team wishes to thank the following persons, principally current and former IOM staff, for their kind
assistance and support:

Christine Adam, Christine Aghazarm, Serhan Aktoprak, Carmen Andreu, Jorge Baca, Diego Beltrand, Andrew Billo,
Philippe Boncour, Rosilyne Borland, Peter Bossink, Andrew Bruce, Cynthia Bryant, Anne-Marie Buschman-Petit, Audrey
Carquillat, Laurentiu Ciobanica, Ricardo Casco, Sarah Craggs, Luca Dall’oglio, Richard Danziger, Anita Alero Davies,
Priyanka Debnath, Alexandre Devillard, Flavio Di Giacomo, Françoise Droulez, Sylvia Lopez-Ekra, Disha Sonata Faruque,
Berta Fernandez, Stephanie Fitzjames, Jorge Andrés Gallo, Nicoletta Giordano, Mary Haour-Knipe, Laurence Hart, Janet
Hatcher Roberts, Dina Ionesco, Nayla Kawerk, David Knight, Sarah Költzow, Umbareen Kuddus, Lucy Laitinen, Kerstin
Lau, Chris Lom, Marina Manke, Kristina Mejo, Ugo Melchionda, Susanne Melde, Françoise Moudouthe, Günter Müssig,
Alina Narusova, Ndioro Ndiaye, Pierre Nicolas, José-Angel Oropeza, Paola Pace, Jemini Pandya, Niurka Pineiro, Carina
Raisin, Felix Ross, Redouane Saadi, Ovais Sarmad, Scott Schirmer, Meera Sethi, Frances Solinap, Lucie Stejskalová,
Alma Sy, Yorio Tanimura, Lalini Veerassamy, Galina Vitkovskaya, Shyla Vohra, Vassiliy Yuzhanin, Zhao Jian, Jennifer
Zimmermann.

The input of the following external experts to the concept of World Migration 2008 at a workshop in Geneva in January
2007 is also much appreciated:

Ibrahim Awad (International Labour Organization – ILO), Luca Barbone (The World Bank), Johannes Bernabe
(International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development – ICTSD), Scott Busby (Intergovernmental Consultations
on Migration, Asylum and Refugees – IGC), Antonia Carzaniga (World Trade Organization – WTO), Verona Collantes
(United Nations Conference on Trade and Development - UNCTAD), Jeff Dayton-Johnson (Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development – OECD), Carla Edelenbos (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human
Rights – OHCHR), Lisa Eklund (United Nations Population Fund – UNFPA), Raquel Gonzalez (International Trade Union
Confederation – ITUC), Geneviève Gencianos (Public Services International – PSI), Bela Hovy (Population Division of the
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs – UN DESA), Robyn Iredale (Australian Demographic and
Social Research Institute, the Australian National University), Azfar Khan (ILO), Eleonore Kofman (Social Policy Research
Centre, Middlesex University), Christiane Kuptsch (ILO), Virginia Leary (Emeritus Professor of International Law, State
University of New York at Buffalo), Lindsay Lowell (Institute for the Study of International Migration, Georgetown
University – ISIM), Frederick Muia (International Organization of Employers – IOE), Edmundo Murrugarra (The World
Bank), Kathleen Newland (Migration Policy Institute – MPI), Pierella Paci (The World Bank), Dilip Ratha (The World
Bank), Martin Ruhs (Centre on Migration Policy and Society, University of Oxford – COMPAS), Brigitte Suter (Malmö
Institute for Studies of Migration), Siri Tellier (UNFPA), Sabrina Varma (United Nations Development Programme – UNDP),
Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin (OECD), Martin Watson (Quaker United Nations Office – QUNO), Vincent Williams (Southern
African Migration Project – SAMP).

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 World Migration 2008

Several organizations generously shared their data and other research materials:

Canadian Permanent Mission to the United Nations (Geneva), Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS), COMPAS –
University of Oxford, IGC, International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), International Migration Programme
of the ILO, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) – Global IDP Project, Norwegian Refugee Council, OHCHR,
OECD, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants
(PICUM), Population Division of UN DESA, PSI, SAMP, Thai Ministry of Interior, Thai Ministry of Labour, United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UNFPA, The World Bank, WTO.

The Editorial Team is especially grateful to the following donors for their generous financial support towards the
development and publication of World Migration 2008:

Governments of Australia, Denmark, Switzerland and the United States, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur
Foundation, Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (specific financial contribution towards the translation of
the French version).

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 World Migration 2008

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES x
SELECTED ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS xiv
FOREWORD xix
INTRODUCTION 1
Textbox Int. 1 The State of Progress in GATS Mode 4 Negotiations 6
Textbox Int. 2 Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD) 8
Textbox Int. 3 Female Labour Migration and Gender Issues 10

PART A: THE WORLDS OF CONTEMPORARY MOBILITY FOR ECONOMIC PURPOSES 21

CHAPTER 1: INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING

GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET 23
Textbox 1.1 Three Waves of Globalization 25
Textbox 1.2 Some Key Figures on Employment in 2005 29
Textbox 1.3 Some Key Features of International Labour Migration1 32
Textbox 1.4 Decent Work and Migrant Workers 33
Textbox 1.5 Global Population Trends and Their Impact on International Migration 36
Textbox 1.6 Migration and Trade Models 41
CHAPTER 2: HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION 51
Portrait 2.1 Working as an IT Specialist in the Czech Republic 58
Textbox 2.1 Globalization and the Mobility of Health Workers 63
Textbox 2.2 Impacts of Return Migrants on the IT Industry in India 65
Textbox 2.3 Social Costs of the Migration of Women Health Workers 70
CHAPTER 3: LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD 77
Textbox 3.1 Labour Migration in Southern Africa: A Case for the Review
of the Concept of Low and Semi-skilled Migration 79
Textbox 3.2 Women Migrants in Domestic Work 83
Textbox 3.3 Expanding Job Opportunities for Pacific Islanders through
Labour Mobility 85
Textbox 3.4 Mobility of Skilled and Low-skilled Workers from,
within and towards the Maghreb 89
Textbox 3.5 Promoting Temporary Labour Migration:
Policy Response of the International Community 93
Portrait 3.1 Dates for a Better Future 98
CHAPTER 4: STUDENT MOBILITY, INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION
AND SKILLED MIGRATION 105
Textbox 4.1 Foreign and International Students in International Statistics 107
Textbox 4.2 National and Regional Retention Policies for Foreign Graduates
in Industrialized Countries 119

[vii]
 CHAPTER 5: TOURISM AND SHORT-TERM BUSINESS TRAVEL 127
Textbox 5.1 Economic and Social Benefits and Costs of Tourism 129
Textbox 5.2 Short-term Movements to Australia 130
Portrait 5.1 Canada Calling: From Tourist to Business Visitor to Immigrant 134
CHAPTER 6: FAMILY MIGRATION 151
Textbox 6.1 Social and Economic Costs of Migration on Family Members
Left Behind - Bangladesh 152
Textbox 6.2 Family and Skilled Migration Policies in Australia, Canada,
New Zealand and the United States 162
Portrait 6.1 The Story of a Software Specialist Family 166
CHAPTER 7: INTERNAL MIGRATION 173
Portrait 7.1 Seeking a Better Living in Ho Chi Minh City 175
Textbox 7.1 The Hazards of Internal and Cross-Border Migration 187
CHAPTER 8: IRREGULAR MIGRATION 201
Textbox 8.1 Contested Spaces of (Il)Legality 202
Textbox 8.2 Trafficking for Forced Labour 204
Textbox 8.3 Regularization Programmes: The Latin-American Case 214
Portrait 8.1 Sailing to Nowhere – A Cambodian Migrant’s Tale 217
Textbox 8.4 Out-of-reach and Out-of-danger:
Keeping Girls Safe from Traffickers in Nepal 220
Portrait 8.2 From Kayes to Tripoli and back 223
Textbox 8.5 Return Programmes – Lessons Learnt 224
Textbox 8.6 Cooperation on Preventing Unauthorized Employment of
Migrant Workers with a view to Promoting Regular Employment 226
PART B: MANAGING LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL ECONOMY 235
CHAPTER 9: ENHANCING THE KNOWLEDGE BASE 237
Textbox 9.1 The “General Model” for the Collection, Application and Sharing
of Migration-related Data – An Emerging Approach 245
CHAPTER 10: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES
IN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN 257
Textbox 10.1 HRD Planning and Maximizing Economic Gains from Labour Migration 260
Textbox 10.2 Seasonal Agricultural Workers Project - Guatemala-Canada 269
Portrait 10.1 Temporary Migration of Agricultural Workers to Canada 270
Textbox 10.3 Information Resource Centre for Migrant Workers in Tajikistan 272
Portrait 10.2 The Importance of Pre-departure Consultation 273
Textbox 10.4 Philippine Overseas Labour Officers:
Serving Overseas Filipino Workers Abroad 276
Textbox 10.5 Ministerial Consultations on Overseas Employment and Contractual
Labour for Countries of Origin in Asia: The Colombo Process 279
Textbox 10.6 The ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration 280

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CHAPTER 11: FORMULATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES

IN COUNTRIES OF DESTINATION 285
Textbox 11.1 The Evolution of Asylum Applications in IGC Participating States,
1983-2007 287
Portrait 11.1 Circular Migration for Co-development 304
Textbox 11.2 Ten Ways to Protect Undocumented Migrant Workers 314
CHAPTER 12: MANAGING THE LABOUR MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT EQUATION 327
Textbox 12.1 Initiatives to Enhance the Contributions by Refugees to the
Development of Host Communities 328
Textbox 12.2 Mauritius: Heading Towards a Migration Miracle? 335
Textbox 12.3 Challenges in Assessing the Economic Impacts
of Migration and Remittances 337
Textbox 12.4 Diaspora Linkage in Development: A Bangladesh Case 346
Portrait 12.1 Entrepreneurship for Development 348
CHAPTER 13: ACHIEVING BEST OUTCOMES FROM GLOBAL,
Regional and bilateral Cooperation 355
Textbox 13.1 The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights
of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families 357
Textbox 13.2 Prospects for Greater Labour Mobility within ECOWAS/West Africa 363
Textbox 13.3 EU Enlargement – Free Movement of Workers 365
Textbox 13.4 Regional Consultative Processes and Labour Mobility 369
Textbox 13.5 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 371
Textbox 13.6 Exploring the Role of Reformed Bilateral Labour Agreements:
The Caribbean Community and the Temporary Movement of
Less-skilled Labour 375
Textbox 13.7 Skilled Migration and Regional, Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements 385
CONCLUSION 393
Textbox Conc. 1 Climate Change and Labour Mobility 398
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS 403
AFRICA 407
AMERICAS 423
ASIA 439
EUROPE 455
MIDDLE EAST 471
OCEANIA 481
MIGRATION TERMINOLOGY 491
ALPHABETICAL INDEX 503
MAPS 521

[ix]
 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 4
Figure 1.1: ....................................................................... 36 Figure 4.1:...................................................................... 107
Average Annual Net Number of Migrants to the More Developed Numbers and Percentages of Foreign Students in the 35 Main
Regions, 1960-2050 Host Countries, 2004
Figure 1.2: ....................................................................... 37 Table 4.1:........................................................................ 109
Population Aged 20-64 in More Developed Regions Projected Destinations of Foreign Students Studying in OECD Countries by
With and Without Migration, 1950-2050 Origin, 2004 (%)
Figure 1.3: ....................................................................... 37 Table 4.2: ....................................................................... 109
Average Annual Net Number of Migrants, Africa, Asia and Latin Composition of Foreign Student Bodies in the OECD Area,
America and the Caribbean, 1960-2050 2004 (%)

CHAPTER 2 Figure 4.2:...................................................................... 109

Countries with over 20 per cent of all Tertiary-level Students
Figure 2.1:........................................................................ 54 Studying Abroad, 2004
Percentage of New Immigrant Adults Aged 15-64 with Tertiary
Education Table 4.3: ....................................................................... 110
Percentage of Women among Foreign Students in OECD Countries
Table 2.1: ......................................................................... 55
Percentage of Tertiary Educated Foreign-born Adults by Region Figure 4.3: ..................................................................... 121
of Birth, 2000 Countries with over 20 per cent of their Graduates Living in an
OECD Country
Table 2.2: ......................................................................... 62
Percentage of All Tertiary Educated Foreign-born Adults by CHAPTER 5
Region of Residence and Region of Birth, 1990 and 2000
Table 5.1: ....................................................................... 129
Table 2.3:.......................................................................... 63 International Tourist Arrivals, 1990-2005
Health Workers moving to OECD Countries from Developing
Countries Table 5.2: ....................................................................... 131
Stocks of Temporary Entrants, Various Dates, 2004 and 2005
CHAPTER 3 Table 5.3:........................................................................ 137
Table 3.1:.......................................................................... 80 Australian Working Holiday and Work and Holiday Visa
Migrants in 2005 (millions) Approvals, 2001-2006
Table 3.2:.......................................................................... 81 Table 5.4: ....................................................................... 140
Migrants and Local Workers by Sector, Percentage Distribution Business Visitor Visas Granted Outside of Australia, 1 July 2001
to 30 June 2006
Figure 3.1:........................................................................ 81
Native-born and Migrant Adults in Industrialized Countries by Table 5.5: ....................................................................... 141
Education, 2005 (percentage) Canada – Business Visitor Visas issued in Beijing
Table 3.3:.......................................................................... 83 Table 5.6: ....................................................................... 143
Entries of Temporary Workers in Selected OECD Countries by U.S. Non-immigrant Admissions (I-94 only) by Class of Admission
Principal Categories, 2003-2005 (excluding laser visa holders): 2004-2006 (in millions)
Table 3.4:.......................................................................... 84 Table 5.7: ....................................................................... 143
Temporary Foreign Workers in Asian Destinations (stock Intra-corporate Transferees in Selected OECD Countries,
estimates) 1996-2002 (thousands)
Table 3.5:.......................................................................... 85 CHAPTER 6
Temporary Migration for Employment to Australia, Canada, New
Zealand and the United States, 2004-2006 Figure 6.1:...................................................................... 156
International Migration by Category of Entry in Selected OECD
Figure 3.2:........................................................................ 89 Countries as a Percentage of Total Inflows, Standardized Data,
Evolution of the Foreign Population in the Maghreb from 1960 to 2005
2005 (thousands)

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 World Migration 2008

Table 6.1: ....................................................................... 157 Figure 3:......................................................................... 409

Proportion of Family Migrants among Long-term Migrants, 2005 Stock of migrants in Central Africa, by destination, 2000 and
2005
Table 6.2: ....................................................................... 158
Inflows of Permanent Family Migrants in Selected OECD Figure 4:......................................................................... 409
Countries, 2003 Greater Horn of Africa: Refugees and IDPs in 2007
Table 6.3: ....................................................................... 165 Figure 5:......................................................................... 410
Employment-population Ratios of the Native and Foreign-born Number of migrants born in East African countries in Australia,
Population in Australia by Visa Category, 15-64 years old, 2004 1991-2001
Table 6.4: ....................................................................... 165 Figure 6:......................................................................... 410
Family Migrations in the U.S. – Top Ten Countries of Immigration Stock of migrants in North Africa, by destination, 2000 and 2005
through Family Reunification (FR), 2001
Figure 7:......................................................................... 411
CHAPTER 8 Stock of migrants in Southern Africa, by destination, 2000 and
2005
Table 8.1:........................................................................ 205
Victims of Trafficking Assisted by IOM, by Gender and Type of Figure 8:......................................................................... 413
Exploitation, 1999-2007 Stock of migrants in West Africa, top ten destinations, 2000 and
2005
CHAPTER 10
Figure 9:......................................................................... 413
Table 10.1: ..................................................................... 268 Diversification of West African diaspora
Licensing Requirements in Pakistan and the Philippines
Figure 10:....................................................................... 414
Table 10.2:...................................................................... 268 Remittances received in Africa, 2007 (billions of USD)
Fees Charged to Migrant Workers by PEAs in India
Figure 11:....................................................................... 414
Table 10.3: ..................................................................... 278 Leading ten recipients of remittances in sub-Saharan Africa,
Government Functions and Services Provided by Overseas 2005-2006
Employment Programmes, Selected Countries of Origin
Figure 12:....................................................................... 415
CHAPTER 11 Total remittances and FDI received by Africa, 1995-2005 (billions
Table 11.1: ..................................................................... 298 of USD)
Employment-based Immigration to Australia, Canada, New
Zealand and the United States as compared with Family and AMERICAS
Humanitarian Admissions, 2004-2007 Figure 1:......................................................................... 424
Stock of migrants in North America, by destination, 2000 and
CHAPTER 12 2005
Table 12.1:...................................................................... 330 Figure 2:......................................................................... 424
The Migration and Development Equation over the Migration Stock of foreign-born population in the U.S., by region of origin,
Cycle 1995 to 2005
Figure 12.1: . .................................................................. 338 Figure 3:......................................................................... 425
Comparison of Estimates of Income Gain from Labour Migration Estimated number of migrants in Canada by gender at mid-year
to New Zealand from Tonga by Different Estimation Methods and quintennial growth rate
Table 12.2: ..................................................................... 339 Figure 4:......................................................................... 426
Approximate Cost of Remitting USD 200 (Percentage of principal) Stock of migrants in Latin America and the Caribbean, top ten
destinations, 2000 and 2005
AFRICA
Figure 1:......................................................................... 407 Figure 5:......................................................................... 427
Stock of migrants in Africa, top ten destinations, 2000 and 2005 Volume of Latin American and Caribbean migrants as a
percentage of total migration, by main destination, 1995-2005
Figure 2:......................................................................... 408
Stock of migrants in East Africa, top ten destinations, 2000 and
2005

[xi]
Figure 6:......................................................................... 429 Figure 15:....................................................................... 449
Gender ratio of the stock of intra-regional migration from Latin Remittances received in Asia by main countries of origin, 2007
America and the Caribbean, 1970-2000 (USD billions)
Figure 7:......................................................................... 430 Figure 16:....................................................................... 450
Workers’ remittances sent to developing countries, 2001-2007 Selected Asian sending and receiving countries of remittances

ASIA EUROPE
Figure 1:......................................................................... 440 Figure 1:......................................................................... 456
Stock of migrants in East Asia, by destination, 2000 and 2005 Stock of migrants in western and central Europe, top ten
destination countries, 2000 and 2005
Figure 2:......................................................................... 441
Stock of migrants in South-Central Asia, by destination, 2000 Figure 2:......................................................................... 456
and 2005 Estimated number of migrants in western and central Europe, by
gender and as a percentage of total population
Figure 3:......................................................................... 442
Labour migration outflows for South-Central Asia, 2001-2005 Figure 3:......................................................................... 457
Net migration in Europe per 1,000 population, 2005
Figure 4:......................................................................... 443
Estimated stock of Asian origin temporary contractual workers in Figure 4:......................................................................... 458
the Middle East Stock of intra-regional migrants as a percentage of total
migration in OECD European countries, 2000 and 2004
Figure 5:......................................................................... 443
Stock of migrants in Southeast Asia, by destination, 2000 and Figure 5:......................................................................... 458
2005 Major countries of origin of migrants in OECD European
countries, 2000 and 2005 (thousands)
Figure 6:......................................................................... 445
Deployment of overseas Filipino workers, by destination, (new Figure 6:......................................................................... 459
employees and returnees, excluding seafarers), 1998-2006 Stock of foreign population in Spain, 1995, 2000 and 2005
(thousands)
Figure 7:......................................................................... 445
Thai workers abroad, by destination, 1995-2007 Figure 7:......................................................................... 459
International migration by category of entry in selected
Figure 8:......................................................................... 446 European countries as a percentage of total inflows, harmonized
Overseas Filipino workers in Africa, (new employees and data, 2005
returnees), 1998-2006
Figure 8:......................................................................... 460
Figure 9:......................................................................... 446 Labour force participation rate of foreign-born and native-born
Selected Asian countries of origin: proportion of women in population in selected European countries, 2005
international labour migration flows
Figure 9:......................................................................... 460
Figure 10:....................................................................... 446 Stock of migrants in eastern Europe and Central Asia, top ten
Trends in female labour migration from the Philippines and Sri destinations, 2000 and 2005
Lanka
Figure 10:....................................................................... 461
Figure 11:....................................................................... 446 Net migration in eastern Europe and Central Asia as a percentage
Trends in female labour migrant flows from Bangladesh of total population, 1989-1999 and 2000-2003
Figure 12:....................................................................... 447 Figure 11:....................................................................... 465
Top destinations for Bangladeshi women, mid-2004-mid-2007 Stock of international tertiary students in selected European
Figure 13:....................................................................... 448 countries, 1998, 2003
The five destination countries with the largest estimated stocks
of Filipinos overseas as of end 2006 MIDDLE EAST
Figure 1:......................................................................... 471
Figure 14:....................................................................... 449
Stock of migrants in the Arab Mashrek, by destination, 2000 and
Global flows of international migrant remittances to Asia, 2000-
2005
2007 (USD billions)

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 World Migration 2008

Figure 2:......................................................................... 472 Figure 3:......................................................................... 482

Emigrants from the Arab Mashrek Stock of foreign workers in Australia
Figure 3:......................................................................... 473 Figure 4:......................................................................... 483
Migrants from Jordan, according to occupation Inflows of foreign workers to Australia, 1995-2005 (thousands)
Figure 4:......................................................................... 474 Figure 5:......................................................................... 483
Remittances to the Arab Mashrek, 2007 (billions of USD) Inflows of foreign workers into New Zealand, 1998-2005
(thousands)
Figure 5:......................................................................... 474
Stock of non-nationals in individual GCC countries, 2000 and Figure 6:......................................................................... 484
2005 Stock of migrants in Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia, 2000
and 2005
Figure 6:......................................................................... 475
Labour force growth in the GCC, 1990-2020 Figure 7:......................................................................... 484
Emigration of Fijian citizens by ethnic group and profession,
Figure 7:......................................................................... 476 1987-2004
Stock of migrants in Israel, 2000 and 2005
Figure 8:......................................................................... 485
OCEANIA Increase in foreign exchange earnings in Fiji, 1994-2004
Figure 1:......................................................................... 481 (millions of Fijian Dollars)
Stock of migrants in Australia and New Zealand, 2000 and 2005 Figure 9:......................................................................... 486
Figure 2:......................................................................... 482 Working-age population of Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands
Australia – leading countries of origin, by country of birth, and Vanuatu not employed in the formal sector, 2004 and 2015
1991-2005

[xiii]
 SELECTED ACRONYMS AND
ABBREVIATIONS
CIREFI Centre for Information, Discussion and
Exchange on the Crossing of Frontiers and
Immigration
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics CIS Commonwealth of Independent States
ABTC APEC Business Travel Card CMA Centre for Migrant Advice
ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific countries COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern
ADB Asian Development Bank Africa
APC Intergovernmental Asia-Pacific Consultations COMPAS Centre on Migration, Policy and Society
on Refugees, Displaced Persons and Migrants (University of Oxford, U.K.)
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation CREAD Centre de Recherche en Economie Appliquée
APMRN Asia Pacific Migration Research Network pour le Développement (Algeria)
ARGO Action programme for administrative CSME Caribbean Single Market and Economy
cooperation in the fields of external borders,
visas, asylum and immigration (European DAC Development Assistance Committee (OECD)
Commission, 2002-2006) DDA Doha Development Agenda
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations DETE Department of Enterprise, Trade and
AU African Union Employment (Ireland)
AVRR Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration DFID Department for International Development
(IOM) (U.K.)
DHS Department of Homeland Security (U.S.)
BLA Bilateral labour agreement DIAC Department of Immigration and Citizenship
BMET Bureau of Manpower, Employment and (Australia)
Training (Bangladesh) DOL Department of Labor (U.S.)
DOLE Department of Labor and Employment (the
CAFTA Central American Free Trade Agreement Philippines)
CARICOM Caribbean Community and Common Market
CARIM Euro-Mediterranean Consortium for Applied ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and
Research on International Migration the Caribbean (UN)
CCRALC Canada-Costa Rica Agreement on Labour ECOSOC Economic and Social Council (UN)
Cooperation ECOWAS Economic Community for West African States
CDMG European Committee on Migration (Council EEA European Economic Area
of Europe) EECA Eastern Europe and Central Asia
CECA Comprehensive economic cooperation EIB European Investment Bank
agreement EIU Economist Intelligence Unit
CEECs Central and eastern European countries ELM Education labour market
CEPS Centre for European Policy Studies EMN European Migration Network
CERI Centre for Educational Research and EPA Economic partnership agreement
Innovation (UNESCO) EPZ Export Processing Zone
CeSPI Centro Studi Politica Internazionale (Italy) ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
CFO Commission on Filipinos Overseas the Pacific (United Nations)
CIC Citizenship and Immigration Canada EU European Union

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 World Migration 2008

EUROPOL European Police Office ICTSD International Centre for Trade and
Eurostat Statistical Office of the European Sustainable Development
Communities IDB Islamic Development Bank
IDM International Dialogue on Migration (IOM)
FDI Foreign direct investment IDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
FERME Fondation des entreprises en recrutement de (Norwegian Refugee Council)
main-d’œuvre agricole étrangère (Québec, IDPs Internally Displaced Persons
Canada) IGC Intergovernmental Consultations on
FMS Federal Migration Service (Russian Migration, Asylum and Refugees
Federation) IISD International Institute for Sustainable
FRONTEX European Agency for the Management of Development
Operational Cooperation at the External ILO International Labour Organization
Borders of the Member States of the ILOLEX ILO database of international labour
European Union standards
IMES Institute for Migration and Ethnic Studies
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services (University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands)
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade IMF International Monetary Fund
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council IMI International Migration Institute (University
GCIM Global Commission on International of Oxford, U.K.)
Migration INS Immigration and Naturalization Service
GDP Gross Domestic Product (U.S.)
GFMD Global Forum on Migration and Development IOM International Organization for Migration
GMG Global Migration Group IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
GNP Gross National Product IPEC International Programme on the Elimination
of Child Labour (ILO)
HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired IPPR Institute for Public Policy Research (U.K.)
Immune Deficiency Syndrome ISIM Institute for the Study of International
HLD High-Level Dialogue on International Migration (Georgetown University,
Migration and Development (UN General Washington, D.C., U.S.)
Assembly) ISSER Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic
HRD Human resource development Research (Ghana)
HRSDC Human Resources and Social Development ISTAT Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (Italy)
Canada IT Information technology
ITUC International Trade Union Confederation
IACHR Inter-American Court of Human Rights IUSSP International Union for the Scientific Study
IADB Inter-American Development Bank of Population
IAMM International Agenda for Migration IZA Institute for the Study of Labor (Bonn,
Management Germany)
ICMPD International Centre for Migration Policy
Development JPEPA Japan-Philippines Economic Partnership
ICT Information and communication technology Agreement

[xv]
SELECTED ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

LDCs Least Developed Countries OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation
in Europe
M&As Mergers and acquisitions (cross-border) OWWA Overseas Workers Welfare Administration
MDGs Millennium Development Goals (the Philippines)
MENA Middle East and North Africa OWWF Overseas Workers Welfare Fund (Sri Lanka)
MERCOSUR Common Market of the South
MFN Most Favoured Nation PAHO Pan American Health Organization
MIDA Migration for Development in Africa PEA Private employment agency
MIDSA Migration Dialogue for Southern Africa PICUM Platform for International Cooperation on
MIDWA Migration Dialogue for West Africa Undocumented Migrants
MLDR Migrant Labour Dependency Ratio PIELAMI Cooperation on preventing illegal
MLSA Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (Czech employment of labour migrants with a
Republic) view to promoting legal employment
MOITAL Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labour opportunities (IOM Helsinki ARGO project)
(Israel) POEA Philippine Overseas Employment
MOU Memorandum of Understanding Administration
MPG Migration Policy Group (Brussels, Belgium) POLO Philippine Overseas Labour Officer
MPI Migration Policy Institute (Washington, D.C.) PPP Purchasing power parity
MRU Market Research Unit PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
MSR Market Situation Report PSI Public Services International
MWF Migrant Welfare Fund
RCM Regional Conference on Migration (Puebla
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement Process)
NAMA Non-agricultural market access RCPs Regional Consultative Processes
NBER National Bureau of Economic Research (U.S.) RTA Regional trade agreement
NESC National Economic Social Council (Ireland)
NGO Non-Governmental Organization S&T Science and technology
NHS National Health Service (U.K.) SAARC South Asian Association for Regional
NRB Non-resident Bangladeshi Cooperation
NRI Non-resident Indian SADC Southern African Development Community
SAMP Southern African Migration Project
ODA Official Development Assistance SAMReN South Asia Migration Resource Network
ODI Overseas Development Institute (U.K.) SAWP Commonwealth Caribbean Seasonal
OAS Organization of American States Agriculture Workers Program (Canada)
ODIHR Office for Democratic Institutions and Human SAWS Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme (U.K.)
Rights (OSCE) SIEMMES Statistical Information System on Migration
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and in Mesoamerica
Development SLBFE Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment
OFW Overseas Filipino Workers SMEs Small and medium enterprises
OHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights TNCs Transnational corporations
OPF Overseas Pakistani Foundation TOEA Thailand Overseas Employment
OPT Occupied Palestinian Territories Administration

[xvi]
 World Migration 2008

TOKTEN Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
Nationals UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social
Development
UN United Nations UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency for
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Palestine Refugees in the Near East
Development UNSD United Nations Statistics Division
UN DESA United Nations Department of Economic and UN-WIDER United Nations World Institute for
Social Affairs Development Economics Research
UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNWTO United Nations World Tourist Organization
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for UP Unió de Pagesos
Europe U.S.-CAFTA-D.R. United States-Central America-Dominican
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Republic Free Trade Agreement
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization VoTs Victims of Trafficking
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNGA United Nations General Assembly WHO World Health Organization
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for WMO World Meteorological Organization
Refugees WTO World Trade Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
UN-INSTRAW United Nations International Research and
Training Institute for the Advancement of
Women

[xvii]
 World Migration 2008

FOREWORD

World Migration 2008, the fourth in a series which started in the year of IOM’s 50th anniversary in 2001,
shares with its predecessors a threefold purpose: to provide policymakers and the general public with up-to-
date and authoritative information on international migration trends; to identify major policy issues as they
arise; and to discuss available policy options.

It is one thing to acknowledge that migration has become a matter of great interest or concern to the
international community; it is quite another to address it with the purpose, determination and coherence
that have been achieved in other, comparable spheres of international affairs. Unfortunately, a balanced
understanding of migration – how to live with it, manage it and benefit most from it – has not always kept
pace with its growth or changing nature. As a result, the global debate on migration is often confused, and
action piecemeal.

World Migration 2005 looked principally at the impacts of migration in terms of social, economic and political
costs and benefits. World Migration 2008 surveys the same migratory landscape from the reverse perspective.
It considers how the intricately woven social, economic and political realities, collectively referred to as
“globalization”, are giving rise to and shaping contemporary patterns of mobility with particular attention
to economically-motivated mobility.

The first part of the Report consists of a series of studies produced by independent researchers invited to
offer individual perspectives on different facets of economically-related mobility, including the movement
of highly skilled, semi-skilled and low-skilled workers, student mobility, short-term travel for tourism and
business purposes, family migration, internal migration and irregular migration. The second part, intended
especially for policymakers and programme managers, discusses broad policy strategies for the management
of international labour mobility, focusing on the development of an adequate knowledge base, the most
appropriate policies for countries of origin and countries of destination, the migration and development
relationship, and cooperation at the global, regional and bilateral levels. A separate section presents
overviews of migratory activity in six major regions of the world.

Once again, we have drawn on the expertise and experience of IOM staff based at Geneva headquarters and
in the field throughout the world, as well as external scholars, researchers and government practitioners. We
hope that this volume will be of interest to the reader and make a valuable contribution to the debate on
international migration.

William Lacy Swing

Director General

[xix]
 World Migration 2008

INTRODUCTION*

The Challenge of Migration Management The task of formulating a workable global approach
to the management of international migration
At the beginning of the 21st century, migration remains a formidable challenge, and one that
continues to loom large as a subject of media will require both time and effort over the coming
interest, of community preoccupation and of years. The word “management” has occasionally
political controversy. Nevertheless, the discourse been criticized as a euphemism for “restriction” or
has evolved significantly in recent years, both in “control” and for giving insufficient attention to
terms of substance and tone, and is now conducted human rights concerns. As used in World Migration
with noticeably less acrimony than before and with 2008, it refers to a planned and thoughtful approach
much reduced levels of distrust between developed to policy development; and to the careful selection
and developing countries. For instance, at both and implementation of appropriate policy responses
the UN General Assembly High Level Dialogue on to the key questions confronting the international
International Migration and Development (HLD), community:
held in New York in September 2006, and the Global
Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD), • What should be the scope and content of a
held in Brussels in July 2007 (see Textbox Int. 2), comprehensive migration management strategy
participants were, in general, disposed to agree that conducive to coherence of action across countries
migration holds considerable potential for economic and policy fields?
and social development (UN, 2006b). At the same • What are the organizing principles to be
time, however, it was apparent that there is much adopted?
more to be done before agreement can be reached • Is there a conceptual point of leverage to move
on appropriate management strategies to be put in the debate forward?
place, both nationally and on the international level,
for that promise to be realized. The dual purpose of this volume - reflected in its
structure - is, first, to explore the nature and extent
of the need for more comprehensive, coherent and
* This introduction was written by Gervais Appave, Co-Editor-in-Chief. purposeful action through the study and analysis

[]
INTRODUCTION

of a wide range of contemporary migratory patterns economic and social integration that are collectively
linked to economic purposes (Part A) and, second, to known as globalization. It is true that what might
canvass policy elements that might contribute to the properly be called the formal or organized aspects
development of a strategic response (Part B). of globalization have focused on the elaboration of
legal and administrative mechanisms to facilitate, to
Globalization and Mobility the largest extent possible, the movement of capital,
goods and services, not people. But, whether by
Part of the problem is the difficulty of reaching design or not, these developments appear largely
consensus on the fundamental nature of migration responsible for the creation of an unprecedented
and its outcomes. Underlying the current and context in which human mobility seeks to find
welcome inclination to acknowledge the potentially expression on a genuinely global scale.
beneficial outcomes of migratory phenomena are
many questions that are yet to be fully resolved: In 2005, there were some 191 million international
migrants worldwide, nearly two and a half times
• Should migration be considered an entirely the figure in 1965, a pace of increase well in excess
“natural” part of human behaviour that has of the global population growth rate over the same
occurred throughout history, or rather as period (UN DESA, 2006). The number of migrants is
“unnatural”, in the sense that it involves the often likely to be in excess of 200 million today. Even more
painful uprooting of individuals from their places striking, however, are the widely different origins and
of birth and their equally difficult relocation in distribution of those migrants. Fifty years ago, only
other countries? a handful of industrialized countries - mainly those
• Is it a process through which nations are built and that had established formal immigration programmes
strengthened, or rather divided and weakened? in the aftermath of World War II, such as the United
• Does it further economic growth in countries States, Canada and Australia – were identified as
of origin through the flow of remittances and “countries of destination”, while the “countries of
the transfer of skills and technology, or lead origin” were mostly in Europe. Today, the patterns
to stagnation through the loss of talent and of movement are such that most countries are
inadequate attention to development and the simultaneously countries of origin, of transit and of
creation of job opportunities at home? destination, albeit to varying degrees. At the same
• Are migratory flows being sustained primarily by time, there has been a diversification of migratory
a complex interplay of push and pull factors or by behaviour to include short-term relocation, longer-
social communication networks? term temporary assignments, permanent migration
• Would migration management be made more and even multi-stage migration itineraries leading
effective if the primary policy concern were to be back to the point of origin.
directed at the protection of national interests
and the securing of borders or rather by allowing The particular conditions identified as contributing
considerable leeway to the free interplay of market to these trends are too numerous and too familiar to
forces? be dealt with here at length; suffice it to say that

In the midst of such uncertainties, it is worth 

The movement of services does cover some movement of “natural
exploring suggestions that contemporary migration, persons” as incidental to trade (see Textbox Int. 1).

Defined as persons residing in a country other than their country of
in contrast to earlier migratory phenomena, is birth for a period of 12 months or more, both in regular and irregular
uniquely related to, and defined by, the processes of situations.

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 World Migration 2008

they may be grouped into two very different but disparities are expected to generate migration from
inter-related sets. two opposite directions: on one hand, shrinking and
ageing populations in industrialized countries will
One set consists of enabling factors such as macro- stimulate demand for migrant labour and on the
political changes including the collapse of the Soviet other, large numbers of young workers in developing
Union and the opening up of China to the world; countries will seek work and life opportunities
the advent of affordable air transport; the creation abroad (Lawson et al., 2004).
of real-time global communication networks; and
the redefinition of individual and family identities The third factor is linked to the liberalization of
in transnational terms. In combination, they add flows of goods, capital and services – including
up to almost-unlimited networking possibilities, communication – across virtually all parts of the
knowledge sharing and awareness of opportunities. world. In such circumstances, pressures for labour
The other – and arguably more important – set of mobility are bound to increase, all the more so when
causal factors arises out of the interplay of large, the international community stands to gain very
not fully understood, socio-economic variables significant economic benefits from the lifting of
that form part of complex international equations. constraints on worker mobility.
Pritchett (2006) identifies five such driving forces.
The fourth factor lies in current and expected future
The first of these factors consists of disparities in demand in developed countries and mid-income
income and employment opportunities across and developing countries for low-skilled services (for
within countries and regions, particularly the instance, in home care or hospitality sectors) that
steep economic gradients between developed and come to be required as a combination of increased
developing countries. According to Pritchett, wage productivity, greater access to higher education,
gradients of between 2 to 1 and 4 to 1 between rising incomes, reluctance of nationals to perform
countries of origin and destination were at the certain jobs perceived to be of lower status, ageing
root of mass worker movements in the 19th century. populations and the globalization of manufacturing.
Today the real wage gaps are often as high as 10 Technological advances (especially automation) may
to 1. go some way towards countering that phenomenon,
but, as Pritchett (2006) points out, the capital/
The second factor is the increasing global labour substitution process has obvious limitations:
demographic imbalances. In brief, while the while it is conceivable that devices endowed with
populations of low-income countries will grow artificial intelligence will increasingly replace human
significantly over the next 50 years, the populations service providers, such developments are unlikely to
of high-income countries will grow at a much slower completely replace nurses in hospitals or serving
rate. Simultaneously, the populations of the latter personnel in restaurants and hotels.
will continue to age. The proportion of persons
above 60 years of age in more developed regions Finally, account must be taken of increased pressure
is expected to grow from 21 per cent in 2007 to for population movement through shifts in the
32 per cent in 2050, while the number of children desired population of specific countries or regions.
is expected to decrease from 17 per cent to 16 In brief, a large decline in labour demand in a given
per cent. In other words, in 2050 there will be in location (and this has been the experience of many
industrialized countries twice as many people over developing countries in recent times, for instance as
60 than children (UN DESA, 2007). Demographic a result of changes in agriculture, in climate or in

[]
INTRODUCTION

resources) creates substantial pressure for outward international deliberations were dominated by a
migration. succession of refugee and humanitarian crises: in
Asia, the exodus from Viet Nam, Cambodia and Laos,
The net impact of all these factors is a global by land and sea; in the Middle East, large numbers
context where migration is increasingly seen (a) of people displaced by the Gulf War; in the Balkans,
at the individual level, as a choice worth including massive outflows from Bosnia and Herzegovina and
in life plans (although not one that is necessarily Kosovo; and, in Africa, displacements and flights
exercised by a majority of people – since roughly out of Rwanda, Sudan and the Democratic Republic
97 per cent (IOM, 2003) of the world’s population of Congo, for example. Between 1992 and 2001, in
consistently opts not to migrate); and (b) at the western Europe alone, over four million people sought
national level, as a significant factor to be taken into asylum (UNHCR, 2002). As a natural consequence,
account in economic and business planning, whether the international community was called upon to act
by governments or the private sector. At the centre primarily on issues of protection and humanitarian
of these plans is the concern for employment. assistance. As often as not, these were caught up in
related migration policy concerns such as integration,
In summary, globalization offers almost unlimited border control or trafficking in persons, but these
awareness of opportunities and networking were of subsidiary or tangential interest. There was
possibilities. A world that is spanned by fast, little policy space available for the consideration of
real-time communication lines and connected by broader and comprehensive approaches to migration
research webs, where large information databases management.
are available at a click of a mouse, is also one that
offers near instant access to information on job The gradual shift in policy perspective towards a
market openings. At the same time, globalization broader grasp of the nature and the prevalence of
gives rise to powerful socio-economic dynamics that human mobility can thus be attributed, at least in
play across borders: income disparities, population part, to a decline in the numbers of asylum claims
imbalances and labour market discrepancies combine lodged in industrialized countries. Since 2001,
to produce migratory flows that are increasingly applications for asylum in industrialized countries
dominated by the search for a better life through have declined by 49 per cent, the total number of
improved employment opportunities. claims in 2005 being the lowest since 1987 (UNHCR,
2006). Another contributing factor may have been
Labour Migration, a Key Aspect of Human the realization that tackling migration issues such
Mobility and the Global Economy as integration or return in isolation had not been
particularly effective. Of greater moment, however,
The current focus on migration for work-related was the rediscovery, at the turn of the millennium,
purposes, clearly discernible, for instance, in the of the economic impact of labour migration on
evolving policy preoccupations within the European countries of origin, first through the magnitude
Union, is all the more noteworthy because of the of the global remittance flows and, second, the
predominance of asylum and irregular migration extent to which these were embedded in the fabric
issues on the policy agendas of many countries of global economic activity. Labour migration is
during the last three decades of the 20th century. now acknowledged as an integral part of the global
The global migration landscape and the attendant economic landscape.


As in n. 2 above, migration here is understood in the context of moving
to a country other than one’s country of birth for a period of 12 months 
However, this declining trend was reversed slightly in 2006 and in 2007
or more. (UNHCR, 2007, 2008).

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 World Migration 2008

Powerful global production dynamics now help ensure international niche markets in such sectors as
that patterns of labour supply and demand operate information technology and health services; but also
across international borders. There is, first of all, evident in low-skilled sectors such as hospitality
the constant search for productivity and the place industries, construction or domestic services where
of migrant labour in the complex equations that are migrant workers fill labour market gaps to satisfy
meant to yield the best economic outcomes. Another the service requirements of affluent societies. It also
significant factor is the growing need for human raises multiple questions about the assessment of
services, especially in developed economies, where the types and levels of need; about the setting up of
ageing populations require continuous personal policies and programmes to match labour need with
assistance and affluent working age parents can appropriate supply; about training both for work
afford to pay for child care and general household competencies and adaptation to work environments
help. Account must be taken of the increasing abroad; about streamlined and fair recruitment
scarcity of workers willing to engage in low- or semi- practices; and about the evaluation of programme
skilled employment in industrialized economies, activity. Given the newness of such enterprises
not only in the care sector but also in agriculture, to many countries, issues of administrative
construction, hospitality as well as other service infrastructure and of capacity building also become
sectors. Finally, there is the emphasis on information major considerations.
and knowledge management, exemplified in multiple
ways through fierce international competition for The second cluster of challenges lies in the
expertise in data management and processing fields, relationship between migration and trade: 40 years
through appreciation of the value of multilingual ago the international community embarked on the
and multicultural workforces, and through the negotiations of the General Agreement on Tariffs
recognition of adaptive capacity as a valued work and Trade (GATT), which led, in due course, to the
skill. establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
and the General Agreement on Trade in Services or
Major Policy Issues and Challenges GATS, negotiated under WTO auspices. It is interesting
to note that the international community could
This rapidly evolving situation poses policy have gone the other way; the nation states of the
challenges that require innovative thinking and, most world could have decided to opt for highly self-
importantly, renewed cooperative efforts among the sufficient, enclosed and highly protected economies.
numerous parties involved if workable solutions are They could have decided that economic insularity
to be found. Three separate but closely interwoven was a small price to pay for the retention of strong
clusters of policy challenges are of central interest national identities, social quiescence and harmony
to this Report. and for a maximum of security within their borders.
They opted instead to aim for the global networking
The first, already stated in the title, concerns of production systems and increasing facilitation and
the identification of effective strategies for the streamlining of trade flows.
management of international labour mobility,
at national, regional and global levels. To do so Global trade liberalization negotiations have
presupposes an understanding of the characteristics resulted in a substantial reduction of barriers to
and magnitude of current and future labour migration trade in goods and capital, opening up significant,
flows and of how they fit into the global economy albeit unevenly distributed, global economic gains.
– clearly demonstrated through the existence of Barriers to the movement of people, however, have

[]
INTRODUCTION

been identified as a continuing and considerable (see Textbox Int. 1), and opportunities for worker
impediment to further global economic gains from mobility linked to regional trade liberalization
trade, gains which are predicted both to exceed both efforts, to bilateral labour mobility schemes and more
the gains from further liberalization in other sectors open unilateral policies. In each case, a fundamental
and to benefit developing and developed economies question concerns the extent to which progress on
alike. There are many promising lines of action to be international trade arrangements, alone or through
explored in this area, ranging from broad multilateral complementary initiatives external to the trade
initiatives such as those offered under GATS Mode 4 talks, can facilitate the orderly, predictable, safe and
mutually beneficial movement of people.

Textbox Int. 1
The State of Progress in GATS Mode 4 Negotiations

A new round of multilateral services negotiations began in 2000, as foreseen in Article XIX of the General Agreement on Trade
in Services (GATS). With the launch of the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) in November 2001, services became part of a
broader negotiating round.

Mode 4 is defined in Article I.2(d) of the GATS as “the supply of a service… by a service supplier of one member, through
presence of natural persons of a member in the territory of another member” (i.e. a person who is a service supplier, such as a
banker or an architect, is present in a foreign country to provide the service). A “natural” person is a human being as opposed
to a merely legal entity, such as a business. Mode 4 is an important component of the negotiations on services and has been
identified by a number of World Trade Organization (WTO) Members, particularly developing countries, as one of the areas where
they seek improved market opening commitments.

Up to the end of 2005, negotiations on Mode 4, as on all other services areas, proceeded on the basis of bilateral request-offer
exchanges. At the end of March 2003, Members began to submit, this time to the entire membership, initial offers of improved
commitments and these initial undertakings were followed by the submission of revised offers as of end of May 2005, based on
an ongoing process of bilateral consultations.

However, most commentators deemed that this bilateral negotiating process had yielded very modest results. The Chairman
of the Special Session of the Council for Trade in Services, the WTO body overseeing the services negotiations, summarized
the prevailing sentiment on the progress after two rounds of offers by stating that, “it was widely acknowledged that the
overall quality of initial and revised offers is unsatisfactory. Few, if any, new commercial opportunities would ensue for services
suppliers”.1

This was generally true for all services areas and, particularly so for Mode 4, a traditionally sensitive domain. Out of some
70 offers (counting the European Community as one entity), less than half proposed upgrading Mode 4 commitments. All
improvements would apply horizontally, i.e. in the same manner for all services sectors covered in Members’ schedules. While
this reflects the horizontal nature of many immigration regimes, in practice it also implies that the lowest common denominator
will determine the conditions for access across the whole services economy.

The main improvements to Mode 4 commitments offered concern additional categories of natural persons not associated with
a commercial presence abroad (e.g. self-employed service professionals); greater clarity in the application of “labour market
tests” or “economic needs tests” and/or reduction in their scope of application; removal of discriminatory measures, such as
nationality or residency requirements; and extended periods of stay. However, such improvements are unevenly spread across
individual offers and most schedules continue to significantly restrict Mode 4 access, particularly for persons whose movements
are not directly related to a commercial establishment. Finally, very few offers include additional commitments on issues such
as transparency of regulations or administrative procedures, and visa requirements affecting Mode 4.

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 World Migration 2008

In spite of the somewhat disappointing start, services talks were given fresh impetus by the Hong Kong Ministerial Declaration
of December 2005, where Members agreed to intensify the negotiations in accordance with a set of objectives, approaches
and timelines. In particular, Members agreed to be guided “to the maximum extent possible” by a number of objectives,
some of which related specifically to Mode 4, while ensuring appropriate flexibility for developing countries (improvement
of commitments on categories of persons both linked and de-linked from commercial presence, the reduction/elimination
of economic needs tests and the extension of the permitted duration of stay).2 Concerning approaches, the Declaration also
foresees the possibility to pursue the request-offer through multilateral negotiations.

In keeping with this mandate, over 20 collective requests were submitted, including one on Mode 4, and two rounds of
multilateral discussions were held in early 2006. The Mode 4 collective request, sponsored by some 15 developing countries,
is addressed to nine developed Member countries. As may be expected, the focus of the request is on better commitments
for categories of natural persons whose movement is not linked to a commercial establishment abroad. In particular, access
is sought in a number of services sectors for “contractual services suppliers”, i.e. persons moving abroad to supply a service
pursuant to a contract between their employer, who does not have a commercial presence in the host country, and a services
consumer; and “independent professionals”, i.e. self-employed service professionals.

The results of the multilateral discussions were to be reflected in a second round of revised offers, due by 31 July 2006.
However, all negotiations under the Doha Development Agenda were suspended just one week before, reflecting mainly a
stalemate over agricultural and non-agricultural market access (NAMA). It was not until February 2007 that the negotiations
were fully resumed. As a result of the suspension, however, there is at present no timeline for the submission of second revised
offers. Members seem to agree that a new timeline should be set only after a breakthrough is achieved in the agriculture and
NAMA negotiations.

Notes:
1
WTO document TN/S/20 of 11 July 2005.
2
WTO document WT/MIN(05)/DEC of 22 December 2005, Annex C.

Source: Antonia Carzaniga, WTO.

A third large cluster of issues revolves around • What can be done to lower the transfer costs of
the complex relationship between migration and remittances and to encourage their flow through
development, the subject of discussions of the Global formal channels?
Forum held in Brussels in July 2007 (see Textbox • What conditions ought to be created to encourage
Int. 2). The increasingly significant contribution of the application of remittances to sustainable
labour migration to the global economy has been development endeavours, bearing in mind that
very thoroughly researched and commented upon in they are private funds?
recent years (IOM, 2005; World Bank, 2006; GFMD, • What strategies are needed to ensure labour
2008), with one of the major topics of interest migration does not lead to the depletion of the
being the substantial contribution of migrants to skill base in developing countries of origin?
home country development through the transfer of • What kinds of partnerships can be forged between
knowledge, skills, investment and remittances. In governments and diasporas to enhance the
2007, recorded remittance flows were estimated to positive impact of remittances on development in
have reached USD 337 billion worldwide (in nominal countries of origin?
terms a staggering 99% increase over what they were
five years earlier), with USD 251 billion going to While these questions are intrinsically important,
developing countries (Ratha et al., 2008). However, they carry additional significance because recent
four major policy formulation questions remain: experience has shown that they represent a unique

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INTRODUCTION

meeting platform where countries of origin, transit Abu Dhabi Dialogue, the Regional Conference on
and destination can work together towards common Migration in North and Central America (Puebla
objectives. As such they have appeared on the agendas Process) and the Migration Dialogue for Southern
of many Regional Consultative Processes (RCPs), for Africa (MIDSA).
instance those of the Ministerial Consultations on
Overseas Employment and Contractual Labour for 
An overview of the major RCPs with a specific reference to labour
Countries of Origin in Asia (Colombo Process), the mobility is provided in Textbox 13.4.

Textbox Int. 2
Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD)

The Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD), launched in Brussels in July 2007, set the tracks for a new international
consultation process on migration and development policy and practice. The Belgian Government took up the call of the UN
General Assembly High-Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development (HLD) a year earlier for an informal, non-
binding, government-led forum on migration and development. The forum was intended to be outside the UN system, but linked
to it via a Special Representative of the Secretary-General.

The Brussels meeting engaged more than 150 governments and a range of international and civil society entities in team-led
debates around themes of common interest and good practices. One of the key roundtable themes, “Human Capital Development
and Labour Mobility”,1 addressed the policy environments that could maximize the beneficial effects of labour migration and
minimize the risks to migrants, their families and development efforts of home and host countries. Often, the best policies are
not specific to either migration or development: for example, more coherent skills training and employment distribution and
retention strategies can help avoid brain drain from poorer countries.

The meeting confirmed that migrants who are socially and economically protected and empowered are likely to bring the
greatest potential contributions to development back home and in the host country. This can be best achieved through policies
that tie migration planning more to labour market planning; ensure decent, standard labour contracts; inform, orient and train
the migrants; regulate recruiters, employers and other non-state agencies; address gender and family issues; and strengthen
diaspora engagement with home country efforts.

New policies were explored, including on how to lower the often prohibitive up-front costs of migration, which can be higher
than the back-end transaction costs of transferring remittances and can adversely affect the potential gains from migration.
Some market-based solutions were offered and, beyond the July meeting, governments will study the efficacy of financial
intermediation services offering affordable loans and credit to migrants to cover the costs of migrating. Circular migration was
discussed as an innovative way to combine the interests of developed countries in meeting labour needs flexibly and legally
with those of developing countries in entering richer labour markets and benefiting from the migrants’ accumulated capital and
skills, as well as the circulation of diaspora skills.

A number of concrete actions to follow up on these issues will be carried forward by teams of governments and expert agencies
to the next GFMD meeting to be hosted by the Philippines Government in Manila in October 2008. See also the GFMD website
at http://government.gfmd2008.org/ and GFMD, 2008.

Note:
1
The three key Roundtable themes were “Human capital development and labour mobility”, “Remittances and other diaspora resources” and
“Policy and institutional coherence”.

Source: Irena Omelaniuk, Senior Adviser to the GFMD.

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 World Migration 2008

Important as they are, these three major challenges core values and social structures at the very least
cannot be considered in isolation from a wide range under review to achieve an effective equilibrium
of very significant and sensitive cross-cutting issues, between the maintenance of national identities and
addressed in this Report not as separate topics adjustments in response to changing social dynamics
but as matters informing the discussion wherever often exacerbated by the arrival of permanent or
appropriate. temporary newcomers.

Foremost among them, and of immediate concern The management of security issues is another
to both countries of origin and destination, are underlying, multifaceted policy issue of major
the human and labour rights and status of migrant interest. It is the sovereign prerogative of each
workers. The issues to be addressed extend well beyond country to determine who enters and remains in its
the unquestionably important formulation and territory, for what purpose and under what conditions.
implementation of minimum standards of protection. Open societies face the question of how to regulate
In a globalizing labour market, migrant workers seek and facilitate legitimate entry while protecting
to move across international borders in part because themselves from threats of international terrorism
they have, at the very least, potentially competitive and criminality, including trafficking and smuggling
assets in terms of skills, wage expectations, and in human beings. The problem is worldwide. According
cultural attributes. The difficult challenge here is to to one estimate, the irregular migrant contingent
have a policy regime that allows this competitive edge may constitute between 10 and 15 per cent of the
to be put to advantage and enables the realization of total migrant population (ILO, 2004). However, given
these assets, while precluding the “commodification” that the vast majority of irregular migrants either
of migrant workers. enter countries through unofficial channels and
take up unauthorized residence and employment or
Separate from questions of rights proper, but closely lapse into irregularity after regular entry, this figure
related to them, are matters pertaining to the is impossible to verify on the strength of currently
management of the interface between migrants and available official data. What is certain, however, is
the host community. Once relatively homogenous the vulnerability of irregular migrant workers to
and cohesive societies are increasingly characterized exploitation, victimization and abuse.
by multiple layers of social diversity and, in such
contexts, policy issues such as assimilation, Often misused or misunderstood, the term
integration and multiculturalism, the fight against “feminization of migration” points nonetheless to
discrimination and xenophobia and the delicate an important issue in contemporary migration. The
question of entitlements to social benefits and proportion of women in global migratory flows has
services need to be revisited in the light of evolving not fluctuated markedly over the last few decades,
migratory circumstances. Even very solidly grounded but their role in and impact on migratory processes
concepts such as citizenship invite fresh reflection have certainly changed. On the one hand, migration
in the light of trends towards dual citizenships can empower women by giving them access to
and the phenomenon of transnationality. In such international employment opportunities, providing
circumstances, it is no longer possible for countries them with an independent income and enabling
of destination to simply pick off the shelf one of them to contribute to the welfare of their families
the policy models that has been used in the past. through the remittances they send back home. On the
They face the challenge of having to keep their other hand, as women and foreigners, they are often

[]
INTRODUCTION

engaged in gender-segregated, low-skilled and often market and may have limited access to adequate
unregulated or informal sectors such as domestic/ social and health facilities (see Textbox Int. 3). There
household services, and are therefore vulnerable is therefore a clear need for the gender dimension to
to multiple forms of discrimination on the labour be factored into migration policy making.

Textbox Int. 3
Female Labour Migration and Gender Issues

About half of all migrant workers are now women, with more women migrating independently and as main income-earners
rather than accompanying male relatives (Martin, 2005). Although women can be found in practically all professions, skilled
women have tended to go into what can be broadly classified as the welfare and social professions (education, social work and
health, particularly nursing) (Jolly and Reeves, 2005). At all skill levels, female labour migration is concentrated in occupations
associated with traditional gender roles. Demand is increasing for care services in less-skilled and under-valued jobs, such as
domestic work and caring for children, the elderly and disabled persons. Many women migrant workers also hold jobs as contract
and hotel cleaners, waitresses and in hospitality and entertainment industries (Moreno-Fontes Chammartin, 2006), while others
are active in retail sales, in labour-intensive factory work such as the assembly of microelectronics or the manufacturing of
clothing and textiles, and in the informal sectors. In many instances, women may replace male workers who have left to work
in richer countries.

Migration can provide a vital source of income for migrant women and their families, and earn them increased autonomy, self-
confidence and social status. At the same time, female migrants, especially if they are in an irregular situation, are doubly
exposed to exploitation – as migrants and as women. In countries of origin and also in countries of destination, female
migrants may be victims of negative attitudes about women working at all, attitudes that affect their right to leave the country
without permission, to receive further education or training and to engage in certain occupations.

Globally, the ILO reports that the most frequently encountered issues regarding the working conditions of women migrant
workers are low remuneration, heavy workloads with long working hours and inadequate rest periods, limited training facilities
and poor career development. In some countries such workers also lack freedom of movement. Women migrant workers’ jobs are
normally located very low on the occupational ladder and are usually not, or only inadequately, covered by labour legislation
or other social security or welfare provisions (ILO, 1999). The best example is domestic work, where protection is flimsy and
psychological, physical and sexual abuse has frequently been noted (UNESCO, 2002). Female domestic workers may be required
to undergo mandatory pregnancy tests and face immediate deportation if they are found to be pregnant (Engle, 2004; CARAM
Asia, 2004). Domestic workers often experience inadequate healthcare or face denial of medical care and treatment. Those
who seek help may find that agencies accuse them of refusing to work and of creating problems (Mughal and Padilla, 2005).
Measures to protect such workers may have unintended and paradoxical consequences: for example, when the Bangladesh
government placed a ban on female migration for domestic work with the objective of protecting the dignity of women abroad,
many women continued to migrate through unofficial channels to fill the strong international demand for female domestic
workers, thereby increasing their vulnerability (UN-INSTRAW and IOM, 2000).

Hew (2003) carried out a particularly interesting anthropological study of women workers and their families in Sarawak,
Malaysia, interviewing 50 women who had migrated internally from rural to urban regions to work in the service sector (in
restaurants and coffee shops, as domestic workers, cleaners, hotel housekeepers and at petrol pumps). The reasons they gave
for migration were partly economic, but a major motivation was also “to become modern”. Although their work was repetitive,
dirty, “dead-end” and frequently involved shift-work, the women rarely complained: their main aim was to live in the city, to
be independent, to send money home. Work was simply a means to accomplish this – they did not expect it to be fulfilling
and were quite pragmatic about it. The women gravitated to gendered employment sectors, certainly because of discriminatory
employment practices, but also partly because of their own images of what constituted appropriate and safe employment. They
did not feel tyrannized by their employers or by oppressive employment practices.

[10]
 World Migration 2008

Carling (2005) also uses the example of migration from the Philippines to protest against the “suffering and sacrifice” approach
to gendered migration. For Filipina domestic workers in Italy, migration may provide a possibility to balance self-interest and
self-sacrifice vis-à-vis their families: migration is an opportunity to see the world, to move away from rigid gender roles within
the household and possibly to escape an unhappy marriage. He also elaborates on a global care chain in which female migrants
are involved: women in rich countries pursuing professional employment need help to care for their families and households.
The demand for domestic work is met by female migrants from developing countries such as the Philippines. In the home
country, the migrant caregiver in turn hires a live-in domestic worker from a poorer, non-migrant family to care for her family
during her absence, or turns to her mother or other family members for help, while the absence of the mother in the non-
migrant family in turn creates a demand for the care for her own children – as she cannot afford to pay a domestic worker, that
task is often taken on by an elder daughter while the mother is away.

Source: Mary Haour-Knipe, Independent Advisor, Geneva, Switzerland.

Finally, there is the question of migrant health that match demand for migrant workers with supply
stems from the recognition that the expansion and in a safe, humane and orderly way. World Migration
diversification of population flows creates bridges 2008 has been designed to gauge the nature and
between very diverse living and working environments. magnitude of that need and to canvass available
As modern transport and communication conquer policy responses.
physical distance, the international community
moves towards a globalized community where health Structure of the Report
risks and benefits are to a certain degree shared.
Inclusion of a migrant health dimension into public This World Migration Report differs from preceding
health systems is therefore increasingly becoming editions in some key aspects of construction and
a priority for governments and health activists content. The first is the choice of a closer focus on
worldwide. Public health strategies now increasingly economically-induced and especially employment-
seek to address the issue of migrants’ rights to health related movements; the second is a greater emphasis
services; to adapt mainstream health services to the on mobility, incorporating a wider set of migratory
needs of culturally diverse populations in response behaviours than subsumed in migration, narrowly
to specific mobility-related medical challenges defined. The reasons for this should be obvious: in the
such as tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS or avian flu; and past, migration has been predominantly linked to a
to provide information on health stresses and risks type of movement leading to a permanent change of
associated with migration. At the centre of all these residence in another country. That association was so
preoccupations lies the need to better understand strongly felt that for the last third of the 20th century,
the changing physical and psychosocial health certain countries were often described by their
situations of individuals as they move through governments as being “migration” or “non-migration”
different stages of their migrant experience from spaces. Today, migratory behaviour, especially when
preparation, through travel, arrival and adaptation it is employment-related, is acknowledged to be far
to new work environments, and, finally, reinsertion more complex than implied by this all too simple
into the home context on their return. classification. Shorter-term movement is now the
choice of a very large number of workers. Multi-stage
All of these challenges are being tackled ad hoc by movement is another commonly exercised option, as
the international community, but the need remains migrants move from one location to another rather
for a broad and coherent global strategy to better than staying at their initial point of arrival. Return

[11]
INTRODUCTION

migration to the country of origin is also much more and patterns of employment worldwide, especially
frequent, as is the circular or pendular movement the globalization of financial flows, trade and
between two countries. It is also the case that production. It considers how these dynamics affect
many persons viewed administratively as students employment in terms of both jobs and wages and
or visitors are in some instances indistinguishable goes on to look more closely at how international
from migrants. In the midst of all that diversity, labour migration features in the global economy,
traditional administrative distinctions continue to be as a strategic response to the demand for increased
maintained – for instance between those who have efficiency in production on the one hand, and, on
permanent or temporary visas, or between those who the other, as an increasingly important contributing
have authority to work and those who do not – but factor to the development of the economies in the
category-bridging or category-switching options are South. Finally, the chapter discusses what might be
nonetheless often available. meant by the concept of a “global labour market”
and calls for greater attention to be given to the
Part A: The Worlds of Contemporary Mobility for labour factor in theoretical studies on globalization
Economic Purposes and trade, to provide a clearer and stronger basis for
decisions by policymakers.
Part A of the Report is an exploration of contemporary
mobility, presented in the form of a mosaic of While migrant workers are to be found in a wide range
independent studies developed by specialist researchers of employment sectors and at all skill levels, it is
invited to offer individual perspectives on different possible to discern some distinct patterns. Clustering
facets of economically-related mobility. While they is obvious at the extremes of the skills spectrum, with
are not identical in structure, in general terms they a strong, and officially recognized, demand for highly
all deal with issues of definition, attempt to map skilled migrants at the one end and a noticeable,
out the magnitude and distribution of movements, but often officially ignored, demand for low or semi-
address major issues that arise, discuss possible policy skilled migrants at the other. Chapter 2 surveys the
responses and identify priorities for further research. first of these patterns. Highly skilled migrants appear
on the migration scene in various guises. Most of
All too often, the impact of globalization on labour them are permanent residents, but a growing number
mobility is studied and discussed from separate and is admitted under various temporary migration
isolated domestic and international perspectives, schemes, which, in due course, may provide an
as though each of these two realms of work opening to permanent residence status. At the same
existed independently from the other. Chapter 1 time, the foreign student population is increasingly
argues instead that workers, irrespective of their seen as an attractive source of talent. The chapter
geographical location, are now living, by and large, outlines the major trends in highly skilled migration
in the same world of work, one offering a wide range across the regions of the world, identifies the main
of opportunities but, at the same time, characterized geographical poles of attraction and lays out the
by increased competition and calls for greater different sets of policy issues facing the two major
flexibility in work practices. It looks at how the forces global constituencies, which are, respectively, the
of globalization are changing the way enterprises countries of origin and of destination. For countries of
do business, giving rise to more integrated labour destination, the challenge is to beat the competition
markets and, consequently, creating demand for through the formulation of policies that will attract
increased labour mobility. The chapter provides an the “best and brightest” (Kapur and McHale, 2005).
overview of the forces that determine the nature For their part, countries of origin feel the need to

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 World Migration 2008

protect themselves against the loss of their highly of students and visitors and their increasingly felt
skilled citizens and/or to secure their return or at impact on global employment trends.
least the return of the resources, both financial and
in terms of skills, know-how and networks, acquired Chapter 4 tracks patterns of student movements and
by their expatriates. In that connection, key policy policy developments since the 1990s, and highlights
options are canvassed and attention is drawn to the the shifts in both government motivations and
importance of bilateral and multilateral efforts. the design of educational programmes during that
period. Broad academic, political, cultural and
The focus of Chapter 3 is on the re-emergence of low development goals of an essentially humanitarian
and semi-skilled migration programmes – a seemingly nature have not completely disappeared, but they
surprising development considering the economic are now overshadowed by sharper-edged economic
and socio-political problems that brought large-scale objectives. Governments see their education
temporary worker programmes in both western Europe programmes as a convenient and effective means
and the U.S. to an abrupt halt more than 30 years for the subsequent recruitment of highly skilled
ago, but one which reflects the recognized need for migrants, while for foreign students they offer an
foreign labour as spelled out above. While this type of entry to the international job market. The chapter
movement occurs predominantly between developing outlines major trends in student mobility and
and developed countries, it also affects a wide range discusses the underlying factors, while pointing to
of middle-income countries. The chapter maps out new forms of cross-border higher education offers
broad global distribution patterns before addressing where establishments or programmes move to meet the
the triple challenge of ensuring positive outcomes demands of student populations. The identification
for countries of origin, countries of destination and of four major strategies characterizing government
for the migrants themselves. It argues that for “win- policy stances that reflect the different motivations
win-win” solutions to be achieved, policymakers at work in this field (mutual understanding, skilled
must resolve problems of distortion, or unevenness, migration, income generation and capacity building)
in labour supply, dependence or undue reliance on opens the way for an assessment of the increasingly
migrant labour, and address the difficult question close interplay between student mobility and
of possible trade-offs between human rights and migration policies and a discussion of the need for
numbers. Carefully designed economic incentives international cooperation and harmonization in this
may be a promising means to encourage employers area of mobility.
and migrants to maintain programme integrity.
In terms of sheer numbers, short-term travel,
A distinction has long been made between permanent generally not exceeding 6 to 12 months, occurs
migration and short-term admission policies. Though on a much larger scale than for any other form of
these two categories are not necessarily mutually mobility, although this type of movement is not
exclusive, the migration policies of countries of usually addressed in migration-related research and
destination almost always distinguish between is, in fact, generally dealt with as an entirely separate
those who arrive with the intention of staying and policy category. Chapter 5 sets out to investigate the
becoming part of the host community and those who complex, often overlooked bidirectional relationship
come with the main intention to study or to work between tourism and migration. It points out that
for a limited period of time before returning to their many flows for leisure and business purposes are
country of origin. Chapters 4 and 5 focus on the related to, or are inspired by, earlier migratory
often overlooked migratory objectives and itineraries movements and that, in turn, tourist movements

[13]
INTRODUCTION

may, subject to certain conditions, lead to longer- A great deal of labour migration occurs not across
term migration. More importantly, it reveals that, but within national boundaries. Such movements
on closer inspection, short-term travel does have are perhaps easily overlooked when the focus of
important ramifications for labour mobility and discussion is on international migration, but can
that governments are now inclined to see short- hardly be ignored when the intention is to map out
term travellers as possessing skills, experience and a comprehensive global picture. Chapter 7 explains
knowledge that can be put to good use in very flexible that the labour migration flows in many countries
ways to meet temporary labour market needs – as in occur inside the country and, taken together with
the case of the increasingly popular working holiday proximate cross-border flows, are far more important
schemes. The movement of tourists can also affect than outmigration to more distant destinations, both
employment opportunities and practices of countries in terms of the numbers of people involved and of
of destination in different ways, a point that is the value of remittances they eventually send back
illustrated by the reference to medical tourism. home. This is especially true of countries with marked
regional inequalities, but it is not limited to the
Family-related migration in all its diverse forms has developing world. Given the richness and complexity
often been a major component of migration intakes. of the topic, the chapter focuses on five issues of
It has long been a dominant mode of entry in many current academic and policy interest: the rising
countries of destination, especially in traditional incidence of such internal movement; the impact
countries of immigration such as Australia, Canada and of internal remittance flows on development; the
the United States and, more recently, the European migration of women, children and ethnic minorities,
Union. It is all the more surprising, therefore, that and the resulting segmentation of migrant labour
family migration has been relatively ignored by markets; links between international and internal
academics and policymakers. Chapter 6 begins by migration; and irregular cross-border migration.
considering the reasons why family migration has Finally, the chapter offers an analysis of emerging
traditionally played a marginal role in international policy strategies in this relatively new sector of
migration research and flags recent developments migration management, with particular reference
that have generated more interest in the role of to those that are directed to the management of
families in migration. A survey of the trends and patterns of supply and demand and those that focus
types of contemporary migration then provides a on support to and protection of internal migrants.
platform for the discussion of both international
conventions concerning the right to family life and Chapter 8 deals with the paradoxical world
national developments in family migration policy, of irregular migrants, who may be invisible in
as part of the wider context of comprehensive administrative terms and often absent from official
approaches to migration management. The chapter statistics, but who are a prominent and sensitive
points out that the sharp distinction that is all topic in the political debate. They operate at the
too easily made between socially oriented family edge or outside the limits of formal labour markets,
reunion programmes and economically induced but often become an established feature of the
labour migration programmes is often misleading. economy, although opinion is divided as to whether
It argues that there is a need to acknowledge the they contribute to or detract from the health of the
labour force participation of family migrants and to economy. Given its clandestine nature, irregular
reconsider the outdated perception of the woman migration is hard to describe or define, but an attempt
and dependent family migrant with little personal is nonetheless made to clarify the language used in
interest or possibility to work. reference to it and to draw attention to the many

[14]
 World Migration 2008

types of movements involved, including migrant bridging mechanisms between research and policy
smuggling and trafficking in human beings. The making.
focus of attention falls next on its many interrelated
economic and social determinants and on the complex Chapters 10 and 11 are complementary units.
trends and patterns of irregular migratory activities Chapter 10 focuses on the elaboration of effective
around the globe. The chapter reviews and assesses foreign employment policies and their integration
policy approaches used to respond to irregular within the human resource development strategies
migration, including control-oriented solutions, of countries of origin. While job creation at home
prevention through development in countries of remains their first priority, an increasing number of
origin, repatriation and return mechanisms and countries of origin find it attractive to complement
regularization programmes, highlighting throughout this strategy by seeking opportunities for their
the necessity of partnerships in any action between workers on the international labour market. The
countries of origin, transit and destination. chapter argues that this can be best made to work
within the context of a carefully planned approach
Part B: Managing Labour Mobility in the to human resource development. An examination
Evolving Global Economy of a number of basic policy tools, including quality
standards and indicators, and facilities for both formal
Part B of the Report consists of six chapters that and informal training, leads to a detailed discussion of
complement the analyses presented in Part A by the constituent elements of an optimally functioning
outlining and discussing broad policy strategies foreign employment policy framework covering, inter
that can contribute to the effective and appropriate alia, the regulation of private recruitment agencies,
management of contemporary labour mobility. the protection of workers, the provision of support
services, including the dissemination of accurate and
Migration management is a policy domain where both authoritative information, marketing techniques,
policymakers and researchers decry the lack of up-to- administrative structures and international
date, comprehensive and comparable data, especially cooperation. In relation to this last point, emphasis
in relation to employment-related movements. is placed on the important role that can be played by
Chapter 9 outlines the case for the development of a Regional Consultative Processes.
comprehensive knowledge base as a prerequisite for
the formulation of effective and transparent policies Chapter 11 offers a complementary perspective
at the national level. Attention is first of all drawn from the standpoint of countries of destination. It
to the diverse needs for reliable data of officials discusses various options to balance the facilitation
working at different levels in public administrations, of regular migration with the prevention and
before discussing the most commonly available reduction of irregular migration within a managed
and useful data sources. Their relative advantages migration programme. Given the importance of cross-
and limitations as well as the ways and means of border movements for the purpose of employment,
improving overall data accuracy and reliability are the development of appropriate policies in countries
discussed. Given the changing nature of migratory of destination is widely acknowledged as a key
phenomena and related issues, the chapter identifies component in a comprehensive framework for the
several policy areas that invite fresh attention, management of international labour mobility.
including transnational communities, return and However, there is no “one-size-fits-all” formula. The
circular migration, and remittances. A final section challenge for each country of destination is to develop
deals with the importance of establishing appropriate a planned and predictable labour migration policy

[15]
INTRODUCTION

that will also be sufficiently flexible to contribute to including through sound macroeconomic policies,
its workforce requirements. The chapter reviews the the encouraging and support of higher education,
key policy issues confronting countries of destination investment in infrastructure and participation in
in this area. It then identifies elements of good bilateral and regional labour migration initiatives. On
practice to achieve specific goals pertaining to needs account of the aggregate financial resources at their
assessment, the design of foreign labour admission disposal, the skills they possess and the information
policies, in respect of both temporary labour they hold, migrant diaspora networks are seen as
migration and employment-based immigration, potentially important agents and a valuable resource
and post-admission policies, including labour for the realization of such processes.
market regulation and protection, migrant worker
rights and responsibilities, the economic and social The focus of Chapter 13 is on international
integration of newcomers and the maintenance of cooperation. It provides an overview of the principal
social cohesion. Policies aimed at the prevention and modes of cooperation on issues related to labour
management of irregular migration receive separate mobility that may take place in both formal and
treatment. The chapter concludes with an overview less formal settings at the bilateral, regional and
of means of productive cooperation and partnership global level. The chapter examines the means of
among countries of origin, transit and destination as cooperation found in applicable human rights and
well as with other stakeholders. labour law instruments adopted under the auspices
of the United Nations and the International
There is, arguably, no migration-related policy issue Labour Organization (ILO), and in the multilateral
that currently attracts more political and academic agreements regulating international trade, such as
scrutiny than the migration and development the commitments entered into on the movement of
relationship. It is, however, all too often the case natural persons in the context of service provision
that the locus of investigation is drawn much too under GATS Mode 4 (see Textbox Int. 1). Binding
narrowly around the impact and value of financial arrangements at the regional and bilateral levels
remittances. Chapter 12 offers a much broader include regimes for the free movement of persons,
perspective to the reader. It lays out, first of all, such as exist in the European Union, and the
the elements of a framework for the appraisal temporary labour migration agreements concluded
of the varying impacts migration can have on between countries of origin and destination. Informal
economic growth when it is tied to the history of dialogue mechanisms, such as the Global Forum on
a country’s emigration experience, from the time Migration and Development (GFMD) and the Regional
of initial outflows through periods of adjustment, Consultative Processes referred to earlier, as well as
consolidation, networking and eventual return. IOM’s International Dialogue on Migration (IDM),
This analytical grid is then used as a reference to also form an important part of the chapter.
meaningfully address the manner in which countries
of destination can contribute effectively to global Finally, Chapter 14 offers a number of concluding
development through targeted interventions aimed observations on the essential features of the
at the orderly recruitment of workers, mitigating the contemporary migratory landscape surveyed in
brain drain, and the facilitation of the transfer and this Report, and of the broad policy strategies that
mobilization of remittances. The chapter goes on to could contribute to international efforts to realize
consider, in a similar manner, the policies countries the social and economic potential of international
of origin can formulate and implement to maximize labour mobility. These can be summarized in ten
the developmental impact of migratory flows, brief points:

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 World Migration 2008

1. In its many and varied forms, human mobility policies to meet their particular labour mobility
within and across borders is one of the objectives, namely, to train and prepare
characteristic and perhaps even defining migrant workers for employment abroad on
features of our contemporary world. To a large the one hand, and to identify labour market
extent, it is both part and consequence of the needs and seek recruitment of appropriate
complex and interacting social and economic personnel on the other. Optimal outcomes
processes involved in the phenomenon of will be achieved when the two sets of policies
globalization. are complementary and mutually supportive
2. People seek to move for a large number of elements of a coherent whole, directed towards
personal, family, social, business or work the achievement of mutual development goals.
reasons, often in varying combinations, but To be successful, more cooperative approaches
the opportunities to move are frequently to human resource development are needed to
limited, particularly for low and semi-skilled meet national, regional and global objectives.
workers. Policies and appropriate means are needed as
3. In view of the choices made by the international well to secure the participation in this shared
community to facilitate the movement of capital, endeavour of non-state stakeholders, including
goods and services, human mobility or, more employers, recruitment agencies, trade unions,
specifically, the movement of human resources, migrant and disapora associations, and relevant
at all skill levels, is now being increasingly inter-governmental organizations.
factored into the equations intended to yield 7. This pleads for the identification and
new economic gains. In other words, labour development of clear linkages between the
market dynamics are increasingly operating domains of migration proper and those of
across international borders. development, employment and trade within
4. The policy implications of this steadily evolving the broader framework of established global
situation are yet to be fully understood, but economic interests.
it is already apparent that avoiding the issue, 8. To reach that objective, the international
ignoring this trend or a passive laissez-faire community requires a common and accurate
approach are unlikely to lead to the policy understanding of the many important issues at
stances needed to realize the social and stake, including economic growth, managing
economic potential of mobility. social change while maintaining cohesion,
5. What is required, therefore, are planned and upholding social justice and the protection of
predictable ways of matching demand with the human rights of the workers concerned, the
supply in a safe, legal, humane and orderly pursuit of which amply justify the maintenance
manner. Given the diversity of labour market and further development of consultations and
needs and of available skills, policies and cooperation at regional and global levels.
procedures will have to display commensurate 9. A closely related need is the enhancement
flexibility and adaptability to enable modes of global, regional and national knowledge
of labour mobility that may be short-term, of labour market trends, labour force profiles
circular, long-term or permanent. and labour migration trends through the
6. Countries of origin and destination are establishment of appropriate databases and
increasingly engaged in the formulation of analytical work.
10. Of relevance to all of the above is the

The focus here is on movements that are essentially voluntary, but there recognition of capacity-building requirements
are obviously persons who are forced to move and for whom there is an of all governments, in particular those of
established international protection regime.

[17]
INTRODUCTION

developing countries, to assess the levels

of need, formulate policy and legislation,
improve labour migration and related human
resource development programmes through
experimentation and innovation, and to
monitor and evaluate outcomes.

A new spirit of partnership in outlook and action

is both possible and essential to realizing beneficial
outcomes for the international community as a
whole, including countries of origin, countries of
destination and migrants and their families.

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 World Migration 2008

Pritchett, L.
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DESA, Population Division, New York, http://
Kapur, D. and J. McHale esa.un.org/migration/.
2005 Give us your Best and Brightest: The Global Hunt
for Talent and its Impact on the Developing 2007 World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision,
World, Center for Global Development, UN DESA, Population Division, New York,
Washington, D.C., http://www.cgdev.org/ http://esa.un.org/unpp/.
content/publications/detail/4415.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
Katseli, L., D. Papademetriou, J. Dayton-Johnson, G. 2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook 2001: Refugees,
Maniatis and R. Münz Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern
2007 Gaining from Migration: Proposals for Managing – Trends in Displacement, Protection and
a New Mobility System, Final Report, March, Solutions, October, UNHCR, Geneva, http://
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and www.unhcr.org/home/STATISTICS/3dcb7f666.
Development (OECD), Paris. pdf.

Lawson, S., R. Purushothawan and S. Schels 2006 Asylum Levels and Trends in Industrialized
2004 Making the most of Global Migration, Global Countries, 2005, 17 March, UNHCR, Geneva,
Economics Paper No. 115, Goldman Sachs. http://www.unhcr.org/statistics/STATISTICS/
44153f592.pdf.

[19]
INTRODUCTION

2007 2006 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Jolly, S. and H. Reeves

Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless 2005 Gender and Migration: Overview Report, Institute
Persons, 16 July, UNHCR, Geneva, http://www. of Development Studies, Brighton, U.K.,
unhcr.org/statistics/STATISTICS/4676a71d4.pdf. http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports_gend_cep.
html#migration.
2008 Asylum Levels and Trends in Industrialized
Countries, 2007, 18 March, UNHCR, Geneva, Martin, S.
http://www.unhcr.org/statistics/STATISTICS/ 2005 2004 World Survey on the Role of Women
47daae862.pdf. in Development: Women and International
Migration, UN DESA, Division for the
World Bank Advancement of Women, New York.
2006 Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic
Implications of Remittances and Migration, Moreno-Fontes Chammartin, G.
World Bank, Washington D.C., http:// 2006 “Female Migrant Workers in an Era of
www-wds.worldbank.org/external/ Globalization” in Female Migrants: Bridging
default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/ the Gaps Throughout the Life Cycle, Selected
IB/2005/11/14/000112742_20051114174928/ Papers of the United Nations Population Fund
Rendered/PDF/343200GEP02006.pdf. (UNFPA)-IOM Expert Group Meeting, 2-3 May,
New York, 77-84, http://www.un.int/iom/final
%20report%20Sept%202006.pdf.
Textbox Int. 3 - Female Labour Migration and
Mughal, R. and L. Padilla
Gender Issues
2005 “Regulatory Frameworks for Recruitment of
Migrant Workers and Minimum Standards in
Coordination of Action Research on AIDS and Mobility
Employment Contracts: A Comparative Study
(CARAM) Asia
of Pakistan, the Philippines and Sri Lanka” in
2004 The Forgotten Spaces: Mobility and HIV
IOM, Department for International Development
Vulnerability in the Asia Pacific, CARAM, Kuala
(DFID), U.K., Asian Development Bank (ADB),
Lumpur.
Labour Migration in Asia, Geneva, 13-83.
Carling, J.
United Nations International Research and Training
2005 “Gender dimensions of international migration”,
Institute for the Advancement of Women (UN-INSTRAW) and
GCIM, Global Migration Perspectives No. 35,
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
May, Geneva, http://www.gcim.org/mm/File/
2000 Temporary Labour Migration of Women: Case
GMP%20No%2035.pdf.
Studies of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, UN-
Engle, L. INSTRAW/IOM, INSTRAW/Ser.A/47, http://www.
2004 The World in Motion; Short Essays on Migration un-instraw.org/en/downloads/final-reports/
and Gender, IOM, Geneva. index.php.

Hew, C.S.
2003 Women Workers, Migration and Family in
Sarawak, RoutledgeCurzon, London and New
York.

International Labour Organization (ILO)

1999 General Survey on Migrant Workers, Report III
(1B), International Labour Conference, 87th
Session, June, International Labour Office,
Geneva, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/
standards/relm/ilc/ilc87/r3-1b.htm.

[20]
 THE WORLDS OF CONTEMPORARY
MOBILITY FOR ECONOMIC
PURPOSES

PART A
 World Migration 2008

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING
GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
1 zero sum game, where the gain of one is the loss of
the other, with only winners and losers. For example,
The aim of this chapter is to place the debate on it is assumed that workers from developing countries
international labour mobility within the wider context can only gain at the expense of their developed
of the impact of globalization on employment. All too country counterparts through the transfer of either
often the discussion on globalization deals with the jobs or workers. Secondly, while there has been a
impact it has on economic growth and employment recent impetus from international organizations
in the domestic labour markets of developed and and researchers focusing on development to include
developing countries without also considering how migration considerations in their work on the impact
it might be affected by, or have an impact on, of globalization on labour, inequalities and poverty,
international migration. the general inclination among many policymakers
is still to treat labour migration and employment
Addressing the issue of the impacts of globalization as two separate issues, a position reflected in the
on the domestic aspects of employment in isolation insufficient integration of migration issues in
from its effects on the international dimensions national and regional labour market policies.
is particularly unfortunate for two reasons.
Firstly, both globalization and migration are areas This chapter looks at how the driving forces of
generating considerable interest and passion, with a globalization have affected the way enterprises
wide gap between public understanding of the issues do business and created more integrated labour
involved, policy positions and academic research. markets. It observes that workers, independently
Consequently, public opinion often focuses on the of their location, now find themselves in situations
phenomenon of deteriorating job opportunities and
labour conditions along a developing/developed

For some labour market analysts, migration is simply an expression of
world dividing line. Labour movements at the global distortions in the domestic labour market that need to be addressed
level are often wrongly perceived by the public as a through appropriate labour market policies resulting, in due course, in
the suppression of migratory flows. This argument ignores the existence
of pull factors such as wage differentials, or non-economic related factors
* This chapter was written by Sophie Nonnenmacher, Migration Policy such as the social networks that play an important role in the decision
Specialist, Migration Pol­icy, Research and Communications, IOM, Geneva. to seek job opportunities abroad.

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Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

characterized by increasing competition and 2. Globalization and its Key Drivers

flexibility, but equally offering an unprecedented
range of job opportunities with mobility emerging as 2.1 What is Globalization?
an important career and skill development strategy.
The costs and benefits of this new environment and Globalization entered the common vocabulary in
the opportunities for better jobs and mobility have the 1980s. Although there have been other peaks of
not been evenly shared either between or within intense global interaction in the past (see Textbox
countries. To date, the main beneficiaries have been 1.1), the current manifestations of globalization
persons endowed with capital and/or needed skills. are often considered to have more far-reaching
However, policymakers are increasingly faced with consequences and impacts. In its broadest sense,
the challenge of managing the mobility of labour globalization refers to a multitude of interactions
contingents of varying skills profiles. and growing interdependence among governments,
organizations, businesses and people across the
The first part of the chapter provides an overview world. These processes are very diverse in nature
of the forces driving employment worldwide, namely and encompass a wide array of social, cultural,
the globalization of trade, financial flows and technological and political developments, but in
production. The next section examines how these this chapter the focus is on economic globalization
trends affect employment in terms of both jobs and and, in particular, its implications for international
wages. The third section looks more specifically labour mobility.
at how international labour migration features in
the global economy as a response to changes in Three key determinants are considered to be of
employment opportunities, as well as a contributor crucial importance in the globalization of economic
to the growth of economies in the developing world. endeavours: movements of capital; international
Finally, the chapter discusses the meaning and trade or the exchange of goods and services; and the
significance of a “global labour market”, calls for a production of these goods and services. The theories
stronger focus on the labour factor in globalization mapping out and interpreting the relationships
and trade analysis to better inform policymaking, among these determinants, as well as their current
and suggests some directions for the development of and potential impact on labour markets and
strategic approaches that would reduce the risks and migration, are as diverse in their conclusions as they
maximize the beneficial impacts of globalization on are numerous. However, the core of conventional
international labour mobility. trade theory supporting the free movement of mobile
factors of production (i.e. labour, capital) rests on
the factor proportions model of the Heckscher-Ohlin

theory and its extensions. It is based on the idea of
It is commonly accepted that globalization places a premium on skills,
with more open markets leading to increased demand for skills where countries gaining from specializing in the production
new capital is invested, or to support technological development/ of certain goods depending on the available factors
innovation. Skills act as an incentive for foreign dir­ect investment (FDI),
while increased FDI also raises the demand for skilled labour. According of production (including a non-mobile factor: land)
to the International Monetary Fund Balance of Payments Manual and their best use. Trade liberalization is promoted
(BPM), “FDI refers to an investment made to acquire lasting interest in
enterprises operating outside of the economy of the investor. Further, in as a means of maximizing global economic welfare in
cases of FDI, the investor’s purpose is to gain an effective voice in the
management of the enterprise. … Some degree of equity ownership is
almost always considered to be associated with an effective voice in the

management of an enterprise; the BPM suggests a threshold of 10 per They nonetheless recognize that the relationship of these three key
cent of equity ownership to qualify an investor as a foreign direct invest­ determinants with a non-uniform (in terms of income, exploitation and
or”. See UNCTAD’s website at http://www.unctad.org/Templates/Page. opportunities, etc.) global labour market is a major driver of change in
asp?intItemID=3146&lang=1. the world of work.

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 World Migration 2008

Textbox 1.1
Three Waves of Globalization

Three waves of globalization have been identified. The first wave took place between 1870 and 1914 and was triggered by a
combination of falling transport costs and a reduction in tariff barriers. It opened up the possibility of using abundant land
and resulted in the intensive production and export of primary commodities. People immigrated to land-abundant countries
such as Argentina, Australia, New Zealand and the United States, and capital was invested in manufacturing in those countries.
The second wave of globalization lasted from 1950 to 1980 following the Second World War. Transport costs continued to fall
and, by 1980, trade in manufactured goods between developed countries was essentially free of barriers. However, barriers
facing developing countries were removed only for those primary commodities that did not compete with agricultural goods
in developed countries. Most developing countries still had trade barriers in place, and agglomeration economies (country
specialization from agglomerated clusters) existed in manufacturing production in developed countries. There was also a
redistribution of manufacturing within developed countries to lower-wage areas. The third and current wave of globalization
began in 1980. Many developing countries changed their policies and broke into global markets for the first time (including
Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Morocco, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Turkey) thus making globalization truly
more “global”. Transport costs continued to fall and this wave has been characterized by the development of information
technology.

Sources: Various. See for example World Bank (2002; Ch. 1: “The New Wave of Globalization and Its Economic Effects”).

accordance with the theory of comparative advantage 2.2 Globalization and Trade
and specialization in the most cost-efficient
production of traded goods. This assumption World trade has expanded significantly since 1960
concerning the benefits of free trade is extended to with global exports growing from just under USD 1
capital and labour where, it is argued, higher gains trillion a year to about USD 10 trillion, an average
could be obtained if free movement were allowed. annual growth of some 5.5 per cent. During that
period, global exports also grew significantly faster
Globalization occurs because of the possibility of than global output – or gross world product – which
freer movement of various commodities, resources grew by some 3.1 per cent per year. While in 2006
and goods and the existence of these freer flows leads the GDP growth rate in high-income economies was
to further globalization of the world economy. These 3.1 per cent, it grew by seven per cent in developing
free movements or their absence are reflections of countries. Although developing countries generate
technological, social and economic realities as well only 22 per cent of global GDP, they account for
of legal frameworks regulating them at national, 38 per cent of the increase in global output (World
regional and global levels. Bank, 2007).

The general trends apparent in each of these domains The share of exports relative to global output has
are examined before addressing their impact on more than doubled since 1970 to stand at over 25 per
labour. cent. This increase is due to economic reforms that
followed the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the

Resulting in the production of goods at a lower cost and sold at a lower opening up of the Chinese and Indian economies and,
price for the benefit of selling and buying countries, and consumers. more generally, trade liberalization occurring within

For a recent review of trade theories and employment, see Jansen and
Lee (2007). the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO)

Free movement should not be understood solely in terms of physical and the proliferation of regional trade agreements.
crossing of geographical borders and territories (e.g. of wine bottles
from France to the U.S.), as some important movements are virtual and

invisible (e.g. movement of information, money transfers, etc.). But only 5.5 per cent when China and India are excluded.

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Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

The composition of global merchandise exports has The job-creating potential of FDI is one of the main
also changed with trade in manufactured goods reasons governments seek to attract transnational
and related employment fields exceeding growth in corporations (TNCs). Measures to attract them range
primary goods (e.g. fuel, food). from reducing control of inward financial flows and
the repatriation of profits, to the establishment of
World exports in trade in services reached USD 2,009 Export Processing Zones (EPZs).10 TNCs are at the
billion in 2004, while the share of service exports as origin of approximately 10 per cent of international
a proportion of total exports of goods and services investment (gross capital formation). TNCs located
stood at 17.5 per cent. For developing countries, the in developed countries generate the largest share
growth of service exports as a share of GDP rose from of global FDI, although TNCs from developing and
two per cent in 1984 (USD 54 billion) to 4.7 per cent transition economies are also increasingly investing
(USD 400 billion) in 2004, with the countries in East abroad. FDI flows from the latter play an important
Asia, the Pacific, Europe and Central Asia the main role in many least developed countries (LDCs),
contributors (World Bank, 2007). amounting to more than 40 per cent of total FDI in
some of them (e.g. FDI from South Africa accounts
Though, in the past, trade expansion mainly for more than 50 per cent of FDI flows to Botswana,
benefited developed countries and only a number the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lesotho and
of developing countries (World Commission on the Malawi (UNCTAD, 2006). However, FDI between
Social Dimension of Globalization, 2004), future developing economies remains primarily within the
trade expansion is projected to benefit developing region.
countries more significantly with the result that, by
2030, they will account for nearly one-third of global While FDI for the creation of new assets (or
output (as compared to one-fifth today) (World greenfield FDI11) was for long the privileged method
Bank, 2007). to enter a foreign market, cross-border mergers and
acquisitions,12 or the utilization of existing assets,
2.3 Globalization and Capital have also increased in significance to achieve the
same goal, reaching USD 716 billion in 2005 (an 88
Globalization is also fuelled by foreign direct per cent increase over 2004) (UNCTAD, 2006).
investment (FDI), which has accelerated since
1980 to reach USD 916 billion in 2005, with 36 per
cent directed to, and 13 per cent originating in, 
“Transnational corporations (TNCs) are incorporated or unincorpor­ated
developing countries (UNCTAD, 2006). FDI flows to enterprises comprising parent enterprises and their foreign affiliates. A
parent enterprise is defined as an enterprise that controls assets of other
Africa amounted to USD 31 billion in 2005 (3% of entities in countries other than its home country, usually by owning
global FDI), although much of it was concentrated in a certain equity capital stake”. See UNCTAD’s website at http://www.
unctad.org/Templates/Page.asp?intItemID=3148&lang=1.
only some countries (with South Africa attracting the 10
Export Processing Zones (EPZs), as defined by ILO, are industrial zones
bulk of these inflows) and in certain sectors, mainly with special incentives set up to attract foreign investors in which
imported materials undergo some degree of processing before being
natural resources and banking. In South, East and re-exported. See http://www.oit.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/
Southeast Asia, FDI inflows accounted for 18 per cent themes/epz/epzs.htm.
11
Greenfield FDI refers to investment projects that entail the establishment
of global FDI inflows. According to UNCTAD (2006), of new production facilities, such as offices, buildings, plants and
the top developing recipients are Brazil, China, Hong factories, as well as the movement of intangible capital (mainly in
services) (UNCTAD, 2006).
Kong SAR, Mexico and Singapore. 12
Cross-border M&As involve the partial or full takeover or the merging of
capital, assets and liabilities of existing enterprises in a country by TNCs
from other countries. The impact of M&As on employment will depend
 on the motivation behind them, leading either to expansion (potential
The developing countries that were successful are those that managed to
move away from primary commodity exports to manufactured exports. creation of jobs) or rationalization (potential loss of jobs).

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 World Migration 2008

Foreign portfolio investments13 have also accelerated in real time, on a planetary scale”.16 This includes
globally and contributed to the financing of local the development of means of communication, and
companies. However, compared to FDI, these flows technologies underlying modern production and
are rather more volatile and short-term and can have distribution at the global level. Cheaper and faster
a negative impact on exchange and interest rates communications facilitate economic transactions
as, for example, in the financial crises in Mexico in around the world, while policy decisions to reduce the
1994-1995, in Asia in 1997-1998 and in Argentina in barriers for such transactions were a pre-condition
2001-2002. for the emergence of globalization processes.

The actors behind portfolio investments, investment Globalization, in other words, has resulted in new ways
firms or collective investment institutions and of connecting workers, producers and consumers. “The
schemes, including private equity firms and various network enterprise is a unit of business operations
investment funds (e.g. mutual funds, hedge funds made up of different companies or segments of
and similar constructs), have recently become major companies, as well as consultant and temporary
sources of FDI.14 Indeed, while their engagement workers attached to specific projects” (ILO, 2007:
is generally of a more short-term nature, some of 10). Large companies, especially multinationals, rely
these funds manage their investments over a longer on vast networks of suppliers and engage in strategic
period thus acquiring some of the characteristics of alliances with other companies in specific processes
FDI and blurring further the distinction between the or product lines. This encourages the development
different investment tools. Private equity-financed of a diversity of contractual arrangements between
FDI (which is generally longer-term than FDI from labour and capital (ILO, 2007). The number of long-
hedge funds) was estimated to amount to at least term employees decreases while that of workers under
USD 135 billion in 2005 (UNCTAD, 2006).15 alternative employment arrangements increases,
with the result that labour relations are increasingly
2.4 Globalization and the Production of Goods characterized by flexibility and the individualization
and Services of labour conditions and labour contracts.17

While the impacts of the liberalization of the (a) The global assembly line for goods
flows of capital, goods and services have been
profound, according to Castells (1996: 92), what Production and delivery services are undergoing
makes contemporary globalization really different profound changes through the adoption of flexible,
from previous efforts at the internationalization real-time production systems, where production is
of economies is the possibility “to work as a unit, organized to respond rapidly to market stimuli with
limited inventories; at the same time, production is
located as closely as possible to the local market and
13
These are distinguished from FDI by the degree to which foreign
investors exercise management control in a company. Portfolio investors’
consumer.18
involvement is financial while direct investors have a more long-term
and management interest in the company in which they invest. Portfolio
16
investments comprise the acquisition of financial assets, including Emphasis added.
stocks, bonds, deposits and currencies. 17
Flexible forms of work also pose new challenges for social security systems
14 in determining entitlement to benefits as workers move in and out of
When cross-border investments of private equity and hedge funds exceed
the 10 per cent equity threshold of the acquired firm, they are classified, employment, work for different enterprises with fluctuating working
according to the IMF Balance of Payments Manual (BPM), as FDI. hours, and in a variety of different work arrangements. Similarly, the
15
While the sum of worldwide gross private capital flows (the sum of rise in self-employment creates conditions in which workers may be
absolute values of foreign direct, portfolio and other investment inflows exempted from many provisions of labour legislation, including limits
and outflows) since 1990 represent more than 20 per cent of world GDP, on maximum working hours.
18
this did not necessarily translate into an increase in investment in Whereas previously businesses introduced their goods into a market
infrastructure and productive capacity in the world (ILO, 2006b). through exports, today they use FDI to produce directly the goods in the
target country.

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Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

Computer-based information systems have been reflecting a decrease in developed countries and
instrumental in the development of flexible an increase in developing countries, total global
production methods (e.g. computer-integrated employment in industry rose by 83 million between
manufacturing)19 and, more broadly, facilitated the 1995 and 2005, half of which occurred in East and
management of companies with units located around Southeast Asia (ILO, 2006b).
the world. Reductions in the costs of transport and
telecommunications and the lowering of trade and (b) Global resourcing of services
FDI barriers have also contributed to the emergence
of global chains of production taking advantage of Offshoring or outsourcing of services to lower-
lower labour and material costs and more favourable wage locations is a recent phenomenon that has
policy environments. been encouraged (as with manufacturing) by lower
telecommunication costs, as well as by decreased
According to this scheme, the production process of risks in locating services in developing countries
goods is divided and each segment located where it (e.g. by the introduction of intellectual property
can be carried out most efficiently and at minimum protection measures).
cost. A considerable proportion of employment in
manufacturing has thus been relocated to low-wage The McKinsey Global Institute (2005: 14) defines
countries, including to Export Processing Zones “global resourcing”20 as the “process a company goes
(EPZs), creating job opportunities that often attract through to decide which of its activities could be
low-skilled workers, including women, from rural to performed anywhere in the world, where to locate
urban areas. them and who will do them”. According to the
McKinsey study (2005), offshoring of services to
The strategy of “outward processing for reverse emerging markets was expected to grow at 30 per
importing” is, at least in part, responsible for the cent annually between 2003 and 2008. It argued
transformation of corporate structures and activities. further that, in 2008, 11 per cent of worldwide
Some companies send materials, components and services employment (160 million jobs) could in
supplies for processing or assembly abroad for theory be performed by people located anywhere in
which, when returned, duty will be charged only the world (undertaken, for instance, by engineers,
on the value added abroad. This approach has been finance professionals, accountants and analysts).
widely adopted by developed countries, especially in However, it is estimated that, in practice, companies
the textile and electronic industries, and has helped will offshore far fewer jobs, growing from 565,000
secure an important share of import business in the to 1.2 million for the eight sectors of the economy
U.S. and the European Union. covered by the study.21

While the share of the industry sector (mainly Global resourcing can have positive outcomes for
composed of manufacturing processes) remains developed and developing countries through reduced
at about 21 per cent of total global employment, costs, repatriated profits and new markets for home
country goods and services. Indeed, the McKinsey
19
A computer-automated system in which individual engineering,
production, marketing and support functions of a manufacturing 20
enterprise are organized; functional areas such as design, analysis, “Global resourcing”, “offshoring”, “international outsourcing” are terms
planning, purchasing, cost accounting, inventory control and distribution often used interchangeably when referring to the transfer of services
are linked through the computer with factory floor functions such operations or production processes to a foreign country.
21
as materials handling and management, providing direct control and Automotive services, health care, insurance, IT services, packaged
monitoring of all process operations. software, pharmaceutical products, retail and retail banking.

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 World Migration 2008

Global Institute (2003) estimated that for one dollar goods and services valued at more than USD 4 trillion
spent on outsourcing, the U.S. economy gained USD (UNCTAD, 2006). Three per cent of global trade is
1.12 to 1.14, while the foreign host country received intra-firm. TNCs have not only played an important
USD 0.33. role in directing FDI flows, but also contribute to
more labour market openness. Specifically, the
(c) The role of TNCs internationalization of the activities of firms for the
production of goods and services is accompanied by
The globalization of production is largely carried increased international mobility of their workers
out by TNCs. According to UNCTAD’s 2006 World among branches in different countries to perform
Investment Report, FDI from Developing and services or undertake business visits abroad.22
Transition Economies: Implications for Development,
the EU, Japan and the U.S. still host most of the 3. Impact of Globalization on Employment
world’s dominant TNCs. However, more than 20,000
TNCs have their headquarters in developing countries Starting with some key global figures on employment
and there is a growing and significant presence of FDI in 2005 (see Textbox 1.2), this section examines the
by firms from developing and transition economies. impact of globalization on wages and job security, the
Significant differences exist nonetheless between way the structure of economies are modified and the
the top TNCs from the developing and developed predominance of certain economic sectors, and the
world, with the former in general having fewer repercussions on the movement of jobs (offshoring)
foreign assets and a less extended global outreach and workers (labour migration).
and presence.

In 2005, TNCs generated USD 4.5 trillion in added 22

For the link between business visits abroad and labour mobility, see
value, employed some 62 million workers and exported Chapter 5.

Textbox 1.2
Some Key Figures on Employment in 2005

• The global labour force1 comprised over three billion workers. Of these, 84 per cent lived in the developing countries of
Asia and the Pacific region, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as the transition countries of the Commonwealth
of Independent States (CIS) and south-eastern Europe (ILO, 2006b).

• Women represented around 40 per cent of the world’s labour force (1.22 billion).

• 2.85 billion individuals aged 15 and above were employed. However, about half did not earn enough to raise themselves
above the poverty line of two U.S. dollars a day. These figures are the same as those of ten years ago. Agriculture had the
highest employment share (40.1%)2 as compared to industry (21%) and services (38.9%) (ILO, 2006a).

• The global unemployment rate was 6.3 per cent (ILO, 2006a), affecting some 191.8 million people,3 with young persons
accounting for approximately half of the unemployed, a relatively high proportion given that they represented only 25 per
cent of the total working age population (ILO, 2006a).

• 86 million persons were identified as migrant workers (ILO, 2006c).

• TNCs comprised 77,000 parent companies with over 770,000 foreign affiliates, the latter employing some 62 million
workers (UNCTAD, 2006).

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Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

• 66 million workers were employed in Export Processing Zones (EPZs),4 mainly women. (Singa Boyenge, 2007).

• 565,000 jobs were offshore (Farrell et al., 2005).

Notes:
1
The “labour force” includes the portion of the population above 15 years of age, either working (employed) or looking for work
(unemployed).
2
But there are important regional variations. While in the EU and the U.S. agriculture accounts for less than four per cent of the workforce, it
accounts for 50 per cent in developing countries (ILO 2006b).
3
To be employed does not necessarily mean to have decent and productive work that would enable a person to sustain a living (see also Textbox
1.4).
4
See footnote 10 in this chapter for a definition of EPZs. The figure provided is for 2006.

3.1 Impact on Labour Markets in Terms of account for 40 per cent of the global workforce.23
Wages, Job Security and Upgrading of Skills Their entry will have an impact on manufacturing
production and trade balances, with concerns already
In general, globalization has increased pressures being expressed by other developing countries
on domestic labour markets in terms of wages, job that they will struggle to attract investments and
security and the upgrading of skills for movement manufacturing enterprises given their less favourable
between jobs. Yet, end results are not always general conditions (social, economic or political) and
straightforward. higher wage levels,24 and that their domestic markets
will import large quantities of goods from these two
In broad terms, those who have benefited most are countries. On the other hand, while it is foreseen
investors, entrepreneurs, managers and workers that China will dominate world trade, least developed
associated with internationally competitive national countries (LDCs) might still be able to produce low-
enterprises and TNCs. Workers with internationally skill labour intensive products, as export growth in
sought after education, skills and managerial ability China and India is expected to raise wages as well
have been particularly advantaged. Conversely, as create the need for the import of intermediate
workers in sectors previously protected by trade inputs.
barriers, subsidized state enterprises, and small and
medium enterprises (SMEs) that have not been able High-income countries, for their part, are conscious
to adapt to the rapid liberalization of the economy that the emerging Asian economies are increasingly
have suffered the most through reduced job security, characterized by high skills and modern technological
the relocalization of jobs or downward pressure on know-how, a combination which will make them
wages (World Bank, 2007). increasingly competitive in high-tech markets.25

The impact of globalization on employment will be

amplified as more countries participate in the global 23
The entry into the global workforce of workers from China, India and
economy and open their markets to international the former Soviet Union represents a doubling of the global labour force
trade and capital flows. This effect will be particularly (Freeman, 2005).
24
For instance, the entry into the global workforce of lower-wage workers
felt with the entry of large numbers of (mainly from China and India might negatively affect the jobs of low-skilled
low-skilled) workers from China and India into the workers in higher wage developing countries. Wages in Peru, for example,
are three times higher than in China (Freeman, 2006).
global labour force. By 2030, they are projected to 25
And therefore in competition with highly skilled workers in de­veloped
countries for performing high tech work.

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 World Migration 2008

3.2 Shifts in Employment Sectors and Internal will create new opportunities in developing countries,
Migration while highly skilled workers in high-income
economies will face competition for their jobs.
Changes in economic priorities worldwide have
led to a shift from agriculture-based economies to Global sourcing is, of course, not new, but what is
more diversified platforms of economic activity, new is the change in direction it has brought about
accompanied by corresponding rural to urban from the provision of skilled services from developed
migration. to developing countries to developing countries
performing both lower and highly skilled tasks for
While two-thirds of the world’s poor rely on agriculture developed economies. This change in direction will
for their livelihoods, its share in total global put highly skilled workers from both developing and
employment is declining rapidly with manufacturing developed countries in direct competition, with a
failing to compensate for this decline. Indeed, in all risk of job losses in the more advanced economies.
regions of the world, except East and Southeast Asia, Indeed, developing countries host twice as many
employment growth in manufacturing is declining skilled workers as developed countries, even though
as well. In developing countries, workers leave these workers represent a smaller share (one quarter)
agriculture to move into services and informal petty of the workforce than is the case in developed
trading. In Africa and Latin America, this is the countries (World Bank, 2007).
employment segment with the highest growth rates.
Formal work is still rare in developing countries, On the other hand, global resourcing in manufacturing
with 72 per cent of jobs in sub-Saharan Africa, 65 and services can cover any activities not constrained
per cent in Asia and 51 per cent in Latin America in by the need for customer contact or local knowledge.
the informal economy (ILO, 2006b). This feature makes global resourcing different and
in a way more limited than migration as migrant
Job opportunities linked to capital investment and, workers can fill any jobs in any sector.27
more generally, to patterns of trade transactions may
significantly impact on the geographical distribution 3.4 Impact of Globalization on International
of workers within a country, as is the case with Labour Migration28
EPZs. For instance, as early as 1995, one in five
manufacturing jobs was found in the maquiladoras Given the amount of political attention it attracts,
grouped at the Mexican border with the U.S. the total knowledge about the nature and magnitude
(Migration News, February 1996). of the international labour force, which represents
around three per cent of the global workforce (ILO,
3.3 Increasing Resort to Foreign Workers 2004a), is remarkably limited (see Chapter 9 and
through Offshoring Textbox 1.3). This is particularly the case in relation
to irregular migration, which by its very nature is
Global resourcing and increased trade in services26 difficult to measure (see also Chapters 8 and 11).
will make this current phase of globalization quite
different from previous ones that were dominated by 27
Workers in developed countries enjoy a higher level of capital per worker,
trade in goods (see Textbox 1.1). Global resourcing a more productive infrastructure, and are generally seen as more skilled
and productive. Developed countries employ an important number of
workers in service industries, but not in manufacturing. Therefore,
26
there is potentially less competition between developing and developed
Services employment has been on the rise in all regions of the world countries in terms of jobs in this sector.
with the exception of the Middle East and North Africa where it has 28
remained at constant levels (World Bank, 2007). The impact on international labour mobility is covered more thoroughly
in Section 4 below discussing whether there is a global labour market.

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Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

Textbox 1.3
Some Key Features of International Labour Migration1

• Approximately one-third of the world’s migrant workers live in Europe, with slightly fewer residing in Asia and North America.
Africa hosts approximately eight per cent of migrant workers, while Oceania, Latin America and the Caribbean are each home to
three per cent of migrant workers (ILO, 2004c). The majority of migrants move from one developing country to another rather
than from a developing country to a developed one. This is often seen as a consequence of restrictive immigration policies in
developed countries; however, it is also worth bearing in mind that in regions where rights to free movement of persons are
granted and promoted, such as in regional integration frameworks (see Chapter 13), the movement is limited. For example, in
2004 in the EU only two per cent of EU citizens actually took advantage of these rights (European Commission, 2006).2

• Low-skilled migrant workers still represent the bulk of labour migration flows, but between 1995 and 2000 in a number of
countries (e.g. some OECD countries) the arrival of highly educated migrants exceeded that of the low-skilled (ILO, 2004a:
Executive Summary). Among highly skilled workers, the majority move to or within the developed world (see Chapter 2).
Although labour migration flows are becoming geographically more diverse, the largest share of labour movements takes place
within regions.

• Almost half of all migrants are women (49.6%), with only slightly more living in developed than in developing countries. More
women are migrants than men in every region of the world, except in Africa and Asia (UN DESA, 2006, and Map 5). It is also
notable that more women are now migrating on their own as the primary bread earners for their families. In the labour market,
women migrants are generally concentrated at opposite ends of the skills spectrum and often occupy jobs in which women
generally predominate. Accordingly, many migrant women are skilled workers in the health and education sectors, while the
majority of women migrants find work in low-skilled sectors such as domestic service, manufacturing and entertainment (see
also Textbox Int. 3 in the Introduction).

• During the 1990s, most developed economies experienced a significant growth in temporary labour migration and again since
2000 (see Chapters 3 and 11). But the number of temporary foreign workers is in general relatively small compared to the size
of the destination country’s labour market, with the exception of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) States. Home and host
countries are both developed and developing countries. Indeed, developed countries (e.g. United Kingdom) are both major
countries of destination and origin of migrant workers (see also Chapter 11). Similarly, some developing countries such as
South Africa or Thailand are simultaneously significant countries of origin and destination.

• Both skilled and low-skilled migrant workers seem to work predominantly in the service sectors of major developed countries,
notably in construction, commerce, catering, education, health care, domestic and other services. In developing countries,
migrant workers tend to be found mainly in primary activities (agriculture, fishing and mining) and in manufacturing, although
the share in services (particularly tourism-related) is rising in several countries (UNCTAD, 2001).

Notes:
1
More detailed analyses of patterns of international migration are offered in the Regional Overviews in the last part of this volume.
2
In 2004, only 1.7 per cent of EU citizens from the former 15 EU Member States, and only 0.3 per cent of EU citizens from the ten
new EU Member States, exercised their right to free movement. However, the latter percentage is now likely to be higher because more
former EU Member States have lifted the transitional arrangements on the free movement of workers from the new Member States (see
Textbox 13.3).

The reasons that stimulate people to migrate are differentials are an important incentive,29 access
numerous and operate in complex and interactive to higher levels of health and education services,
ways at individual, family and socio-economic levels. more personal security and generally better quality
The dissemination of information and lower transport of life can also be important elements affecting the
costs facilitate increased labour mobility and the decision to work abroad.
creation of transnational communities. Workers
move to find better employment opportunities and 29
See the Introductory Chapter and Chapter 3 for a discussion of wage
working conditions (see Textbox 1.4). While wage differentials between developed and developing countries.

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 World Migration 2008

The impact of globalization on international labour jobs and, by the same token, act as a push factor or
migration is highly diverse and related to other a deterrent to labour migration.
determinants than merely the internationalization
of trade, financial flows and production, making For instance, FDI can lead to the creation of jobs
it difficult to draw a clear and simple picture. The in host economies, directly in companies benefiting
extent or degree of such impact depends on a from FDI and indirectly in businesses which
country’s economic situation, and will vary according complement the activities of these enterprises,
to the group of workers in question. However, trade thereby contributing to economic growth in general.
liberalization is generally said to increase outward In addition, through the transfer of technologies
labour migration in the short term until domestic and know-how and access to foreign markets, FDI
economies adjust to the new environment (the can lead to temporary movements for the provision
“migration hump”).30 Indeed, more free trade and of services or other forms of movements of workers,
open markets may lead to job losses in some sectors who, now being more knowledgeable, are able to find
where domestic firms are unable to compete with jobs abroad more easily.
foreign TNCs or foreign goods, while it takes time
to adequately strengthen the capacity of enterprises Trade and FDI liberalization can also lead to an increase
to respond to new opportunities. In a similar vein, in wages in absolute terms in countries of origin.
FDI can lead to both the creation and elimination of If wages rise, but more slowly than in destination
countries, this may increase the propensity and the
30
The Stolper-Samuelson theorem of factor price equalization postulates actual ability of persons to emigrate. If they rise
that trade can substitute for migration in the long term, while migration more rapidly than in destination countries, while
will continue in the short term and may actually increase as a result
of developing countries facing strong exogenous shocks and receiving the propensity to move may increase as well, the
more foreign investment. For the “migration hump”, see Martin and
Taylor (1996).
pressure to move may decrease (with a decrease in
the wage gap).
Textbox 1.4
Decent Work and Migrant Workers

The primary goal of the ILO today is to promote opportunities for women and men to obtain decent and productive
work, in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity.
Juan Somavia, ILO Director-General.

The goal of the ILO Decent Work Agenda is to promote access for all workers to freely chosen and productive employment, the
recognition of fundamental rights at work, an income to enable people to meet their basic economic, social and family needs
and responsibilities and an adequate level of social protection for the workers and family members. The ILO works to promote
decent work through its work on employment, social protection, standards and fundamental principles and rights at work and
social dialogue. The ILO’s Decent Work for All Agenda covers all workers, including migrant workers.

People throughout the world face deficits, gaps and exclusions in the form of unemployment and underemployment, poor quality,
precarious and unsafe jobs, insecure income, denial of rights at work, gender and other discrimination, lack of representation
and voice, and inadequate social protection and security. Decent work deficits are a major driving force in international
migration, where people seek better jobs and standards of living in foreign countries. Globalization has served to increase these
disparities across nations, thereby contributing to additional migration pressures (Stalker, 2000).

There are two distinct aspects in discussing provision of decent work opportunities to migrant workers. The first relates to
countries of origin, where the need is to provide decent work opportunities for potential migrants (internal or overseas) and
for returning migrant workers. The ILO Action Plan, adopted by the International Labour Conference in June 2004, contained a

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Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

resolution concerning a fair deal for migrant workers and pledged support to countries for the implementation of the ILO Global
Employment Agenda at national level, which can serve to mitigate the circumstances driving migration by generating decent
work opportunities in countries of origin (ILO, 2004).

The second aspect requires a commitment on the part of countries of destination to adopt national policies aimed at equal
treatment of migrant workers with nationals in respect of local labour laws and access to applicable social protection,
combatting the exploitation of vulnerable migrant workers, including those in irregular status, and the promotion of basic
human rights for all migrants. The ILO position is that all labour standards apply to both national and migrant workers in the
workplace, irrespective of their status.

Decent work is an issue for both national and foreign workers. Yet migrant workers everywhere, especially low-skilled workers,
face relatively greater problems in realizing decent work. These disadvantages may arise from their skills profile, temporary
status, irregular status, gender, manner of recruitment or sectors of employment.

One good example of lack of decent work is the situation of the bulk of low-skilled migrant workers, especially construction
workers and female domestic workers. Migrant domestic workers in a number of countries experience highly exploitative working
conditions and abuse, including the confiscation of passports, excessive working hours, low wages that are sometimes not paid
at all, violence and harassment, and relative isolation. In many countries they are often not covered by national labour laws.
Similarly, migrant workers in the informal sector in developed countries are often subject to abuse and exploitation in the
workplace. OECD studies clearly show a concentration of migrants in seasonal, low-paid and precarious jobs in sectors such as
agriculture, construction and hotel and catering, which are often shunned by national workers. Discrimination and xenophobia
add to decent work deficits. Often migrant workers are not allowed to form unions or are bypassed by national unions.

The promotion of decent work for migrant workers should be pursued on several levels. First and foremost, their basic human
rights and core labour rights should be respected by both countries of origin and destination. Second, migrant workers
should benefit from all applicable labour standards and national labour laws in equal measure with national workers. The ILO
Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration (see Textbox 10.4) is a tool available to countries in promoting decent work for
migrant workers, as it has synthesized the main principles and guidelines on the treatment of migrant workers contained in
international conventions and practice. Ratification and enforcement of the three international migrant worker conventions
(ILO Convention on Migration for Employment, 1949 (No. 97), ILO Convention on Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions),
1975 (No. 143) and the International (UN) Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and their Families,
1990) should provide a solid foundation for ensuring decent work for migrant workers at the national level. It is important to
note that 79 countries in the world have ratified at least one of these three conventions.

In destination countries, extension of coverage of labour laws to migrant workers, equal treatment with national workers,
gender-sensitive migration policies, combating discrimination, effective labour inspection systems to monitor workplaces
and access to redress mechanisms would be essential to ensure decent work for migrant workers. In countries of origin, the
ILO Decent Work Country Programmes provide a mechanism to bring migrant workers within the goal of Decent Work. At the
same time, expansion of regular labour migration opportunities for low-skilled workers and protection of their rights should
be promoted as advocated by recent global forums, such as the ILO International Labour Conference, June 2004, the Global
Commission on International Migration, the United Nations High-Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development,
and the Global Forum on Migration and Development.

Source: International Labour Office.

4. Is there a Global Labour Market? This interaction has an impact on employment,

wages and income.31
Does the greater integration of the world economy
and the predominance of market economies create a 31
E.g. if an enterprise experiences difficulties in finding workers, a decision
global labour market? At its simplest, a labour market may be taken to invest in technology and automation (i.e. to raise the
capital:labour ratio). While this investment will lower the enterprise’s
is where the demand and supply of labour interact. profit in the short term, it may represent a saving in the longer term if
the new system reduces production costs.

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 World Migration 2008

The answer to the question of the existence of a 4.1 The Supply Side
global labour market varies depending on the research
referred to and which aspect of the global labour For some commentators, the emergence of a global
market is being considered: on the supply side the labour market is related to the entry of more countries
focus is on the global offer of labour for companies; into the world economy, with their markets being
on the demand side, attention is directed towards more open to international trade and capital flows,
the required skills, or certain goods and services and to the number of countries increasing the ratio
(and the workers’ ability to produce them); finally, of trade to their GDP. As a result, their workforce is
consideration may be given to the mechanisms that said to be more integrated into the world economy.
make it possible for the workforce to respond to This results in competition for jobs, which leads
employer needs. employers to consider on one hand offshoring or
outsourcing options and on the other the hiring of
One convenient, frequently used measure of the migrant workers.
extent of labour market integration is the degree
of convergence in real earnings across countries TNCs are tapping into opportunities offered by a labour
(according to the classical trade theory of factor force supply more readily available and accessible in
price equalization32). Though comparable data on more countries than before. The capacity of countries
real wages are not easy to come by and are moreover to have their workforce considered for outsourcing
interpreted differently by researchers, many of them or a supply of migrant labour will depend on a
have concluded that there is no readily discernible series of factors such as wage levels, taxes, facility
convergence in wages. For some, this simply to import and export goods, services regulations
highlights the fact that labour is not yet sufficiently and geographical location, as well as the workers’
liberalized (thus impeding wage convergence through respective skills, education and productivity. Some
the relocation of labour surpluses to locations with of these factors, such as education, recognition of
a labour deficit).33 For others, it signifies that wages qualifications, and geographical proximity will also
are mainly determined by domestic factors, such as interact with the capacity of workers to provide their
the cost of living. labour through emigration.

Despite limited actual labour mobility, however, the However, the global pool of workers is unevenly spread
globalization of trade in goods and services, the and demographic changes suggest an accentuation
existence of international network enterprises using of this trend (see Textbox 1.5). Most of the increase
global assembly lines for the production of goods, will come from developing countries, while many
and their recourse to global sourcing of services are developed countries will continue to experience
all elements that contribute to the emergence of a ageing populations and declining workforces.35
more integrated global market for labour.34 As a result, imbalances in the capacity to supply
labour will favour the developing world and will
concern different countries over time, as developing
countries will experience their own demographic
transitions, with negative or zero population growth
32
See n. 30 above. and population ageing.
33
Some commentators argue that the flows of migrants from developing
to developed countries might contribute to the global convergence of
35
wages, and that the return of migrants to their country of origin can In some European countries, the population would have declined
lead to an increase in local wages (IMF, 2000). without migration: net migration counterbalances the excess of deaths
34
Even if this is not reflected by wage convergence. over births in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Italy, Portugal,
Slovakia and Slovenia (UN DESA, 2007).

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Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

Textbox 1.5
Global Population Trends and Their Impact on International Migration

Introduction

According to the 2006 Revision of World Population Prospects,1 the most recent version of the official United Nations population
projections, the world population is likely to increase by 2.5 billion from the current 6.7 billion to 9.2 billion by 2050. This
increase will be absorbed mostly by the less developed regions,2 whose population is projected to rise from 5.4 billion in 2007
to 7.9 billion in 2050. In contrast, the population in the more developed regions3 is expected to remain virtually unchanged at
about 1.2 billion, and would have declined were it not for the projected net migration from developing to developed countries,
which is expected to average 2.3 million persons annually after 2010. International migration is the component of population
change most difficult to measure and project reliably. Not only does the quality and quantity of migration data vary considerably
by country, the movement of people across international borders is also subject to a high degree of volatility.

Population trends and international migration in developed countries

Since 1960, the average annual net number of migrants moving to the more developed regions has generally been increasing,
with the highest value of 3.3 million persons annually reached in the period 2000-2005 (Figure 1.1). For 2005-2010, the
projected value is close to the average net migration level estimated for the 1990s (i.e. 2.5 million persons annually), but the
long-term level projected for 2010-2050 is slightly lower at 2.3 million persons per year. Although this projected long-term
level is about a third lower than the peak reached in 2000-2005, it is also 40 per cent higher than the average annual net
migration flowing to developed countries witnessed between 1960-2005 (1.6 million).

Figure 1.1:
Average Annual Net Number of Migrants to the More Developed Regions, 1960-2050

The population of developed countries is ageing rapidly. In most developed countries, fertility started to decline already
more than a century ago and, since the 1980s, their fertility levels have been very low. As a result, the number of children4
in developed countries is declining and there are already fewer children than persons aged 60 years or more. Furthermore,
their working-age population is poised to decline despite the expected gains from net migration (Figure 1.2). In the absence
of international migration, the population aged 20 to 64 in developed countries as a whole may be expected to decline from
741 million in 2005 to 571 million by 2050, a reduction of 23 per cent. On the other hand, if the projected moderate levels of
international migration were to be realized, the expected decline in the working-age population would be just 10 per cent.

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 World Migration 2008

Figure 1.2:
Population Aged 20-64 in More Developed Regions Projected With and Without Migration, 1950-2050

If fertility levels in developed countries were to increase more rapidly than those assumed in the medium variant plotted in the
graph above (see the “with migration” and “without migration” scenarios in Figure 1.2), international migration would still be
necessary to avoid the decline of the working-age population since most of tomorrow’s workers have already been born. In the
high-fertility projection variant, for instance, fertility is projected to be half a child higher than in the medium variant and, as
shown in Figure 1.2, in combination with the projected levels of net migration, such fertility levels are sufficient to ensure that
the population aged 20-64 in developed countries remains within two percentage points of the number it reached in 2005.

Therefore, for developed countries to avoid a rapid reduction in the size of their working-age population, maintaining average
net migration levels similar to those prevailing during the 1990s will be necessary, even if fertility levels were to increase more
than those projected in the medium variant.

Population trends and international migration in the less developed regions

During most of the period starting in 1960, the three major areas in the developing world, namely, Africa, Asia5 and Latin
America and the Caribbean, have been experiencing net emigration, that is, their net migration levels have been negative. As
Figure 1.3 shows, until the early 1980s, all three major areas experienced modest levels of net emigration but, starting in the
1980s, their magnitude increased markedly, first in Latin America and the Caribbean and later in Asia. In contrast, Africa has
not experienced a marked increase in net emigration over the past three decades.

Figure 1.3:
Average Annual Net Number of Migrants, Africa, Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1960-2050

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Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

According to current estimates, for Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean the period 2000-2005 was characterized by
historically high levels of net emigration, though as regards Asia high levels of net emigration were also noticeable in the
1990s. During 2000-2005, on average, nearly 1.4 million persons annually were lost through emigration by each region. Net
emigration from Africa was considerably lower, averaging 0.44 million persons per year. Except for Africa, net emigration levels
projected for each of the other two major areas in the developing world are lower than the peak reached in 2000-2005. For
Latin America and the Caribbean, in particular, the expectation is that net outflows will be more moderate in future since the
rapid increase of expatriate populations of Latin American origin in North America and southern Europe that occurred during
2000-2005 is unlikely to be sustainable over the long term from the perspective of the countries of destination.

In contrast with developed countries, where the working-age population is expected to decrease, the major areas of the
developing world expect substantial increases in their working-age populations and the moderate levels of emigration projected
produce only small reductions in those populations. Thus, the population aged 20-64 in Africa is expected to nearly triple from
408 million in 2005 to 1.12 billion in 2050. Without emigration, it would rise to 1.14 billion. For Asia, the population aged
20-64 is expected to rise by 40 per cent from 2.21 billion to 3.08 billion and without emigration would stand at 3.12 billion
instead. Lastly, the increase expected in Latin America and the Caribbean amounts to 45 per cent from 303 million to 441
million which, without emigration, would be 467 million. These figures underscore a key point: over the next four decades, the
developing world can easily be the source of as many persons of working age as are likely to be in demand in countries with
decreasing populations of working age.

Notes:
1
UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision, Vol. I, Comprehensive
Tables (New York, 2007), http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm.
2
The less developed regions include all countries in Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin America and the Caribbean, and Oceania (excluding
Australia and New Zealand).
3
The more developed regions comprise Australia, Europe, Japan, New Zealand and North America.
4
Persons under 15 years of age.
5
Asia including Japan.

Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat.

4.2 The Demand Side (e.g. tax reductions, higher salaries, access to
good research facilities, etc.). The mobility of such
Demand exists at both ends of the skills spectrum. workers is facilitated by the internationalization of
Firstly, there is global demand for skills. The global education (see Chapter 4) and the development of
economy is supported by the spread of technologies international standards for professionals, for which
and characterized by rapid economic transformation. a global market already exists, such as accountants,
As a result, more workers capable of mastering engineers, lawyers and architects.36
these technologies and demonstrating flexibility
and adaptability to changes in the economic and 36
E.g. see respectively: Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts
work environments are required globally. This is on International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (ISAR)
particularly true in the information technology Guidelines on National Requirements for the Qualification of
Professional Accountants (1999); the Washington Accord (1989),
(IT) sector. However, a wide range of professionals, which facilitates recognition of equivalence between accredited
scientists and managers able to further raise the engineering degree programmes by accrediting professional
quality and productivity of local companies and institutions party to the agreement, and the Sydney Accord (2001),
which covers recognition of engineering technology programmes;
enhance a country’s comparative advantage are the International Bar Association (IBA) Standards and Criteria for
also sought after. Scarcity of highly skilled workers Recognition of the Professional Qualifications of Lawyers provided
to the WTO in the framework of the GATS; and the International
creates a global competition for talent (see Chapter Union of Architects (UIA) Accord on Recommended International
2) and induces the relaxation of immigration rules Standards of Professionalism in Architectural Practice (1999) and
related policy guidelines, which define good practices and provide
together with the creation of incentive packages guidance for governments and agencies willing to enter into mutual
for such workers by employers and governments recognition agreements (Nonnenmacher, 2007).

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 World Migration 2008

At the opposite end of the skills ladder, demand is currently no established global framework to
also exists for low-skilled workers, although low or facilitate the mobility of labour and no mechanism
semi-skilled migration remains highly regulated and for the systematic matching of labour demand and
restricted in most countries.37 The global demand supply. Compared to capital and trade, therefore,
for low-skilled workers is likely to be boosted by which have been significantly liberalized, labour
growing labour market gaps in developed countries mobility is lagging far behind and is still heavily
where, on account of rising education levels and constrained by national regulations.
accompanying wage expectations, workers are
turning away from low and semi-skilled occupations. Economic theory would suggest a different approach.
While some of these jobs may simply be phased out The free movement of labour would appear to be a
through improved work organization or advances natural corollary to the principle of competitive
in technology such as automation, there are many efficiency. In the real world, however, political
work sectors that will continue to depend to a great imperatives commonly dictate the imposition of
extent on human resources, especially construction, restrictions, although it is far from clear that the
agriculture and hospitality.38 These market needs latter are economically beneficial in the longer
are structural, the demand may fluctuate, but is term.
unlikely to be erased entirely. The Asian financial
crisis of the latter part of the 1990s demonstrated There are, nonetheless, different kinds of clearing
that even in times of hardship such workers are not mechanisms for matching labour supply and demand
easily replaced by native workers. in active operation to facilitate either the mobility
of jobs (clearance through mobility of capital) or
Depending on actual circumstances, migrants may be workers (clearance through mobility of labour).39 In
clustered at both ends of the labour market or more the case of mobility of jobs, the global labour market
evenly distributed across the jobs ladder. might be seen as emerging from trade and investment
which act as proxies for international mobility of
4.3 Labour Market Clearing Mechanisms: labour (Mehmet et al., 1999). In the absence of free
Moving Jobs or People? movement of labour, labour markets are integrated
through trade and investment where the decision
For some observers, the existence of a global labour of firms to invest and locate their production is
market is conditional on the existence of clearing based in part on the labour costs and standards of
mechanisms operating at the global level. There different investment locations, while states respond
by adjusting them to be more attractive.

37
On the other hand, temporary labour migration programmes are In the case of workers, it is important to note that
increasing and there is a growing interest in both developed and
developing countries in making such programmes work more effectively the fact that mobility is regulated does not mean that
(see the discussions in Chapters 3 and 11). movements are necessarily marginal or discouraged
38
For instance, in some countries of Latin America, a combination of rapid
urbanization, rural-urban migration, growth of the informal sector and everywhere. For instance, in some countries, such
emigration abroad, compounded by growing expectations of improved as those in the Gulf region, more than 40 per cent
education and income by large numbers of young persons, has resulted
in a relative shortage of workers in specific rural areas or regions, or of their workforce is made up of foreigners. In
for particular seasonal products. This has created a growing demand addition, a number of mechanisms are currently in
for migrant workers to fill these positions in what is being labelled as
“replacement migration”, i.e. migrants who mobilize to take over jobs place to facilitate the movement of workers between
previously occupied by nationals who have moved away. This is the case,
for instance, of Nicaraguans and Hondurans, who take over agricultural
39
jobs in the south of El Salvador, and of Bolivians and Paraguayans in However, the effects produced by these two modes are frequently very
Argentina. This trend seems set to increase in Central America and different in terms of wages, as a worker moving to a developed country
southern Mexico and probably also in other parts of the continent will, in most cases, benefit from a higher salary than if hired by a foreign
(Gammage, 2007). company to perform the job locally (outsourcing).

[39]
Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

countries: at the bilateral level (e.g. bilateral labour 5. Is there a Case for Free Movement of
agreements, bilateral agreements for the recognition Workers? Who will Benefit - Developing or
of qualifications); at the regional level (e.g. the EU Developed Economies?
free movement regime, facilitated movement of skills
under the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Single In purely conceptual terms, it is possible to identify
Market and Economy) or at the global level with the the removal of current constraints on the mobility
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) Mode of one main factor of production (labour) as the
4.40 Finally, matching demand and supply also occurs “tipping point” that would make labour markets truly
through irregular labour migration (see Chapters 8 global, thus enabling the international community
and 11), despite the adverse consequences of such to take globalization to its fullest realization. Under
movements. this approach, the movement of workers across
international borders would be dependent on their
Domestic labour market dynamics, therefore, are assessment of market opportunities rather than
far from operating in a wholly self-contained and subordinated to individual country regulations.
insular environment and are affected by two principal
questions with an international dimension: One of the striking and even paradoxical features of the
current globalization phase, however, is the relatively
1) where and how labour demand and supply match minor role played by international migration in a
(in developing countries of origin – through world that is more interconnected than ever before.42
offshoring and based on free movement of Economists point out, for instance, that while the
capital, or in developed destination countries international trade’s share of output is around 13
– through labour mobility/migration); and per cent (Freeman, 2006a) and foreign equities in
2) where wages are determined (in the domestic investor portfolios stood at approximately 15 per
labour market in which workers perform their cent at the beginning of 2000, the stock of migrant
activities, or on the basis of international workers in the global workforce does not exceed three
labour demand and supply). per cent. This stands in marked contrast to previous
phases of globalization, in particular the first phase
As La Palisse41 might have said in answer to these during the late 19th and early 20th centuries when
questions: “The more economic outcomes are human mobility closely accompanied the boom in
determined outside domestic labour markets, the trade, an explicit historical demonstration, if indeed
more domestic labour markets will function globally one was needed, that governments can and do open
or in a global context”. their labour markets when they are convinced that
they stand to benefit substantially. This, it must be
admitted, is far from being the case at the moment.
In most instances there is, at best, cautious interest
in weighing impartially the costs and benefits of
migrant worker programmes;43 at worst, suspicion
that costs are likely to substantially outweigh
40
benefits.
Mode 4 covers the temporary movement of service providers (see Textbox
Int. 1). These bilateral, regional and global mechanisms are discussed in
more detail in Chapter 13. 42
Currently, the only free movement regime operating on a large scale
41
Jacques II de Chabannes, seigneur de La Palisse, was a warrior known for is found in a regional setting, i.e. the EU. While labour mobility is
his soldiers having said of him in a song that “15 minutes before he was covered in bilateral labour or trade agreements or regional integration
dead, he was still alive”. Since then “a truth from Lapalisse” refers to an frameworks (see Chapter 13), such movement occurs mainly on the basis
affirmation which is self-evident. of unilaterally devised immigration policies.
43
For an analysis of the costs and benefits of migration, see IOM (2005).

[40]
 World Migration 2008

Clearly, there are some fundamental questions that without much further research, analysis and debate.
have to be worked through before convincing policy One question often addressed at the theoretical level
advice can be put forward, including the nature of is whether migration and trade are mutual substitutes
the relationship between migration and trade, and or complements. Responses vary considerably. For
the nature and magnitude of the purported gains, instance, according to Mundell, migration and capital
the eventual distribution of these gains among mobility, or both, are substitute/s to trade mobility.
the major actors, the non-economic or social and Other models consider migration as a complement,
political considerations involved, and the prospects with migration increasing with growth in trade flows
for a global framework to manage labour mobility. (e.g. Markunsen).

5.1 Migration and Trade: The Case for

Liberalization

Investigation into the relationship between migration

and trade is ongoing and unlikely to be concluded

Textbox 1.6
Migration and Trade Models

Maurice Schiff provides an overview of the different migration and trade models. He demonstrates that many assumptions in
these models are insufficiently grounded in reality as the interrelations between migration, investment and trade are complex
and depend on a whole range of factors: the skills of prospective migrants; the distance between countries of origin and
destination; the basis for trade (endowment, technology, imperfect competition, other distortions, increasing returns, etc.);
the level and changes in tariffs and other forms of protection in countries of origin and destination; whether trade involves
goods or services; whether FDI is vertical or horizontal; whether FDI is between developed and developing, developing and
developing or developing and developed countries; regional trade agreements (RTAs); the impact of exogenous shocks which
vary according to whether these shocks involve trade costs, migration costs and income tax; and the role of diasporas in
promoting trade and FDI.

Source: Schiff (2006).

A second line of investigation explores analogies He takes note of the improvements achieved both in
between trade and migration in terms of their global economic welfare and in national economies
potential to enhance global economic growth. As a through the liberalization of international trade in
general rule, economists are inclined to believe that the goods, and argues that similar if not greater progress
international community stands to derive considerable can be made through the facilitation of the movement
aggregate benefit from the freer movement of labour of workers across national boundaries.
across international borders. As Chang (2007: 1)
sees it, According to this view, constraints on worker
movement create market distortions resulting in
recent increases in the international migration of the inefficient allocation of human resources at the
workers are but one facet of globalization, which global level, as witnessed by labour shortages in
economists understand to mean the development of a developed countries and oversupply in developing
global common market, that is (…) evolution towards countries. In contrast, the facilitation of movement
a world economy that is integrated across national would trigger a flow of workers from low-wage
boundaries. origins to high-wage destinations, with resultant

[41]
Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

global welfare gains potentially higher than those FDI (World Bank, 2006). It is believed that the real
that would be obtained from further liberalization value, when including remittances sent through
of trade in goods or capital. Walmsley and Winters informal channels, may be 50 per cent higher. In
(2003) estimate that a relaxation of the movement most developing countries, remittances are on
of temporary workers corresponding to three per average larger than ODA and are proving to be more
cent of the labour force of high-income countries stable than either ODA or FDI.46
would lead to global income gains of USD 150 billion
annually (using a 1997-based comparative static 5.2 How will Benefits be Shared?
model).44
From a theoretical perspective at least, there is little
Rodrik estimates that since wages for similarly reason to doubt that the freer movement of workers
qualified workers in developed and developing would benefit the world economy by creating
countries differ sharply – by a factor of 10 or more significant efficiency gains. However, as scholars look
as against a difference for commodities and financial more closely at how those gains might be distributed
assets that rarely exceeds a ratio of 1:2 – the gains across the world economy, they have to grapple with
from free movement of labour could be as much as many uncertainties.
25 times larger than the gains from the liberalization
of movements of goods and capital (Rodrik, 2002; The case is often made that, in comparison with the
see also Pritchett, 2006).45 Free movement would, liberalization of trade and capital, which, it could be
in theory, also have a positive impact on the global argued, benefits most countries, the benefits from
distribution of income by creating a convergence in free movement of labour would mainly be oriented
wage rates for the same class of workers. towards developing countries. This is because
movements from developing countries are currently
The issue of the impact of migrant remittances (see more constrained (especially for low-skilled workers)
Chapter 12 for a fuller treatment) on global economic and the highest wage differentials are to be found
activity is not unrelated to this discussion. It is now between developing and developed countries.47
fully recognized that remittances have become a key
source of global finance. Remittances sent through Nonetheless, possible scenarios are in reality numerous
official channels were estimated to have reached and not infrequently contradictory. On the one hand,
318 billion in 2007, up from USD 188 billion in it is claimed that in a world economy increasingly
2005 and considerably more than double the level dominated by technology, freer movement may
in 2001. Nearly USD 240 billion of these funds lead mainly to more skilled migration between and
went to developing countries (Ratha et al., 2007),
an amount far larger than Official Development 46
However, each of these flows has its own particular dynamics. ODA is
Assistance (ODA) and representing the second source development aid money from the members of the Development Assistance
Committee (DAC) of the OECD to developing countries, directed towards
of external funding for developing countries after the economic and welfare development of these countries. As observed
earlier, FDI is defined as investment of foreign assets into domestic
structures, equipment and organizations. It does not include foreign
investment in stock markets which is considered an indirect investment.
44
For an analysis of the potential gains of international migration and the This money is directed towards the private sector and responds to the
elaboration of models to capture evidence, see World Bank (2006). objectives of private actors. Finally, remittances are private household
45
The fact that wages vary more than the costs of goods and capital funds which are mostly used for consumption, even if more and more
around the world, and that higher barriers to mobility are found to measures are now being taken to encourage these flows to be directed
affect workers, leads economists to assume that the gains from the towards productive investments.
47
liberalization of labour would be greater than any additional openings This is recognized to a certain extent by the fact that GATS Mode 4
in trade and financial markets, which have already been liberalized negotiations are part of the Doha development agenda (see Textbox
significantly. Int. 1).

[42]
 World Migration 2008

towards developed countries with a positive impact It is important to note that in all of the above
on economic growth in developed countries and an equations the actual outcomes for the countries of
increase in the scarcity of such human resources in origin, the countries of destination and the migrants
developing countries with all the risks this holds for themselves may vary significantly depending on
their economic and social development.48 whether the migratory movements are of a permanent
or temporary nature. Policymakers and other
The allocation of gains and losses turns out to be stakeholders increasingly argue that circular forms
quite different if the focus of attention is on low and of movement (see Chapters 11 and 12), if managed
semi-skilled workers. Outflows of such workers could successfully, could do much to optimize the benefits
alleviate labour surpluses in developing countries in of labour mobility for all concerned, because they
addition to providing them with a valuable source represent the best trade-off between the prospective
of foreign currency in the form of remittances;49 in interests of the three parties.
developed countries their arrival could set them up
as competitors to local workers. The latter might then While there is therefore considerable theoretical work
find themselves in the unenviable position of either backing up the hypothesis that massive aggregate
having to accept lower wages to remain competitive gains would accrue from the lifting of current
or resign themselves to seeing their jobs offshored constraints on the movement of workers across
(which is a risk every time there is a push for a wage international borders, the realization and actual
increase beyond gains in productivity). distribution of these gains will depend ultimately
on how the movements are actually channelled and
Closer analyses (e.g. World Bank, 2007) suggest even managed, and management choices will rest in turn
more complex scenarios: while an inflow of low or on policy considerations that extend well beyond the
semi-skilled workers to a developed country might economic sphere.
reduce the real wages of its own low-skilled workers,
their presence might at the same time be to the 5.3 Looking Beyond the Economic Dimension
advantage of highly skilled workers and the economy
more generally, as both stand to benefit from lower Prospects for the freer movement of labour should
prices for goods and services provided by the migrant therefore be envisaged not only from the perspective
workers; on the other hand, skilled movements from of economic gains and losses but also from social and
developing to developed countries will increase political angles.
income disparities between skilled workers and low-
skilled workers in countries of origin (with a trend From the perspective of countries of destination,
towards an increase in the wages of skilled workers economic benefits will always be weighed against
who remain). social implications (such as provision of social
services, welfare coverage or, less tangibly, impacts on
48
As Ghose (2002: 26) points out, international migration in the first
social cohesion) and security concerns, all of which
phase of globalization was “a force of convergence because it led to are politically sensitive issues. From the perspective
equalization of resources endowment across trading countries. Today it
is a force of divergence because it accentuates the inequality of skill of countries of origin, there are issues of brain drain,
endowments between industrialized and developing countries”. family dislocation and community disruption.
49
From a global economic perspective, the gains from liberalizing the
movement of workers are expected to be greatest with respect to
the liberalization of low-skilled workers, and this is because of the Less obvious perhaps are the social costs of non-
importance of wage differentials for these categories of workers, the
current significant barriers to these movements and the abundance
openness. They include the development of informal
of these workers in developing countries (Chapter 3 provides a fuller labour markets where migrants work under conditions
discussion of this point).

[43]
Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

that are at best unfair, at worst equivalent to forced 5.4. Prospects for Enhanced International
labour or slavery. There are also smuggling and Cooperation in the Management of Labour
trafficking networks, which are often in the hands Mobility
of organized crime. These adverse effects show how
inefficient administrative barriers can be at keeping Given the complexity of the economic, social and
people out, and lead to questions about how such political equations that have to be resolved before
flows should be managed to ensure, at a minimum, significant progress can be made, the slowness and
that national labour market policies reconcile the cautiousness of inter-governmental negotiations in
competitiveness sought by employers with the this field is hardly a surprise. With regard to mobility,
protection of workers’ rights and interests. the unequal balance powering the supply/demand
equation between countries of origin and destination
At the individual level, as well, the decision to creates no strong incentive for the latter to enter
move is driven by both economic and non-economic into a multilateral framework encompassing the
considerations. Differences in wages and general admission of migrant workers. Destination countries
economic prospects between countries of origin are still largely in a position to satisfy their labour
and destination are obviously important, but other market needs through unilateral policies, and adjust
matters such as political stability, freedom from them according to changes in their labour markets.
conflict, levels of human rights protection, labour This is clear from the limited commitment made
standards and access to social services, such as health under GATS Mode 4 to date and the absence of a
and education, can also play a role. The existence significant outcome in the current negotiations.50
of a diaspora providing support to new migrants
and acting as an information network (see Chapter The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
12) enters into consideration in the selection by and its successor, the WTO, were created to ensure
the migrant of the destination country, together that the negative and positive impacts of free trade
with employment prospects and possible access to would be shared equally, and are supported by the
secure or permanent residence status. Geographical economic reasoning that, through specialization
proximity also plays a role, especially for low-skilled in production, most countries, both developing
workers, as it affects their travel costs unless these and developed, could gain from the establishment
are taken care of by the employer. Finally, elements of such a regime. The IMF and the World Bank
as disparate as the possibility of being accompanied have been given a role in managing international
or joined by a family member, the difficulty of finance, and there is widespread support for the
severing connections with one’s community and life development of a framework which would ensure
style in the country of origin, the costs of living, more stable exchange rates and strong currencies.
exchange rate differentials, taxation, the climate, On the other hand, the case for an international
language and the rules relating to recognition of regime establishing freer movement of workers does
qualifications will, in the end, all be weighed in the not yet attract a critical mass of support because of
individual worker’s decision to opt for mobility or the perceived asymmetries of supply and demand,
not. the lack of reciprocity in potential gains and the
social and political implications that remain to be
addressed.

50
Major developed and destination countries have made only limited
offers under GATS Mode 4, principally for top managers, highly skilled
professionals and intra-corporate transferees.

[44]
 World Migration 2008

While prospects for a global regime opening the way of the challenges arising from these interactions
to the freer mobility of workers remain guarded, in terms of creating new work opportunities in the
there are concrete indications of progress in regional developed and developing worlds while protecting
settings, where economic disparities are often the most vulnerable individuals who are not in a
more limited and consequently less likely to act as position to tap into these opportunities. It could
obstacles to liberalization (see Chapter 13). Even look at what can be done at the national level,
in such restricted settings, however, it is the more but also how regional and global frameworks as
highly skilled who are most likely to benefit from well as institutions mandated to address trade,
movement facilitation arrangements.51 finance, employment and migration issues could
help countries to better manage these challenges by
Countries are more interconnected through trade, creating more synergies in their endeavours in these
capital flows and the global production system than different fields.
ever before. Changes in the economic situation and
regulations in countries that are the most important 6. Conclusion
economically have repercussions for the rest of the
world. Therefore, increased globalization requires An examination of the place, present and future,
the elaboration of new ways of approaching the of international labour mobility within ongoing
world of work in its domestic and international processes of globalization leads to three main
dimension, with renewed emphasis on consultation observations. First, workers in the developing world
and cooperation. provide a pool of human resources that can respond
to demand in the developed world now and well
Coordination among the actors involved in the into the future, although much remains to be done
formulation of policies impacting on employment (i.e. to realize this in practice and to make it beneficial
labour market policy, but also labour migration, social for both countries of origin and destination; for
security, education policies, etc.) is first required at instance, through the elaboration of human resource
the national level, while national actors also need to development strategies and the creation of effective
devote more attention to the international dimension mechanisms to match demand with supply.
of this phenomenon both at the regional and global
levels. This could be facilitated by the creation of a Second, the relationship between trade and migration
roadmap on “globalization and labour mobility” to needs to be better understood. There is a greater
guide discussion in international fora and maximize need to focus on labour in trade theory than in past
the potential for collaboration between global globalization phases, because the current phase is
agencies with mandates in this area (e.g. ILO, IMF, characterized by an increase in trade in services and
IOM, World Bank, WTO, among others). knowledge-based trade, both of which rely heavily on
human resources. New trade theories (and supporting
An important objective of such a roadmap would evidence) are needed to better inform policies that
be to recognize the interrelationships between seek to address the need for increased international
globalization, the world of work and the international labour mobility.
movement of workers. It could provide an analysis
Third, policy coherence needs to be improved on a
number of levels. The transformation of the world of
51
From a purely economic perspective, there is a paradox here as movement
is liberalized in a setting (i.e. of the highly skilled and between
work has led to a change in the roles of traditional
countries that are at a similar economic level) where the gains from the stakeholders (e.g. public authorities, employers and
liberalization are not the most significant.

[45]
Chapter 1 - INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MOBILITY IN THE EVOLVING GLOBAL LABOUR MARKET

trade unions) or at least in their ability to perform processes may provide helpful consultative and
the role traditionally assigned to them. They face the experimental platforms for the exploration of
task of having to formulate and implement policies approaches that may reconcile needs for security,
and protect interests at the national level in the face mobility and worker protection. Attention is now
of global economic forces.52 The state also tends to focused on building interstate cooperation in the
have a more limited role in the regulation of the migration field from the bottom up rather than the
economy than before as new prominence is given to top down and, in particular, with respect to labour
enterprises as regulators.53 As roles and relationships mobility. In parallel to the pursuit of legally binding
change, there is a challenge in ensuring that the international instruments regulating the movement
mobility of workers and the role of key players, of persons and protecting the human rights of
including TNCs, are properly integrated within migrant workers at the global level,55 bilateral
employment and migration policies and strategies at cooperation, regional dialogue and consultation, and
the national and international level. even non-binding global consultative mechanisms are
exploring means to achieve greater cooperation in
At the broadest policy level if, as it is likely, the managing migration and labour mobility. A period of
gathering forces of globalization – as evidenced confidence building in the ability to manage labour
and implemented through trade reforms that have mobility to mutual benefit is needed – at national,
already taken place with respect to liberalizing bilateral, regional and global levels – and may pave
the movement of goods and capital – increase the the way in the future for more comprehensive and
pressure for greater labour mobility, but systems of coherent approaches to labour mobility that would
migration management are not adjusted accordingly, be more supportive of freer movements.56
a serious disconnect will be created between policies
and realities. There are manifest social costs to be
paid for this in terms of irregular migration and the
related exploitation involved.

To date governments have chosen to manage

migration essentially from a domestic perspective.54
This is unlikely to change radically but, in so doing,
governments are confronted with the challenge of
maintaining their sovereign prerogative to manage
movements across their borders, while having to cope
with the inefficiencies of regulating a transnational
phenomenon with national level policies. Regional

52
As a result, some actors are modifying their strategies. For instance,
some trade unions are developing more international strategies (setting
up international branches, or creating international networks) or
recognizing new realities with the inclusion of migrant issues in their
agendas and/or opening their membership to migrant workers. See the
Global Union Research Network (GURN) website at http://www.gurn.
info/topic/migrant/index.html.
53 55
Not only through the impacts of their economic weight but also, for E.g. temporary movement of persons through GATS Mode 4; the 1990
example, through the adoption of corporate social responsibility norms. International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
54
One evolving exception is the migration law and policy of the European Workers and Members of Their Families (see Textbox 13.1).
56
Union. See Chapter 13 for a fuller discussion of interstate cooperation.

[46]
 World Migration 2008

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2005 The Emerging Global Labor Market, June, Labour Studies, ILO, Geneva, http://www.
McKinsey Global Institute, http://www. ilo.org/public/english/bureau/inst/papers/
mckinsey.com/mgi/publications/ publecs/sachs/index.htm.
emerginggloballabormarket/.
Schiff, M.
Mehmet, O., E. Mendes and R. Sinding 2006 “Migration, Investment and Trade: Substitutes
1999 Towards a Fair Global Labour Market: Avoiding or Complements?”, World Bank, Universidad de
a new slave trade, Routledge: London and New Chile and IZA, October, http://www.eudnet.
York. net/download/Schiff.pdf.

Migration News Singa Boyenge, J-P.

1996 “Mexican Maquiladoras”, Migration News, 3(2), 2007 “ILO database on export processing zones
February, University of California at Davis, (Revised)”, WP.251, April, Sectoral Activities
http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more. Programme, International Labour Office,
php?id=872_0_2_0. Geneva, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/
dialogue/sector/themes/epz/epz-db.pdf.

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 World Migration 2008

United Nations Commission on Trade and Development 2007 Global Economic Prospects 2007: Managing
(UNCTAD) the Next Wave of Globalization, The
2001 “Movement of Natural Persons under the GATS: International Bank for Reconstruction and
Perspectives for the New Negotiations”, Mimeo, Development / The World Bank, Washington,
UNCTAD, Geneva. D.C., http://www-wds.worldbank.org/
external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/
2006 World Investment Report – FDI from Developing IB/2006/12/06/000112742_20061206155022/
and Transition Economies: Implications for Rendered/PDF/381400GEP2007.pdf.
Development, UN, New York and Geneva, http://
www.unctad.org/TEMPLATES/webflyer.asp?docid World Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalization
=7431&intItemID=2068&lang=1&mode=toc. 2004 A Fair Globalization: Creating Opportunities for
All, February, ILO, Geneva, http://www.ilo.org/
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs public/english/wcsdg/docs/report.pdf.
(UN DESA), Population Division
2006 World Migrant Stock: The 2005 Revision, UN
DESA, Population Division, New York, http:// Textbox 1.4 - Decent Work and Migrant Workers
esa.un.org/migration/.
International Labour Organization (ILO)
2007 World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision,
2004 Resolution concerning a fair deal for migrant
UN DESA, Population Division, New York,
workers in the global economy, adopted at
http://esa.un.org/unpp/index.asp?panel=2.
the 92nd Session of the International Labour
Walmsley, T.L. and A. Winters Conference, Geneva, in: Report of the Committee
2003 “Relaxing the Restrictions on the Temporary on Migrant Workers, Provisional Record 22,
Movements of Natural Persons: A Simulation International Labour Conference, 92nd Session,
Analysis”, Centre for Economic Policy Research, International Labour Office, Geneva (pp. 55-64),
Discussion Paper No. 3719, January, London. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/
migrant/download/ilcmig_res-eng.pdf.
Winters, L.A., T.L. Walmsley, Z.K. Wang and R. Grynberg
2003 “Liberalising the Temporary Movement 2006 ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration:
of Natural Persons: An Agenda for the Non-binding principles and guidelines for a
Development Round”, World Economy, 26(8): rights-based approach to labour migration,
1137-1161. International Labour Office, Geneva, http://
www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/
World Bank migrant/download/multilat_fwk_en.pdf.
2002 Globalization, Growth, and Poverty: Building
an Inclusive World Economy; The International Stalker, P.
Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The 2000 Workers without Frontiers: The Impact of
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International Labour Office, Geneva.
2006 Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic
Implications of Remittances and Migration, The
International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development / The World Bank, Washington,
D.C., http://www-wds.worldbank.org/
external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/
IB/2005/11/14/000112742_20051114174928/
Rendered/PDF/343200GEP02006.pdf.

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 World Migration 2008

HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
2 Indeed, in some countries temporary migration
schemes are of a more transitional nature because
The major countries of destination have admitted they either permit, or do not impede, the eventual
increasing numbers of highly skilled migrants since acquisition of permanent resident status.
the early 1990s. At the beginning of the decade, the
traditional countries of immigration had already put The other notable change is what has been referred
into place policies pitched to increase their intake to as the spectacular increase in the flow and stock
of highly skilled migrants, though most European of foreign students (OECD, 2004). In fact, foreign
countries did not review their policies to attract students are increasingly seen as an integral and
skilled migrants until the latter part of the decade. advantageous component of policies to attract highly
skilled migrants. Some countries are developing
This trend towards skilled migration is continuing specific policies to attract and retain students. Other
today and appears to be a composite result of forms of highly skilled migrant mobility include step
evolving government policies and changes in the migration from one country to another, and the
nature of the global labour demand and supply. return of often long-term migrants to their home
countries, which some observers liken to circular
Highly skilled migrants are involved in various migration.
migration scenarios. The largest stock of skilled
migrant workers consists of permanent residents, The increase in the migration of highly skilled
even though the flow of short-term migrants is workers raises the issue of brain drain and
increasing and often exceeds the yearly admission demographic indicators show that this concern may
of skilled immigrants on a permanent basis. Various be warranted. About 10 per cent of all highly skilled
countries admit increasing numbers of skilled workers persons from the developing world live in either
under temporary worker schemes, and continued to North America or Europe. This proportion across
do so even during the post-2001 economic recession.

Step migration refers to mobility from an original residence to first one
and then another destination, e.g. in a “stepwise” or sequential fashion.
* This chapter was written by Lindsay Lowell, Institute for the Study of Circular migration is variously defined, but generally refers to recurrent
International Migration, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. movement between two countries (see also Chapter 11).

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 Chapter 2 - HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION

the board would appear to be about right in terms Migratory movements tend to be influenced
of the numbers necessary to generate linkages to by regional affinities. While policymakers and
the global economy and to yield positive feedback researchers have focused their attention mainly on
effects from the diaspora. But many Latin American, migration from developing to developed countries,
African and Caribbean countries have a much larger there are other types of flows that deserve attention.
share of their highly skilled nationals living abroad, According to Ocampo (2006), South-North, South-
which poses a serious challenge to their own socio- South, and North-North migration flows account for
economic development. roughly one-third each of the global distribution
of migrant stocks. Moreover, the growing share of
This chapter first reviews some of the trends in tertiary educated migrants in migration movements
highly skilled migration in major countries of is notable, accounting, for instance, for a 46 per cent
destination. The distribution of highly skilled increase in migrant flows in OECD countries between
migrants in different countries is reviewed, as well as 1990 and 2000.
their share of migrants from different source regions.
Next, data on permanent immigrants are presented 2.1 Defining Highly Skilled
together with a brief discussion of the limited data
available on temporary skilled foreign workers and It is not always clear just who the highly skilled
foreign students, a subject addressed in more detail are. The most obvious indicator is either the level of
in Chapter 4. This is followed by a discussion of the education or occupation. Depending on the objective
major elements in admission policies associated with to be achieved, one or the other is preferred. If
the trends in highly skilled migration. The chapter relevance to policy is important, most governments
then turns to the impact of highly skilled migration typically use a combination of both education and
on countries of origin. A brief discussion of the occupation to select the highly skilled. Ultimately,
literature dealing with such impacts then leads to data availability often constrains the definition used
a discussion of policies that could contribute to for the purpose of analysis.
optimizing highly skilled mobility for the benefit
and development of countries of origin. The chapter The most basic definition of highly skilled migrants
concludes with some observations on policy and tends to be restricted to persons with tertiary
research implications. education, typically adults who have completed a
formal two-year college education or more. This is
2. The Increasing Mobility of the Highly Skilled also the most readily available international statistic
and, by default, the most widely studied measure
In recent years, new data sets based on the collection of highly skilled mobility. When possible, additional
of national census data have revealed the patterns information regarding an academic or professional
of highly skilled migration. They demonstrate that degree would be desirable. The National Science
skilled migration is indeed increasing and that Foundation of the United States, which has some of
there are many and complex relations between the most complete international data on the stock of
major countries of origin and destination. Student scientists and engineers, tends to focus on data for
migration also shows a marked increase and is holders of doctoral degrees.
likely to significantly influence the future volume,
composition and destination of highly skilled The Manual on the Measurement of Human Resources
migration (see also Chapter 4). of 1995, or the “Canberra Manual”, is a response
to the work of both the OECD and the European

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 World Migration 2008

Commission’s efforts to prioritize standardized wellsprings, although it raises an interesting point

data on human resources devoted to science and about what might be considered as most important
technology (S&T). It draws on best international and for national productivity — education, skills or
national practice and classifications and provides creativity? Other than for the specific purpose
definitions in terms of qualifications (levels and of constructing international norms in statistics,
fields of study) and occupations (Auriol and Sexton, occupation is important precisely because it points
2002). While it is, perhaps, one of the most detailed to what is being done; and what is being done is
definitional guidelines for comparative international ultimately of critical importance. Highly skilled
statistics, its focus on S&T occupations limits its persons are mainly in high value-added and high
general usefulness. productivity activities that are essential to the global
knowledge society. S&T workers, physicians and
Most frequently, governments define highly skilled business persons bring different competencies and
migrants not in terms of either/or, but in terms of their professional activities at various levels combine
both education and occupation. For example, the to advance economic and social development and
United States’ well-known “specialty worker H-1B national wealth.
visa” is based on a list of specific occupations and
a minimum academic requirement of a Bachelor’s 2.2 Flows and Stocks of Highly Skilled Migrants
degree. The definition of “highly skilled” depends
on both an educational component and a threshold The existing data on the mobility of highly skilled
defining minimum competence in a knowledge-based individuals are limited to the assessment of persons
society. with tertiary education and have only recently been
compiled for the World Bank and the OECD using
Professional activity and experience are important national censuses. Putting these estimates together
as selection criteria as this allows to filter out is a substantial task requiring the collection of data
workers with little education and to target desired from national censuses in destination countries,
skills. The S&T occupations defined in the Canberra which often work with different definitions. More
Manual are an example in point as they focus on refined estimates, for instance regarding more
technical skills regarded as crucial for research and detailed levels of education, or for the mobility of
development (R&D) and the engineering requirements men versus women, or by occupation, have yet to
of knowledge-based economies. be developed.

However, to restrict the meaning of highly skilled to Using tertiary education, Figure 2.1 shows that the
S&T occupations would be too narrow an approach growth of highly skilled migration to EU countries
as it would disregard other high-skill categories that already started in the early 1990s, preceding the
are in significant demand, such as business persons, “New Economy” and the boom in the information,
managers, teachers or healthcare providers. Of communications and technology (ICT) sectors. Once
course, it is possible to go beyond narrowly defined underway, the percentage of highly skilled migrants
immigration policy interests by extending it to increased until the end of the ICT-led cycle in 2001.
include a “creative class” that includes S&T workers From just under 15 per cent of all migrants in 1991,
as well as writers and artists (Florida and Tinagli, the share of the highly skilled grew to just over one-
2004). Arguably, such an expanded definition quarter of all migrants by 2001.
goes beyond the domain of immigration policy, as
creativity has, or should have, deeper endogenous 
For the EU, the new immigrants are those who arrived in the respective
year. For the United States, new immigrants are those admitted during
the past five years.

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 Chapter 2 - HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION

In contrast, the share of highly skilled migrants to European intake in the late 1990s appears to have
the United States initially accounted for about one- stabilized around 2000, or just at the peak of the
quarter of all recently arrived immigrants, increasing ICT boom, despite the fact that many countries had
to around 30 per cent already by the mid-1990s. introduced policies to attract the highly skilled.
Compared to European countries, the United States This would indicate that, while policies can have
started the 1990s with a substantial share of highly a significant impact on the intake of highly skilled
skilled immigrants attributable to the Immigration migrants, economic conditions strongly influence
Act of 1990, which increased both permanent and trends.
temporary visas for highly skilled workers.
Table 2.1 shows the distribution in 2000 of the tertiary-
Figure 2.1 educated, foreign-born individuals by country
Percentage of New Immigrant Adults Aged 15-64 of residence. Asian-born migrants are the largest
with Tertiary Education contingent of the internationally mobile population,
USA EU making up 35 per cent of the world total. They are
35
closely followed by European migrants, who make
up 34 per cent of highly educated individuals living
30
outside their countries of birth, the vast majority
25 from the EU-25. They are followed by migrants from
the Western Hemisphere, i.e. North America, Latin
20
America and the Caribbean, who account for 23 per
15 cent, and African migrants who account for about
10 seven per cent of the total. It is not surprising
that Asians predominate among the highly skilled
5
migrants as they are mostly from developing countries
0 and therefore strongly attracted by opportunities
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
to improve their prospects. However, it is less well
Sources: European Commission (2003: 197, chart 139); tabulations U.S.
Census microdata.
recognized that Europeans are also highly mobile as
they move mostly within the region. Such moves are
less driven by policies designed to attract migrants
As from the mid-1990s, however, the share of per se, than by a common history, contiguous
skilled migrants in the U.S. intake stabilized while borders, cultural affinities and the most recent EU
it increased in Europe. The sharp increase in the enlargement.

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 World Migration 2008

Table 2.1:
Percentage of Tertiary Educated Foreign-born Adults by Region of Birth, 2000
Region of Birth

Country of Latin
Total
Residence Europe- Europe- American North
Asia Africa Oceania within
EU25 Non EU and the America
Country
Caribbean
Australia 35 39 5 6 2 3 10 100
Austria 13 57 21 4 2 3 0 100
Belgium 11 68 4 13 2 3 0 100
Canada 35 35 7 6 11 5 1 100
Czech Rep. 8 64 24 1 1 2 0 100
Denmark 28 37 19 8 3 5 1 100
Finland 11 65 13 6 2 4 1 100
France 17 35 7 34 4 4 0 100
Germany 25 43 20 4 3 5 0 100
Greece 11 44 19 11 1 14 1 100
Hungary 5 30 61 1 1 2 0 100
Ireland 8 72 3 6 1 9 3 100
Italy 16 32 22 14 10 6 1 100
Japan 77 2 0 1 16 4 1 100
South Korea 86 2 0 0 0 11 1 100
Luxembourg 0 95 4 0 0 1 0 100
Mexico 7 25 3 1 34 31 0 100
Netherlands 28 36 6 10 17 3 1 100
New Zealand 24 47 3 7 1 4 15 100
Norway 23 49 9 6 4 9 1 100
Poland 4 28 67 0 0 1 0 100
Portugal 0 16 0 79 4 0 0 100
Slovak Rep. 3 79 17 1 0 1 0 100
Spain 6 39 8 8 35 4 0 100
Sweden 23 45 18 5 6 3 1 100
Switzerland 10 65 9 6 5 5 1 100
Turkey 6 56 33 0 0 5 0 100
U.K. 33 27 0 21 6 7 6 100
United States 41 16 5 4 29 4 1 100
Total OECD 35 27 7 7 18 5 2 100
Note: Adult population ages 25 and older. North America is Canada and the U.S. and the rest of the hemisphere is included in Latin America and the
Caribbean.
Source: Docquier and Marfouk (2006).

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 Chapter 2 - HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION

A large proportion of migration occurs within a Employers are eager to hire highly skilled migrants
particular region. Although the United States to offset local labour shortages or to respond to
and Canada receive most of their highly skilled the “just-in-time” requirements of knowledge-
immigrants from Asia, their prominent position based economies and tight production timeframes.
as immigration countries is mainly due to their Today’s labour markets remain regionally clustered
substantial intake of highly skilled residents from but are obviously extending further. Local labour
within the western hemisphere, with 33 per cent shortages are not the only reason why employers
of highly skilled migrants moving to the U.S. from hire immigrants; they do so also because, in a
within the region, in particular from Canada and globalizing economy, they can. It is ever easier to
Mexico. Likewise, most European countries receive advertise for and identify potential workers in other
a large share of their highly skilled migrants from countries, and international recruitment agencies
other European countries. The two Asian countries arrange to bring workers and employers together.
in Table 2.1, Japan and Republic of Korea (South At best, expanding labour markets make for more
Korea), equally draw the largest share of their highly productive enterprises that benefit all stakeholders.
skilled migrants from other Asian countries. The challenge is to implement policies that inhibit
unscrupulous employers from hiring foreign workers
Former colonial or other historical ties also play at low wages and displacing local workers.
an important role. Even though Australia is much
closer to Asia and actively promotes policies to 2.3 Temporary Workers and Foreign Students
attract highly skilled migrants from that region, its
most important source of highly skilled migrants It is widely recognized that increasing numbers of
is Europe. Similarly, 34 per cent of France’s highly temporary workers and foreign students, courted
skilled migrants come from Africa, as do 79 per cent by policies designed to attract them, are part of
of highly skilled migrants to Portugal. Japan draws the evolving mobility of highly skilled migrants.
16 per cent of its highly skilled migrants from South Several European countries, in particular, are
America, primarily because of historical links arising further developing their policies aimed to attract
out of previous Japanese immigration to Brazil. highly skilled migrants. Unfortunately, there are no
systematic data on these movements and the numbers
Thus, highly skilled migrants tend to move within can only be inferred from comparative collections
regions or close to home. The supply of workers is in the annual migration reports of the OECD (OECD,
more readily available in neighbouring countries 2006a). Such data indicate that at least 650,000
where familiarity, the reduced cost of moving and highly skilled temporary workers are admitted yearly
historical linkages between countries facilitate by OECD countries, a threefold increase since the
mobility. At more distant removes, as when Asians early 1990s.
migrate to the geographically distant Americas,
previous migration or historical linkages to particular The trends in student numbers are described here to
countries may come into play, for example owing to provide a fuller picture of new mobility patterns and
Chinese and Japanese labour migration in the latter are discussed in depth in Chapter 4. From 800,000
part of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th in 1980, the number of foreign students rose to 1.2
century, or later military interventions in Korea and million in 1990; by 2000 their numbers had increased
Viet Nam. Such linkages help establish beachheads to 1.9 million and reached 2.7 million in 2004 (OECD,
of immigrants who sponsor family members and 2006b). The origins and destinations of students
establish networks that facilitate the movement of are broadly similar to that of all tertiary-educated
their compatriots. migrants, but they are even more likely to come from

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 World Migration 2008

Asia or Africa. The reason why student mobility is In recent years, there have been many changes
important is because it may be the leading edge of in the admission policies of major countries of
increased migration by highly skilled persons from destination, perhaps most notably the United
these source regions. Kingdom, but also France, Ireland and Germany. The
Canadian and Australian admission systems have
The reasons for the long-term increase in numbers also recently introduced several changes; however,
are numerous and include more aggressive policies these countries have courted skilled migrants for
introduced in many countries since the late 1990s. nearly two decades. Arguably, most of the important
Major European and English-speaking countries have changes or numerical increases concern temporary
implemented policies explicitly designed to attract admissions (Zlotnik, 2005), with fewer changes in
students. These policies fall within three general permanent admissions.
areas: (1) facilitating student admission policies;
(2) student outreach and university marketing What components of policy attract greater numbers
programmes; and (3) (in most new policies) providing of highly skilled migrants? Obviously, the contingent
for easier transition from student to worker status, reserved for a given visa by implication regulates
especially for science and engineering students the potential volume of migrants, but numbers
(Suter and Jandl, 2006). may be capped, uncapped or set by some impartial
mechanism. Similarly, variations in different
3. Attraction and Admission Policies elements make a visa more or less attractive to
either the potential employer or migrant worker.
What are the specific features of immigration policies The policy elements in these countries often differ,
that have led to the increasing flow of highly skilled but they tend to include at least the following seven
workers and students to the major destination components (Lowell, 2004).
countries? A complete and final analysis is difficult
because of the variety of policies involved, the (i) Visa numbers: Some countries are creating new
variations in their timing and the fact that the working visas with large or even unlimited
nature of international mobility continues to change. numerical caps, while others adjust numbers
Any quick and simple answers are unlikely since periodically. Large or uncapped numbers tend
the issues involved are transitional and complex by to favour increasing immigration.
nature. But it is desirable and should be possible to (ii) Labour market test: Often migrants are allowed
compare national policies according to their various entry only if there appears to be a shortage of
regulations that can be changed independently or local workers. This protects the local workforce
in concert to affect the composition and/or level of from undue competition, but if stringently
admissions. applied, labour market tests favour less
immigration and may encourage employers to
raise wages.

The United States has over a fifth of all international students and about
half of those in the English-speaking world. The number of students
going to the U.S. dropped markedly during 2001 and many observers 
argue that the U.S. became more “restrictive” and lost out in the As recently as 2002, McLaughlan and Salt (2002: 3) studied admission
new competitive environment. But what changed post 9/11 was the policies for the highly skilled in 31 countries concluding that “[m]ost
implementation of pre-existing regulations, such as consular interviews European countries, together with developed Asian ones, have not
for all applicants, but at such short notice that this led to backlogs. introduced special measures to recruit highly skilled workers. They
Also, steeply rising U.S. tuition costs, cited by students as the major continue to rely on their existing work permit systems”.

deterrent, along with other factors inhibited student applications. These rankings were undertaken in 2004 and there have been some
Sharply rebounding student visa issuances since 2005 suggest that notable changes since then. However, the countries that have instituted
recessionary impacts and administrative bottlenecks have abated (Lowell changes, and the nature of those changes, make it unlikely that the
and Bump, 2006). ranking of these admission regimes would change markedly.

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 Chapter 2 - HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION

(iii) Labour protections: After a visa is issued, a sponsoring employer for a set period.
requirements may be set concerning the wages, Employers tend to favour this arrangement, but
working conditions or employment of migrants. workers prefer the possibility to negotiate new
This protects both migrants and local workers, employment at any point.
but requires oversight and may be objected to (vi) Restrictions on dependants/working spouse:
by employers. Often the spouse has not been permitted to
(iv) Enforcement mechanisms: Admission systems work if the principal holds a transitional visa.
are increasingly interwoven with security Many countries are relaxing this regulation, a
concerns and their bureaucracies. Stringent move which potential highly skilled migrants
admission processes can slow admissions and/ find attractive.
or deter migrants. Some countries attribute (vii) Permanent residence rights: Many highly
post-admission enforcement responsibilities to skilled migrants work on temporary work
ministries responsible for employment, though visas and initially do not intend to stay
others mandate no agency. Generally speaking, permanently. By encouraging a transition to
lax systems favour increased immigration (and permanent residence, countries offer a strong
abuses). incentive to potential highly skilled migrants
(v) Employer portability: Temporary or transitional (see Portrait 2.1).
work visas may require migrants to stay with


The employment of migrants may be contingent on the notification of
domestic workers, unions and/or regulations that bar employment if local
workers are laid off.

Portrait 2.1
Working as an IT Specialist in the Czech Republic

Stojanco is 28 years old and comes from a small town in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) where his family
has lived for several generations. Since November 2005, he has been working as an IT engineer for IBM in Brno in the Czech
Republic. He is also a participant in the Government’s Pilot Project on the Selection of Qualified Foreign Workers,1 which
enables selected skilled foreigners who have obtained employment and temporary residence in the Czech Republic to qualify
more rapidly for permanent residence.

Stojanco began his undergraduate studies in FYROM before leaving for Bulgaria to study electrical engineering. He recalls: “After
four semesters in a school at home, I had the choice of either continuing my studies in Skopje or to go to Bulgaria to study.
Because of the war, and also because I wanted to see more of the world, I went to Bulgaria. My decision to study there was also
influenced by the fact that it was less expensive to study in Bulgaria than in my home country. I did not have to pay tuition
fees and the cost of living was also lower.”

Four years later, Stojanko completed his studies in Bulgaria and returned to FYROM, where he stayed for some time before
deciding again to leave: “I was back in a community context where everybody knew everybody and I did not have the right
connections to find employment. In the Czech Republic, a person who has knowledge and skills and is good at what he does
can find a job.”

He learnt about the Czech Pilot Project on the Selection of Qualified Foreign Workers from newspaper articles and a TV
programme. He was aware that foreign workers were needed in the Czech Republic: “Generally, I knew that the Czech Republic

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 World Migration 2008

needed experts from other countries as Czechs were leaving to work abroad and that there was a lack of young people and
young professionals”.

When Stojanco found that IBM was looking for skilled workers in the Czech Republic, he applied through a company in Bulgaria
that had organized a tender for jobs and advertised this at the university where he had studied. In the final round of interviews
Stojanco was successful, and his application to work for IBM in the Czech Republic was accepted. IBM made the arrangements
for his employment in Brno and organized all the necessary documents so that he could move to work there.

Once in the Czech Republic, Stojanco began to look for more information on the Pilot Project and found some useful indications
on the website of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. After spending three months to assemble the necessary documents,
which included not only the work and residence permit but also documents confirming his education and language skills, he was
interviewed and informed that he met the selection criteria for participation. While Stojanco does not speak the Czech language
very well, he understands it quite well, and his employer also paid for him to attend a two-month Czech language course. He is
keen to improve his language skills, but finds it a challenge as English is the main language spoken at work.

When asked why he joined the Pilot Project, he explains: “Mainly because it is an easier and faster way to obtain permanent
residence in the Czech Republic, which I consider the greatest advantage of the Project. When I’m granted permanent residence,
I will have the chance, for instance, to acquire a mortgage to buy a flat.”

Since Stojanco arrived in Brno, much has changed in the city where only few migrants had lived before. IBM alone employs
about 1,000 migrants. Stojanco observes: “Many of them are from my home country and Bulgaria, but there are also people
from India or South Africa working in our company. In fact, from all over the world.”

Stojanco does not intend to return home just yet: “I am not yet ready to return home. Before I do so, I would still like to get
to know the world. I now have many friends in Brno. But I’m not here only to earn money. I also like to be here and enjoy the
style of life.” However, he remains uninterested in politics: “That is one thing I prefer not to be interested in. If you are from
the Balkans, as I am, then you know that there are at least as many different and often politicized versions of each historical
event, as there are peoples affected by them. Each country tends to develop its own interpretation of history. That is why I
prefer to just concentrate on my work as an IT specialist and use my skills, without becoming too involved in politics and other
sensitive issues.”

Note:
1
The Pilot Project (2003-2008) provides selected qualified foreign workers, who are already in lawful employment in the Czech Republic,
with the opportunity to apply for permanent residence within a shorter period of time, after one and a half years (in the highly qualified
workers category) or two and a half years (in the standard category of qualified workers) of uninterrupted stay and work (as compared to
the current standard period of five years).
The project is open to citizens of Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Canada, Croatia, FYROM, India, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Montenegro, the
Russian Federation, Serbia and Ukraine; graduates of Czech universities coming from all countries (except those who studied in the Czech
Republic as part of development assistance projects organized with their home country), who graduated in 1995 or later; and graduates
of Czech secondary schools from all countries, who finished their studies and passed the school leaving exam in 2000 or later. In order to
qualify for participation, applicants must obtain at least 25 points in the computerized selection procedure reflecting various criteria (e.g.,
qualifications, practical experience, language skills, family situation). Family members of project participants are also allowed to settle in
the Czech Republic and obtain permanent residence there.
The Project is implemented by the Czech Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs in cooperation with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
the Ministry of Interior. The office of the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in Prague, together with IOM missions in the
qualifying countries, assist the Czech Government to disseminate information on the Project.

Source: Adapted from Pilot Project Selection of Qualified Foreign Workers (Reporter: Martina Křížková, Faculty of Social Sciences, Charles
University, Prague, 18 July 2007) http://www.imigrace.mpsv.cz/?lang=en&article=media2&mm=4176.

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The application of these regulations may vary of domestic workers, quotas, period of stay and
significantly among countries. However, there possibilities for renewal, and the permissibility
has been little national or comparative evaluation of family reunification. Having constructed major
of the success of admission programmes. In fact, criteria for comparison, however, none of these
there is rather little international effort to evaluate studies goes on to draw firm conclusions about
programmes, other than all-too-often perfunctory effective practices. Even the regular reporting
administrative/legislative reviews, and very few on policy changes in the OECD’s annual Trends in
countries have attempted to either collect the International Migration, rarely draws any strong
necessary data or carry out rigorous analyses. conclusions.

Certainly, countries have different criteria for One exception to this tendency to make systematic
measuring success and particular countries may comparisons while drawing few conclusions is found
even have conducted experiments with different in Papademetriou (2003), who identifies four major
programmes intended to achieve different ends. strategies to admit skilled immigrants: employment-
However, it appears that there is very little interest based admissions where employers apply to hire a
in policy evaluation when it comes to the impact worker under conditions that safeguard domestic
of admission policies on highly skilled migration. labour; labour market testing where government
According to McLaughlan and Salt (2002), the five agencies identify sectors with labour shortages;
approaches most often used to determine success talent accrual where points are awarded for
are qualitative assessments to see whether policy characteristics like education or language ability;
objectives have been met; measurement of work and “filtration systems” where permanent residence
outputs; level of complaints lodged by stakeholders; status is awarded to students or temporary workers
surveys of public opinion; and research conducted who first demonstrate their value. He suggests that
internally or externally. The authors note that a combination of the best of these strategies might
only Australia, Canada, Germany and the United be a good approach and might be accomplished using
States have carried out such systematic research. a points system, similar to those used in Australia
Comparative frameworks for programme evaluation and Canada, awarding points for sub-elements of
are therefore still at the development stage. each of the four strategies. In this regard, he starts
with an evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses
In fact, most international policy studies to date do of various strategies, not recommending one or the
little more than specify criteria deemed important for other, but rather a combination of the best elements
comparative purposes. The most detailed comparative of each.
study so far, completed in 2000 (Christian, 2000),
covers some 15 countries and compares them in In addition, there have been policy recommendations
terms of class of admission (type of migrant/business for the orderly management of migration on a
stream), the use of quotas, the type of employment worldwide basis that are in some ways supplementary
authorization (employer or employee-based), and to legally binding standards, such as those found
application procedures (employer or employee- in international trade agreements. They offer ideas
based). Rollason (2002), whose main focus is on for the cooperative management of highly skilled
the United Kingdom, remarks on the comparative workers between developing and developed countries.
features of temporary or permanent programmes in Such projects include the Transatlantic Learning
11 countries in terms of the categories of workers, Connection (1999) or the International Regime
general/specific admissions, tests for the availability for Orderly Movements of People (Ghosh, 2000). In

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partnership with the International Organization 2007). While there has been progress in the
for Migration (IOM), the Swiss Government development of common policies on asylum seekers
launched the Global Consultative Process for Inter- and refugees and on the treatment and movement of
State Cooperation on Migration Management in long-term third-country residents, the achievement
2001 (Berne Initiative), which contributed to of consensus on the establishment of common
the development of the International Agenda for criteria for the admission and residence of highly
Migration Management (IAMM) (2005) containing a skilled migrants in EU Member States will require a
set of common understandings and effective practices great deal more work.
for a planned, balanced and comprehensive approach
to the management of migration. 4. Policies that Address Brain Drain

The Global Commission on International Migration It is fair to say that the greatest competition has
was launched by the U.N. Secretary-General and a been for highly skilled migrants from the developing
number of governments in December 2003. The world, the source of the largest and growing numbers
Commission’s final report in October 2005 makes of highly educated persons. Despite Europe’s
recommendations on how to improve the national, increasing intake, the United States remains the
regional and global management of international dominant destination country for highly skilled
migration (GCIM, 2005). In the European Union, workers from developing countries. Already at the
the recent enlargement to 27 members has renewed outset of the 1990s, the U.S. had just over half of the
pressure to go beyond the harmonization of national world’s highly skilled migrants from the developing
policies to a common legal migration policy (Van world (Carrington and Detragiache, 1999). In fact,
Selm and Tsolakis, 2003), including a proposal Table 2.2 shows that the traditional North American
for a EU Directive on the conditions of entry and destinations of the United States and Canada have
residence of highly skilled workers from non-EU been the place of residence of nearly two-thirds
third countries (European Commission, 2005). In (65%) of the world’s tertiary educated foreign-born
October 2007, the European Commission published adults in 1990 and 2000. The traditional countries
a Communication introducing this draft directive. of immigration, along with Sweden and Norway, are
The proposal establishes a fast-track procedure the most successful countries relative to the size of
for the admission of highly qualified workers from their own populations in attracting highly skilled
third countries, based on a common definition and migrants (Lowell, 2006).
criteria. Workers admitted would be provided with
an “EU Blue Card”, essentially a residence permit These figures translate into substantial losses of
allowing them to work and also affording them a set highly skilled populations for the developing world.
of rights, including favourable family reunification As of 2001, nearly one in every ten tertiary educated
conditions. The proposal envisages restrictions on adults born in the developing world resided in North
access to the labour market for the first two years America, Australia or western Europe. About five
in the Member State of residence. Thereafter, such per cent of the developing world’s emigrants with
workers would enjoy equal treatment with nationals secondary education live in industrialized countries
as regards access to highly qualified employment. and the figures for the upper echelons are even
Moreover, after two years of lawful residence in the higher. It is estimated that 30 to 50 per cent of the
first Member State, the proposal would enable the developing world’s population trained in science
migrant to move for work to another Member State
subject to certain conditions (European Commission, 
See also Chapter 12, which discusses some of these policies.

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Table 2.2:
Percentage of All Tertiary Educated Foreign-born Adults by Region of Residence and Region of
Birth, 1990 and 2000
Region of Residence

Region of Birth Latin America Total from

North
Europe and the Asia Oceania Region of
America
Caribbean Birth

2000
Europe 36.7 49.9 0.6 1.6 11.3 100
North America 24.9 62.1 4.6 2.3 6.1 100
Latin America & Caribbean 8.0 88.3 1.3 1.4 1.0 100
Asia 14.5 73.1 0.1 4.2 8.0 100
Oceania 22.4 27.2 0.1 0.7 49.6 100
Africa 47.8 44.5 0.1 0.1 7.6 100
Total OECD 23.6 64.8 0.7 2.4 8.5 100

1990
Europe 27.2 57.2 0.8 0.9 13.9 100
North America 19.1 67.2 4.8 2.9 6.0 100
Latin America & Caribbean 7.9 87.3 2.2 1.2 1.5 100
Asia 13.5 69.0 0.2 7.7 9.6 100
Oceania 15.3 28.5 0.1 0.8 55.3 100
Africa 46.8 43.2 0.1 0.1 9.8 100
Total OECD 20.3 64.9 1.0 3.2 10.7 100
Note: Adult population ages 25 and older. North America comprises Canada and the U.S. and the rest of the hemisphere is included in Latin America
and the Caribbean. Includes mobility across national borders and within the region. Data collected for OECD destination countries.
Source: Docquier and Marouk (2006) (authors’ tabulations of online database).

and technology live in the developed world (Lowell, by the increasing emigration of health workers from
Findlay and Stewart, 2004). developing to developed countries are illustrated in
Textbox 2.1. However, some observers argue that a
Still, a brain drain can only be said to have occurred certain degree of highly skilled emigration is required
where there is clear evidence that migration flows for source countries to benefit from links to the
have had adverse consequences for the source global economy. Also, highly skilled migrants may
economy. The growing research literature finds reinvest human and economic capital in their home
that a relatively large-scale emigration of highly countries. Indeed, emigration rates of some five to
skilled workers relative to their populations, ten per cent may benefit economic growth, but
particularly from least developed economies and higher rates can be detrimental and, unfortunately,
smaller developing countries, has adverse impacts on are not uncommon for many Caribbean and African
national economic growth. The difficulties caused countries (Docquier, 2005).

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Textbox 2.1
Globalization and the Mobility of Health Workers

Globally, health workers are on the move. Although they move to many parts of the world, their migration is increasingly
asymmetrical, from developing to developed countries, reflecting a broader dynamic context in which labour markets for skilled
professionals are becoming global. The main destination countries of health worker migrants are indicated in Table 2.3. The
United States currently employs the greatest number of foreign-trained doctors and nurses, followed by the United Kingdom. Of
all regions, sub-Saharan Africa suffers the greatest shortage of health workers, yet doctors trained in this region represent close
to one quarter (23%) of the current foreign-trained doctor workforce in OECD countries (Pond and McPake, 2006).

Table 2.3
Health Workers moving to OECD Countries from Developing Countries

Doctors from abroad Nurses from abroad

OECD country Number % of total Number % of total
Australia 11,122 21 - -
Canada 13,620 23 19,061 6
Finland 1,003 9 140 0
France 11,269 6 - -
Germany 17,318 6 26,284 3
Ireland - - 8,758 14
New Zealand 2,832 34 10,616 21
Portugal 1,258 4 - -
United Kingdom 69,813 33 65,000 10
United States 213,331 27 99,456 5
Note: - = not applicable
Source: WHO (2006: 98).

In addition to emigration, many developing countries continue to experience the internal movement of health workers from
rural or under-served to urban areas. With increased international private health investment and “medical tourism”, they are
also witnessing a flow of health workers from public to private healthcare systems. The result of these migratory flows has been
diminished access to healthcare and services for individuals who depend on the public healthcare system – the system used by
the large majority of poorer populations in developing countries (Marchal and Kegels, 2003). Low health worker density and
diminished service access and availability, in turn, correlate with increased mortality among infants, children under five years
of age and women during childbirth.

Globalization contributes in various ways to the conditions which lead to all three forms of health worker migration: rural to
urban, public to private, low-income to high-income country. First, there are generally applicable enabling factors. Professional
credentials are increasingly recognized across borders particularly where free trade areas have been formed, the European
Economic Area (EEA) serving as the best example. Eased migration and mobility (including, for instance, through cheaper, faster
and easier travel, multilingualism, post-colonial ties and common academic curricula) have contributed to a veritable sense
of “global citizenship” worldwide, with professional credentials serving as passports. The opportunity to accumulate savings
and remit portions of incomes to family and communities back home is another incentive for health workers to migrate. The
Internet – one of globalization’s primary tools – has increased access to recruitment agency and employer websites. Diasporas
established in the developed countries have also become another factor of attraction.

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Second, deteriorating economic, social and environmental conditions “push” health workers to seek a better life abroad (Dovlo
and Martineau, 2004; UNFPA, 2005). In many countries, economic deterioration has, in part, resulted from poorly sequenced
or overly rapid global market integration; financial crises arising from increased flows of speculative capital; loss of public
revenues due to trade liberalization and a decline in tariffs; and requirements for privatization, cost recovery or expenditure
ceilings associated with loans or debt relief from international financial institutions (IFIs), all of which limit the ability for
governments to pay adequate salaries or to provide incentives for health workers to remain (Joint Learning Initiative, 2004).

Finally, globalization is making it easier for rich countries to “pull” in health workers. A number of regional trade treaties
incorporate specific measures designed to encourage the free movement of labour within their defined geopolitical areas.
Border barriers in many rich countries are being actively lowered for professional and highly skilled immigrants but raised for
lesser skilled individuals. These same countries often experience shortages in their domestic supply of health workers and the
increased demand of an ageing population. They rely heavily on the immigration of foreign-trained professionals to fill the
supply/demand gap – even while enjoying better health status and a much higher ratio of health workers to the population
than many of the countries from which foreign-trained health professionals migrate. Their ability to offer higher pay, better
working conditions and greater opportunities in safer environments will continue to pull in foreign health workers until supply
exceeds demand (Mullan, 2005; Wilbulproprasert et al., 2004).

Short of an end to “globalization-as-we-have-come-to-know-it”, this flow will continue. The policy challenge is one of reducing
both the “push” and the “pull” factors. Since this “push/pull” flow is inherently global, managing it to ensure that health does
not suffer will require multilateral agreements and strategies.

Source: Ron Labonté and Corinne Packer, Institute of Population Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Canada.

In short, high levels of skilled emigration can leave one’s own country and, given the contemporary
unfavourably affect local development, even though interplay of labour dynamics, is unlikely to be
it may simultaneously generate benefits. Most effective.
studies find that adverse impacts are most commonly
associated with permanent as opposed to temporary 4.1 Migration Agreements and Policy
migration of the highly skilled. Otherwise, the benefits Harmonization
of highly skilled labour migration flows are neither
automatic nor inevitable. The extent to which these Multilateral and bilateral agreements are among the
migrant flows benefit developing source countries best means to manage the exchange of workers,
will depend on the development and implementation especially where a chronic shortage of labour in host
of appropriate policies that optimize the benefits and countries can be met by a surplus of appropriately
minimize the costs. To be effective, these policies skilled labour from a country of origin. But, just as
are best developed in both countries of origin and it took decades for the construction of international
destination, both separately and in partnership with regimes to regulate trade, it may take years before
one another. There are at least three policy arenas there are equivalent multilateral migration regimes.
which have the potential to generate a regulatory In the meantime, adopting appropriate bilateral and
environment that benefits source countries: regional agreements may be both more feasible and,
adoption of multilateral and bilateral agreements to in some cases, preferable for other reasons.
harmonize policies; managing return migration; and
fostering the transfer of knowledge and remittances Intergovernmental agreements enable national
by diasporas (Lowell, Findlay and Stewart, 2004). A authorities to agree on the elements that govern
fourth approach, which would consist of restricting the exchange of workers and occupations, or the
outflows, is sometimes put forward, but it conflicts types of workers concerned. They are an alternative
with individual rights, such as the human right to to the damaging practice of “head-hunting” by

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international recruitment agencies, which often the Philippines and Thailand are aware of this and
seek migrant workers from developing countries made more commitments under Mode 4 delivery of
where high-skill endowments are scarce and who can services by “natural persons abroad” than under
least afford to lose their professional and scientific other Modes. Future progress requires the adoption
elite. At the same time, bilateral agreements can by all parties of clear definitions and transparent
stipulate that foreign workers must be trained in the regulations (Findlay and Warren, 2000).
destination country in the skills appropriate to the
needs of the developing country. However, bilateral 4.2 Managing Return Migration
and multilateral agreements may not be able to meet
short-term or cyclic shortages, and they may place Return migration is often referred to as capable of
developing countries at a disadvantage in certain generating significant benefits for the country of
bargaining situations (Koivusalo, 2003). origin (Ellerman, 2003). The return of highly skilled
expatriates with their newly acquired skills, taste
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) for innovation and the potential to create networks
is seen as the most promising approach towards a can be especially advantageous (see Textbox 2.2).
broad multilateral framework to govern the mobility Certainly, highly skilled returnees offer benefits
of skilled persons. The Mode 4 elements of the GATS that are often overlooked when foreign advisors or
(see Textbox Int. 1) can reduce the risks of a loss business persons are called upon in their stead, while
of scarce skilled human resources because it offers temporary or short-term movers have been shown to
a managed approach to the temporary movement maintain a commitment to send money back home.
of service workers. Developing countries with the Return can be facilitated, if not always permanently,
highest initial barriers to trade in services stand to then with targeted programmes that benefit the
gain the most from the liberalization of this type of country of origin.
movement. Developing countries like Brunei, China,

Textbox 2.2
Impacts of Return Migrants on the IT Industry in India

Labour migration from India has been slowly changing over the last few decades; whereas the 1970s and 1980s saw a large
outflow of Indian workers to the Middle East, since the 1990s the new wave of labour migration has been of highly skilled
migrants, particularly working in the information technology (IT) sector (Chishti, 2007).

The United States has emerged as the most popular destination for engineering graduates and IT professionals. Indeed,
migration from India to the United States doubled in the 1990s, and its contribution to the U.S. IT boom is now well
established (Chishti, 2007). In 2001, out of 331,206 H1B visas granted, 49 per cent went to Indian professionals of which 92
per cent concerned IT-related jobs (Hira, 2004).

Originally, this outflow occurred not only in response to the growing demand in countries of destination, but also owing to a
lack of opportunities for IT specialists in India itself (Vinutha, 2005). However, the situation has since changed. The impact
of the growing number of foreign firms investing and establishing themselves in the Indian economy (Kalita, 2006), together
with the saturation of the IT job market and strict immigration and visa control in the U.S. (Babu, 2003), has brought about
unprecedented opportunities. Furthermore, India has also experienced rapid growth in its own IT industry and developed strong
business connections between India and Indian IT professionals in developed countries (Chishti, 2007). This environment has
encouraged IT expatriate professionals, especially in the U.S., to return to India for business opportunities thereby generating
a phenomenon of “reverse brain drain” (Vinutha, 2005). According to one estimate, between 30,000 and 40,000 expatriate

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 Chapter 2 - HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION

professionals have returned to Bangalore, India’s major technology hub, of their own volition in the last ten years alone (Kalita,
2006).

One of the most important impacts of return migrants on India’s IT economy, besides any capital investments, has been
the transfer of knowledge, expertise, market information and work culture to the Indian economy. This development has, in
turn, generated what may be referred to as “chain migration”, as the environment created by return migrants makes the IT
industry increasingly attractive for other IT expatriate professionals to return. In addition, global economic and work practices
are becoming increasingly established in Indian companies increasing further their attractiveness for expatriate Indian IT
professionals.

The returning migrants show a highly diverse professional profile, ranging from recent graduates from American institutions who
return to India for their first jobs to those who return to retire in India (Weisman, 2005).

Making the most of the IT boom in India, many young non-resident Indian (NRI) professionals have become eager to return.
Many of these highly qualified returnees now occupy top and mid-level positions in India. Although the figures vary, it is
estimated that between five and 12 per cent of applications for such positions are received from NRIs (Menon, 2003), and this
trend is expected to increase further.

The contribution made by such highly skilled returnees to the growth of the Indian IT sector is also confirmed by the rapid
growth in revenues from software exports of 33 per cent in the year 2005-2006 (Chishti, 2007). Thus, today India’s so-called
brain drain has come full circle. The popularity of “career fairs” held in the U.S. to attract Indian expatriates back from the
Silicon Valley to a prospering Indian IT industry attests to this development (Shiels, 2003).

Source: IOM Dhaka.

For countries of destination, the most direct and honest temporary workers, circumscribing opportunities
means of achieving return is to create temporary for permanent residency without eliminating them
worker programmes with short durations of stay and altogether and creating incentives for return. This
mechanisms that facilitate return (Martin, 2003; is an area where effective practices are yet to be
see also Chapter 3). Assuredly, the longer migrant elaborated. In broad terms, however, it could be
workers stay abroad, the lower the likelihood of their argued that what is needed is a new, systematic
return to their places of origin. In developmental approach, where conditions are created to enable the
terms, there are strong reasons to encourage return ethical recruitment of workers (including through
at the end of fixed-term contracts. However, for private employment agencies adhering to equitable
that to occur there must be political acceptance and and professional standards); prevent exploitative
commitment. In fact, as previously discussed, many practices (Jones and Pardthaisong, 1997); facilitate
“temporary” work permit programmes in Europe the movement of such workers; encourage the
permit a transition to permanent residence status maintenance of linkages with their country of origin;
after a period of several years (see also Chapter 11). and to create attractive options for return. Each of
And U.S. temporary programmes place few obstacles these steps has been experimented with, but they are
in the way of workers who ultimately choose to apply rarely found together in a purposeful combination.
for permanent residency. It is fairly obvious that such a programme cannot be
attempted in isolation by either the home or host
It is therefore a great challenge from a policy country, but calls for close cooperation between
development point of view to find the appropriate them.
balance between protecting the rights of highly skilled

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4.3 Diasporas and the Transfer of Knowledge of remittances is significant and increasing rapidly.
and Remittances Remittances represent a sizable share of GDP in many
countries and almost always exceed foreign aid. It is
A country’s expatriate populations, or diaspora, can estimated that each remittance dollar multiplies into
transfer knowledge, technology and capital back two to three dollars of GDP, and there is evidence that
home (see also Chapter 12). Exercising the so-called remittances can help to alleviate poverty. However,
diaspora option is a relatively low-cost means of the impact of remittances by highly skilled workers
capturing tangible returns from expatriates, other should not be overstated. Such workers integrate
than through their return. The exchange of knowledge rapidly into the society of the host country and,
from a diaspora draws primarily upon networks, because they often tend to bring their families with
often informally constituted, of professionals, them, are less likely to remit over time (Faini, 2003).
intellectuals and scientists abroad. Networks can also Rather, highly skilled migrants could have a more
be fostered by government programmes and through powerful impact by way of investments, business
the establishment of ongoing contacts with source partnerships and more sophisticated financial flows
country academic and other relevant institutions. to foreign currency accounts or to remittance-backed
bonds.
One of the leading proponents of diaspora
management argues that this networked approach 4.4 Policies for Democracy and Development
turns brain drain into a brain gain, and that it
overcomes institutional barriers to the flow of Finally, the successful management of migration
information (Meyer, 2001). Studies indicate that requires the adoption of a holistic approach, which
international cooperation in academia and research includes tackling the causes of migration. Highly
bolsters economic growth. For instance, a study of educated individuals often emigrate not because of
Columbia’s “Caldas” network established expatriates’ fundamental demographic and economic factors, but
involvement in oversight committees and active because of a lack of basic freedoms. The loss of highly
collaboration in areas of scientific research. The educated persons can undermine the foundations
diaspora option can be a low-cost approach to of democracy and the institutions needed for well-
leveraging expatriates’ knowledge without permanent run economies. Human rights abuses and lack
return. Research also finds evidence of the growing of democracy are at the root of what are, in most
strength of electronically linked diasporas and different respects, non-pecuniary brain drains. Investment in
institutional forms of diaspora organizations (Sami, the protection of human rights and the promotion
2006). In recent years, considerable attention has of democracy should take into account the role of
been paid to the establishment of communication intellectuals, seeking means of retaining them, as well
networks by governments (for example, the South as ways of benefiting from the diaspora. Expatriate
African Network of Skills Abroad or the Mexican organizations can and do play a political role in
Talent Network) or private institutions (e.g. Red actively promoting free speech and democracy.
Caldas in Colombia, or Chile Global) to promote and
facilitate the involvement of highly skilled migrants In the same vein, emigration may occur not simply
in the economic life of their countries of origin because of basic economic disparities, but because of
(Kutznetsov, 2006). the constraints on R&D and educational institutions.
In many developing countries, public budget
Remittances are another means by which workers allocations to research, science and technology are
can boost development at home. The global volume limited, and young professionals find it difficult

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to remain motivated. Highly educated or skilled composition of immigration. The long dominance of
individuals often wish to operate in challenging family admissions in the United States and Europe,
environments. The crux of the theory of optimal for example, is thought to have reduced the skill
brain circulation is that emigration of highly skilled levels of immigrants over time. The decline in the
individuals can induce those remaining behind average skill level appears also to have been a key
to pursue higher education. As elegant as that factor underlying research findings concerning the
may sound, educational institutions of countries somewhat poor economic integration of newcomers
experiencing brain drain face severe problems. (Borjas, 1999). The outcomes of policy choices are
Human resources are one of the key factors leading never fully predictable, however, since Canadian
to economic development, and policies that immigrants, purportedly selected for their likely
strengthen educational institutions and promulgate economic success, integrate no more readily than
training are likely to have a beneficial impact. Latino immigrants to the U.S. (Antecol et al.,
General cooperative ventures between developed and 2004). In turn, the integration prospects of Latino
developing countries are, perhaps, some of the more immigrants are affected not only by poor average
policy-relevant tools available. For example, schemes levels of education, but also by the fact that many
that aim to strengthen the capacity of specific of them are undocumented and have no prospects
educational institutions in countries of origin may of regularization under current policies. At any
provide one effective strategy for compensating rate, it can be argued that the declining skill levels
skilled emigration. of individuals admitted only on the basis of their
family ties may be one reason for the introduction
5. Policy Implications of policies in so many countries during the 1990s
that tend to tilt more towards admission on the basis
While most policymakers believe that policies help of labour market skills (Chiswick, 2005) (see also
shape the flow of skilled migrants, their precise role, Chapter 6).
or the role of individual policy elements, has not
been systematically studied. Some researchers see Economists raise some interesting points about
admission policies as a response to the prevailing the causes of the level of immigration. They do
political economy or as unnatural impediments to not necessarily agree on whether policies impose
international mobility. There is little interest here in a cost affecting the decision to migrate, or are a
breaking down the nuances of various policy elements. quantity constraint that conditions the impacts of
Surprisingly, most formal migration theories – and push/pull factors. But empirical analyses find that
there is “no single, well-developed theory” of the policies matter. Analysis of emigration to the United
determinants of migration – do not even include States finds that quota consolidations reduced Asian
admission policy in the mix (Russell, 1995; Massey et immigration in the 1970s, while the legalization
al., 1994). More to the point, comparative research of nearly three million workers doubled Latino
is lacking on how policy elements shape the size migration in the 1990s (Hatton and Williamson,
and composition of highly skilled migration. So, the 2003). However, these policies are seen as operating
impacts of labour market tests, consular interviews, within a structure of restrictive immigration policies
rejection rates, retention offers, and the like, have and the dominant impacts of economic variables on
tended not to be studied as part of a system. the flows are interpreted accordingly. In fact, highly
restrictive policies could well make various push and
Analysts tend to agree that general features of pull factors irrelevant, or at least make extrapolating
admission policies have profound impacts on the skill the empirically measured impact of push/pull

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factors difficult, if not impossible if policies were to There are, however, transitional economies that have
change. At the same time, an analysis of emigration a growing educated class and increased R&D capacity
to 14 OECD countries found that pull factors are that may alter this scenario. Some observers think
the dominant driver and that push factors play no the most likely prognosis is for decreasing migration
substantive role (Mayda, 2005). While other research between industrialized countries and increasing
finds that push factors do play a role in emigration, migration between developing countries (Hatton and
this analysis, based on a substantial sample of Williamson, 2003; McLaughlan and Salt, 2002).
countries, suggests that pull factors are the driving
force of international flows. In fact, an interaction of 6. Conclusion
restrictive policies with pull variables suggests that
laxer admission policies increase the power of pull The huge and growing differentials in the demographic
factors in the host economy (Orrenius, 2003). profiles between developed and developing countries,
coupled with persistent economic disparities, make
These analyses suggest that the level of immigration it a certainty that there will be a plentiful supply
depends heavily on economic conditions. As long of potential migrants for many years to come. No
as those conditions favour migration, reducing competing for migrants via ever laxer policies will
restrictions on immigration by either lifting caps be necessary, as the number of migrants may be
or easing admission requirements should increase expected to increase and satisfy demand; rather,
overall levels of immigration. This may not be a the challenge will be to design policies with the
terribly provocative observation, but it is consistent right balance of elements to attract the best and
with recent trends in the mobility of highly skilled the brightest, while also including incentives for
individuals. Most observers agree that globalization is the optimal return of migrants to encourage their
now the dominant force driving this type of movement participation in the economic development of their
(see also Chapter 1). countries of origin.

The ICT revolution appears to be one force of At the same time, these forecasts do little to ease
globalization, an observation reinforced by the concerns about the potential effects of brain drain.
timing of increasing migration during the New Despite the surprisingly widespread belief that
Economy boom of the 1990s and the fact that many highly skilled migration is either benign or clearly
new policies explicitly target ICT workers. The ICT beneficial to the development of the country of
revolution has fuelled globalization by helping to origin, the research literature suggests adverse
further flatten the differences between national economic consequences follow losses of more than
markets. It also feeds agglomeration economies 10 to 20 per cent of a source country’s college
and helps link those major cities where skilled educated population. Particular countries experience
immigrants reside (Sassen, 2006; Smith, 2003). The losses well above this range, while certain sectors,
ICT revolution favours highly skilled workers and such as health services or information technology,
may continue to do so, unless what appears to be also experience losses several times this amount.
the complexity of using today’s ICT technologies Moreover, the social costs of highly skilled migration
changes and becomes accessible to lesser skilled to migrants and their families are hardly negligible
workers. Secondly, economic development in (see Textbox 2.3). Given the foregoing speculation
transitional economies has altered the international about future trends, the potential adverse effects of
specialization of production, enhancing demand for highly skilled migration are likely to remain a potent
highly skilled workers in the advanced economies. challenge to economic and social development.

[69]
 Chapter 2 - HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION

Fortunately, there are a number of proactive policies

that might be able to address those challenges and
even generate optimal benefits from highly skilled
migration.

Textbox 2.3
Social Costs of the Migration of Women Health Workers

Health care workers around the world are increasingly looking to migration to find employment. While health professionals
may move abroad to pursue further training and career development, for many health workers, in particular for those moving
from developing to developed countries, the main reason for migration is to find better pay and improved working and living
conditions.

Public Services International (PSI), a global federation of public-sector trade unions representing more than 20 million workers,
has documented many cases where the work in women-dominated labour market segments, such as the health sector, continues
to be seriously undervalued and discriminated against. For example, a nurse with qualifications up to degree-level, plus five
years professional experience and who supervises a team of 15, will earn only two-thirds of the salary of a craft supervisor,
who, for instance, has completed an apprenticeship, has three years job experience and supervises two people. Similar examples
of wage discrimination between female-dominated labour segments, such as nursing and caregiving, and jobs predominantly
performed by men could be cited.

Moreover, the participatory research conducted in developing countries of origin by PSI in 2003-2004 demonstrated the
effects of structural reforms and the reduction of public health services on women health workers, as they struggle with heavy
workloads, low and inequitable wages, violence in the workplace, inadequate resources and the added responsibility of caring
for their families. As a result, many women health workers have migrated or are considering migrating to find work in developed
countries. However, when asked what their preferred choice would be, a majority of the workers interviewed during the research
replied that they would prefer to stay in their home countries if they could earn a living wage.

The book published by PSI, Who Cares? Women Health Workers in the Global Labour Market (Van Eyck, 2005), presents the
histories of women health workers as they struggle to cope with the difficulties of migration, gender disparities, deteriorating
working conditions in the health sector and the undervaluing of women’s work. Migration flows oriented towards the health
care and health services sector are increasingly dominated by women migrants. Within what scholars refer to as the “global
care chain”, women increasingly migrate to find work overseas, allowing other women to participate in the local labour market
(see also Textbox Int.3).

Hoping to find better paying jobs, health care workers leave health sector employment in their home countries to take up work
abroad. Unfortunately, for many of them that hope does not always translate into reality. Private recruiters and unscrupulous
employers prey on migrant workers and their vulnerability and desperation, charging exorbitant fees that could lead to a
form of bonded labour. Several documented cases reveal breaches of work contracts, threats of deportation, health care
professionals whose qualifications are ignored and who work in jobs well below their skill level, denial of trade union rights
and various forms of exploitation and abuse. Women migrant health workers pay a high social cost as they face gender, class
and race discrimination in their host societies, are subjected to heavy workloads, isolation and separation from their children
and families, particularly in cases when family reunification is not possible. Separation of families due to migration has been
known to lead to other societal problems, such as the eventual break-up of the family unit, alcoholism, drug abuse, juvenile
delinquency and children’s failure at school.

As the global union organizing and representing workers in the health sector, PSI launched in 2005 a project on International
Migration and Women Health Workers, engaging public-sector trade unions in both home and host countries in bilateral

[70]
 World Migration 2008

partnerships to provide information to potential migrant health workers on their rights and the realities of migration; organize
and defend women health workers’ rights to better pay and working conditions through adequately funded public health
services; denounce cases of violations; and call for the application of ethical recruitment guidelines and internationally
established human rights norms and standards in the employment of migrant health workers.

One example of an information and organizing tool developed by PSI is the Pre-decision Kit for Migrant Health Workers, which
consists of a package of information and facts about the realities of migration, employment conditions and legal rights in
the destination country, contacts to union resources and how to join unions, as well as other basic information explaining
the issues surrounding migration in the health sector. It is called a “pre-decision kit” because trade unions aim to provide
information at the pre-decision stage, when a health worker is still considering the option of migrating for employment. PSI
believes that with proper information and trade union support and in cooperation with civil society organizations, governments
and the private sector, various migration pitfalls and the abuse of migrant workers can be avoided.

Source: Geneviève Gencianos, Public Services International, http://www.world-psi.org/migration.

[71]
 Chapter 2 - HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRATION

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 World Migration 2008

World Health Organization (WHO)

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int/whr/2006/whr06_en.pdf.
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United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) Shiels, M.

2005 International Migration and the Millennium 2003 “IT professionals return to India”, BBC
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back_to_india/.

[75]
Textbox 2.3 - Social Costs of the Migration of
Women Health Workers

Van Eyck, K. (Ed.)

2005 Who Cares? Women Health Workers in the Global
Labour Market, Public Services International
(PSI) and UNISON UK, Ferney-Voltaire,
France, http://www.world-psi.org/Content/
ContentGroups/English7/Publications1/Who_
Cares.pdf.
 World Migration 2008

LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED

WORKERS ABROAD*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
3 opportunities. There is general agreement that the
world is about to enter a new stage in international
The world appears to be on the threshold of a new labour migration, with more labour migration sources
era in temporary labour migration programmes, and destinations and migrants employed in a wider
characterized by more sources and destinations range of industries and occupations.
of migrant workers at all rungs of the job ladder
(Martin, 2003b; Abella, 2006). Current temporary The improved management of labour migration in the
labour migration programmes aim to add workers 21st century is likely to require temporary migrant
temporarily to the labour force, but not settlers to worker programmes that include economic incentives
the population. This may seem surprising, since to encourage employers and migrants to abide by
programmes such as the Mexico-U.S. Bracero and programme rules. For example, employer-paid taxes
the German Gastarbeiter (guest worker) programmes on migrant earnings that finance the restructuring
ended when destination country governments were of migrant jobs can allow the programmes to shrink
persuaded that large numbers of temporary migrant over time, while the refunding of worker-paid
workers adversely affected local workers and could taxes can encourage migrants to return home as
result in migration getting “out of control”. programme rules require while providing funds to
stimulate economic development and to reduce the
In a world of persisting demographic and economic incentive to emigrate in the future. Adding such
inequalities and better communication and economic mechanisms could help to better align
transportation links, young people in particular want temporary labour migration programme objectives
to cross national borders for higher wages and better and outcomes, and convince industrialized countries
that such programmes will not turn into furtive “side
door” or de facto permanent immigration, but lead to
* This chapter was written by Philip Martin, Professor, Department of
Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California, Davis, more border gates being opened for regular migrant
California, United States. workers.

It is generally agreed that the Bracero programme sowed the seeds for
later irregular Mexico-U.S. migration (Martin, 2004: Ch. 2), and that
Germany faces major integration challenges with settled Turkish guest
workers and their families (Martin, 2004: Ch. 6).

[77]
 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

This chapter focuses on low and semi-skilled 2. Definitions

migrants moving from developing to industrialized
countries, such as from Mexico to the U.S. There While it is fairly straightforward to define skilled or
is also a significant flow of low and semi-skilled highly skilled migrants by reference to university
migrant workers to a wide range of middle-income or tertiary education and years of professional
developing countries, including Argentina, Costa experience (see Chapter 2), the notion of low or
Rica, Malaysia, South Africa and Thailand. These semi-skilled employment is more nebulous and
labour flows are similar to those that take workers to more difficult to define in any meaningful way. Put
developed countries, but differ in that many migrants simply, as such workers fall outside the definition of
sometimes fill jobs that are vacant because previous skilled and highly skilled, this often means that in
workers emigrated to richer countries, for instance the immigration context they do not qualify under
when Poles migrate to the United Kingdom and ordinary work permit schemes or points systems
their jobs at home are then taken up by Ukrainian regulating admission to a country for the purpose
migrants. of employment.

The chapter begins by addressing some key This chapter and the Report in general use the terms
definitional issues, such as the notion of low “low” or “semi-skilled”, but the notion of “unskilled” is
and semi-skilled migrants and temporary labour deliberately avoided on the grounds that most workers,
migration. It then provides an overview of global and regardless of the nature of their tasks, have some
regional distributions of temporary migrants with basic skills, or that, indeed, as some commentators
particular reference to low and semi-skilled workers. argue, the skills they have acquired are being grossly
The remaining parts of the chapter discuss some undervalued, as illustrated in Textbox 3.1 in relation to
of the key policy challenges for temporary labour labour migration to Southern Africa. Yet, the positive
migration programmes to operate effectively in the correlation between the level of education and
21st century and on a larger scale, and to increase income can be observed on nearly all labour markets
their economic gains for all stakeholders, namely and is universally acknowledged.
for migrant workers and countries of origin and of
destination. Such challenges include the problems

For example, under the ordinary work permit scheme in the UK,
of economic distortion and dependence that can be this means determining either that the job requires the following
traced to migrants and the “numbers versus rights” qualifications: (i) the equivalent of a UK degree-level qualification; (ii)
the equivalent of a Higher National Diploma (HND) qualification relevant
conundrum. These questions are also considered in to the post to be filled; or (iii) a HND qualification not relevant to the
more detail in Part B of the Report, especially in post on offer plus one year of relevant full-time work experience at
National/Scottish Vocational Qualification (N/SVQ level 3 or above - or
Chapter 11. the job requires the following skills: 3 years full-time specialist working
experience for the type of job for which the permit is sought (UK,
2008). To apply as a skilled worker under the Canadian points system,
the applicant must have work experience of Skill Type O (managerial
jobs), A (professional jobs) or B (technical jobs and skilled trades) as
determined by the Canadian National Occupational Classification (NOC)

See also Section 2 on definitions. (CIC Canada, 2007).

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 World Migration 2008

Textbox 3.1
Labour Migration in Southern Africa: A Case for the Review of the Concept of Low and
Semi-skilled Migration

Cross-border migration for the purpose of employment in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region
is a long-standing historical phenomenon and continues to be one of the primary features of migration in the region
generally. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the countries of Southern Africa have been sending and receiving migrants
primarily to work in the mining industry. While most migrants initially moved independently, this was considered unprofitable
by the mining industry, and a system of contract labour migration was set up to ensure a regular and reliable supply of migrant
workers to the mining centres in the region, including Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. While the mining
industry was and continues to be the major employer of migrant workers, commercial farms and plantations, as well as the
construction, domestic and services sectors are also employers of significant numbers of migrant workers. In some cases,
the contract labour system had been extended to these sectors as well.

Most of the migrant workers in these sectors fall into the categories commonly described as “low- skilled” or “semi-skilled”.
However, not only are these categories perhaps outdated as descriptive of the nature of and the level of skill often required
by the migrants employed in these sectors, but they also devalue the contributions of migrant workers to the economies
of the countries in which they work.

It is often assumed that temporary or contract migrant workers only supply manual labour to make up the numbers of
people required to work in the mines and in the agricultural, construction and services sectors. However, in part due to
the nature of the contract labour system and also as a general phenomenon, many of these migrant workers return at
least annually to work in the same sectors and have over time, developed considerable skills and expertise in their jobs.
For example, when the South African Government attempted to reduce the number of migrants working in the mines, the
mining industry protested against this move, making the argument that it would be difficult to replace the accumulated
skills and experience that have been built up amongst regular migrants who return to the same jobs year after year.

The inherent danger in describing temporary and contract migrant labour as “low-skilled” or “semi-skilled” does not only
have to do with devaluing the contribution of migrants, but it also implicitly suggests that the migrants themselves
are inferior, which in turn, feeds into the perception that migrant workers are poor and uneducated manual labourers
who compete unfairly with nationals for available jobs. It is true, of course, that many employers prefer to hire migrant
workers because it is cheaper to do so and migrants are generally more exploitable, but this has to do with the lack of
protection mechanisms and measures for migrant workers, rather than being a reflection of their actual levels of skills,
competencies and experiences.

Despite the deeply entrenched nature of labour migration in the SADC, governments have tried and continue to try and
put a stop to it, if not in practice, at least rhetorically. In most cases, however, attempts to curb regular migration
in these sectors have had unintended consequences and in particular, have led to increased irregular migration and
heightened anti-migrant sentiments.

Perhaps the time has come for a reconsideration of the concept of “low-skilled” or “semi-skilled” migration. At some
point, it may have been a useful classification or description of particular categories of jobs held by migrants, but it has
now become equated with the devaluing of these jobs and the contributions of migrants. It also has the connotation
that the migrants who occupy these jobs are themselves inferior and less deserving of the protection and opportunities
afforded to migrants who are considered “highly-skilled”.

This is, of course, not just a problem in Southern Africa, but is in fact magnified when the arguments presented here are
considered and applied on a global scale, particularly in terms of migration from developing to developed countries.

Source: Vincent Williams, Southern African Migration Project (SAMP).

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

There seems to be no widely accepted definition countries with a gross national income of USD 32
of temporary labour migration. Abella (2006: 4) trillion, representing four-fifths of the global wealth
suggested a definition based on a destination country’s of USD 40 trillion. The resulting average per capita
perspective and considers “temporary migrants” as income of USD 32,000 in high-income countries was
“those whose legal status is temporary, regardless of 21 times the average USD 1,500 in low and middle-
the amount of time they may actually have stayed in income countries, and this 21:1 ratio has remained
a country”. It goes without saying that this is a very stable over the past quarter of a century (Martin et
wide definition and would apply to an al., 2006).

extremely broad array of different movements, Migration is an age-old response to variations in

conditions and durations, [including] au pairs, economic opportunity, security and other factors, but
seasonal workers, trainees, intra-corporate the crossing of international borders is a relatively
transfers, contract workers, working holiday recent phenomenon, as international borders have
makers, exchange visitors, highly skilled multiplied along with the sharp rise in the number
professionals, cross-border service providers, of independent states making up the international
installers, performing artists and sportspersons, community as it is known today. The number of
etc. (OECD, 2007: 51). international migrants has also doubled during the
past two decades to 191 million in 2005 (UN, 2006).
3. Global and Regional Distribution of As shown in Table 3.1, some 62 million migrants
Temporary Migrants with Particular moved from South to North, i.e. from a developing to
Reference to Low and Semi-skilled Workers: a developed country; 61 million moved from South
Flows and Stocks to South; 53 million from North to North; and some
14 million migrants moved from North to South.
3.1 Global Distribution
Table 3.1:
Today, the world community consists of some Migrants in 2005 (millions)
200 countries with their respective annual per
Industrialized Developing
capita incomes in 2004 ranging from less than Origin
country country
USD 250 to over USD 50,000 (World Bank, 2006b). Industrialized
53 14
Such economic differentials provide a significant country
incentive, especially for young people, to migrate in Developing
62 61
pursuit of higher wages and better opportunities. country

In 2004, one billion people, or one-sixth of the Source: UN, 2006.

world’s population, lived in the 30 high-income

Given that about half of these migrants are absorbed

into the labour force of the destination countries,
Seasonal labour migration is also by definition temporary in nature, and
many of the policy issues discussed below and in Chapter 11 in relation
to temporary labour migration, apply to mobility for the purpose of 
seasonal employment, which, however, has certain distinguishing At purchasing power parity (PPP), which takes into account national
characteristics. Importantly, seasonal labour migration comprises differences in the cost of living, the world’s gross national income was
particularly short-term movements (3-9 months), which are dependent USD 56 trillion, including 55 per cent in high-income countries.

on the natural rhythm of the seasons, such as sowing and harvesting From only a small number of recognized independent states at the
time in agriculture, and demands for workers in the hospitality sector beginning of the 20th century, the number of countries making up
especially during peak periods in the year (e.g. ski resorts in the winter, the international community as we know it today has risen to 193 by
coastal resorts in the summer months in Europe). 2007, when the CIA World Factbook listed 193 “independent states”, one

Young people are most likely to cross borders as they have invested the “other” and six other entities (CIA, 2007).

least in jobs and careers at home and have the most time to recoup their These are stock estimates in 2005, meaning that migrants may have
“investment in migration” abroad. arrived recently or decades ago.

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 World Migration 2008

the 60 million migrant workers in high-income characteristics that differentiate them from
countries account for an average of 12 per cent of native-born adults. The best single determinant of
the local labour force (ILO, 2004). The labour force individual earnings in industrialized countries is
distribution of the 31 million migrant workers years of education. In most developing countries,
moving South-North is quite distinct from that in the distribution of adults by years of education
destination countries: 40 per cent of the 3.2 billion has the shape of a pyramid, a few well educated
workers worldwide are in agriculture, 20 per cent persons at the top and most workers with less than a
in industry and construction, and 40 per cent in secondary-school certificate or high-school diploma
services (World Bank, 2006b), and migrant workers grouped near the bottom.
from developing countries largely originate from
societies characterized by this 40:20:40 distribution. A graph showing native-born adults in high-income
In industrialized countries only about three per countries by years of education has a diamond
cent of the total workforce is in agriculture, 25 shape. About 25 per cent have a college degree, 60
per cent in industry and 72 per cent in services per cent a secondary-school certificate and 15 per
(OECD, 2005). However, a look at the distribution cent have less than a secondary certificate or high-
of migrant workers in these countries shows 10 per school diploma. Migrants from developing countries
cent to be in agriculture, 40 per cent in industry in industrialized countries differ from both adults at
and construction, and 50 per cent in services (OECD, home and abroad, as their distribution resembles an
2006) (Table 3.2). hourglass or barbell shape when arranged by years of
education. About 35 per cent have a college degree,
Table 3.2: 30 per cent a secondary school certificate and 35
Migrants and Local Workers by Sector, per cent less than a high-school diploma (Figure
Percentage Distribution 3.1). International migration from developing to
industrialized countries takes persons from the
Agriculture Industry Services
top and bottom of a pyramid distribution and adds
Industrialized countries 3 25 72
them to the top and bottom of a diamond-shaped
Developing countries 40 20 40 distribution.
Migrants in industrialized
10 40 50
host countries
Figure 3.1:
Note:
Industry includes construction. Native-born and Migrant Adults in
Sources: OECD (2005), (2006), World Bank (2006b). Industrialized Countries by Education,
2005 (percentage)
70
The difference in migrant worker distribution 60
reflects the three types of employers and respective
50
demands for migrant workers in: (a) sunset industries
– e.g. agriculture, light manufacturing, garment 40

industry; (b) industries that cannot be moved – e.g. 30

construction; and (c) services at all levels of the 20

skills ladder, from IT and health care to domestic 10

work and janitorial services. 0
University degree Secondary, Less than
or more no universty degree secondary education
Migrant workers from developing countries who Native-born Migrants
move to industrialized countries also have personal

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

Migrants from developing countries drawn from the to selected OECD countries in the principal categories.
top of the education pyramid are often professionals While highly skilled migrants are more likely to be
and students, and most have become legal residents found in the intra-company transfer and general
of industrialized countries. Over the past two decades, temporary workers category, low and semi-skilled
almost all industrialized countries have made it migrants dominate in the seasonal workers, working
easier for foreign professionals to enter as students holiday makers and trainees categories. Working
(see Chapter 4), temporary workers and settlers. holiday makers are a specific group of short-term
However, most of the world’s workers and most of entrants essentially to Australia, New Zealand and
the world’s migrant workers have low skills, and a the United Kingdom, and are discussed in Chapter 5.
crucial labour migration issue is whether and how As far as trainees are concerned, traineeships in Japan
to move more low-skilled workers from developing to and the Republic of Korea have often been considered “a
industrialized countries. disguised form of lesser skilled migration” (OECD 2007:
52). In Japan, a growing number of such trainees stay
3.2 Regional Distribution for further employment after their traineeship ends
(32,000 in 2005), while in South Korea the introduction
While most temporary labour migration flows are of the employment permit scheme, which is mainly aimed
from developing to the developed OECD countries in at low-skilled occupations, means that admissions for
Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand, temporary work are now taking place through this
and in East Asia, i.e. Japan and the Republic of Korea channel (60,000 in 2005) (OECD, 2007).11
(South Korea), significant regular movements also
occur between developing countries, particularly Except for GCC States, where the foreign population
from the countries of South and Southeast Asia to outnumbers citizens,12 stocks of temporary foreign
the oil-producing Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) workers are generally small relative to the size of the
States (UN DESA, 2004) and within Southern Africa, destination country’s labour market (Nonnenmacher,
and Latin America. 2007).

According to OECD statistics, the number of While globally the ratio of female to male migrants
temporary work permits issued to foreign workers is almost 50:50, the ILO (2003) observes that,
admitted for employment in a number of OECD in recent times, the majority of women migrants
countries has increased steadily since 2000. From are engaged in temporary labour migration, with
2003 to 2004, temporary entries for work increased the Middle East (including the GCC States), East
by approximately seven per cent (OECD, 2006), and Asia and Southeast Asia as the major poles of
these levels remained largely unchanged during 2005 attraction. Female labour migration is characterized
with the admission of some 1.8 million temporary in particular by its concentration in a very limited
migrant workers into OECD countries (OECD, 2007).10 number of female-dominated (essentially lower-
Table 3.3 indicates the entries of temporary workers skilled) occupations associated with traditional


A snapshot of temporary labour migration trends and data in specific
11
world regions with a focus on low and semi-skilled workers is provided See also Chapter 8, which discusses the historical problems with
in the sub-sections below. Supplementary information is available in the the industrial trainee system (since phased out and replaced by the
Regional Migration Overviews in the final part of the Report. employment permit system) in South Korea in terms of increased
10
These figures, however, do not cover the free labour mobility of EU irregular labour migration.
12
nationals within the EU, including the recent large movements from the For example, Ruhs and Martin (2006) observe that migrants constitute
new accession countries, or temporary movements associated with the over 95 per cent of Kuwait’s private sector labour force (citing statistics
free movement of workers agreement between the EU and Switzerland of the Kuwait Institute of Banking Studies; see http://www.kibs.org/
(OECD, 2007). eco/ecokmain.htm).

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 World Migration 2008

gender roles, such as domestic (see Textbox 3.2) and circumstances of the job itself often lead to a high
“entertainment” activities. Moreover, “while these degree of vulnerability to abuse and exploitation,
jobs do not necessarily have to be exploitative, the even forced labour and slavery.” (ILO, 2003: 11).

Textbox 3.2
Women Migrants in Domestic Work

To give an idea of the significance of women migrants in domestic work, some figures are quoted here: in Hong Kong SAR,
migrant domestic workers numbered more than 202,900 in 2000; between 1999 and June 2001, 691,285 Indonesian women
left their country (representing 72% of all Indonesian migrants) to work mainly as domestic workers abroad; in Malaysia, there
were 155,000 documented (and many more undocumented) migrant domestic workers in 2002; in Italy, 50 per cent of the
estimated one million domestic workers are non-EU citizens, and in France over 50 per cent of migrant women are believed to
be engaged in domestic work.

Source: Adapted from ILO (2003:11) (footnotes omitted).

Table 3.3:
Entries of Temporary Workers in Selected OECD Countries by Principal Categories,
2003-2005 (thousands)
Trainees Working Holiday Makers Seasonal Workers Intra-company Transfers Other Temporary Workers

2003 2004 2005 2003 2004 2005 2003 2004 2005 2003 2004 2005 2003 2004 2005
Australia 6.9 7.0 7.0 88.8 93.8 104.4 56.1 58.6 71.6
Austria 1.7 0.8 17.5 15.7 0.2 0.2 10.5 9.8
Belgium 0.4 1.0 2.7 1.2 0.5 2.8
Canada 18.7 19.0 20.3 3.8 4.2 4.5 52.1 55.8
Denmark 1.4 1.5 1.9 3.6 3.4 2.6
France 1.0 0.5 0.4 14.6 15.7 16.2 10.2 10.0 10.5
Germany 2.3 2.3 309.5 324.0 320.4 2.1 2.3 43.9 34.2 21.9
Italy 0.1 0.3 0.4 68.0 77.0 70.2
Japan 64.8 75.4 83.3 3.4 3.6 4.2 143.7 146.6 110.2
Republic of
55.8 46.7 51.6 7.8 8.5 8.4 7.2 8.3 11.9
Korea
Netherlands 38.0 44.1 46.1
New Zealand 2.0 2.4 1.8 20.7 21.4 29.0 2.9 40.3 43.7 44.3
Norway 0.5 0.5 0.3 17.9 25.4 20.9 2.5 2.1 1.1
Sweden 7.3 4.9 5.9 2.6 3.4 2.2
Switzerland 0.4 0.4 0.3 14.4 7.5 1.8
United Kingdom 46.5 62.4 56.6 19.8 15.7 98.0 113.4 111.2
United States13 1.4 1.4 1.8 29.9 31.8 31.9 57.2 62.7 65.5 192.5 221.8 218.6

Note:
The categories of temporary workers may differ from one country to another. Only the principal categories of temporary workers are presented in this
table. Data on temporary workers generally do not cover workers who benefit from a free-circulation agreement.

Source: OECD (2007: 52), compiled from residence and work permit data.

13
Author’s note: Temporary migrant-trainees in the U.S. are not comparable to trainees in other countries, particularly Japan and South Korea.

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

(a) East and Southeast Asia and the Middle East of foreign workers, including various categories of
temporary migrants, is relatively low and estimated
The growth in the numbers of temporary migrant at around 650,000 by the end of 2005, or less than
workers can be seen across East and Southeast Asia one per cent of the labour force (OECD, 2007). Table 3.4
and the Middle East. In Japan, 146,000 temporary includes estimates of undocumented migrants who are
workers were admitted in 2004 compared with prevalent in many low and semi-skilled employment
114,300 in 2000, although in 2005 admissions dropped sectors (e.g. construction) in Malaysia and Thailand.
to 110,200 (OECD, 2007). However, the numbers
of trainees admitted has risen steadily (54,000 in In the GCC States the number of overseas contract
2003; 75,400 in 2004; 83,300 in 2005) (OECD, 2007). workers rose by 2.5 per cent annually between 1985
Stocks of temporary foreign workers in East Asia have and 2000, though this rate of increase is relatively
also risen, particularly in South Korea and Taiwan small compared with the rates of expansion from
Province of China, where they rose by half, and then the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s (Abella, 2006;
doubled respectively between 2000 and 2004 (Abella, Table 3.4).
2006: Table 3.4). In Japan, however, the total number

Table 3.4:
Temporary Foreign Workers in Asian Destinations (stock estimates)
Country of Employment 1985 1997 2000 2004
East Asia 1

Brunei 80-90,000
China 82,000 60,000 80,000
Hong Kong SAR 171,000 217,000 217,000
Malaysia 1,720,000 800,000 1,359,000
Republic of Korea 245,000 285,000 423,000
Singapore 612,000 580,000
Taiwan Province of China 246,000 327,000 600,000
Thailand 1,126,000 1,103,000 1,624,000
Viet Nam 30,000
West Asia 1 2

Bahrain 99,000 180,000

Jordan 35,000
Kuwait 574,000 976,000
Lebanon 75,000
Oman 91,000 55,700
Saudi Arabia 2,722,000 3,060,000
United Arab Emirates 784,000 1,300,000
Notes:
1
For East Asia, the figures include work permit holders and estimates of undocumented migrants. For “West Asia”, only work permit holders are
recorded.
2
“West Asia” is the region referred to in the original Table – it denotes Arab Mashrek countries and GCC States covered in the Middle East Migration
Overview (see the Asia Overview).

Source: Adapted from Abella (2006), citing sources from the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), OECD (2003) and Hugo (2005).

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 World Migration 2008

Table 3.5:
Israel is also a significant destination for temporary
foreign workers, who, since the early 1990s, have Temporary Migration for Employment to
been admitted to replace Palestinian workers. At the Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United
end of 2003, official estimates counted approximately States, 2004-2006
189,000 such migrants, with many employed in low- 2004-2005 2005-2006
wage and low-status jobs. Over half of the migrant Australia 1
100,758 118,181
workers in Israel come from Southeast Asia: about Canada2 93,481 99,141
50,000 from the Philippines, employed mainly in
New Zealand 3
118,460 142,536
home healthcare, 30,000 Thai migrants mostly
United States4 831,715 883,706
working in agriculture, and 15,000 Chinese migrants
Notes:
in construction. There are also approximately 65,000 1
Figures for fiscal years 2004-2005 and 2005-2006, respectively, relating
foreign workers from eastern Europe, with over half to the issue of temporary resident visas (skilled visa, social and cultural,
international relations and other), but excluding working holiday visas
from Romania working by and large in construction. (see Chapter 5).
One-third of the migrants are women employed chiefly 2
Figures for 2004 and 2005, respectively.
in the home healthcare sector (Kruger, 2006). 3
Figures for fiscal years 2004-2005 and 2005-2006, respectively, relating
to work applications and including young persons employed under
Working Holiday Schemes with specific countries, which are described in
(b) Established countries of immigration: Chapter 5. These include principal applicants and secondary applicants.
The applications also include individuals who apply for more than one
Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the visa or permit in a given year.
United States 4
Figures for fiscal years 2004 and 2005, respectively, including spouses
and children, but excluding intra-company transferees (L-1 visas) and
foreigners coming to the U.S. for work-and-learn experience (exchange
In the admission systems of established countries visitors – J-1 visas).
of immigration, which are primarily geared towards Sources: DIMA (2006), CIC Canada (2006), Immigration New Zealand
permanent migration for employment, temporary (2007), U.S. Office of Immigration Statistics (2006).

labour migration remains nonetheless an important

feature with the objective of filling labour shortages Although seasonal labour migration is not a common
in specific sectors (Table 3.5). In the periods 2004- occurrence in the Asia-Pacific region, in April 2007
2005 and 2005-2006, these countries received the New Zealand Government started a bilateral
approximately 1.14 and 1.24 million temporary Seasonal Labour Scheme for Pacific Islanders, in
migrant workers (including dependants) respectively, partnership with the World Bank. It aims to enable
and their numbers are rising steadily. up to 5,000 low-skilled and semi-skilled Pacific
Islanders to take up specific agricultural jobs left
unfilled by local workers (see Textbox 3.3).

Textbox 3.3
Expanding Job Opportunities for Pacific Islanders through Labour Mobility

In a world of rapid globalization, the economic competitiveness of a number of countries is coming under increasingly
severe strain owing to their limited territory market size and remote location, while rapidly eroding trade preferences also no
longer suffice to support competitiveness. Furthermore, international economic aid, which had enabled the development and
construction of local infrastructure and the delivery of important services, may no longer be able to mitigate their growing
cost disadvantages. Hence, for small and remote island economies to be viable, economic integration and export diversification
– particularly in niche markets able to overcome the limitations of small size – are important. Facilitated labour mobility may
be considered as responding to such a niche market.

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

Indeed, labour mobility is important and also urgent for the Pacific Island countries, where unemployment and population
growth are high and job creation is limited by the combined challenges of demography, size and geography. With burgeoning
youth populations (now nearly 40% of the total) and scant employment opportunities, the risk of social instability is also
growing. Better opportunities for local labour, particularly at the lower segment of the labour market, would expand available
job opportunities for Pacific Islanders and help to provide development benefits to the country of origin. Migration policy is
no longer a matter of domestic policy, but an international development issue with potentially very positive outcomes for the
poor if appropriately designed and implemented.

The recent migration report by the World Bank (2006) provides a detailed analysis of the opportunities and constraints to labour
market integration in the Pacific region. First, the report makes demographic projections that indicate a coincidence of excess
supply of labour in the Pacific Island economies with an excess demand for labour in many industrialized countries in and
around the Pacific region. This can set the stage for the potentially mutually beneficial movements of labour in the region.

New household data collected for the report show that remittances have helped to reduce poverty and improved income
distribution in Fiji and Tonga. Remittances are used to finance education and to seed-fund the launch of a business activity,
as well as serving as a form of social protection and providing a consumption cushion for the poor and vulnerable populations.
Non-migrant sending households also benefit from incoming remittances through the expansion of the local economy and
productive capacity. In addition to being a source of remittances, evidence from other parts of the world shows that low-skilled
labour mobility may help to improve social equity in countries of origin, reduce social tensions and create a larger constituency
for economic growth and governance reform.

While the economic benefits of immigration to destination countries are increasingly acknowledged, more immigration to
industrialized countries, especially of low-skilled labour, is still a sensitive socio-economic and political subject. Most of these
concerns can be successfully addressed through carefully designed labour schemes. The analysis in the report therefore draws
on global experience and concludes that, for temporary worker schemes to be successful, especially for low-skilled labour, they
should best be part of bilateral agreements, which allow a high degree of flexibility and can be adjusted to the needs of the
parties involved. For such schemes to operate successfully, due attention will have to be paid to the ‘4 Cs’: Choice of workers
to ensure that their skills correspond to the jobs available, and avoid the hiring of overqualified workers likely to misuse the
scheme; Circular movement of workers, allowing workers to go home, then return to their old or new, jobs, which helps to
limit the incentive to violate the arrangement by overstaying; Cost-sharing by employers to reduce the financial burden of, for
example, travel costs, for migrants and thereby making overstaying less attractive; and Commercial viability to ensure that the
schemes remain private-sector driven (and not to fill quotas) and reflect labour market conditions in host countries.

The findings and recommendations of the report have been widely disseminated in the Pacific region following its release in
August 2006. The New Zealand Government has taken the lead in launching a new Pacific Seasonal Labour scheme in April
2007. The new policy allows up to 5,000 low and semi-skilled Pacific Islanders to take up seasonal jobs in the horticulture
and viticulture industries left unfilled by local labour. The World Bank has been working closely with the main stakeholders
on the operational design of the bilateral arrangements and pilot schemes that incorporate and reflect best practice and the
experience gained globally from similar temporary worker programmes. The World Bank, together with other donors, is currently
coordinating technical assistance projects to strengthen the institutional capacities of member countries from the Pacific
region to enable them to facilitate, regulate, manage and benefit from temporary labour migration. The Bank is also providing
technical assistance to facilitate trade in the region; however, the liberalization of labour movements may actually be far more
beneficial to some of the small and remote island economies than further trade liberalization alone. As a follow-up to the
report, the World Bank is also leading a steering group with key stakeholders from the public and private sectors with the aim
of further reducing the cost of remittance transfers that remain unduly high in the Pacific region.

Source: Manjula Luthria, Senior Economist, World Bank, East Asia and Pacific Region.

In 2005, most temporary migrant workers in 7,582 came from France; 7,263 from the U.K. and
Canada came from three EU countries; out of an 2,602 from Germany; while 16,332 came from the
EU-total of 17,447 migrant workers in Canada, United States and 12,610 from Mexico (CIC Canada,

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 World Migration 2008

2006), the majority of Mexican migrants being low- occupations (H-1B visas)17 and 180,503 seasonal
skilled agricultural workers employed under the workers, comprising 46,432 agricultural workers
Canadian Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program (H-2A visas), 97,279 non-agricultural workers (H-
(Brem, 2006).14 Moreover, the Canadian Government 2B visas) and 36,792 returning H2-B workers (H-2R
recently introduced a new global Low Skill Pilot visas) (U.S. Office of Immigration Statistics, 2007);
Project under its Temporary Foreign Worker Program, these data record admissions, not individuals, so
allowing the admission and employment of low- that the same person entering and leaving the U.S.
skilled workers for up to two years to fill pressing within a year is counted more than once. In contrast
labour shortages, particularly in Western Canada. to admission for permanent residence, where women
Employers have to obtain a positive Labour Market predominate, men accounted for the majority of non-
Opinion (LMO) (discussed in Chapter 11) that immigrant admissions in 2006 (53%) (U.S. Office of
includes paying the same wage to migrants as is paid Immigration Statistics, 2007).
to other workers, generally more than the minimum
wage. Furthermore, employers have to pay travel (c) Europe
expenses to and from Canada and health insurance
for their workers, in addition to confirmation of the In Europe, significant temporary labour migration
availability of affordable and suitable accommodation flows are also taking place within the European
(HRSDC Canada, 2007; Bart, 2007).15 While the Union, largely from the new central and eastern
changes to Canada’s Temporary Foreign Worker European Member States to Ireland and the U.K.
Program have been welcomed by employers and their The vast majority are from Poland, but significant
representatives, obstacles still remain to securing numbers come also from Slovakia and the Baltic
the rapid deployment of workers into jobs where States, especially Latvia and Lithuania, with
there is a shortage of labour, such as backlogs in the many taking up employment in low and semi-
processing of labour market opinions and visas, the skilled occupations. Between 1 May 2004 and
difficulties for employers to find suitable low-cost 31 March 2007, the U.K. registered a cumulative
accommodation for their workers and the costs of total of 630,000 work applications on the Workers’
advertising the jobs to be filled and the paying of Registration Scheme. The highest share of approved
travel expenses (Carlson, 2007). applicants came from Poland (65% of the total),
followed by migrants from Lithuania and Slovakia
In the United States, the two largest entry categories (10%).18 The largest share of registered workers
of persons with temporary work visas16 in fiscal year were young (82%, aged 18-34), with a male:female
2006 were 431,853 persons in high-skilled specialty ratio of 57:43. Over the same period, the top five
sectors in which registered workers were employed

17
In 2005, 65,000 H-1B visas were available for issue to first-time
applicants, plus 20,000 visas for foreigners with advanced degrees from
14
U.S. universities, and an unlimited number for non-profit institutions,
In 2004, 11,494 temporary workers from Mexico came to work in Canada such as universities. The H-1B visas are normally used up well before the
(CIC Canada, 2006), and 10,777 were seasonal agricultural workers end of the fiscal year. An Immigration Bill rejected by the Senate in June
(Brem, 2006). 2007 (the SKIL bill – Securing Knowledge, Innovation and Leadership)
15
The Project was amended in February 2007 to enable employers to retain would have raised the cap for H-1B visas to 115,000 and then by another
workers for a maximum two-year period instead of one year before the 20 per cent if all the visas were used up in the previous year (Migration
workers are required to return home. After a four-month interval at News, 2007). As observed in Chapter 11, many H-1B visa holders are
home, the worker may apply for a new work permit (CIC Canada, 2007; also sponsored by their employers for immigrant visas (i.e. Green Cards)
http://www.cic.gc.ca/English/work/low-skill.asp). (Migration News, 2006a; 2006b; 2007).
16 18
“Non-immigrants” in the U.S. are foreigners seeking to enter the country In 2006, 227,710 initial applications for registration were approved:
temporarily for a given purpose (e.g. tourism, business, study, temporary 162,390 from Poland, 21,725 from Slovakia, 17,055 from Lithuania and
employment) (U.S. Office of Immigration Statistics, 2007). 9,485 from Latvia (U.K. Home Office, 2007).

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

were administration, business and management (d) Africa

(37%), hospitality and catering (20%), agriculture
(10%), manufacturing (7%), and food, fish and meat In sub-Saharan Africa, most temporary labour
processing (5%). “Administration” in the above migration is across borders and circular, involving
list may be slightly misleading, as the majority of also irregular movements (see Chapters 7 and 8).
workers in this sector work for recruitment agencies More reliable information is available concerning
and can therefore be employed in a broad range of specific types of regular movements in the Southern
occupations (U.K. Home Office, 2007). African Development Community (SADC), such as
contract labour migration to the principal mining
A principal feature of temporary low-skilled labour centres in the region (Textbox 3.1). While labour
migration in Europe is seasonal employment recruitment figures for mines in South Africa for
(Table 3.3), particularly to the southern European 1990-2000 show a decline in the number of migrants
countries, Austria, France, Germany, Norway and from all countries except Mozambique, there was an
the U.K. Germany, for example, has a relatively increase in foreign workers in the mining industry,
large-scale scheme that, on the basis of bilateral from 40 per cent in the mid-1980s to almost 60 per
arrangements, provides over 300,000 seasonal jobs cent in 2000. Lesotho, Mozambique and Swaziland
annually for a period of up to four months in the are the three main countries of origin. In 2000, the
agriculture, forestry and hospitality sectors to numbers of migrants from these countries stood at
migrant workers from central and eastern Europe 58,224, 57,034 and 9,360, respectively (Crush and
(German Federal Ministry of Interior, 2007; Table Williams, 2005). According to more recent figures
3.3). A recent development, undoubtedly related provided by officials from Swaziland, 13,000 of their
to the considerable out-migration from the new EU nationals were working in South African mines in
Member States to the former EU-15, is the growing 2005 (MIDSA, 2007). In addition to mining, the
labour shortage in central and eastern European principal sectors employing migrants in South Africa
countries, particularly in the low and semi-skilled are construction, domestic services and factory
sectors. The shortages of agricultural workers in work. Commercial agriculture is another important
Poland have led to the introduction of a policy in sector employing migrants both with and without
2006 allowing farmers to recruit seasonal workers authorization (Crush and Williams, 2005). Botswana
from neighbouring countries (Belarus, Russian and Namibia, both of which are experiencing rapid
Federation and Ukraine) for a period of thee months economic growth, are also important destination
within a six-month period without the need for a countries in the region, mainly for skilled migrants
work permit (OECD, 2007). from other SADC countries (MIDSA, 2007).

In recent years, Italy has implemented labour The numbers for both regular and irregular Asian
migration schemes covering both temporary and migrant workers in the Southern African region are
seasonal workers. In the 2006 quota-setting decree, increasing, such as for Chinese workers in Lesotho’s
provision was made for the entry of 45,000 temporary textile industry and Chinese, Indian and Pakistani
migrant workers in the domestic and personal workers in Swaziland and Tanzania, who appear to
assistance sectors, and for an additional 50,000 be filling jobs left vacant by both skilled and less-
seasonal workers in agriculture and tourism out of a skilled nationals who moved abroad for employment.
total migration contingent of 170,000.19 Mauritius is a country of both origin and destination
for migrant workers (MIDSA, 2007; see also Textbox
19
Decree by Prime Minister DPCM No. 7 of 15 February 2006, published in
the Gazzetta Ufficiale (Official Journal) on 7 March 2007.

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12.2).20 Labour migration in West Africa is more until recently relatively prosperous countries and
complex, and movements have fluctuated in recent destinations for migrant workers (e.g. Côte d’Ivoire
times because of economic downturns in what were and Nigeria) and because of conflicts in others (e.g.
Liberia and Sierra Leone) (Adepoju, 2005; see also
Textbox 13.2).
20
In Mauritius, labour shortages exist in the manufacturing and hotel
industries. In March 2007, 29,400 work permits had been issued in
Mauritius, mostly to Chinese and Indian nationals. However, the country Labour migration is also occurring within and to the
is also undertaking a major 10-year reform programme to restructure the Maghreb from sub-Saharan Africa, and it appears
economy, which, according to World Bank estimates, will result in the
loss of 12,000 low-skilled jobs. Consequently, the Mauritian authorities that most of these workers are either low or semi-
are looking to offer employment abroad for some of their nationals
through bilateral temporary (circular) labour migration programmes
skilled (see Textbox 3.4).
(MIDSA, 2007).

Textbox 3.4
Mobility of Skilled and Low-skilled Workers from, within and towards the Maghreb

In the immediate post-independence era, most Maghreb countries faced an unbalanced labour market due to a surplus of
relatively low-skilled and a shortage of qualified and highly skilled workers. Owing to geographical proximity and social and
historical links, a number of Maghreb countries pursued an emigration policy with Italy, France and Spain, which went hand in
hand with the recruitment of skilled foreign personnel to develop and manage services and enterprises. This arrangement was
terminated in the context of Franco-Maghreb relations in 1973 against a backdrop of global recession. One year later, other
European countries also ended the Maghreb labour migration programmes.

As concerns migration towards the Maghreb, 2006 United Nations data (Figure 3.2) show that out of a total Maghrebin
population of 90 million, over one million were migrants. This represented 1.23 per cent of the population in 2005, with female
migration accounting for 40.3 per cent. Since the 1970s, Libya has been the country with the largest number of foreigners
on its territory. In 2005, they numbered just over 600,000, or five per cent of Libya’s population. Libya is still the leading
destination country for migrants from other Maghreb countries.

Figure 3.2:
Evolution of the Foreign Population in the Maghreb from 1960 to 2005 (thousands)
700

600

500
Algeria
Libya
400 Mauritania
Morocco
Tunisia
300

200

100

0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Source: UN, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2006, Country Profile, World Migrant Stock: The 2005 Revision
Population Database, http://esa.un.org/migration.

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The 1989 treaty Establishing the Arab Maghreb Union (l’Union du Maghreb arabe) provides for the free movement of workers
among the countries of the Maghreb. These countries have also ratified the Arab League agreement on the social protection
of workers. But labour flows within the Maghreb are still limited (excluding cross-border movements). As there are no detailed
statistics for Libya and Mauritania, the analysis that follows focuses on the central Maghreb: Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.

Estimates of migration within the Maghreb can be read in two ways. Data on the foreign population in the Maghreb indicate
average mobility. Of an estimated total of 210,000 migrants in 2003, intra-Maghreb migration was estimated at an average of
42 per cent, though with fairly wide variations from one country to another: 59 per cent in Tunisia, 45 per cent in Algeria and
25 per cent in Morocco. Relative to the total Maghreb population abroad, the level of intra-Maghreb migration was very low.
Out of an overall emigrant population of 4.7 million from the Maghreb, only 321,000 migrants had migrated to other Maghreb
countries, or an average of 6.8 per cent. Tunisia had the largest (9.2%) and Algeria the lowest (3.3%) proportion of its migrants
in the Maghreb.

Although no reliable data exist regarding the profiles of Maghreb workers in these countries, empirical observations made
during the course of university exercises show that workers migrating to one of the countries in the Maghreb generally have
an intermediate to low level of skills.

Workers migrating to Maghreb countries show two contrasting profiles and fall into two categories: those migrating from sub-
Saharan Africa and those arriving from developed countries. Migrants from sub-Saharan Africa go mainly to Libya and, as a
second choice, to Algeria, more particularly to the départements of the Sahara. A recent study (CISP, 2006) on sub-Saharan
migrants in Algeria shows that the migration patterns of sub-Saharan workers vary with their level of education. Those with
lower levels of education choose to work in the Maghreb, while those who have completed secondary education are mostly in
transit.

Migrants from developed countries, i.e. Europe and the United States, and from Asia or the Middle East, are usually qualified
or highly skilled workers. The bulk of the European migrant workers are from France. Statistics on French citizens abroad show
a renewed surge in French migration to North African countries. From 70,000 in 1984, the number of French migrants in North
Africa fell to 46,000 in 2000, to rise again to almost 85,000 by 2005. The majority went to Algeria, where they currently number
around 40,000, up from a mere 8,000 in 1995. Some 83 per cent of French workers are employed in the tertiary sector, 46 per
cent are in top management or academia, and 18 per cent are entrepreneurs.

In recent years, Algeria has been recruiting skilled and highly qualified human resources, more specifically in connection with
Asian enterprises engaged in construction and public works, and for its infrastructure building programme. As of June 2007,
Algeria had 32,000 foreign workers, of whom 23 per cent were senior executives, 21.7 per cent managers and senior technical
staff, 27.7 per cent technical staff, 25 per cent highly skilled workers and 1 per cent low-skilled workers. It is expected that at
least another 20,000 foreign workers will be recruited under the scheme to build a highway linking the Tunisian and Moroccan
borders.

This unprecedented pull effect of the Algerian economy on foreign workers may, in the right circumstances, lead to a further
increase in intra-Maghreb mobility.

Source: Mohamed Saïb Musette, Centre de Recherche en Economie Appliquée pour le Développement (CREAD), Algiers, Algeria.

(e) Central America, the Caribbean and South from Bolivia and Paraguay to Argentina).21 There
America are approximately 500,000 migrant workers in Costa
Rica (17% of the labour force), half of whom are
In Central America, the Caribbean and South America there irregularly. Many of these workers come from
many low and semi-skilled workers migrate in an neighbouring countries, particularly Nicaragua, and
irregular manner (e.g. Nicaraguan migrant workers
to Costa Rica, Haitian migrants to the Dominican
Republic and the Bahamas, and seasonal workers 21
Some of these movements are also described in Chapter 8.

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are concentrated mainly in agriculture,22 but also in but rotate low-skilled migrants in and out of the
other low-skilled employment such as construction, country.
tourism and domestic work. An estimated 50,000-
80,000 women migrant workers work irregularly The “front doors” are for foreigners invited to reside
as domestic help in Costa Rica. In the Dominican permanently, mainly highly skilled or economic
Republic, there are a reported 500,000 to 700,000 migrants. Australia, Canada and the U.K. select
mainly irregular Haitian migrant workers, the majority economic migrants primarily on a supply-side basis
employed on sugar plantations, but increasingly also that emphasizes personal characteristics such as
in the construction sector and, to a lesser extent, in age, education and professional qualifications, while
service sectors such as tourism (Achieng, 2006). In Germany and the U.S. favour a demand-side approach,
the Bahamas, there are an estimated 40,000-50,000 selecting economically motivated migrants who have
Haitians or Haitian descendants, mainly in low-paid, job offers. There has been some convergence between
lower-skilled employment in agriculture/landscaping, points-based or supply-side selection systems and
construction, domestic service and informal trading employer-based or demand-side selection systems,
(Fernández-Alfaro and Pascua, 2006). Some of the as Canada awards points to foreigners with job offers
labour migration in this region, however, is occurring and the U.S. makes it easiest for college-educated
on a regular and documented basis, such as the foreigners to obtain immigrant visas. Germany, on the
seasonal employment of Guatemalan agricultural other hand, requires payment of a threshold salary
workers in southern Mexico. Movements also occur to obtain permanent residence on admission.23
from within the region to Spain, particularly from
the Dominican Republic, Colombia and Ecuador, “Side doors” admit migrants for a specific time
facilitated by bilateral arrangements (see Chapter and purpose ranging from a few days for tourism
13). Regularization programmes are also a common to several years for work or study. Side doors were
feature across the whole region (see Textbox 8.3). traditionally not explicitly linked to “front door”
settlement channels, as reflected in rules requiring
4. 21st Century Temporary Labour Migration foreign students to return to their country of origin
Programmes upon graduation. This has changed, and most
industrialized countries now allow foreign student
The major difference between past and current graduates to work after graduation and eventually to
temporary labour migration programmes is their settle (see Chapter 4). Similarly, these countries often
scope and purpose. During the U.S. Bracero and permit foreign professionals to enter as temporary
German guest worker eras, the general practice was workers and later settle as immigrants, making them
to admit migrant workers under one major national in effect probationary immigrants. Migrants using
programme. Today, most high-income countries the “back door” are foreigners who either enter a
have multiple programmes to admit foreign workers, country without authorization, or who enter legally
front doors for immigrants, side doors for temporary and subsequently violate the terms of their entry,
workers and back doors for the unauthorized. The e.g. a tourist accepting paid employment. In the U.S.
rationale for these programmes is straightforward: and southern European countries such as Italy and
welcome skilled workers and allow them to settle, Spain, many of the foreigners who eventually obtain
the right to reside permanently (for instance through
regularization programmes) arrive clandestinely or
22
According to the Costa Rica Ministry of Labour and Social Security, in
2002-03 there were 50,400 seasonal migrants working in agriculture, of
as authorized temporary entrants.
whom 40,900 (or 81%) were undocumented.
23
These admission policies are discussed in more detail in Chapter 11.

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

Temporary migrant worker programmes in the mid- information indicates that the demand for labour in
20th century were usually “macro” in the sense that particular occupations exceeds the available supply,
there was one major programme per country, and the the labour market test is relaxed considerably. For
overall unemployment and job vacancy rate played a occupations found on Regional Lists of Occupations
determining role in deciding the need for temporary under Pressure, developed by HRSDC and Service
migrant workers. Today’s multiple programmes are Canada, employers do not need to conduct lengthy
“micro” in aiming to respond to specific labour or comprehensive job search efforts before obtaining
market needs, such as filling job vacancies in nursing permission to hire foreign workers (HRSDC, 2007),
and IT. Overall unemployment and job vacancy rates with Labour Market Opinions issued for the number
play only a small role in determining admission to of workers required by a specific enterprise.
these specialized sectors. Government employment
services, which have shrunk in size, have less 5. “Win-Win-Win” Migration: The Economic
credibility in determining whether foreign workers Argument for More Low and Semi-skilled
are “needed” to fill job vacancies.24 Labour Migration

With admission procedures giving employers more Moving low and semi-skilled workers from lower
say in deciding whether foreign workers are needed, to higher-wage countries can be a “win-win-win”
employers have gained an important voice in situation, with migrants benefiting from higher
admission policy. In many industrialized countries, wages, destination countries from more employment
if an employer decides that a college-educated and a higher GDP, and countries of origin from jobs
foreigner is the best person to fill a vacancy, the for otherwise unemployed workers, remittances, and
hiring and admission procedure is relatively returns. The first two “wins” are well established,
straightforward. For example, available H-1B visas in as migrants demonstrate a strong desire to go
the U.S. are generally exhausted well before the end abroad by taking considerable risks to move to
of the year, in part because the admission process is higher-wage countries. Most studies in destination
easy – most employers simply “attest” that they will countries conclude that the major beneficiaries of
be paying at least the prevailing wage to a college- economically motivated migration are the migrants
educated foreigner who is filling a job normally who receive higher earnings, and that the presence
requiring a college education. As a general rule, the of migrants slightly expands economic output, albeit
admission procedures are more stringent for low- by depressing wages slightly (Smith and Edmonston,
skilled workers. For instance, in Canada, employers 1997).
wishing to hire low-skilled workers for employment
in agriculture or under the new Low Skill Pilot Project The third “win”, the effect of emigration on
discussed in Section 3.2(b) above, are still required countries of origin, has been in the spotlight as
to obtain a Labour Market Opinion from Human migrant numbers and remittances are rising rapidly.
Resources and Social Development Canada (HRSDC). The Global Commission on International Migration
However, in some regions, where labour market (GCIM, 2005), the World Trade Organization’s GATS
Mode 4 negotiations,25 the UN High-Level Dialogue
on Migration and Development26 and the Global
24
In the U.S., there are two major ways of determining whether an
employer “needs” migrants. Under certification, the U.S. Department
Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD)27
of Labor (DOL) controls the border gate, not allowing migrants to enter
until the employer conducts recruitment activities supervised by DOL. 25
See www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/serv_e.htm.
Under the alternative attestation process, the employer controls the 26
border gate, opening it by attesting that she is paying the prevailing See http://www.unmigration.org.
27
wage, and DOL responds to complaints of violations. See Textbox Int. 2.

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 World Migration 2008

have recently lent support to the belief that more of migrants who return and create new jobs at home,
temporary labour migration from developing to and the diaspora that maintains links to the country
industrialized countries can enhance “win-win-win” of origin (see Textbox 3.5).
outcomes, citing remittances and the contributions

Textbox 3.5
Promoting Temporary Labour Migration: Policy Response of the International Community

Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD)

“Temporary labour migration can work to everyone’s advantage if it is legal, protective and linked to real labour needs.
It is a flexible way of meeting labour surplus and shortage across countries. Assuring legal access to a varied labour market,
protecting the basic rights of migrants, especially women, and assuring temporariness of the migration are key to maximizing
the mutual benefits. In the absence of a functional multilateral system, bilateral arrangements have been found to operate
effectively in certain countries. Individual countries can also adopt institutional and policy frameworks that contribute to
realizing the objectives of temporary migration. Joint arrangements between origin and destination countries, particularly for
lower-skilled migrants, can help enforce the laws to protect temporary migrants and enhance their contribution to their families
and home communities.”

GFMD (2008: 65).

UN Secretary General’s Report on International Migration and Development

“84. Temporary migration programmes are becoming more numerous. They are a response to the rising demand for labour in
receiving countries. Although the number of migrants admitted under the more recent programmes is modest, there is potential
for these programmes to result in beneficial synergies for migrants, countries of origin and countries of destination. Under such
programmes, migrants benefit from having a legal status and countries of origin gain from remittances and the eventual return
of migrants, provided the experience they gain abroad can be put to productive use at home. Receiving countries secure the
workers they need and may enhance the positive effects of migration by allowing migrants to stay long enough to accumulate
savings.”

UN (2006: 18).

World Bank

“Greater emigration of low-skilled emigrants from developing to industrial countries could make a significant contribution to
poverty reduction. The most feasible means of increasing such emigration would be to promote managed migration programs
between origin and destination countries that combine temporary migration of low-skilled workers with incentives for
return.”

World Bank (2006a: xi).

ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration

“Chapter IX. Migration and development

…15. The contribution of labour migration to employment, economic growth, development and the alleviation of poverty
should be recognized and maximized for the benefit of both origin and destination countries.

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

Guidelines

The following guidelines may prove valuable in giving practical effect to the above principles:

15.8. Adopting policies to encourage circular and return migration and reintegration into the country of origin, including by
promoting temporary labour migration schemes and circulation-friendly visa policies.”

ILO (2006).

Global Commission for International Migration

“States and the private sector should consider the option of introducing carefully designed temporary labour migration
programmes as a means of addressing the economic needs of both countries of origin and destination.”

GCIM (2005: 16).

International Agenda for Migration Management (IAMM)

Temporary migration

… “The effective management of temporary migration offers States the opportunity to channel migration to address a range
of domestic needs and policy priorities, such as short-term labour market requirements or the acquisition or improvement of skills,
knowledge and resources through training and work abroad. Different criteria and conditions may be developed for each temporary
migration category. The key elements of a comprehensive and balanced temporary migration programme are that it is transparent,
non-discriminatory, orderly, efficient, reliable and safe.

Effective practices in regard to temporary migration:

l Promotion of the use of certain forms of temporary migration, such as short-term and project-related migration, as a means
of meeting labour market needs, improving the skills of nationals of countries of origin, especially developing countries and
countries with economies in transition.
l Facilitation of regular consultations on a bilateral or multilateral basis to identify and meet temporary migration needs
through orderly channels, including through conclusion of bilateral or multilateral agreements.
l Identification of employment sectors that would be designated as suitable for temporary migrant workers.
l Definition of categories for temporary migrants according to specific intended objectives, for example business, family visit
or study.
l Implementation of measures to enable and facilitate temporary migration and multiple short stays, including through
efficient registration systems and delivery of multi-entry visas based on available technology and information sharing for
tourists, business visitors, family visits and other temporary purposes.
l Provision of clear, accessible and user-friendly information on temporary migration opportunities and procedural requirements,
migrant rights and responsibilities, as well as means to access such information, including through such services as migrant
information centres.
l Implementation of temporary migration programmes which provide temporary migrants with a secure legal status, with rights
and responsibilities that reflect their temporary status.
l Promotion and implementation of measures to ensure that temporary migration remains temporary, such as conditioning
subsequent re-entry on timely return.
l For those States utilising temporary migration programmes as a possible route to permanent migration, articulation of clear
conditions under which those who qualify can gain permanent status.
l Promotion of data collection and analysis regarding temporary migration.”

IOM/Swiss Federal Office for Migration (2005: 35-36).

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UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (World Economic and Social Survey 2004: International Migration)

“It is widely recognized that a liberalization of the movement of people (workers and services providers) that is not for
resettlement purposes would result in gains to the world economy and especially to developing countries. … Improving the
way temporary migrant flows are managed is a promising option. A step forward would be to implement such arrangements
for the less skilled. (…) The movement of [less-skilled] workers from developing to developed countries promises to yield the
greatest gains because this is where the difference between factor prices is largest and where there is considerable scope for
movement.”

UN DESA (2004: 139).

Economists estimate that more workers moving generate a global income gain of over USD 350 billion,
across borders could significantly increase global exceeding the anticipated USD 300 billion gain from
economic output as workers would be placed where completing the Doha round of trade negotiations.29
their productivity is higher. One of the first studies The press release accompanying the report argued
was conducted by Hamilton and Whalley (1984), who that more
estimated that global GDP could double if migration
were to increase sufficiently to equalize the marginal managed migration programs, including temporary
productivity of labour (and wages) between seven work visas for low-skilled migrants in industrial
world regions that included 179 countries.28 Even if countries (…) would contribute to significant
migration were insufficient to equalize wages, global reductions in poverty in migrant sending countries,
GDP would still increase significantly if there were among the migrants themselves, their families
more migration, since the initial migrants face the and, as remittances increase, in the broader
largest gaps in marginal productivity or wages and community.30
thus gain the most by moving.
If more labour migration produces “win-win-win”
In its Global Economic Prospects Report 2006 on outcomes, how should it be organized? “Carefully”
Economic Implications of Remittances and Migration, would seem to be the answer. The GCIM (2005:
the World Bank (2006a) estimated that if an 79, para. 1.3) recommended “carefully designed
additional 14 million migrants were to migrate from temporary migration programs as a means of
developing to high-income countries that would addressing the economic needs of both countries
of origin and destination”. The need for a careful
design of temporary migrant worker programmes is
28
In Hamilton and Whalley’s simulation, massive migration to equalize especially urgent in countries such as the U.S. and
wages would have added USD 5 – 16 trillion to global GDP in 1977,
when it was USD 8 trillion. Their simulation relied on a number of Germany, where governments have not had a great
assumptions, including full employment of the world’s workers, who record of keeping temporary worker programmes
produced a single output with a CES production function (i.e. constant
elasticity of substitution between labour and capital). They estimated true to their design as past programmes did not
differences in 1977 in the marginal productivity of labour across seven function as expected. An understanding of why
multi-country regions and assumed that these differences were due to
migration restrictions. Migration that equalized marginal productivity
and wages (factor price convergence via migration) would result in
workers in destination countries losing and capital owners in these 29
countries gaining, and the opposite distributional effects in countries of Two-thirds of this USD 300 billion gain would come from liberalizing
origin. (The full employment assumption is necessary to justify equating farm trade.
30
wages and marginal productivity; they assume that the wage:profit ratio World Bank, “Migration Can Deliver Welfare Gains, Reduce Poverty, Says
is one in both rich and poor countries before migration barriers are lifted Global Economic Prospects 2006”, Press Release, 16 Nov. 2005, citing Uri
and that capital does not move even as labour migrates.) Dadush, Director of the Bank’s Development Prospects Group.

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

temporary labour migration programmes tend to get returns, have not been set in motion to remove
larger and to last longer than originally intended or reduce migratory push factors, migrants may
is a prerequisite to designing programmes that can continue to migrate to avoid a reduction in their
come closer to fulfilling the goal of adding workers income. Most researchers conclude that the U.S.-
temporarily to the labour force, but not adding Mexico Bracero programmes sowed the seeds of
settlers to the population. subsequent unauthorized Mexico-U.S. migration, via
distortion in rural America (the expansion of labour-
6. The Problems of Distortion and Dependence intensive agriculture) and dependence in rural
and Possible Solutions Mexico (population and labour force growth without
economic development) (Martin, 2003b: Ch. 2).
Temporary migrant worker programmes tend to get
larger and to last longer than intended because of The realities of distortion and dependence should
distortion and dependence. Most employers in the encourage governments considering new temporary
majority of host countries do not hire temporary labour migration programmes to proceed cautiously,
migrant workers. Distortion means that the minority and to include economic mechanisms to minimize
who do have access to a supplementary labour supply distortion and dependence. These mechanisms include
– those hiring temporary migrants – face generally taxes to encourage employers to look for alternatives
limited supplies of low-skilled workers at home and to migrants and subsidies to encourage temporary
almost unlimited supplies abroad. migrant workers to return to their countries of origin
as their contracts require.
Employers hiring temporary migrant workers often
do so assuming that migrants will continue to be Dealing with distortion requires recognition that
available and make investment decisions reflecting employers always have choices when they make
this assumption. Thus, farmers who depend on investments and fill jobs. By the time government is
migrants may plant fruit trees in areas with few involved in a request for temporary migrant workers,
people, assert that they will go out of business the employer has usually found the migrants desired,
without migrants to pick their crops, and resist efforts so that a supervised period of recruitment usually
to reduce the number of migrant workers because fails to find local workers. Government employment
doing so would reduce the value of their investment. services are ill suited to second-guess employers
This is economic distortion in that some employers in such situations, which is one reason why labour
face more stringent labour supply constraints than certification processes (i.e. labour market/resident
others. Employers relying on migrant labour can worker tests) can become very contentious, especially
either avoid raising wages when local workers are if unemployment rates in the areas where migrants
no longer available or willing to do the work, or will be employed are high.
they can expand production because they are able to
recruit migrant workers. Once the employers who turn to guest workers learn
how to have their “need” for migrants certified, most
Dependence reflects the fact that some migrants and assume they will be able to continue to hire foreign
their families as well as their regions and countries workers. As a result, investments in alternatives to
of origin may assume that foreign jobs, earnings migrants can dwindle, and distortions may increase
and remittances will continue to be available. If as migrant-dependent sectors become isolated from
the opportunity to work abroad legally is curbed, national labour markets. For example, agriculture
but the “3 Rs”, i.e. recruitment, remittances and may not offer workers’ health insurance to its

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employees because the young male migrants who migrants, as when some elderly persons have in-
dominate the seasonal workforce prefer cash wages home migrant caregivers and others use technology
to costly benefits, but this also makes farm work such as cameras linked to computers to live alone
less attractive to local workers who are interested in but under video monitoring that can summon help
benefits. Networks linking migrants and work places quickly. The universal truism is that wages held down
soon span borders as current migrants refer friends by the presence of migrants will lead to more labour-
and relatives to fill vacant jobs. One result is that intensive ways to get work done, and pressures
labour market information may flow far more freely to increase wages by the absence of migrants will
from a migrant workplace to migrant countries of encourage the development of alternatives to high-
origin than to pockets of unemployment nearby. wage workers.

International norms and local laws usually call for The other half of the equation involves giving
migrant workers to be treated equally, receiving the migrants incentives to abide by the terms of their
same wages and benefits as local workers. One way to contracts, which usually require them to leave
minimize distortion is to realize that social security when jobs are no longer available or their work
and health insurance payments increase the overall contract ends. To encourage returns, the worker’s
payroll expenditure of employers by 20 to 40 per share of payroll taxes can be refunded when the
cent. These amounts could be collected on migrant migrant surrenders his/her work visa upon return
payrolls to level the playing field between migrant in the country of origin. Given the increasing global
and local workers. interest in using remittances to hasten development,
governments and development institutions could
The employer share of migrant payroll taxes could be match payroll tax refunds to support projects that
used to combat distortion through the restructuring create jobs in the migrants’ home country.
of migrant jobs, such as promoting labour-saving
mechanization. For example, in an industry such as Minimizing distortion and dependence with taxes
agriculture, it is often hard for one farmer to finance and subsidies will not have the desired effects on
or implement mechanization, since peach packers and employers and migrants if unauthorized workers are
processors want fruit that is either picked by hand or readily available and labour laws are not enforced.
mechanically, but not both (Martin, 2003b: Ch. 8). Some employers hire unauthorized workers to
Thus, a mechanization programme funded through save payroll taxes, and some migrants will resist
payroll taxes could help to provide alternatives to departing when their work visas expire despite
migrants.31 refund offers if they believe that they can continue
to work abroad in an irregular status and have only
Mechanization is not the only alternative to migrants. few options to earn income at home. Thus, the
Sometimes local workers may be attracted to “migrant enforcement of immigration and labour laws is a
jobs” once they have been restructured, as has been the prerequisite to the development of temporary labour
case with garbage collection in the U.S., whose labour migration programmes that minimize distortion and
force has been “renationalized” by switching to large dependence.
containers lifted by a truck operator. In other cases,
subsidized research could develop alternatives to 7. Numbers vs. Rights

31
To recognize that each sector is different, boards representing employers,
The new approaches to the management of temporary
workers and governments could decide how to spend the accumulated labour migration give rise to a difficult discussion
funds to reduce dependence on temporary migrant workers over time.

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

about possible trade-offs between migrant numbers migrant workers; therefore, the call for “more” migrants
and migrant rights. The demand for migrant workers and more rights provides little guidance on how to
depends in part on their cost, which in turn will deal with the trade-off in practice. For example,
partially depend on their rights. If migrants enjoy should the international community encourage the
the “full rights” laid down in ILO and UN conventions, movement of more overseas contract workers to oil-
including the right to work-related benefits and exporting Gulf States even though the conditions of
family unification, their cost will be typically higher, their employment may fall short of what is prescribed
and fewer will be sought by employers (Hasenau, in ILO or UN conventions? Overseas contract workers
1991). On the other hand, fewer rights and lower earn more in GCC States such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait
costs can expand migrant numbers but also lead to and the United Arab Emirates than they would at
a layered labour force and society (Ruhs and Martin, home, with the result that they may be able to
2006). improve significantly the welfare of their families in
countries of origin (see Portrait 3.1), although they
Most international discussions call for more numbers do not, as yet, enjoy equal treatment with nationals.
as well as more rights, that is, more channels for Recent reforms in the United Arab Emirates aimed
temporary migrant workers to enter developed at improving working conditions have introduced
countries as well as securing all the rights provided summer sun breaks during the hottest part of the
for in the relevant ILO and UN instruments concerning day, increased the number of labour inspectors and
migrants. In fact, most destination countries have not imposed financial penalties on companies that fail
ratified either the ILO or the UN conventions protecting to pay their workers (DeParle, 2007).

Portrait 3.1
Dates for a Better Future

On a sunny morning in March 2007, two-year-old Fatema is seeing her father, Anwar, for the first time in her life.

Anwar left for Saudi Arabia for the first time in 2000. He is one of those fortunate enough who get to take leave to visit their
home country every couple of years. His last visit to Bangladesh was in 2003.

He initially took the decision to seek work abroad after years of hardship in his village, where he struggled to make a living
with a small piece of land he inherited from his father. Like thousands of Bangladeshis, he opted for temporary employment
opportunities in Saudi Arabia.

Anwar remembers the first time he left Bangladesh. He arrived in Saudi Arabia and joined a Khejur (dates) packaging company.
It gave him very little pay to start with, but it provided him with the hope of a better future for himself and his family.

Although living so far away from his wife, children and mother has been very difficult, he feels that this opportunity abroad
has helped him raise and educate his four children, which he values greatly.

Being illiterate himself, he understands the importance of educating his children, particularly his daughters.

Anwar has been fortunate that his salary at the Khejur (dates) company increased over time. His employer, satisfied with his
work, gave him additional responsibilities at the factory. With this he has repaid all his debts incurred to take up work in Saudi
Arabia. It had cost him approximately USD 2,200 to first travel to Saudi Arabia for work.

In addition, with the money he has saved over the years, Anwar has also been able to rebuild and repair his home.

Although Anwar will have to leave Bangladesh again in three months, he hopes that some day he will be able to return to
Bangladesh permanently, buy arable land in the village and live comfortably with his whole family.

Source: IOM Dhaka.

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 World Migration 2008

The presence of migrants in countries that restrict providers. ILO Conventions Nos. 97 and 143 call for
the rights of migrants demonstrates that many wage parity for migrant and local workers. However,
workers are willing to accept the trade-off between Chaudhuri et al. (2004) assert that equal wages
higher wages and fewer rights. The fact that overseas would limit numbers: “Wage-parity (…) is intended
contract workers may pay up to 25 per cent of what to provide a non-discriminatory environment,
they will earn to obtain a two-year contract to work [but] tends to erode the cost advantage of hiring
in GCC countries suggests that the international foreigners and works like a de facto quota”. Chanda
community may want to focus more on the effective (2001: 635) goes further, asserting that wage parity
implementation of core human and labour rights in “negates the very basis of cross-country labor flows,
respect of migrant workers as well as the development which stem from endowment-based cost differentials
of more comprehensive migrant rights conventions. between countries”. In other words, if GATS opened
new channels for migrants, would they be paid local
The fundamental dilemma is that inequality motivates minimum or prevailing wages, which may limit their
migration, but migrant conventions and norms call numbers, or could they work for lower wages, which
for equality after arrival. This dilemma lies at the would presumably increase numbers?
core of the WTO’s General Agreement on Trade in
Services (GATS) negotiations, which aim to liberalize “Numbers versus rights” raises other questions as
the movement of “service providers”.32 If achieved, well. Ruhs (2005) emphasizes that it is a human right
there could be “hundreds of millions” of additional to leave one’s country, but there is no corresponding
migrants crossing borders to provide services.33 right to enter another country. As a result, the
balance of power in determining whether either
In 2000, about one per cent of global trade in services numbers or rights receive higher priority lies mostly
involved GATS Mode 4, the “movement of natural in the more affluent destination countries, which
persons” over borders. Many developing countries have to answer questions such as whether to enforce
would like to see more Mode 4 movements, with the return of skilled migrants to avoid brain drain
some envisaging the goal of a “GATS visa” that would from countries of origin, or welcome skilled migrants
allow access to any WTO member country national for to generate the maximum benefits from migration.
one to three years (Chanda, 2001: 648), so that refusal Countries of origin largely react to these policies,
to allow entry and employment would be a reason to making decisions about whether to facilitate labour
file a complaint with the WTO. emigration or attempt to prohibit or discourage
migration to particular countries.
The “numbers versus rights” trade-off becomes clear
when dealing with wage standards for GATS service 8. Conclusion

32 Economic theory suggests that workers who

Services move across borders in four major ways or modes: Mode 1
(cross-border supply) occurs when the service rather than the supplier move from lower to higher wage countries are the
or consumer crosses national borders, as with call centres; Mode 2
(consumption abroad) occurs when the consumer travels to the supplier,
major beneficiaries of temporary labour migration
as when a tourist visits another country or a patient travels abroad for programmes, and that such labour migration
medical services (see also Chapter 5); Mode 3 (commercial presence)
reflects the movement of capital, as when a bank or insurance company
increases global economic efficiency. There are many
establishes a subsidiary in another country; and Mode 4 (“movement of types of temporary labour migration programmes,
natural persons”) involves the supplier travelling to the consumer of a
service. ranging from those that admit temporary workers to
33
In answer to the question, “Are we looking at tens of millions of people fill temporary jobs, to those that admit temporary
moving around in the future?” [under Mode 4], Abdel-Hamid Mamdouh,
Director of Trade in Services at the WTO, said “Ah, yes - it could be
workers to fill permanent or year-round jobs, and
hundreds [of millions] if we liberalize” (Zarocostas, 2005). those that admit probationary immigrants.

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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

Governments with large numbers of unauthorized is already poised to develop; it cannot, however,
foreign workers often see temporary labour migration create such conditions.” The World Bank’s 2006
programmes for low and semi-skilled workers as Global Economic Prospects Report similarly asserts
the best compromise between the extremes of “no that “migration should not be viewed as a substitute
borders” and “no migrants”. The arguments for for economic development in the country of origin [as
having such temporary migrant workers admitted via ultimately] development depends on sound domestic
regular channels rather than unauthorized foreigners economic policies.” (World Bank, 2006a: xi). These
seem compelling. Employers argue that they cannot messages were also strongly echoed in the government-
find local workers to fill vacant jobs at prevailing led discussions of the Global Forum on Migration and
wages and working conditions, and many migrants Development (GFMD) (see Textbox Int. 2).35
want to work abroad for higher wages. To avoid
having non-integrated second and third-generation Potential conflicts of interest between countries
foreigners, governments are often attracted to the of origin and destination highlight the need for
concept of simply “borrowing” workers from lower- dialogue and cooperation. Destination countries
wage countries. prefer the best and brightest workers, such as IT and
healthcare professionals. Professionals earn more and
Earlier “guest worker” programmes ended under a can remit more, but may also find it easier to settle
cloud, as they lasted longer and became larger than abroad, which is likely to reduce remittances in the
anticipated, and resulted in significant settlement longer term. It is not yet clear whether the advice
and family unification. To avoid the same fate with being given to developing countries, “Don’t worry if
21st century temporary labour migration programmes, your best and brightest leave because you will get
it is important to develop more effective approaches remittances”, will eventually be as discredited as
to programme management to help ensure that was the advice of half a century ago to speed up
temporary migrant workers do not become permanent development by creating and protecting basic steel
features of the labour landscapes in countries of origin and other heavy industries behind high tariff walls.
and destination. This could be done, for instance,
by introducing economic incentives for return or Governments and international institutions
offering attractive opportunities for investment in advocating more 21st century temporary labour
countries of origin.34 Such policies might encourage migration programmes for low and semi-skilled
industrialized countries to open more gates for low workers have not yet dealt with the fundamental
and semi-skilled migrant workers. dilemma that inequality motivates people to move,
but most legal norms in developed countries as well
Well-managed temporary labour migration as international standards call for equal treatment
programmes benefit migrants and destination after arrival. Countries in which the equality norm
countries, but while remittances can contribute to receives least attention have the most migrants, as
poverty reduction (see also the discussion in Textbox in the Middle East, while countries which adhere to
12.3), it is less clear whether such programmes taken the equality norm have fewer, as in Scandinavia.
as a whole can be a positive force for sustainable There are no easy or universal answers as to whether
development in countries of origin. The ILO (2004: 30) numbers or rights should receive higher priority,
reviewed the migration and development literature but one way forward is to think in terms of core
and concluded that “migration can, in some cases, rights that all migrants should enjoy. These issues
contribute positively to development where a country are addressed again in Part B of the Report focusing
on policy responses.
34
See also Chapters 11 and 12 where these policies are discussed in a little
35
more detail. These questions are discussed further in Chapter 12.

[100]
 World Migration 2008

Brem, M.
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 Chapter 3 - LOW AND SEMI-SKILLED WORKERS ABROAD

United States, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

2007 The World Factbook 2007, CIA, Washington, D.C.
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[104]
 World Migration 2008

STUDENT MOBILITY,
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF
HIGHER EDUCATION AND
SKILLED MIGRATION*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
4 a competitive edge. Individuals see it as a further
boost to their career both in their home country
The dynamics of student mobility and the and on the international job market, or even as an
internationalization of higher education have investment towards possible future emigration.
changed profoundly since the 1990s. Twenty years
ago, the primary motivations to study abroad were A growing number of persons either go abroad to
related to academic, political, geo-strategic, cultural study, enrol in foreign programmes or establishments
and development aid issues and considerations. At present in their country, or simply turn to the
the time, countries took a favourable view of the Internet to follow courses run by universities or
mobility of students and academics as an opening other institutions of higher learning at a distance
to the world, in the hope of creating international from other countries. Between 1998 and 2004, the
networks of elites. Universities received foreign number of foreign students enrolled worldwide rose
students and academics but made no special effort by 52 per cent to 2.7 million, with the OECD countries
to recruit them. Today, even though the original hosting 85 per cent of the total.
motivations remain valid, cross-border education
– that is, all that entails the international mobility This trend results from a range of different, not
of students and teachers, educational programmes mutually exclusive factors: greater mobility of
or institutions of higher learning (Knight, 2004) skilled individuals and workers in a globalized
– is being increasingly driven by economic economy; the falling costs of transport and
considerations. Governments see it as a fulcrum of communication; the desire of countries to encourage
economic development and as a means of improving university and cultural exchanges and to attract
the quality of their higher education and their highly qualified personnel; the wish on the part of
institutions of higher learning, an element of prestige tertiary institutions to generate additional income
(and sometimes a source of income), giving them or increase their prestige and raise their profiles,
both nationally and internationally; or the need for
* This chapter was written by Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin, who is an
analyst at the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI), a better educated workforce in emerging economies
a division of the Directorate for Education of the Organisation for where local capabilities are often quantitatively and
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The analyses given
and the opinions expressed in this chapter are those of the author and qualitatively insufficient.
do not necessarily reflect the views of the OECD and of its members.

[105]
 Chapter 4 - STUDENT MOBILITY

Cross-border higher education has evolved differently 2. Main Trends in Cross-border Higher
across countries and regions. In very general terms, Education
student mobility has been induced by political
action in Europe and by strong demand in the Asia- The main trends in cross-border higher education
Pacific region. North America, for its part, has been may be summed up in two words, namely growth
a magnet for foreign students, although it is only and diversification: growth in the number of
in recent years that the United States has adopted students enrolled in foreign education programmes
a policy of more active recruitment. Though South (or abroad); diversification of the supply of cross-
America and Africa receive relatively few foreign border education, as new forms of international
students, and then mostly from within the same mobility emerge. This section outlines the main
region, student mobility in general is also increasing trends in student mobility and argues that, like
in those parts of the world. However, only limited student mobility, the new forms of cross-border
statistics are available for these regions. education can facilitate the migration of highly
qualified professionals or skilled migration (i.e. of
The major trends in cross-border higher education graduates from institutions of higher learning).
and the implications for educational policies are set
out and examined in two OECD publications (2004a 2.1 Student Mobility: Main Trends
and 2004b): Internationalisation and Trade in Higher
Education. Opportunities and Challenges, and Quality International student mobility is the main form of
and Recognition in Higher Education: The Cross-border cross-border higher education. In 2004, there were
Challenge. Also, detailed data on foreign and mobile 2.7 million students worldwide studying outside their
students are collected and published each year in own countries; in other words, almost three times as
Education at a Glance (OECD, 2006a) and by UNESCO many as 20 years ago. OECD countries receive some
(2006). 85 per cent of all foreign students, two-thirds (66%)
of whom were nationals of non-OECD countries in
This chapter retraces the predominant trends in 2004. Thus, such student flows show a strong South-
student mobility and highlights the major strategies North orientation, with five OECD countries hosting
for the internationalization of higher education, over half of the total (58%). In 2004, 22 per cent of
while underscoring the main implications for all foreign students worldwide were in the United
migration. Section 2 examines the major trends in States, 11 per cent in the United Kingdom, 10 per
student mobility, the causes of this mobility, and cent in Germany, 9 per cent in France and 6 per
describes the emergence of new forms of cross- cent in Australia. The top five English-speaking host
border higher education – viz. the mobility of both countries (United States, United Kingdom, Australia,
programmes and educational establishments. Section Canada and New Zealand) alone receive almost half
3 proposes a typology of the main strategies in the (47%) the total number of foreign students (Figure
internationalization of higher education. Section 4 4.1). Of the ten countries hosting the largest share
discusses the interplay between student mobility and of foreign students (75% of the world total) only
migration policies, and examines the link between Russia and South Africa are not OECD members. The
student mobility and brain drain. Finally, the 35 leading host countries for foreign students listed
conclusion underlines how the internationalization in Figure 4.1a account for 95 per cent of all foreign
of higher education further complicates the link students enrolled throughout the world.
between student mobility and skilled migration.

Unless otherwise indicated, the figures used in this chapter are from
the OECD education database for all members and non-members covered
in it (OECD, 2006a), and from UNESCO for all other countries (UNESCO,
2006). In the absence of 2004 data, the last available year was taken as
an estimate.

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Textbox 4.1
Foreign and International Students in International Statistics

Despite constant efforts to improve international statistical data on student mobility, some imperfections persist. Although
these efforts attempt to list non-resident foreign students who have entered a country for study purposes, the national data for
some countries include both resident and non-resident tertiary students (ISCED1 5A, 5B and 6). Hence, “foreign” students are
generally an over-estimation of genuinely mobile international students. In 2006, the OECD published for the first time data on
mobile international students as distinct from data on foreign students. The foreign students are identified by their nationality,
while the mobile students are identified by the country where they had previously studied or by their residence. For the 12
countries for which data are available, mobile students account for an average of 70 per cent of foreign students, although there
may be large variations. In Norway and Spain less than 40 per cent of foreign students are mobile, as compared with over 80 per
cent in Australia, Austria, Canada, Hungary, Japan and the United Kingdom. In principle, the data do not reflect the fact that
foreign students who enrol in programmes for at least one semester count as full-time students. Students sent abroad for short
periods (i.e. less than a full academic year) and who remain enrolled in their institutions of origin and/or are still paying their
tuition fees to that institution should not be recorded as foreign students in the host country. Lastly, a student from country
A, registered in a programme offered in country B via distance learning, should, in principle, be counted as a foreign student
of country B, which is not always the case in practice. The variations between the national and international data for a given
country stem from the adjustments needed to make country data comparable internationally. Although foreign students may
not be (mobile) international students, this chapter often uses the data on foreign students as an approximation of student
mobility. This is done for practical reasons as such data are available for a greater number of countries.

Note:
1
ISCED - International Standard Classification of Education.

Figure 4.1:
Numbers and Percentages of Foreign Students in the 35 Main Host Countries, 2004

4.1a: Numbers 4.1b: Percentage enrolled in higher education

U.S. Macao SAR
U.K. 300,056 572,509 Fiji 32.9 58.9
Germany 260,314 Cyprus 28.9
France 237,587 New Zealand 28.3
Australia 166,955 Qatar 20.9
Canada 132,982 Switzerland 18.2
Japan 117,903 Australia 16.6
Russian Fed. 75,786 U.K. 16.2
New Zealand 68,904 Austria 14.1
South Africa 49,979 Germany 11.2
Belgium 44,304 France 11.0
Spain 41,734 Canada 10.6
Italy 40,641 Belgium 9.6
Sweden 36,458
Lebanon 9.0
Switzerland 35,705
Namibia 8.7
Austria Togo 8.6
33,707
Malaysia Sweden 8.5
30,407
Netherlands
Jordan 8.5
21,259
Kyrgyzstan 7.9
Denmark 17,162
Denmark 7.9
Kyrgyzstan 16,249
OECD 7.3
Portugal 16,155
Bahrain 7.0
Jordan 15,816
South Africa 7.0
Ukraine 15,622 Mali 6.5
Turkey 15,298
World 5.7
Czech Republic 14,923 Ireland 5.6
Macao SAR 14,627 Czech Republic 4.7
Greece 14,361 Norway 4.5
Lebanon 13,930 Senegal 4.4
Cuba 13,705 Malaysia 4.4
Hungary 12,913 Armenia 4.2
Ireland 12,698 Portugal 4.1
Norway 12,392 Netherlands 3.9
Saudi Arabia 12,199 Bulgaria 3.5
Korea, Rep. 10,778 U.S. 3.4
Romania 9,730 Hungary 3.1
Japan 2.9
Madagascar 2.9
Sources: OECD and UNESCO.

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 Chapter 4 - STUDENT MOBILITY

In relative terms, i.e. as a percentage of the size of Asia, compared to Europe (14%), South America
the higher education systems of various countries, (12%), Africa (8%) and North America (5%). In the
the situation varies somewhat. Cyprus, Fiji, New European OECD countries, students come first and
Zealand, Switzerland and Macao SAR are among the foremost from Europe (44%), followed by Asia (29%),
countries and regions with the largest proportion of Africa (18%), and the Americas (8%), while Asian
foreign students in their national higher education countries receive 85 per cent of students from within
systems, while the United States drops from first the Asian region.
place (Figure 4.1a) to rank thirty-second among host
countries (Figure 4.1b). Against a country average Asia ranks first in terms of students going abroad to
of 5.7 per cent of foreign students worldwide, the pursue higher studies. In 2004, almost half (48%)
average for OECD countries stood at 7.3 per cent of of the foreign students in the OECD area came
their total student body in 2004 (up from 4.5 per from Asia, followed closely by Europe (27%), Africa
cent in 1998). In 2004, the overall student body in (12%), South America (7%), North America (4%) and
nine smaller, English-speaking countries included at Oceania (1%).
least 15 per cent international students. Generally
speaking, the fewer foreign students a country International students choose their study
receives, the greater the tendency for those students destinations according to their region of origin. As
to come from neighbouring countries or from within Table 4.1 shows, student mobility in Europe occurs
the same continent. Hence, 99 per cent of foreign largely within Europe. Among European students
students studying in sub-Saharan African countries registered abroad, 81 per cent are studying in
are themselves from sub-Saharan Africa, and the another European country, while among Asian and
percentages are about 80 per cent for the countries North American students registered as studying
in Latin America, South Asia and the Pacific, and abroad, 28 per cent and 44 per cent, respectively,
almost 70 per cent for the Arab and Central Asian remain within their continent. The preference of
countries - as against a mere 27 per cent for western European students to remain in Europe can no doubt
Europe and North America taken together (UNESCO, be attributed to the Bologna Process and to the new
2006). Erasmus Programme promoting this type of mobility
(though the introduction of Erasmus Mundus has
In the OECD area, Europe is the main destination since expanded the new Erasmus Programme to
with 1.2 million, or 52 per cent of foreign students cover the whole world). For their part, African
on record there (see Table 4.1). It is the leading host students have a clear preference for Europe – France
region for students from Europe and Africa and is also alone receives 55 per cent of all African students in
attractive to students from the Americas and Asia. Europe and 42 per cent of all international African
North America is host to 31 per cent of foreign students, students enrolled in the OECD area. In turn, students
and the Asia-Pacific region to the remaining 17 per from the Americas most often choose to stay in the
cent. region, though almost 40 per cent also opt to study
in Europe. Asian students aim mainly for North
The geographical distribution of foreign students America (40%) and, though 28 per cent also go to
varies across the major OECD regions (Table 4.2). study in the Asia-Pacific region, in particular in
While North America receives fewer foreign students Australia, 32 per cent also choose to go to Europe.
(707,000 in the United States, Canada and Mexico Here again, the averages conceal major variations,
in 2004), it is the most attractive region for Asian as the United Kingdom (43%) and Germany (29%)
students (Table 4.1). Accordingly, over half (61%) together host 72 per cent of Asian students studying
of all foreign students in North America come from in Europe.

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Table 4.1:
subsidized by European institutions (OECD, 2004a).
Destinations of Foreign Students Studying in
OECD Countries by Origin, 2004 (%) In relative terms, the situation again differs (Figure
Destination 4.2). The small countries are often those with
Origin North the largest numbers of nationals studying abroad
Europe Asia-Pacific OECD
America
relative to the size of their higher education system.
Africa 20 77 3 100
Frequently their offer, both quantitatively and in
North America 44 43 13 100
South America 56 41 2 100
terms of the range of disciplines available is limited,
Asia 40 32 28 100 and, consequently, their nationals most often study
Europe 16 81 3 100 in neighbouring countries under more or less tacit
Oceania 27 19 54 100 agreements. A case in point is Luxembourg, which,
World 31 52 17 100 in 2004, had twice as many students enrolled abroad
Source: OECD. than at home. For many larger African countries,
the high degree of student mobility is no doubt
Table 4.2: attributable to limited capacity at home. In absolute
Composition of Foreign Student Bodies in the terms, the number of students from the major source
OECD Area, 2004 (%) countries studying abroad is, in fact, relatively
OECD area
low considering the size of their system of higher
Total education.
Origin North Europe Asia-Pacific OECD
America
Africa 8 18 2 12 Figure 4.2:
North America 5 3 3 4 Countries with over 20 per cent of all Tertiary-
South America 12 5 1 7 level Students Studying Abroad, 2004
Asia 61 29 85 48
Andorra
Europe 14 44 5 29 Luxembourg 219 375
Djibouti 159
Oceania 1 0 3 1 Comoros 143
Guinea-Bissau
Total 100 100 100 100
122
Cape Verde 113
Belize 106
Note: Tonga 104
The percentages do not always add up to 100 per cent because of rounding. Cyprus 95

Source: OECD. Gambia 79

Cayman Islands 76
Lesotho 74
Equatorial Guinea 73
Botswana 72
At the country level, China (including Hong Kong Namibia 58

SAR) ranks first as the country with the largest share

Bermuda 55
Gabon 49

of its nationals studying abroad, i.e. 17 per cent of Angola

Saint Lucia
46
45

all foreign students in the OECD area, followed by Mauritius

Brunei Darussalam
41
38
India (5%), South Korea (4%), Germany, Japan, DRC
Chad
37
33
Morocco and France (3% each). Two-thirds (66%) Swaziland 32
Albania 30
of all Asian students abroad are concentrated in Samoa 30

four English-speaking countries, namely Australia,

Zimbabwe 30
Trinidad and Tobago 29

Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States. Malawi

Suriname
28
23

Whereas Asians generally turn to cross-border Iceland

Mauritania
23
22
education to follow full courses, bearing the real cost Hong Kong SAR 22
Senegal 20
of their studies themselves, American and European
Source: UNESCO.
students prefer short stays, mainly to attend courses

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Table 4.3:
While some migration flows often display marked
gender differences, these are less significant in Percentage of Women among Foreign Students
student mobility, though not entirely absent. in OECD Countries
Thus, female students accounted on average for 50 1998 2004
per cent of foreign students in OECD countries in Australia 49 46
2004, against a (national) average of 49 per cent Austria 48 52
Canada 43 47
male students in higher education (Table 4.3). The
Czech Republic 37 50
share of female students has steadily increased since Denmark 59 54
1998. While the share of European female students Finland 40 45
in international mobility reflects their share in France n.a. 49
higher education, female students from the United Germany 45 50
States are more willing to go abroad than their male Hungary 41 53
counterparts, the reverse being true in Asia. In the Iceland 66 66
Ireland 53 n.a.
case of the United States, this over-representation of
Italy 50 57
women in international student mobility is no doubt Japan 46 48
related to the preponderance of female students in South Korea 38 46
the humanities, which is the main discipline pursued Netherlands n.a. 54
by mobile U.S. students. Concerning Asia, apart New Zealand 52 52
from reasons related to the favoured disciplines Norway 52 56
pursued (many Asian students study science and Poland 47 55
Portugal n.a. 49
technology), the under-representation of women in
Slovak Republic n.a. 41
international student mobility is perhaps due to the Spain 49 51
fact that families are more willing to invest in males Sweden 56 54
rather than females (OECD, 2004a). Hence, countries Switzerland 45 45
hosting many Asian students often have a smaller Turkey 27 32
number of female students among their overall U.K. 46 50
U.S. 42 44
foreign student contingents.
Country mean 47 50
Notes:
In countries for which numbers are available for France - 2003 instead of 2004; United States - 2002 instead of 2004.
2004, an average of 32 per cent of international n.a. = not available

students were enrolled in the social sciences, 24 per Source: OECD.

cent in sciences and engineering (13% and 11%,
respectively), 16 per cent in the human sciences the proportion of foreign students enrolled in the
and art, 16 per cent in medicine, with agriculture, sciences in 2004 was clearly higher than the average
education and services making up the remaining for all the countries for which data were available;
ten per cent. Yet, the choice of disciplines by this was the case for the social sciences in Australia,
international students varies appreciably from the Netherlands and New Zealand; the human sciences
one country to another. For example, in Australia, in Iceland, Japan, Austria and Germany; the medical
Germany, Norway, Switzerland and the United States, sciences in Belgium, the Slovak Republic, Italy,
Hungary, the Czech Republic, Denmark and Poland;
engineering in Finland and Portugal; and agriculture

In line with the ISCED classification (1997) this includes personal
services, transport services, environmental protection, security services
in Hungary, Belgium and the Slovak Republic (OECD,
and other similar fields, some of which may be offered in a vocational 2006a: Table C3.5). Thus, different disciplines in
tertiary education establishment and not a university.

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different countries attract either more or fewer 2.2 The Causes of Mobility
foreign students than the international average. Yet,
while these disciplines are undoubtedly centres of The decision to study abroad and where depends on
attraction for foreign students in a given system of a broad spectrum of cultural, educational, economic
higher education, there is nothing to support the and social factors. The factors determining the choice
conclusion that they are centres of attraction (or of a foreign destination include:
excellence) at the international level. Indeed, some
countries actually receive very few foreign students • The destination country’s immigration (or visa)
in their most attractive disciplines. policy for foreign students: Potential determinants
are the ease of obtaining a visa, the possibility to
Generally speaking, almost 90 per cent of international work while studying or to remain in the country
students are enrolled in higher education. In 2004, upon completion of studies.
the only countries where a significant percentage • Employment possibilities in the host country
of international students had chosen vocational and the country of origin: A host country will be
training (ISCED 5b) were Canada (30% of international more attractive if students can work there after
students in a vocational education programme), completing their studies, or if their qualifications
Greece (29%), Belgium (26%), Japan (24%) and New are highly regarded on the local job market when
Zealand (24%). Although cross-border students enrol they return home.
mainly in undergraduate courses, relative to local • Recognition of skills and foreign qualifications in
students a proportionally greater number follow the country of origin and the host country: The
postgraduate courses. Compared to the student body frequent absence of any formal framework for such
as a whole, a higher proportion of foreign students recognition partly explains the success of student
is enrolled in advanced research programmes (i.e. mobility under joint university programmes or
doctorate level). In 2001, foreigners enrolled in partnerships between establishments - leading to
such courses represented on average 10.2 per cent double degrees or automatic recognition of credits
of all students in higher education, but a mere obtained in the partner establishment. On the
3.8 per cent of the total number of students (foreign one hand, the lack of recognition of degrees and
and national) in the countries for which statistics professional qualifications obtained at home can
were available. Although this varies significantly induce mobility. Students may choose to pursue
depending on the country, international (or foreign) studies in another country because they may
students in 2004 made up a significant portion of have decided to establish themselves and work
graduates from advanced research programmes there and have no choice but to obtain the local
(ISCED 6) in Switzerland (41.1%), the United qualifications and degrees that would allow them
Kingdom (36.8%), Canada (27.3%), the United States to do so. Moreover, the degrees and qualifications
(26.4%), Belgium (23.4%) and France (23.5%). In obtained in the host country may enjoy greater
these countries, international students represent international recognition. On the other hand,
a genuine contribution to the country’s scientific the lack of recognition of foreign qualifications
output, as well as to its output of scientists (OECD, inhibits mobility as it may oblige students to take
2004a and 2006a). In 2003, more than half the up their studies again from scratch abroad or limit
recipients of doctoral degrees in the United States their job prospects on return to their country of
were born abroad (versus 27% in 1973), with 50 per origin. UNESCO and OECD jointly drew up the
cent in the physical sciences, engineering (67%) and Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-border
economic sciences (68%) (Bound et al., 2006). Higher Education, calling for greater transparency

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and international cooperation as a means of currently ranks first as the main international
facilitating the international recognition of skills language and second as the most widely spoken
(OECD, 2005b). language in the world, the English-speaking
• The cost of studies abroad (tuition fees, living countries have a comparative edge in this regard,
expenses, taking financial assistance into account) that some universities in non-English-speaking
compared with the country of origin: The smaller countries are attempting to offset by also offering
the cost differential, the more mobile students programmes in English.
are likely to be. In addition to geographical • The perceived quality of life in the host country:
and cultural proximity, one of the reasons why As with all forms of travel, the activities offered
students from the European Union (EU) prefer the by the host city and country, climate, cultural and
United Kingdom as an English-speaking country tourist attractions, culture and religion, in short,
in which to study is undoubtedly the fact that the desired quality of life, are decisive factors.
they pay the same tuition fees as local students. • The geographical and cultural proximity of the
• The reputation and supposed quality of the host country and the country of origin, as well as
institutions of learning and educational system historical ties: This, for example, is what accounts
in the host country compared to the country of for the substantial student flows between the
origin: A destination country perceived as having Nordic countries, between the Commonwealth
an advantage in this field is an inducement to countries and the United Kingdom, between the
mobility. Even if they are open to challenge, countries of French-speaking Africa and France,
international classifications are making it and between the former republics of the Soviet
increasingly possible to compare institutions of Union and the Russian Federation.
higher learning throughout the world (Salmi and • The infrastructure and social benefits available to
Saroyan, 2007). foreign students in the host country (i.e. medi-
• The choice of post-secondary education offered cal coverage, university accommodation, language
in the country of origin and the possibilities of learning centres, etc.).
access: The limitation of admissions to higher
education and the numerus clausus for some The choice of a host establishment by foreign
courses could prompt students to go abroad. students (and their families) may be viewed as
• The existence of networks of students or the outcome of an assessment of the monetary
former students from the country of origin: and non-monetary costs of studying abroad, and
When information about institutions abroad is the monetary and non-monetary benefits that the
relatively scant, the recommendations of other students (and their families) hope to reap from
students will play an important role, as will the it. The tuition fees and cost of living in the host
prospect of becoming integrated into one's own country are thus far from being the only important
(student) community abroad. While academic determinants. Asian students are often accustomed
standards undoubtedly become more stringent at to paying (relatively) high tuition fees and hence do
the higher levels of education, studies show that not necessarily consider the lack of subsidies as an
the presumed quality of higher education in the obstacle to mobility. In contrast, students originating
destination country is more decisive than that of from the EU, who benefit from sizeable subsidies in
the programme being followed or the establishment their countries, are less willing to study in countries
where students enrol (OECD, 2004a). where tuition fees are significantly higher. Even so,
• The language of the destination country and the low tuition fees do not determine student mobility:
language of instruction: Knowing that English flows of foreign students are relatively negligible in

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some countries where tuition fees are relatively low, Pacific region, chiefly in the form of franchises or
or even non-existent, such as the Nordic countries. twinning, though many other forms also exist. Under
The cost factor is undoubtedly more important a franchise, a local provider is generally authorized
for educational programmes in English-speaking by a foreign establishment to offer all or some of
countries. Similarly, there is no evidence to suggest its academic courses under very precise contractual
that the wish to emigrate to a country is necessarily arrangements. In most cases, such courses lead to a
a deciding factor in the choice of a country in which foreign qualification. Franchises may take numerous
to study. A student may well choose to study in one other forms, however. Under a twinning programme,
country and then emigrate to another or indeed students pursue studies with a foreign provider and
return home. follow a foreign programme; they undergo some of
their training in their country of origin and complete
2.3 What are the New Forms of Cross-border it in the country of the foreign establishment. This
Higher Education? type of cross-border education usually involves
mobility of both students and programmes.
Student mobility is but one form of cross-border
higher education. A growing number of students are It is difficult to put a number on cross-border
gaining access and benefiting from the new possibility educational programmes or students registered in
of pursuing higher or post-secondary distance foreign programmes offered in their own country.
education offered by a foreign university without The two countries most active in this field - the
having to leave their own country. The international United Kingdom and Australia - have some 300,000
virtual mobility of programmes and establishments students registered in their cross-border programmes,
and the possibility of distance learning, initially mainly in Asia (McBurnie and Ziguras, 2007). Today,
as correspondence courses and, more recently, via all of Australia’s 38 public universities offer courses
the internet, has increased over the past decade, abroad, and their numbers have risen from a mere
especially towards Asia and the Middle East. The 25 in 1991 to 1,600 in 2003. Over 85 per cent of
link between such new forms of cross-border higher these courses are located in China (including Hong
education and physical mobility of people, whether Kong SAR), Singapore and Malaysia, while the others
immediate or subsequent, is uncertain. are scattered throughout the rest of the world, from
India to Canada, including Indonesia and South
The mobility of educational programmes is the second Africa. The number of students following Australian
most common form of cross-border higher education programmes in their countries represented 33 per
after international student mobility. Although it cent of all international students registered in
encompasses distance learning - including cyber- Australian establishments in 2004, a nine per cent
education (or e-learning) (OECD, 2005a; Larsen and increase since 1996. Hence, educational services
Vincent-Lancrin, 2006) generally complemented represented Australia’s third most important services
by onsite courses at local partner establishments export item in 2003, worth AUD 5.03 billion (IDP
– it mostly takes the form of traditional face-to- Australia, 2007).
face learning, made possible through a partner
establishment abroad. Relations between foreign and Perhaps on account of the greater entrepreneurial
local establishments have given rise to a variety of risks entailed, the mobility of establishments is still
contractual arrangements, ranging from development limited, but has nonetheless become a significant
aid to commercial contracts. Commercial cross- dimension of cross-border higher education. It
border education is now prevalent in the Asia- represents the foreign direct investments made

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by institutions of higher learning or educational migration could therefore be an underlying motive.

enterprises. The most typical form of such mobility In the Philippines, for example, the number of
is the opening of campuses abroad by universities nursing students has increased dramatically in
and of training centres by other educational service recent years, often driven by the hope of emigrating
providers. According to the Observatory on Borderless to an industrialized, generally English-speaking
Higher Education, there were about a hundred of these country. Obtaining a nursing qualification from
worldwide in 2005 (OBHE Breaking News, 27 June these countries in the Philippines can only facilitate
2005). One can point to the examples of Nottingham out-migration. Besides, the British Council encourages
University (U.K.) with campuses in China and British tertiary institutions wishing to engage in cross-
Malaysia; Liverpool University (U.K.) set to open a border activities in the Philippines to give preference to
campus in China; and Monash University (Australia), the medical disciplines. Nevertheless, these new forms
which has opened campuses in Malaysia and South of cross-border higher education are still in their
Africa, while Australia’s Royal Melbourne Institute early stages, and it would be premature to undertake
of Technology (RMIT) University has a campus in an assessment of their impact on migration.
Viet Nam. Mobility of establishments also includes
creating entirely new educational establishments 3. Today’s Major Strategies for the
(not affiliated to any establishment of origin), as well Internationalization of Higher Education
as the partial or total acquisition of an establishment
abroad. This latter form, for example, is preferred by By no means do all countries have an express
the stock-listed U.S. group Laureate International policy aimed at the internationalization of higher
Universities, which owns universities in the Americas education. Yet, based on current practice, it is
(Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico, possible to identify four major strategies that reflect
Panama, Peru), in China and in Europe (France, The the range of motivations and policy tools at work in
Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland). this field. These strategies are not always coordinated
and even less directly decided at government
The relationship between these new forms of level, and their outcomes vary considerably from
cross-border higher education on the one hand, one country to another. They nevertheless make
and student mobility and skilled migration on the it possible to paint a picture of the current policy
other, is somewhat unclear. For one thing, these landscape. Each strategy takes a different approach
are alternatives to student mobility that do not to migration, but the objectives they pursue are
afford the same cultural and linguistic experience not mutually exclusive. The traditional strategy in
as a stay abroad, but which are less costly. It is this field is based on mutual understanding, while
conceivable that, apart from their potentially the three others - those based on skilled migration,
beneficial developmental spin-offs for their host income generation and capacity building - which
countries (Vincent-Lancrin, 2006), these new forms emerged during the 1990s, are quite clearly dictated
are limiting the exodus of skills that could otherwise by economic considerations. Migration is sometimes
possibly result from student mobility. Moreover, an integral part of these considerations.
these study courses sometimes entail brief stays
abroad and often, though not invariably, lead to The goals pursued by the strategy based on
degrees and qualifications recognized in the country mutual understanding are primarily related to
of the foreign partner university, and could pave the political, cultural, academic and development
way for subsequent migration to countries where aid considerations. The strategy authorizes and
such qualifications are recognized. Subsequent encourages international mobility of students and

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staff, both national and foreign, through scholarship The strategy based on skilled migration pursues
and university exchange programmes, as well as the same goals as the preceding one, but in addition
partnerships between institutions of higher learning. entails the more deliberate and targeted recruitment
This strategy does not generally recruit foreign of foreign students. It is in line with the philosophy
students through intensive campaigns, but instead of the knowledge-based economy, but also aims to
targets a tiny elite of national and foreign students. attract talented students (and university personnel)
The coordination aspect is mainly addressed under who could become knowledge workers at the
development aid and geo-strategic choices. Under this service of the host country’s economy or boost the
approach, it is not rare for scholarship programmes competitiveness of research and higher education
to fall within the purview of the Ministry of Foreign in that country. The internationalization of higher
Affairs. As for the migration aspect, foreign students education enables national systems to compare
are expected to return to their country of origin themselves to foreign systems of higher education
and are not infrequently barred from remaining in and often leads establishments and universities to
their host country for more or less extended periods come up with innovative ideas to adapt themselves to
after completing their studies. This traditional the requirements of foreign students (or of their own
strategy of internationalization is still the main students returning from abroad). It also paves the way
approach pursued by countries like Japan, Republic to attract foreign talent to the host country. Though
of Korea, Mexico, Spain and, in fact, most developing scholarship programmes could remain an important
countries. In the United States, the Fulbright part of this strategy, they are also complemented
Commission programmes are typical examples of by other measures, such as actively promoting a
this and associated with J-1 visas (which oblige the country’s higher education system abroad while
students concerned to leave the territory for at least simultaneously relaxing the visa or immigration
two years before being able to apply for a residence regulations for the target groups. Dedicated entities
permit allowing them to work in the country). The EU are sometimes created to assist foreigners in relation
has also launched the Socrates-Erasmus programme to their studies and their stay in the host country.
in keeping with the same philosophy: student and Instruction in English might be developed and
teacher exchanges, the networking of university encouraged in non-English-speaking countries. As
departments and establishments throughout Europe, such, studies pursued by international students are
and the joint design of study programmes were subsidized by the host country in the same way as
intended to foster a feeling of “European citizenship” for local students. They may target students from
among European youth, thanks to better mutual certain regions, postgraduate students or future
understanding and knowledge of several European researchers, rather than undergraduate students
languages. Although their knowledge of languages or students specializing in a particular field. This
and of neighbouring countries could pave the way strategy generally leads to an increase in the number
for subsequent migration by students and contribute of foreign students received in the country, but has
to the emergence of a common labour market, no real impact in terms of the mobility of courses and
stays abroad still tend to be short and part of the institutions. It can also prove difficult or impossible
educational institution’s study programme in the to implement, and generally remains embedded in
country of origin. Therefore, the principle that development aid policy or in conventional university
students should return to their country of origin is partnerships. The countries that have adopted this
central to the concept of the programme. approach include. Canada (some provinces), France,

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Germany, the United Kingdom (for students from number of international students paying for their
the EU) and the United States (for postgraduate tuition at cost and to the development of profit-
students). oriented mobility programmes and establishments.
This sometimes goes hand-in-hand with a reduction
The Bologna Process, launched in 1992, marked a of the relative share of public funding in university
reorientation of the policy of internationalization resources or even with a cut in government funding
adopted throughout Europe. In particular, it moved per student. It may also entail an active policy of
the EU Socrates-Erasmus programme closer to the commercial negotiations aimed at reducing the
skilled migration strategy. Today, the mobility of obstacles to cross-border educational activities. That
students and university personnel is helping to create may be undertaken via bilateral agreements or through
a European area of higher education and research negotiations on trade in educational services in the
designed to boost the attractiveness (outside Europe framework of the World Trade Organization’s General
and, more specifically, in Asia) of higher education Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Generally
in Europe and to transform Europe’s economies into speaking, the terms and conditions governing paid
knowledge-based ones (Huismans and van der Wende, work by students are relaxed during the course of
2004). The harmonization of European systems is not their studies but, as under the strategy based on
only aimed at promoting intra-European mobility, mutual understanding, there are often different
but also at enhancing the international appeal of policies in place both to limit subsequent permanent
tertiary education in Europe, especially vis-à-vis immigration by students in general and to facilitate
the United States. In 1998, the United States was subsequent settlement for some. Public authorities
host to 47 per cent of foreign students from Asia, a and educational establishments must therefore come
figure that had fallen to 40 per cent by 2004. Still, to grips with the issue of geographical balance among
competition is as intense as cooperation among the international students, not only in commercial
countries of Europe. terms (diversifying the countries of origin to ensure
financial stability), but also in terms of immigration.
The strategy based on income generation pursues the The countries having opted for this approach include
same goals as those based on mutual understanding Australia, Canada (some provinces), New Zealand,
and skilled migration but, in addition, it directly the United States (for undergraduate students),
pursues commercial ends. One specific feature of but also Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands and the
that approach is that higher education services United Kingdom (for non-EU students, as EU rules
are invoiced at their real cost to international require countries to apply the same registration fees
students, who, by and large, do not benefit from to nationals and to students from elsewhere in the
any public subsidies. By comparison with local Union).
students, therefore, international students often
represent extra income for tertiary institutions, Finally, the strategy based on capacity building
a factor that encourages them to be enterprising involves encouraging the importation of higher
on the international education market. For the education, regardless of how it is supplied, in order
purposes of this strategy, government authorities to quickly strengthen the human and productive
allow institutions a high degree of autonomy with a capacities of a developing country. When a country
view to creating a solid reputation for their higher lacks the capabilities to fully respond to its higher
education sector and protecting foreign students education requirements, or when its national system
by means of quality assurance mechanisms. This is still weak, cross-border education can help build
strategy generally leads to a sizeable increase in the local capacities both as regards courses available and


See OECD (2004a) for a presentation of the GATS and its implications for
education.

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 World Migration 2008

the human capital needed for the local economy as to avoid a substantial outflow of needed skills. This
and system of higher education (Vincent-Lancrin, strategy is being followed mainly in Southeast and
2005; Middlehurst and Woodfield, 2004; Larsen and East Asia and the Middle East — China, Hong Kong
Vincent-Lancrin, 2002). While the two preceding SAR, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Viet Nam and
strategies are oriented primarily towards the export Dubai (as well as in other states part of the United
of education services, the strategy based on capacity Arab Emirates).
building is predominantly import-oriented. In that
connection, the scholarship programmes available to 4. What are the Links Between the
support the international mobility of civil servants, Internationalization of Higher Education,
teachers, university personnel and students are Student Mobility and Skilled Migration?
crucial tools, as are the steps taken to encourage
establishments, programmes and foreign universities The internationalization of higher education raises
to come forward and provide their teaching services new challenges for policymakers with respect to
on a commercial basis. Countries could use the GATS education policy (OECD, 2004a and b), as well as the
negotiations to signal their interest in transnational coordination of their economic, social, migration
services of this kind, though they may also use other and development policies (OECD, 2006b). The links
less formal means. By and large, the mobility of between migration and the internationalization of
programmes and institutions falls under government higher education are reciprocal in that migration
regulations designed to ensure that these activities strategies and policies encourage and facilitate the
are in line with the country’s academic and economic internationalization of higher education while, at the
development strategy. Twinning arrangements and same time, they are becoming increasingly influenced
partnerships with local providers are encouraged by, and dependent on, that process. The two major
(and sometimes imposed) so as to open the way issues therefore pertain to reconciling the aims of
for the transfer of know-how between foreign migration with the internationalization of higher
and local academic institutions. The short-term education and to the brain drain. To what extent
impact of this approach is a considerable increase are student mobility and the internationalization of
in the number of national students going abroad, higher education giving rise to skilled migration? In
as well as of the number of profit-oriented foreign the absence of figures in reply to that question, this
programmes and educational institutions entering section will attempt to illustrate the current scale of
the country to meet local demand. In principle, once the issues involved.
the country’s capacities are strengthened, there is
no further justification for this approach, and its Visa policy for students and university personnel and,
success should in theory lead to a change of the more generally, immigration policy are an important
underlying strategy. It attaches capital importance part of the machinery for the internationalization of
to coordinating educational policy with economic higher education. Attracting international students
and commercial policy. In particular, countries must to a country will make sense only if they are able to
ensure that their quality assurance systems cover enter to pursue their studies and, ideally, to do so
foreign courses and institutions and that the latter do, without undue difficulties. If international students
indeed, contribute to the achievement of the country’s are to be attracted while they are also being expected
objectives. Their migration policy must favour temporary to pay market-driven tuition fees, authorization
mobility for professionals, and they often incorporate to work in the host country will go a long way to
measures to encourage the return of their nationals persuading them to come. Similarly, attracting
going abroad to study or to complete their training so foreign teaching establishments and educational

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 Chapter 4 - STUDENT MOBILITY

programmes often entails facilitating temporary increase in the amount of student visa applications
migration for professionals (university personnel, during the first half of 2004 (U.S. Department of
etc.). Many countries now attach growing importance State, 2005). That was the first increase since the
to attracting foreign students and have therefore 9/11 attacks, and student visa applications again
simplified or reviewed their application procedures reached pre-9/11 levels in 2006.
for visas and residence permits for foreign students,
not least by improving the available information Furthermore, migration policies and strategies are
concerning these procedures. themselves becoming increasingly dependent on the
internationalization of higher education, although
Yet, a country’s migration policy can also hamper the available data are not sufficient to gauge the
its strategy for the internationalization of true impact of cross-border higher education on
higher education, above all when that strategy is migration and, more specifically, on the migration of
decentralized. Migration authorities are sometimes qualified individuals. In some instances, the pursuit
fearful that any relaxation of the procedures to of studies abroad is part of a deliberate migration
obtain student visas may lead to abuses or fraud. strategy on the part of individuals, since obtaining
Moreover, other political priorities may conflict a foreign qualification is sometimes indispensable
with these policies. After the events of September to working in their particular field of specialization
11, 2001, the United States, for example, clamped in the host country and an asset that often weighs
down on the conditions governing the admission of favourably in the balance when applying for a
foreigners to the country. This meant tightening the residence permit. The free movement of persons in
procedures to obtain student visas and introducing the EU no doubt partly explains the scale of student
longer verification periods (each applicant for a mobility in Europe relative to the more limited
student visa must be interviewed face-to-face by student mobility between North American countries.
a representative of the U.S. authorities). Perhaps The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
this policy acted in combination with stronger does not provide for the free movement of labour
competition from other countries to reduce the across a common labour market. In some cases,
number of candidates and to slow the rate of foreign the permanent establishment of students abroad
student enrolment in the United States. The number after completing their studies is unintentional.
of foreign students increased by a mere 0.6 per cent Whether internationally mobile or not, students
between 2002 and 2003, as against 6.4 per cent are often of an age to start families and may marry
during the two preceding years. It contracted by a and stay in the country where they are studying.
further 2.4 per cent between 2003 and 2004, and Moreover, the competition among countries to
by 1.3 per cent between 2004 and 2005 - the first attract highly qualified individuals has intensified
decline in the number of foreign students in the past in recent years, as reflected in recent migration
32 years (Institute for International Education (IIE), policy trends (Tremblay, 2005; OECD, 2006c; see
2005). The geographical composition of the foreign also Chapter 2). As observed above, migration is
student body also changed, with fewer students becoming an increasingly important component of
arriving from Arab countries and the Middle East, the internationalization strategies being pursued by
offset by an increase in the number of Indian and source countries. Moreover, migrants who also hold a
Chinese students. Academic institutions raised degree obtained in the host country frequently find
their concerns with the U.S. authorities, who have it easier and are more ready to integrate. Therefore,
somewhat relaxed and improved the efficiency of migration policies are increasingly factoring in the
their visa policy for foreign students and university authorization or facilitation of permanent residence
personnel since 2003. The result was a nine per cent for international students in the host country after

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 World Migration 2008

their studies. Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the In 1999, around 25 per cent of temporary migrants to
United Kingdom, for example, facilitate the settlement the United States under the H1-B visa programme
of foreign citizens with qualifications from their had been previously enrolled in U.S. universities
universities by granting them extra points in their (Cervantes and Guellec, 2002). For some years now,
immigration application file. Although they have almost half of the candidates admitted under Australia’s
no points system, France, Germany and some other skilled migration programme hold an Australian degree
countries have introduced more flexible immigration (OECD, 2006c). A recent study of migration policies
policies for qualified migrants and for foreign intended for international students sets out other
students wishing to work there after their studies. estimates (Suter and Jandl, 2006) (see Textbox 4.2). In
Canada, it is estimated that between 15 and 20 per cent
Given these developments, the potential brain drain of foreign students have stayed on and are working in
from developing countries encouraged by cross- the country; in New Zealand, 13 per cent of the foreign
border higher education is becoming a major concern students who entered the country between 1998 and
and a topic of extensive discussion. While it may assist 2005 to study obtained a residence permit by 2006; in
developing countries in their efforts to strengthen Norway, 18 per cent of the foreign students studying
their own human resource capacities (Vincent-Lancrin, there between 1991 and 2005 and originating from
2005), cross-border education can indeed favour outside the European Economic Area (EEA) remained
brain drain rather than the circulation of skills in the country, as against nine per cent of foreign
between host and home country. There is no record students from within the EEA; lastly, in the United
of systematic data on the relationship between the Kingdom, a recent study showed that, in 2005, 27 per
mobility of students and researchers, and subsequent cent of international students from within the EU were
variations in immigration patterns. What little exists, employed in the U.K. six months after obtaining their
however, confirms that there is a link. Some 75 per cent degrees. However, statistics on the incidence of foreign
of Chinese students who studied abroad between 1978 students remaining in their host country following the
and 1999 have not returned to China (Iguchi, 2003). completion of their studies are still insufficient.

Textbox 4.2
National and Regional Retention Policies for Foreign Graduates in Industrialized Countries

Today’s labour markets in industrialized countries face two main challenges: the demographic decline of the native population
and the transformation of the global economy into a knowledge-based and increasingly interdependent economy. For politicians
as well as policymakers in the field of immigration and labour, both phenomena have given rise to significant new questions,
particularly in the case of economies that must now depart from their traditional reliance on mostly low-skilled employment in
heavy industrial production based on available local natural resources.

Many countries are responding to this development by seeking to attract and retain highly skilled migrants to fill particular
labour shortages. Australia and Canada have long pursued proactive migration policies targeting highly skilled migrants through
their points-based selection systems for permanent immigration. Other countries are following this example as offering an ideal
response to the current labour shortages in specific sectors and to attract and retain highly skilled migrants.

In view of the growing competition for human capital, it is not surprising that policymakers are targeting international students
to satisfy the growing demand for highly skilled human resources. Foreign graduates are seen to possess characteristics that
facilitate integration both professionally and socially, which makes them particularly attractive for recruitment and retention.
They are usually young, have a high propensity for acculturation and possess widely recognized professional and academic
credentials and appropriate professional training in relevant fields of activity. This last point is especially important as many

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 Chapter 4 - STUDENT MOBILITY

migrants encounter difficulties in having their foreign academic and professional credentials recognized and gaining access to
the labour market.

The retention policies applied by a number of countries facilitate access to employment and, directly or indirectly, lead to
permanent settlement. Some national immigration schemes have special provisions for the highly skilled and grant extra points
under the points selection system for one or two years of studies in the country, while others have designed labour schemes
specially targeting foreign graduates. In France, Germany and New Zealand, for example, foreign students are permitted to stay
in the country for up to one year after graduation to look for a job.

The impact of such retention policies is difficult to evaluate as only few countries are currently able to produce statistics
concerning the settlement of foreign students. Yet, some indicators are available. Thus, in Canada, between 15 and 20 per cent
of foreign students can be expected to eventually settle and work; however, this estimate includes residence permits issued
on all possible grounds, including family reunion. In 2001, Australia introduced the possibility of permanent settlement for
overseas students and in 2002-03, nearly 8,500 permanent residence permits were granted to former students, representing
about five per cent of all foreign students enrolled in 2001-02. In 2004-05, this number almost doubled to 16,700, accounting
for eight per cent of all overseas students enrolled in 2003-04. In the United Kingdom, 19 per cent of EU-domiciled graduates
had found employment in the country in 2000-01, rising to nearly 27 per cent in 2004-05. While such figures do not reflect the
full story, they nevertheless indicate a trend in the interest among foreign students to settle and work in the country where
they studied as well as the willingness on the part of the countries concerned to facilitate these processes.

Some constituent units of federal countries or regions1 which have, or felt that they had been neglected or unable to fully
participate in national immigration schemes, have started to pursue their own labour schemes either of a general nature or
specifically aimed at foreign graduates to meet their labour market and demographic needs. Regional programmes aiming to
attract and retain international students usually offer favourable conditions for admission, such as either allocating more points
if a job offer is secured, lowering the minimum points threshold for admission or extending the validity of a temporary work
and residence permit.

There is evidence to show that universities exert a strong and direct impact on the economic, social and political development
in the regions where they are located and that they play an increasingly important role in national migration management
schemes aimed at attracting and retaining foreign graduates. Their influence now extends well beyond the provision of quality
education and community-building facilities such as theatre, museums and coffee shops where students can meet and mingle
to include migration-oriented endeavours. Universities are increasingly seen as a source of highly skilled human capital for the
national and regional labour markets while, from the perspective of migrants, they have come to be seen as stepping-stones
to permanent immigration.

Note:
1
E.g. some Canadian provinces and territories, Australian federal states, and Scotland in the U.K.

Source: Brigitte Suter, Malmö Institute for Studies of Migration, Diversity and Welfare (MIM), Sweden.

The United States remains the only country to States. The average stay rate for foreign recipients
systematically compile data on the stay rates of of science and engineering doctorates in the United
foreign students after receiving their degree (Finn, States four to five years after earning their degrees
2003). There is no doubt that receiving international rose from 41 to 56 per cent between 1992 and 2001.
students is one way of attracting skills to the United
States, and this attraction has increased steadily 
What the stay rate shows is not whether foreign students have remained
since the early 1990s as a result of the combined permanently in the United States, but how many foreign doctorate
effect of the larger number of doctorates being recipients from a specific year were still in the United States some
years later. Some of these degree holders may have left the country and
delivered by American universities to foreign returned again later. For example, the stay rate for 1991 graduates was
58 per cent in 2001, but would be 81.5 per cent if the rate were to reflect
nationals and the increasing share of doctorate the proportion of persons who had worked in the United States for at
holders born abroad who remain in the United least one year during the 1992-2001 period (Finn, 2003).

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 World Migration 2008

The figures leapt from 65 to 96 per cent for Chinese are most affected: over 80 per cent of Jamaican
and from 72 to 86 per cent for Indian nationals. and Guyanese graduates have migrated to an OECD
Stay rates in countries following the completion of country. In contrast, despite the high stay rates
studies vary considerably depending on the country for Indian or Chinese students in the United States
of origin and the academic discipline pursued. But following their studies, they account for less than
in most cases stay rates do not decline significantly three per cent in OECD countries. The picture is
over time and partly depend on the level of economic similar for Brazil, Indonesia and Thailand, where
development of the country of origin, though there an average of 17 per cent of skilled nationals
seems to be no systematic pattern in that regard. migrated to an OECD country. Figure 4.3 shows that
Concerning students from Argentina, China, Greece, the countries of Africa, as well as small countries,
India, Iran, Israel, eastern European countries as mainly in the Caribbean, are those most affected by
well as New Zealand and the United Kingdom, about high rates of skilled migration. One may be tempted
50 per cent are still in the United States five years to see a correlation between these findings and the
after receiving their doctorate (Finn, 2003). data in Figure 4.2, which show that, in relative terms
(i.e. relative to the country’s overall student body),
In this context, there are grounds to fear that cross- African students have the highest stay rates abroad.
border education could reinforce brain drain as Conceptual and methodological problems aside, the
much as it builds capacities in developing countries. countries for which data are available on these two
As noted earlier, 85 per cent of foreign students indicators do not provide a sufficiently solid basis
throughout the world were in the OECD area in on which to establish a correlation. There is no way
2004, but most of them (61%) arrived from non- of determining whether these individuals received
OECD countries. The highly sensitive topic of skilled their degrees outside their country.
migration can represent a cost, while it also yields
advantages for the countries of origin. On the one Figure 4.3:
hand, countries of origin lose the human capital Countries with over 20 per cent of their
(and productivity) represented by their skilled Graduates Living in an OECD Country
people and, if they were educated at public expense, 90
79
82 83
76
the investment made in their primary, secondary and 80 70

70 62
higher education. On the other hand, this highly 60 53 53 54

qualified diaspora could contribute to the home 50 42 42

45 47 47

36 36
economy through investments, remittances and the 40
24 25 25 26
27 28
33 34

links they establish between countries of origin and

30 20 21 21

20
destination in terms of trade, innovation and know- 10

how. Naturally, a clear distinction must be made 0

Central African Rep.

Fiji
Guinea-Bissau*
Mauritius
Cyprus
Angola
Barbados*
Gabon
Zambia

Ghana
Mozambique
Tunisia
Liberia*

Guyana
Sri Lanka*
Ethiopia

Ireland
Senegal

Kenya
Uganda
Tanzania
Gambia*

Haiti
Jamaica
Sierra Leone
Burundi

Trinidad & Tobago

between temporary and permanent out-migration.

If they return to the country of origin with their
acquired international expertise and experience
and are able to employ their skills productively, Note:
*
Calculations using the Barro and Lee database on the human capital
this would represent a positive contribution to local stock. The Cohen and Soto database is otherwise used for all countries
capacity building and the sharing of expertise in the for which data are available. The findings from the two databases are
not perfectly comparable. It should be noted that the data reflect
country of origin (see also Chapter 12). (accumulated) stocks, not flows.
Source: OECD, migration database.

The OECD’s migration database yields unprecedented

information regarding the scale of the brain drain 
Not to be confused with 17 per cent of the world’s skilled population, as
(OECD, 2005c). Countries in Africa and the Caribbean this per-country average takes no account of population size.

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 Chapter 4 - STUDENT MOBILITY

Even for countries affected by brain drain, turning academic disciplines will thus go some considerable
in upon themselves is no solution. Taking part in way towards increasing comparability and the
international higher education exchanges is their recognition of studies abroad. This will make it less
best option in their attempts to minimize the cost of useful or necessary for skilled persons to go abroad
the brain drain. Countries have been coming up with to study, while at the same time, making it easier
new initiatives designed to offset these movements to do so.
which, it should be recalled, reflect individual desires
and decisions. When foreign students are funded Within the European Union, a certain convergence
by their home authorities, the United Kingdom of quality assurance and accreditation systems can
sometimes makes their admission contingent on prior be observed for both vocational training and higher
authorization from their country of origin. Supported education. One of the aims of the Bologna Process is
mainly by international organizations, including to implement European quality assurance mechanisms
the International Organization for Migration (IOM), using comparable yardsticks and methods. The
many developing countries are now attempting to UNESCO/Council of Europe Convention on the
harness the resources of their diasporas to develop Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher
the needed expertise at home by providing funds Education in the European Region, adopted in 1997 in
to enable their expatriates to undertake temporary Lisbon, is yet another significant initiative. No longer
but regular work in the country. Even in better-off does it simply take the approach of “equivalence”
countries, many programmes have been introduced of degrees and diplomas based on the concepts
to encourage renowned scientists to return and of “recognition” and “accreditation”. It is based
resettle in their country of origin. more on cooperation and trust between national
systems. When a country ratifies this Convention,
5. Conclusion it is required to recognize the degrees and diplomas
delivered by the other signatories as similar and
Student flows grew rapidly over the past decade corresponding to the qualifications granted under its
and show no signs of diminishing in the decades own system, unless a substantial difference between
ahead. However, the proliferation of other forms of the respective degrees and diplomas issued by the
cross-border higher learning and capacity building respective parties can be shown to exist.
in emerging economies could well transform this
dynamic - without, for all that, reducing flows Of the international agreements on the mutual
in the medium term. Globalization, increased recognition of professional diplomas, the one
migration flows of all types, the strategies followed that goes farthest is the 1989 Washington Accord
by institutions of higher learning and the policies concerning engineers and associations representing
of developing countries are all combining to create their profession in Australia, China, Hong Kong
a more competitive, homogeneous and globalized SAR, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, the United
arena of higher education, which, in turn, makes Kingdom and the United States have also recently
for continuing student mobility. The growing signed and Japan has acceded to it provisionally. The
worldwide movements of professionals, in particular, Accord recognizes “the substantial equivalence” of
are generating pressures for greater harmonization engineering academic programmes in satisfying the
and comparability of qualifications and degrees academic requirements for the practice of engineering
throughout the world. Undoubtedly, international at the professional level, but does not yet envisage
cooperation between professional bodies and official mutual recognition of professional degrees

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 World Migration 2008

and diplomas. The Accord also stipulates the rules diplomas received in their country of origin. In the
and procedures for accrediting engineering academic future, however, it will be increasingly difficult to
programmes. The signatories mutually accept the tell whether a skilled migrant holding a diploma
respective accreditation decisions and therefore from the host country actually studied and received
recognize the equivalence of each country’s national it there, or whether it was obtained from the external
accreditation mechanisms. branch of a foreign academic institution established
in the country, or through distance learning, e.g.
Is student mobility a major source of skilled migration? via the internet. Nor will it be evident whether
While there is no doubt that some countries are diplomas not earned directly by studying in the host
facing an exodus of skills (i.e. human capital with country were obtained in a country other than the
diplomas from higher education), especially in Africa home country. In short, the linkages between the
and the Caribbean, there is still very scant evidence internationalization of higher education, student
linking it to student mobility and cross-border higher mobility and skilled migration are growing more
education. In numerical terms, international students complex, and it will be increasingly difficult to view
do not represent a very significant source of skilled them strictly in terms of stay rates of international
migration. Assuming that one-quarter of the stock students in countries where they have studied.
of international students complete their studies each The internationalization of higher education will
year and that 25 per cent of this group stay in the continue to be one of the driving forces behind skilled
country where they studied, that would represent no migration. This type of migration should continue
more than 20 per cent of the current level of skilled to prompt countries to harmonize their systems of
migration (and less than five per cent of migration higher education and to implement mechanisms
flows) (OECD, 2006c). Although it is known that in for the international recognition of professional
some countries former students may account for diplomas and qualifications, thereby facilitating and
a much larger proportion of skilled migrants, it is further strengthening migration flows of students
probable that most skilled migrants emigrate with and graduates of higher education.

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 Chapter 4 - STUDENT MOBILITY

Larsen, K. and S. Vincent-Lancrin

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2006: Statistiques comparées sur l’éducation
dans le monde, L’Institut de statistique de Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
l’UNESCO, Montréal, http://www.uis.unesco. (OECD)
org/TEMPLATE/pdf/ged/2006/GED2006_FR.pdf. 2007 Project on supporting the contribution of
higher education institutions to regional
United States Department of State development, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.
2005 “We Don’t Want to Lose Even One International org/document/48/0,3343,en_2649_35961291_
Student”, U.S. Department of State, http:// 39872432_1_1_1_1,00.html.
travel.state.gov/news/info/press/press_1511.
html. Suter, B. and M. Jandl
2006 Comparative Study on Policies towards
Vincent-Lancrin, S. Foreign Graduates. Study on Admission and
2005 “Building capacity through cross-border higher Retention Policies towards Foreign Students in
education”, Observatory on Borderless Higher Industrialised Countries, ICMPD, Vienna, http://
Education, London. www.icmpd.org/774.html?&F=2&tx_icmpd_pi2%
5Bdocument%5D=548&cHash=10fde5b0ec.

Textbox 4.2 - National and Regional Retention 2008 “Train and Retain: National and Regional
Policies for Foreign Graduates in Industrialized Policies to Promote the Settlement of Foreign
Countries Graduates in Knowledge Economies”, Journal
of International Migration and Integration,
Australian Education International forthcoming.
2006 International Student Data, Australian
Education International, http://aei.
dest.gov.au/AEI/MIP/Statistics/
StudentEnrolmentAndVisaStatistics/Default.
htm.

Birrell, B., L. Hawthorne and S. Richardson

2006 Evaluation of the General Skilled Migration
Categories Report, Australian Government,
Department of Immigration and Citizenship
(DIAC), http://www.immi.gov.au/media/
publications/research/gsm-report/index.htm.

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TOURISM AND SHORT-TERM

BUSINESS TRAVEL*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
5 World Tourist Organization (UNWTO), the worldwide
monitoring agency on tourism, measures flows in
This chapter reviews statistics, trends and policy terms of numbers and receipts. Its data define one
issues in the areas of tourism and short-term category only: combined business and leisure travel.
business travel, that are typically under-researched Nevertheless, this chapter attempts to treat the
and where the lack of data is an even greater problem two major flows of tourists and business travellers
than for most migration research. Normally, these separately, where possible.
areas would not be included in a discussion of labour
mobility, but they constitute important and growing In 2006, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
fields of mobility. Even though the implications for and Development (OECD) produced a paper entitled
labour movements may not be immediately obvious, “Harmonised statistics on immigrant inflows
they do exist and are identified in this chapter. – preliminary results, sources and methods” by
Lemaître et al. (2006). Although the paper focuses
The problems of definition and data are extreme in on permanent movements only, it concludes with the
these areas. Definitions are typically diverse and stated intention of extending the work to shorter-
incomplete, with only a limited number of countries term movements (students, seasonal workers, service
collecting data on tourists who provide services or providers, and the like). This will be a welcome
on the many classes of business people who move for addition for OECD countries; in the meantime, this
limited periods. Some countries have no serviceable chapter presents such information as is available on
data to offer. In most instances, movements for major flows and implications.
tourism, visiting friends and relatives (VFR), short-
term “business” trips and other such temporary 2. Tourism: An Overview
movements are grouped together. The United Nations
Business and leisure travel is, by some measures, one
* This chapter was written by Robyn Iredale, Adjunct Associate Professor, of the world’s largest industries: tourism receipts
Australian Demographic and Social Research Institute, the Australian in 2003 represented approximately six per cent of
National University, Canberra, Australia. The author wishes to
acknowledge the research assistance provided by Dr Richard Woolley in global exports of goods and services (UNWTO, 2006).
the preparation of this chapter.

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 Chapter 5 - TOURISM AND SHORT-TERM BUSINESS TRAVEL

Worldwide, international tourism receipts were

estimated at USD 680 billion (EUR 547 billion) in For many destinations visitor expenditure on
2005 (UNWTO, 2006), with all regions and subregions accommodation, food and drink, local transport,
sharing in the increase from 2004. Europe gained an entertainment, shopping, etc. is an important pillar of
additional USD 20 billion, raising receipts to over USD their economy, creating much needed employment and
348 billion (51% of the world total); the Americas opportunities for development. Some 70 countries earned
added USD 13 billion to USD 145 billion (21%) and more than USD 1 billion from international tourism in
Asia and the Pacific increased their total by USD 11 2005. (…) Total receipts from international tourism,
billion to USD 139 billion (20%). Estimates based including international passenger transport, exceed
on still limited available data point to an increase USD 800 billion. (…) [F]or many destination countries,
of USD 2 billion to USD 21 billion for Africa and of in particular developing countries and islands, tourism
USD 2 billion to USD 28 billion for the Middle East, counts as the most important category of export earnings
representing three per cent and four per cent of the (UNWTO, 2006).
world total, respectively.

The number of international tourist arrivals

worldwide exceeded 800 million in 2005, an increase Table 5.1 lists the origins of international tourists
of 42 million (5.5%) over 2004, representing an all from 1990 to 2005. It shows that international
time high. The majority of international tourist tourists still originate mainly from industrialized
arrivals concerned leisure, recreation and holidays European countries (55.7%), the Americas (17%) and
(50% of the total, or 402 million), while business Asia and the Pacific (19.1%). However, over the last
travel accounted for some 16 per cent or 125 million, decades and with rising levels of disposable incomes,
and visiting friends and relatives (VFR), religious many emerging economies have shown rapid growth
purposes/pilgrimages, health treatment and the like as sources of tourism, in particular in Northeast
for 26 per cent or 212 million. For the remaining and Southeast Asia, central and eastern Europe, the
eight per cent of arrivals, the purpose of the visit Middle East and Southern Africa. By region, Africa
was not specified (UNWTO, 2006). recorded the largest increase in relative terms (+
8.2%), followed by Asia and the Pacific (+ 6.9%) and the
Between 1950 and 1990, Europe and the Americas Middle East (+ 6.9%). The penultimate row in Table
received the largest numbers of tourists, representing 5.1 shows that 78.6 per cent of international travel
a joint market share of over 95 per cent in 1950 and takes place within the same region.
82 per cent forty years later. However, by 2000 their
combined share had declined to 76 per cent. This
points to a greater diversification of destinations, as
also of origins of tourism. Between 2004 and 2005,
Africa recorded the highest relative growth (+ 9%) in
arrivals, followed by Asia and the Pacific (+ 8%), the
Middle East (+ 8%), the Americas (+ 6%) and Europe
(+ 4%).

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Table 5.1:
Many countries now see tourism, especially
International Tourist Arrivals, 1990-2005 international tourism, as a large potential source
International Tourist Arrivals Change (%) Share of revenue and are diversifying their production
(millions) (%)
and marketing strategies to attract increasing
1990 2000 2005 2003/02 2005/04 2005
numbers of tourists. There are clear economic and
World 439.4 686.8 806.3 -1.8 5.5 100
Europe 252.6 396.7 449.0 1.0 4.1 55.7
social benefits of tourism, but there are also social
Asia and
as well as environmental costs (see Textbox 5.1).
59.1 115.5 154.3 -8.2 6.9 19.1
the Pacific The two countries experiencing the fastest growth
Americas 100.3 116.1 137.1 -4.8 5.3 17.0 in international tourist receipts between 2004 and
Middle East 8.3 17.0 21.9 -2.1 6.9 2.7 2005 were China and Turkey. In terms of numbers
Africa 10.0 17.7 20.3 1.1 8.2 2.5 of arrivals, three out of the top ten countries are
Origin not developing countries: China (ranking 4th), Mexico
9.2 13.3 23.6 - - 2.9
specified*
(7) and Turkey (9). Some countries experienced
Same 350.8 540.9 634.1 -1.4 - 78.6 remarkable growth in 2005: Laos (65.1%), Cambodia
region
Other (34.7%), Papua New Guinea (17%), Fiji (10%),
79.4 133.0 148.6 -3.5 - 18.4
regions Honduras (25.9%), Venezuela (45.2%), Swaziland
Note: (82.8%) and Senegal (15.3%). However, the figures
* Countries for which a specific region of origin could not be allocated.
are volatile and often start from a low base.
Source: UNWTO, 2006.

Textbox 5.1
Economic and Social Benefits and Costs of Tourism

Tourism can have both positive and negative impacts, but the main focus is on the gains to be made. Seen in this light,
many countries are investing heavily in infrastructure projects and upgrading their human resources and facilities to become
attractive destinations for more tourists. For example, the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) attracted around 18.7 million
international arrivals and more than 24 million border-pass tourists in 2004. This number is expected to rise to 30.6 million
by 2010 and to 46.1 million by 2015 (International TravelDailyNews.com, 2006). Many initiatives are being launched to foster
this development; however, the difficult part will be to manage such growth.

The potential benefits from tourism in terms of alleviating poverty, generating employment and stimulating various sectors of
the economy are well known in many countries, and are being touted in others. In the GMS, for example, the impact of tourism
on poverty alleviation is considered to potentially outweigh that of other productive sectors, since tourists are often attracted
to poor areas. The tourism industry is also labour intensive and more easily accessible to local workers at the lower segments
of this growing service sector and, if properly managed, can build and strengthen poor people’s access to and control over their
cultural and natural assets (Asian Development Bank, 2005).

On the other hand, tourism can also place enormous pressure on the fragile balance of natural environments at major tourist
sites, especially World Heritage sites, and the development of tourism will have to be managed so as to ensure that natural
resources are not depleted nor the absorption capacity exceeded (International TravelDailyNews.com, 2006).

The potential social impacts of tourism are also of major concern, including the proliferation of sex tourism and the trafficking
of human beings, especially women and children.

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A “Northern bias” often “pervades much national national economies, rapid developments in transport
tourism planning across the developing world” and increased workers’ benefits are some of the most
(Rogerson, 2006: 2). According to Ghimire (2001: important (Rogerson, 2004). Motivations include
2), “the dominant official concept of tourism in pilgrimages, VFR, business and leisure travel. Upper-
developing countries focuses on wealthy foreign income travellers are joined by middle-income and
visitors from the industrialized North” and neglects lower-income persons.
“the potentials - as well as the problems - related to
mass tourism involving domestic and regional tourists.” The discussion below considers a number of different
In the view of Rogerson (2004), the concern over the forms of tourist movement (beyond the specific
neglect of regional tourism is also shared by the World context of leisure travel), including medical tourism.
Bank and other international development agencies. It then addresses the interrelationship between
tourism and migration, the challenges involved
In that regard, South Africa is unique in the in managing the entry and stay of tourists, and
developing world in paying attention to its own the place of Working Holiday schemes in tourist
and the rising global level of “South-South” management policies.
tourism. Regional tourists are identified separately
(in contrast to the statistics of the UNWTO) and 2.1 Medical Tourism
their massive contribution to the South African
economy is measured and acknowledged. In 2003, Medical tourism accounts for a growing share in
they accounted for approximately 4.5 million out regional tourist flows, but it is seldom identified
of a total of 6.5 million tourists (Rogerson, 2004). as such and, if data are collected, they are not
There is a concerted strategy to encourage regional necessarily retained and therefore scarce. Australia
tourism not only for economic reasons, but also is an exception and the data collected on various
as a means of driving transformation and black forms of short-term movements (Textbox 5.2) show
economic empowerment (South African Tourism, that 3,982 visas for medical treatment were issued
2002). The rise of regional tourism in the South at its consular offices overseas and 911 onshore in
is predicated on a number of factors. The strong 2001-02.
desire to travel among urban populations, growing

Textbox 5.2
Short-term Movements to Australia

Australia collects some of the most comprehensive data on short-term movements that involve an element of business
activity or the provision/use of services. The data available can thus offer interesting insights into the scope and diversity
of contemporary movements of a temporary nature. The two main visa categories, temporary residents and visitors, contain
statistical groupings of temporary entrants based on types of visa. These are broken down as follows:

Temporary Residents – These include working holidaymakers, long-term temporary business entrants and other persons
intending to work or temporarily reside in Australia. These types of temporary resident visas are granted on the basis of there
being an economic, social, cultural or sporting benefit to Australia. Initial stay in Australia is generally for at least three months
but not exceeding four years.

Visitors – Non-permanent entrants to Australia with a visa for tourism, short business stays, visiting relatives or medical
treatment.

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 World Migration 2008

Long-term Visitors – Visitors or temporary entrants intending to stay in Australia for 12 months or more before leaving
again.

Short-term Visitors – Visitors or temporary entrants intending to stay in Australia for less than 12 months before leaving
again. Arrival and departure data are collected through the issuance of visas and boarding and departure card information.
Table 5.2 below shows stocks of the two major categories, temporary residents and visitors, at five reporting dates in 2004-05.
The stock of temporary residents varied between 138,446 and 159,544, while the stock of visitors ranged more widely from
182,420 to 347,319 (probably due to seasonal factors). New Zealand nationals are counted separately, but their stock was
consistently around 440,000 to 450,000 (including students). Free movement between Australia and New Zealand means that
no distinction is made between short and long-term entrants.

Note:
1
Information is collected for temporary entrants on the following: date of movement; country of citizenship; country of birth; date of birth;
age; sex; length of stay; arrival visa class and subclass; current visa class and subclass; current visa status; allowed length of stay; and
intended duration of stay.
Source: Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC), 2006.

Table 5.2:
Stocks of Temporary Entrants in Australia, Various Dates, 2004 and 2005
Category of Temporary Entrant Quarterly Report Date
30/06/04 30/09/04 31/12/04 31/03/05 30/06/05
Stock of temporary residents* 138,446 142,545 148,516 159,544 149.852
Stock of visitors* 185,904 189,867 347,319 244,135 182,420
N.Z. citizens** 444,954 442,372 434,544 439,082 448,774
Note:
* Figures exclude New Zealand citizens. ** N.Z. figures include students.
Source: DIAC, 2006.

In his study on medical tourism in Southeast Asia, Long waiting lists, high costs, lack of or inadequate
Leng (2007: 3) points out that travelling overseas insurance coverage are some of the reasons.
for healthcare Governments and/or hospitals with inbound medical
tourists have deliberately marketed their services.
[is] not a new phenomenon for the elites of
developing countries. … In recent times, the Leng (2007) explains that Malaysia, Singapore and
privilege of travelling to another country has come Thailand developed this strategy in response to the
within the reach of the middle classes. Destination 1997 Asian financial crisis. Private hospitals were
countries are not necessarily only developed struggling to survive in the face of lower numbers
countries, but also developing countries that have of private patients and the high costs of drugs, and
positioned themselves to take advantage of this they “turned to foreign countries to attract patients,
new market. In addition, a fairly new phenomenon a move that had the full support, if not the active
may be observed, which is that of people from leadership, of the government” (Leng, 2007: 10).
developed countries travelling to developing Hospitals and hotels have since teamed up to offer
countries to seek medical care. packages, while some preliminary diagnostic tests are
conducted and the cost of the treatment is assessed

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in the country of origin before the patient travels National Health Service (NHS). The Department of
abroad. Leng points out that although statistics on Health website states:
medical tourism are poor in Malaysia, the revenues
generated by medical tourism provide some estimates Treatment in the EEA (European Economic Area) is
of the trend: Malaysian Ringgit (MYR) 90-150 million one of the options open to NHS Primary Care Trusts
in 2002 and projected to reach MYR 400 million in wishing to manage their waiting lists and reduce
2005, and MYR 2.2 billion by 2010 (Wong, 2003). In waiting times, and offer greater patient choice
future, there may be an increased focus in Malaysia where this represents good value for money and
on healthcare for the elderly, linked to retirement increased convenience. Since January 2002, almost
tourism. 600 patients have received treatment in the EEA
in France, Belgium and Germany. The majority of
Medical tourism also accounts for a significant share these referrals have been for orthopaedic and some
of international tourist travel, for example to China for cardiac procedures. An independent evaluation
traditional Chinese herbal treatment and acupuncture; of the overseas treatment pilot scheme found
India for various western, ayurvedic and yogic treatments; patients’ reactions to be very positive. Feedback
Thailand for treatment in world-class hospitals; Cuba has remained positive in the “live” project and
for advanced medical care (including bone-marrow patient take-up rates have exceeded expectation
transplants and other treatments following the (U.K. Department of Health, 2007).
Chernobyl disaster) and Singapore for heart, eye and
cancer treatment. Singapore’s aim is to increase the This form of medical tourism from the U.K. is known
number of international patients from 200,000 in as the E112 referral system, which covers maternity
2006 to one million by 2012 (yielding about USD 1.8 care and referral for specific medical treatment.
billion in revenue) (Leng, 2007). The economic gains Treatment is provided on the terms of the particular
are obvious, but there will also be additional demand scheme in the country concerned, and the NHS
for nurses, nursing aides, doctors, ancillary workers and pays the provider directly. Alternatively, some
others to staff the growing number of private medical patients may go directly to hospitals in the EEA or
facilities. This demand could, in turn, lead to further Switzerland, rather than through the NHS, and claim
international labour mobility. Singapore is already some of their costs from the NHS. Recent decisions
bringing in significant numbers of nurses and nursing handed down by the European Court of Justice and
assistants from the Philippines, Myanmar and Indonesia. domestic courts have confirmed this right to “direct
Many of these private medical service suppliers are not purchase” (U.K. Department of Health, 2007).
only regionally but also internationally integrated.
As a result, they can refer patients and transfer staff Medical tourism, as tourism generally, falls under
from a hospital in one country to a medical facility in the designation of trade in services — the WTO’s
another (Leng, 2007). General Agreement of Trade in Services (GATS) Mode
2, namely, services that are supplied and consumed
At the same time, home country governments may abroad. GATS Mode 3, commercial presence, covers
be promoting or organizing patient outflows or the establishment of an affiliate, subsidiary or
“medical tourists” as a means of cutting their own representation for the purpose of providing a
costs, or to alleviate pressure on their own systems particular service in a third country. Hence, the
when necessary health services are not immediately establishment of, for example, tour companies, hotels
or locally available, or to reduce long waiting periods. and hospitals and the corresponding placement
The U.K. is at the forefront of this development and of staff in a foreign country is classed as trade in
is sending patients overseas for treatment under the services, though the distinction between this and

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labour mobility in general is clearly not always easy. significantly shaped by the particular characteristics
Maurer et al. (2006: 7) estimate that “commercial of migrant populations, such as composition,
presence as a mode for supplying services has duration and direction, with each round of migration
become more important than conventional trade generating new spatial patterns of friendship and
across borders”. kinship networks, which potentially represent VFR
tourism flows (Feng and Page, 2000). Feng and
2.2 Tourism for Other Specific Purposes Page’s survey of Chinese permanent migrants to New
Zealand and the ensuing tourist flows provides an
The importance of tourism for the purpose of religious interesting example of how migration and tourism
pilgrimages (e.g. trips to Mecca), special events (e.g. can be related. The study found that 92 per cent of
World Youth Forum in Sydney, 2008, which attracted outbound tourism, mostly to China, was for VFR and
half a million visitors from overseas), sporting events the remainder for business and holidays.
(Olympic Games, Football World Cup) and many
similar occasions needs to be acknowledged. While On the other hand, tourism may also generate other
many of the flows are short-term, they may have types of mobility, including labour migration flows.
long-term consequences if visitors subsequently First, tourists often prefer guides, cooking and food
decide to migrate to live or to do business in the from their homeland; thus, over time, tourism and
country concerned. the preferences of tourists contribute to labour
migration from their home countries, including of
2.3 Interrelationships between Tourism and entrepreneurs. Other permanent and temporary
Migration migrants may also be needed for the construction
of tourist resorts, hotels and restaurants in new
The complex mutual interrelationships of tourism and locations catering to the growing tourist trade, and
migration have been explored since the early 1990s. to fill job vacancies there. Second, tourism may
Many flows for leisure and business are unrelated eventually lead to the acquisition of new or second
to earlier migration movements, but others spring homes by regular tourists, and their relocation there
from, or are related to, former migration patterns. following retirement or even earlier. Many people
Increasing disposable incomes in many parts of visit a country several times as tourists before they
the world are enabling more people to explore, eventually decide to move there permanently or
experience and appreciate different cultures, on a long-term basis. Such patterns can be clearly
histories, environments and societies. However, many identified among migrants from Taiwan Province of
such movements do not arise spontaneously and are China and Hong Kong SAR to Australia, as well as
linked to earlier migration flows. In turn, tourist among a number of other migrant groups. These
movements can generate new or additional forms of movements are particularly pronounced to the
migration as people decide to move to what were sunbelts of Europe, North America and Australia, and
originally their holiday destinations (viz. Australia, other attractive destinations (Pe-Pua et al., 1996).
the Caribbean, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain) or to All of this has implications concerning the necessary
other parts of their own country (e.g. Florida, U.S. resources in terms of workforce and qualified staff to
and Queensland, Australia). construct and manage facilities. Third, as observed
earlier, the growing phenomenon of medical tourism
Various researchers have examined the manner has specific implications for the number of health
in which migration can generate tourist flows, in professionals needed at the destination, and the
particular through the geographical expansion of workforce required to build and manage hospitals
friendship and kinship networks. Such tourist flows are and other facilities. Some of these health workers

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may relocate from the same country as the tourists combined perhaps with a business trip (see Section
they will be caring for, as is already the case, for 3 below), may act as a catalyst for temporary or
example, of Norwegians moving to Spain to provide permanent migration for employment to another
care for the elderly. Finally, a holiday to visit family, part of the world (see Portrait 5.1).

Portrait 5.1
Canada Calling: From Tourist to Business Visitor to Immigrant

In the early 1990s, Andrew was working for a bioscience company in Oxford, U.K., a few years after completing his PhD in
biochemistry. In 1992, he and his family took a holiday to visit his brother who was studying in Canada.

Andrew combined his holiday with his participation in an international biosciences conference. At the conference he met a
business contact who owned and ran a small image analysis company in southern Ontario, Canada, with whom he had been
corresponding but had never personally met before.

On returning to the U.K., Andrew remained in contact with the owner of the company in Ontario and, one year later, he
was offered a job and invited to come and work there. On the basis of that job offer, Andrew and his wife decided to apply
for permanent residence at the Canadian Consulate in London. The holiday they had spent in Canada the previous year had
convinced them that they would like to live there. Their immigration application was processed and approved within two
months.

The family left for Canada in June 2003 and settled in the Niagara region, close to the shores of Lake Ontario. They obtained
Canadian citizenship a few years later. Andrew is no longer with the same company. Currently, he works for a biomedical
company in Ontario piloting new laser scanning technology for use in the medical field.

Source: IOM Geneva.

2.4 Migration Management Issues regarding the not too costly. Many new visa arrangements have been
Entry and Stay of Tourists introduced to facilitate speedy and multiple tourist/
business movement clearances. These include visa-
As travel and communication costs decline, “visa free schemes, visa waiver schemes and mechanisms
requirements and border formalities have the for speeding up the issuance of visas.
potential to become the most significant impediments
to the growth of travel and tourism” (Muqbil, 2005: (a) Visa-free schemes
2). However, a 1996 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC) Tourism Impact study emphasizes that visa Visa-free schemes are clearly the most liberal
requirements per se are not obstructive; rather, the arrangement and enable unrestricted travel between
problems encountered concern the availability of certain countries or within particular regions (e.g.
information concerning visa requirements, the time European Union (EU) concerning the list of countries
involved in visa issuance and the processing of visas whose nationals do not require a visa for short-term
at entry points. visits for up to a maximum period of three months;
the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); and
The realization of the value of inbound tourism the Economic Community of West African States
has often led to increased national and regional (ECOWAS)). In the ASEAN, an agreement providing
marketing and promotion strategies, and a relaxation for visa-free travel for nationals of member countries
of regulations and visa requirements to make travel is also expected to be in place by 2010.
and entry procedures relatively straightforward and

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(b) Visa waiver schemes More recently, the fear of terrorism has led many
governments to tighten their visa requirements.
The U.S. and Canada have introduced visa waiver For example, students have had to satisfy much
programmes to enable tourists and business travellers more stringent language tests to ensure that they
from particular countries to travel without a visa, are legitimate students prior to obtaining a visa
subject to certain conditions (Greico, 2006). Visa (Iredale, 2006). In the U.S. the more onerous visa
waiver schemes rely on relationships of trust between requirements have deterred some travellers, while
the countries to ensure that visitors return home. Japan fingerprints all incoming foreign nationals aged
16 and above and has introduced a new passenger
Developing countries or countries in economic information system and posted crisis management
transition also unilaterally lift, or substantially officials at major ports and airports.
ease, visitor visa requirements for tourists from
developed countries (i.e. without the need for A further reason why some countries continue to
reciprocity) with a view to facilitating tourism to maintain strict visa regulations is their concern over
the country and generating revenue. For example, the potential cultural, social and environmental
some Commonwealth countries (e.g. Sri Lanka) do impact of large numbers of tourists. This is
not require visas for tourists from the U.K., even particularly important in some developing countries
though the U.K. maintains visa restrictions on their that do not have sufficient airline capacity or hotel
nationals. or tour operating facilities and therefore only cater
to a limited volume of tourists as, for instance, in
(c) Issues of facilitation and control Laos and Bhutan. Limiting access through visa
restrictions sets a ceiling on inbound movements.
The management of visitor movements requires a
delicate balance between facilitation and control as, (d) Problem of overstay
on the one hand, governments seek to streamline and
speed up the issuance of visas for bona fide arrivals The overstaying of tourist visas, or using tourist
while, on the other, they need control mechanisms visas for purposes other than legitimate tourist
to prevent abuse. activities, is very common. The relative ease of
obtaining tourist visas relative to other visas has led
Australia has an Electronic Travel Authority (ETA) to their being used as a means of entry for ulterior
scheme available to passport holders from 34 motives, such as overstaying the visa entitlement or
countries, locations and regions. Since its introduction to transit to other countries, and to live and work
in 1996, more than 21 million travellers have been there without being authorized to do so. Many
granted ETAs to come to Australia. ETAs now account countries, including those with tight immigration
for almost 83 per cent of all Australian tourist and controls (e.g. Australia, Japan, New Zealand, U.S.
short-term business visas granted worldwide. The and EU countries) face this situation, but few make
ETA system can be accessed by more than 300,000 public the actual numbers of tourists overstaying
travel agents worldwide, over 75 airlines and through or irregularly present within their borders. The visa
the Internet. ETA arrangements offer significant requirements for nationals of countries perceived to
benefits in terms of speed, convenience and security be at a higher risk of generating irregular migration,
to travellers, as well as airlines and the Australian such as overstaying visa entitlements and transit to
authorities. a third country, have been tightened. For example,

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within the EU, the “Schengen visa”, which allows persons participating in such schemes, making it
third-country nationals to enter countries included possible to target groups known to accept work in
in the Schengen area for up to three months within particular hard-to-fill positions. A growing tendency
a six-month period, is required of most African to attract young and highly skilled people, who
country nationals as well as those from Bolivia and could potentially become permanent or long-term
Ecuador (EU Council, 2001). However, in the absence immigrants, can also be observed. The following
of relatively accessible and enforceable regular three case studies illustrate the various schemes and
migration channels, such additional controls are also trends.
viewed by some as ineffective to dissuade and mostly
failing to curtail further irregular migration from (a) United Kingdom
the countries concerned and thus to reduce irregular
entries. Clearly, a viable solution to and the proper In the U.K., the Working Holidaymaker Scheme
management of this issue calls for closer cooperation entitles young citizens of any Commonwealth
and coordination by the parties concerned regarding country, aged 17 to 30, to work for any employer
the control of such movements, and of the respective in any type of work for up to two years. According
employment and immigration policies in effect. to Salt (2005), annual numbers have risen from
around 23,000 in 1990 to 45,800 in 1999, to fall
2.5 The Place of Working Holiday Schemes in again to 35,775 in 2001 before rising steeply to
Tourist Management Policies 62,400 in 2004. The dominant source countries are
the “Old Commonwealth” — Australia, Canada, New
Many countries and regions have introduced working Zealand and South Africa, which together accounted
holiday schemes over the last few decades. Such for the bulk of working holidaymakers (81.5%) in
programmes are usually reciprocal and enable young 2004. However, this was a drop from 88.3 per cent
people to travel and work in countries parties to of the total in 2003, suggesting that the scheme is
bilateral arrangements, subject to certain conditions. now attracting people from a wider constituency;
The schemes vary as to the degree to which they are for example, the number of participants from
explicitly aimed at filling sectoral or seasonal gaps Ghana, India, Malaysia and Zimbabwe has risen
in the labour market concerned. Although they are substantially.
not usually targeted at particular sectors, experience
reveals various employment patterns among young Though “little is known about the characteristics of
working holidaymakers (including a breakdown of

figures by sex) in the U.K., it may reasonably be
The 1985 Schengen Agreement was originally an agreement among the
Benelux countries, France and Germany providing for the abolition assumed that they are generally well educated and
of systematic controls at their internal borders. The 1985 treaty was adaptable” (Salt, 2005: 86). It is not possible to
implemented by the 1990 Schengen Implementing Agreement and
participation has since expanded to include most EU countries and three know how many of them will be working at any one
non-EU members Iceland, Norway and, in the near future, Switzerland.
By way of the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam, which amended the Treaty
time, nor what their total contribution to the labour
Establishing the European Community, most of the Schengen measures market is. However, given the numbers it is likely
were incorporated into the body of EU law. While the Republic of Ireland
and the United Kingdom are not parties to Schengen, they participate
to be substantial. “There is no regional breakdown
in the EU measures relating to police cooperation and the prevention in the statistics for working holidaymakers, nor
of irregular migration, but not the common border control and visa
provisions. is it known what jobs they take” (Salt, 2005: 86).

Australia, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Nevertheless, they provide a supply of young,
Germany, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea
(South Korea), Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Sweden,
mobile, largely English-speaking workers who may
Taiwan Province of China and the United Kingdom. eventually become permanent residents. According

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to the website of Y-AXIS, a large overseas career and (b) Australia

immigration consultancy in India, the scheme now
specifically targets students, young professionals, The Australian Working Holiday and Work and Holiday
students who have returned home after having studied Programmes “provide opportunities for people aged
in the U.K., nurses and allied health professionals, between 18 and 30 to holiday in Australia and to
doctors interested in locum work, teachers and IT supplement their travel funds through incidental
professionals. employment” (DIAC, 2007). Table 5.3 shows a
significant increase in the number of one-year
visas issued from 2001- 02 to 2005-06. There are no
numerical caps or quotas.

Table 5.3:
Australian Working Holiday and Work and Holiday Visa Approvals, 2001-2006
Visa Category 2001 - 2002 2002 - 2003 2003 - 2004 2004 - 2005 2005 - 2006
Working Holiday (subclass 417) 85,207 88,758 93,759 104,352 113,936
Work and Holiday (subclass 462)1 n.a. 0 85 254 751
Total Visa Approvals 85,207 88,758 93,845 104,606 114,582
Note:
1
Visa subclass 462 was introduced in March 2003 and is only available to applicants from outside Australia. However, from 1 January 2004, Subclass 462
visa holders became eligible to apply for a further Subclass 462 visa while in Australia.
n.a. = not applicable

Source: DIAC, 2007.

For 2005-06, agreements were concluded with 20 harvesting fruits, providing basic services, secretarial
countries, with the largest cohorts of Working work, labourer and similar manual and construction
Holidaymakers (WHMs) coming from the U.K. work. There were some differences among countries:
(28,821), followed by Republic of Korea (South Korea) Canadians were more likely to be employed as
(24,077), Ireland (12,554) and Germany (12,089). In waiters, and a higher proportion of Dutch nationals
recent years, there has been a notable diversification were employed as fruit pickers, while Irish nationals
of source countries and regions with the addition were more likely to be active at both ends of the
of Belgium, Estonia and Taiwan Province of China. skills ladder as construction labourers and also in
A 1997 survey conducted by Harding and Webster more professional occupations.
(2002), at a time when eight WHM agreements were
in effect, found that 85 per cent of WHMs were in A positive effect of the Working Holiday and Work
paid employment during their visit, averaging 2.9 and Holiday Programmes was the creation of an
jobs each during that period. additional 8,000 full-time jobs in Australia for every
80,000 WHMs through the employment generation
Around three-quarters of WHM jobs were low- effects of WHMs (Harding and Webster, 2002). Though
skilled, covering basic or intermediate office duties, WHMs were active in a range of low-skilled jobs, they
production and transport and general manual were not shown to displace Australians who had not
activities, relative to 46 per cent across the whole been interested in taking up these positions. The
workforce. The main occupations were as waiters, under-utilization of the skills offered by WHMs was

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 Chapter 5 - TOURISM AND SHORT-TERM BUSINESS TRAVEL

not seen as a negative for Australia, as benefits are and turn them more into an employment programme.
seen to outweigh any negative effects and rural, For example, it is now possible to convert from a WHS
hospitality and other labour shortages have led to permit to permanent residence status and, in 2004-
recent adjustments to the programme. The Migration 05, 182 individuals present in the country under
Regulations 1994 were amended in July 2006 to the WHS obtained permanent residence status (N.Z.
increase the length of time holders of both Subclass Department of Labour, 2005). Although numbers are
417 (Working Holiday) and Subclass 462 (Work and low, this is an indication of the use of these schemes
Holiday) visas were permitted to work and study. to fill labour market gaps on a more ongoing basis.
The limitation on working for any one employer was
extended from three to six months, and the study or These developments point to a general trend
training limitation from three to four months. These towards the provision of longer-term employment
“changes were based on representations made by opportunities for WHMs. They concern a self-selected
various stakeholders, including Australian tourism group of young, often well educated tourists who
and education bodies, and provide greater flexibility are now being “tapped” as possible workers or
for visa holders and their employers” (DIAC, 2006). permanent residents. The delineation between
tourism management and the management of
(c) New Zealand migration for short and long-term employment and
even permanent migration is becoming increasingly
The N.Z. Working Holiday Schemes (WHS) allow blurred for countries such as Australia, New Zealand
persons of 18 to 30 years of age from partner and the U.K. Other countries, however, seem to be
countries to spend 12 months in New Zealand and keeping WHM schemes as a form of “work and pay for
accept work of a temporary nature, and foresee your holiday” tourist scheme, as, in fact, originally
reciprocal arrangements for young New Zealanders to intended.
work abroad. New Zealand has concluded WHS with
23 countries, providing for a total of 31,000 WHS 3. Short-term Movements for Business and
visas in 2004-05, though only 21,025 work permits Entrepreneurial Purposes
were actually issued. There is an annual cap for each
participating country. While in general slightly more As with tourism, short-term movements for
women (54%) than men were issued work permits, business and entrepreneurial purposes have greatly
under some WHS the gender differential is more increased in all parts of the world in recent years.
pronounced with considerably more women than The interrelationship between this type of mobility
men participating from China, Hong Kong SAR, Japan and migration is more readily apparent than that
and Taiwan Province of China. For the U.K. and most of migration and tourism, although its nature and
other European countries, the ratio of men to women scope escape precise definition and analysis. A
was about equal. In contrast, among WHMs from number of countries, however, do attempt to regulate
Chile, Italy and Uruguay men outnumbered women, short-term business movements and to gauge their
although total numbers in these schemes were also extent, while others adopt more of a “laissez-faire
relatively low. A high proportion of WHMs were in approach”. The growth of business travel and its
their early twenties, with 40 per cent aged between diversity, particularly in the developing world, give
22 and 25 (N.Z. Department of Labour, 2005). rise to a number of economic and social benefits in
developing countries, but also pose challenges that
A number of adjustments were introduced in mid- are not that dissimilar from migration management
2005 to enhance the attractiveness of the N.Z. WHS concerns.

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3.1 Issues of Definition This group does not include the “suitcase traders” or
small, self-employed entrepreneurs, who repeatedly
The first issue is to consider the various terminologies move between different parts of the world. Though
and definitions used in some countries concerning their numbers and individual trajectories are difficult
the issuance of visas to control or manage entry. While to quantify on account of their erratic, circular and
permanent or long-term migration is characterized self-determined movements, they represent a growing
by the use of a large variety of terms and definitions, group of merchants who move to trade or to set up
this is even more the case for short-term movements, small businesses as and where opportunities arise.
though the concept is not well defined, recorded
or researched by policymakers or others (see also The international mobility of service providers gives
Chapters 3 and 11 and the Migration Terminology rise to another potentially large group of short-term
section). business travellers, as defined under the WTO’s GATS
Mode 4 (see Textbox Int. 1). There is some overlap
Globalization has generated a large increase in the and confusion as to how to differentiate between
volume and type of temporary business movements labour movements and GATS Mode 4 movements for
as not only multinationals but also the international services, but business persons and intra-company
expansion of many small and medium-sized transferees could potentially refer to GATS Mode 4
enterprises has led to the rapid increase in the to provide services on a short-term basis in another
mobility of business people. According to Tani (2006: country. They would, however, be subject to various
323): conditions, such as quotas and restrictions, educational
qualification requirements and economic needs tests,
With better communication and transportation stipulated by countries of destination in their GATS
technologies, firms can concentrate key managerial Schedule of commitments. At the moment, there is
and technical skills in a single location and deploy no specific GATS Mode 4 visa and people are admitted
them to peripheral geographic areas through under the existing visa regulations of destination
short-term business trips in lieu of relocations countries.
and assignments. These developments, along with
skill-based technological change, have benefited As each country treats business and entrepreneurial
the highly skilled. International business travellers movement differently, a number of case studies are
are almost entirely composed of entrepreneurs, discussed below to illustrate the definitions, visas and
professionals, senior government officials and provisions adopted for short-term business entries.
managers and enjoy a wage premium over similarly Various regional groupings have also developed ways of
skilled but not travelling workers. facilitating business mobility, one of which is referred
to below.
International movements within transnational
corporations (TNCs) are significant, but not always 3.2 Management of Short-term Business Visits
easy to identify as they concern a select group
moving within specific channels and not subject to Countries are increasingly developing various types
the same constraints as other business travellers. of short-term business visas to facilitate the entry
Nor is it possible to gauge the extent to which their of business people. However, there is significant
physical moves may be and are being replaced by diversity and attempts at harmonization have been
virtual travel, teleconferencing and other modern slow and difficult.
means of communication.

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(a) Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) or (d) an exploratory business visit. A choice of five
business visitor visa options is available:
The APEC Business Travel Card (BTC) was introduced
to lower trade transaction costs. This is a national 1. Short Stay Business Visitor (subclass 456):
visa waiver or three-year multiple entry visa valid for 3 months — for business people to make a short
all participating economies for persons who satisfy business visit to attend a conference, conduct
the requisite visa conditions. Other provisions may negotiations or make an exploratory business
eventually be attached to the APEC Business Travel visit.
Card, namely, an agreed 30-day service standard for 2. Sponsored Business Visitor (subclass 459):
intra-company transferees (executives, managers and 3 months — for business people who have an
specialists, the latter as defined by each economy), approved sponsor in Australia and may not be
and an agreement to consider the streamlining of eligible to apply for an Electronic Travel Authority
access to employment for spouses of intra-company (ETA).
transferees. 3. ETA (Short Validity) (subclass 977): 3 months
— an electronically stored authority available to
The aim is to move towards common agreed standards passport holders from a number of countries and
for the short and long-term entry of business people; regions. Applications must be made from outside
to date, however, most countries, including a number Australia.
of APEC participating economies, impose additional 4. ETA (Long Validity) (subclass 956): 3 months,
visa requirements on business people wishing to repeat visits — for business people to make
visit. Some of these are outlined below. regular short business visits, granted for the
length of the validity of the passport.
(b) Australia 5. APEC Business Travel Card (see above): 2 months,
repeat trips — to streamline travel for business
Australia defines short-term business visits as covering people from 16 participating economies in the
(a) attendance at a conference or training session; APEC region. Nationals of all APEC members,
(b) the conduct of business with an Australia-based besides New Zealand, must still apply for a
company; (c) the conduct of business negotiations, subclass 456 or 977 visa (DIAC, 2007).

Table 5.4 shows the number of visas issued in four


Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong SAR,
Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand,
of these categories from 2001 to 2006. The short
Papua New Guinea, Peru, the Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Taiwan stay (subclass 456 and 977) visas are by far the most
Province of China, Thailand, United States, Viet Nam. For a description
of APEC and its labour mobility-related activities, including a fuller numerous. The persons in the sponsored 459 subclass
discussion of the Business Travel Card, see Textbox 13.5. are most probably intra-company transfers.

Table 5.4:
Business Visitor Visas Granted Outside of Australia, 1 July 2001 to 30 June 2006
Visa Category 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
Business Visitor Visas
Short Stay Business Visitor (Subclass 456) 133,726 126,767 147,701 174,617 185,656
Sponsored Business Visitor (Subclass 459) 18 11 4 107 634
Electronic Travel Authority - Business Entrant - Long Validity (Subclass 956) 33,420 28,057 24,721 18,417 15,410
Electronic Travel Authority - Business Entrant - Short Validity (Subclass 977) 90,874 99,356 126,413 146,283 166,633
Total Business Visitor Visa Approvals 258,038 254,191 298,839 339,424 368,333
Source: DIAC, 2007.

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It is interesting to note that a number of temporary Around one million visas are issued annually to
entrants and visa categories, including the Class visitors who do require them and, although a global
457 Temporary Business (Long Stay) visa and the breakdown is not available, Table 5.5 demonstrates
Working Holiday and Work and Holiday programmes, that regarding the Beijing issuing office, the business
are linked to business migration. Class 457 entrants caseload accounts for a substantial proportion of the
are actually sponsored employees. Their visas are total number of visas issued to visitors.
valid for a stay of up to four years whereupon they
may be converted to permanent resident status. Table 5.5:
Canada – Business Visitor Visas issued in
According to Khoo et al. (2005), the majority of 457 Beijing
visa holders had applied for long-term temporary
2007 (to
residence in Australia after a previous stay there Business Visitor Applications 2005 2006
27 Nov.)
under the Working Holiday and Work and Holiday Total Number 36,835 43,701 37,721
programmes or as students. This was particularly true % of all visitor visas 60% 60.5% 54.9%
of Europeans, and their prior exposure to the country issued in Beijing
is considered to have facilitated their integration and Official passport 25,281 30,019 24,316
(68.6%) (68.7%) (64.5%)
adaptation to local living and working conditions.
Private passport 11,554 13,682 13,405
Conversely, 457 visa holders from India are least (31.4%) (31.3%) (35.5%)
likely to have visited the country prior to their Source: Canadian Permanent Mission, Geneva.
present stay.

Drawing on the findings of Coleman and Rowthorn In contrast to Australia and New Zealand (see below),
(2004), Khoo et al. (2005) suggest that temporary however, Canada does not participate in the APEC
skilled migration is the source of many economic BTC scheme (Citizenship and Immigration Canada,
benefits to Australia because it brings in young, well 2006).
qualified and highly skilled people. Given that 457
visa holders are more likely to come from higher- (d) Japan and Republic of Korea
income countries in North America and Europe, they
note that the current temporary skilled migration Both Japan and South Korea require short-term
policies link the Australian economy to other business visas for visits of up to three months for
advanced economies. most business entrants. However, Japan and South
Korea also waive visa requirements for nationals
(c) Canada of certain APEC economies (APEC, 2007). South
Korea offers multiple-entry visas for nationals from
Canada receives a very large number of short-term Australia, Canada, China, Japan and the U.S., in
visitors every year, with around 20 million annual accordance with relevant bilateral agreements.
crossings of the Canada/U.S. border alone. There is
no statistical breakdown of the particular motives (e) New Zealand
for a visitor’s stay in Canada. A large majority of the
many millions of business visitors entering Canada The possibilities for short-term business visits to New
every year would not need visas as they are from Zealand are limited. The Long-term Business Visa
visa-exempt countries, particularly the U.S. and (permit) requires the prior submission of a business
Europe. plan. After nine months, the permit is subject to

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 Chapter 5 - TOURISM AND SHORT-TERM BUSINESS TRAVEL

review and, if the business is deemed to be developing 33.7 million from all other countries (using I-94
satisfactorily, it is extended for a further period of Forms). Canadians and Mexicans who hold a non-
three years, following which a permanent residence resident Border Crossing Card, commonly known as
permit may be applied for. N.Z. participates in the a laser visa or a multiple-entry non-immigrant visa,
APEC BTC scheme and certain APEC economies benefit are not required to complete an I-94 Form (U.S.
from the visa-waiver arrangements (N.Z. Department Office of Immigration Statistics, 2007).
of Labour, 2005).
Of the 33.7 million I-94 admissions, 73.9 per cent
(f) United Kingdom were for tourist purposes and 15 per cent for business
travel, granted to 25.8 million individuals of whom
The U.K. has a new business visa for entries of 4.4 million were entitled to multiple entries (U.S.
up to six months. It makes a distinction between Office of Immigration Statistics, 2007: Table 2). The
a business visitor and an employee, and the U.S. data provide a good breakdown, as shown in Table
conditions for admission are clearly stated, as are 5.6. Temporary business visitors can be separated
the eligible occupations (advisers, consultants, from intra-company transferees and their families
trainers and trouble-shooters), the nature of the and from exchange visitors and their families.
direct or contractual working relationship with the
sending company and the type of work (including Almost half (45.8%) of non-immigrant (I-94)
training) that can be undertaken (workpermit.com, admissions concerned nationals from Mexico, U.K.
2007). The visa conditions provide for considerable and Japan, followed by Germany, France, Republic
flexibility concerning the corporate activities to be of Korea, India, Italy, Australia, Brazil and the
undertaken. Netherlands. Men accounted for 52.9 per cent of
all I-94 admissions, and 56.3 per cent were aged 15
The same flexibility is foreseen under the to 44 (U.S. Office of Immigration Statistics, 2007:
generally long-term visas issued for the purpose of Tables 5 and 6).
business creation, such as, for instance, the Sole
Representative Visas for Employers, valid for two The U.S. also has a visa category for “treaty traders
years for the establishment of a branch office of an and treaty investors”. These E1, E2 or E3 visas are
overseas business in the U.K., or the U.K. Innovator intended for nationals of countries with which
Visa, also valid for two years for persons intending to the U.S. has concluded treaties of commerce and
realize a highly innovative business idea in the U.K. navigation, who wish to come to the United States to
(workpermit.com, 2007). carry on substantial trade, including trade in services,
or to develop and direct the operations of an enterprise
(g) United States in which they have invested or are in the process of
investing, and who are not required to fill out an I-94
The U.S. Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS) Form (U.S. Department of State, 2007).
produces an Annual Flow Report that includes data
on temporary flows. It examines the temporary non- Although the U.S. does not participate in the APEC
immigrant admissions to the U.S., mainly tourists and BTC, nationals of Australia, Brunei Darussalam,
business travellers on short-term trips. The bulk of Japan, New Zealand and Singapore are granted a visa
the 175.1 million non-immigrant admissions in 2006 waiver for up to 90 days.
were from Canada and Mexico, and the remaining


No estimate is provided for 2006, but in 2005 it was estimated that 148
million non-immigrant admissions out of a total of 175 million were
from Canada and Mexico (Grieco, 2006).

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Table 5.6:
U.S. Non-immigrant Admissions (I-94 only) by Class of Admission (excluding laser visa holders):
2004-2006 (in millions)
Class of Admission 2006 2005 2004
No. % No. % No. %
Temporary visitors 29.93 88.9 28.51 89.1 27.40 89.0
For pleasure 24.89 73.9 23.81 74.4 22.80 74.1
For business 5.04 15.0 4.70 14.7 4.60 14.9
Temporary workers and families 1.71 5.1 1.57 4.9 1.51 4.9
Intra-company transferees and families 0.46 1.4 0.46 1.4 0.46 1.5
Intra-company transferees 0.32 1.0 0.31 1.0 0.31 1.0
Students, exchange visitors, and families 1.17 3.5 1.05 3.3 1.02 3.3
Exchange visitors1 and families 0.42 1.2 0.38 1.2 0.36 1.1
Exchange visitors 0.38 1.1 0.34 1.1 0.32 1.0
Transit aliens2 0.38 1,1 0.36 1.1 0.34 1.1
All other classes3 0.37 1.1 0.37 1.2 0.39 1.3
Unknown 0.11 0.3 0.14 0.4 0.13 0.4
Total 33.67 100 32.00 100 30.78 100
Notes:
1
Exchange visitors are young people who take part in educational or cultural exchange programmes.
2
Transit aliens include C-1, C-2 and C-3 visas.
3
Other classes of admission include: A-1 to A-3, BE, G-1 to G-5, K-1 to K-4, N-1 to N-9, Q2 and Q-3, T-1 to T-5, U-1 to U-4, and V-1 to V-3.
Figures in the “Total” row have been rounded up.
Source: Compiled from U.S. Office of Immigration Statistics (2007: Table 3).

3.3 Intra-company Transfers by the U.K. and the Netherlands. Although no

easily accessible data on such short-term business
Of all business travels, intra-company transfers are movements are available for Australia, a recent
among the most difficult to document. Table 5.7 lists survey conducted by Khoo et al. (2005) showed that
intra-company transferees in seven OECD countries 30 per cent of 457 visa arrivals to Australia were
between 1996 and 2002, with the U.S. registering intra-company transferees.
by far the greatest mobility of this type, followed

Table 5.7:
Intra-corporate Transferees in Selected OECD Countries, 1996-2002 (thousands)
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 1999
Relative frequency (US=100)1
Austria2 0.2 1.0 1.2 1.9 1.9 40
Canada3 2.1 2.8 2.5 3.0 3.2 2.8 26
France4 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.8 2.2 2.3 1.8 12
Japan 2.8 3.4 3.5 3.8 3.9 3.5 2.9 9
Netherlands4 1.6 2.3 2.7 2.5 -- -- -- 50
U.K.5 13.0 18.0 22.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 19.0 84
U.S.6 69.7 80.1 82.5 88.0 112.0 -- -- 100
Notes:
1
Transferees as a proportion of total employment relative to the same statistics for the United States, times one hundred.
2
Stock of non-EU intra-company transferees who hold a residence permit on 1 July of the given year.
3
Temporary business persons with employment authorization entering Canada under NAFTA, Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (CCFTA) or GATS.
4
Figures do not include transfers from other EU countries.
5
Results are derived from the Labour Force Survey and include intra-European transfers.
6
Issuance of L1 visas.

Sources: Austria: Federal Ministry of the Interior; Canada: Citizenship and Immigration Canada; France: Office des migrations internationals; Japan:
Ministry of Justice, Immigration Service; Netherlands: Employment Office; U.K.: Labour Force Survey; United States: U.S. Department of State,
Bureau of Consular Affairs.

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3.4 Business Travel in the Developing World to an increase in cross-border activities (Zheng and
Ren, 2004).
(a) Developed to developing countries
The dismantling of the apartheid regime in South
Globalization and deregulation have opened up many Africa led to a more liberal migration regime and,
developing countries where conditions are seen to be since the early 1990s, many people from other parts
economically, socially and politically conducive to of Africa have been able to enter on a 30-day visitor’s
significant inflows of short-term business travellers permit issued at the border. The declining contract
or visiting nationals from more developed countries. labour migration to the mines has led to the growth
In the 1960s and 1970s, the Asian “Tigers” were of informal migration for work or to conduct business
probably the best example of emerging economies (Andersson, 2006). Economic growth has also acted
that attracted much investment and technical input as a magnet for petty traders from other parts of
from more developed countries. sub-Saharan Africa.

In recent years, temporary business visits from For years, cross-border shoppers from Southern
countries in Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania Africa have flocked to Johannesburg, South
to many of the world’s global cities and other major Africa’s financial centre, to buy cheap goods that
sites have become very prevalent. The expansion of can be taken home and sold at a profit. Officials
multinationals and the establishment of offshore have quickly become aware of the profitability of
branches or client offices in mining, manufacturing such trading practices, after a study showed that
and the services sector have given rise to countless the influx of African “tourism traders” added R 20
and repeat visits by managers, technicians, engineers billion annually to the local economy. The shoppers’
and supervisors. spending bonanza includes cash-register sales and
expenditure on overnight accommodation, meals and
Similarly, most non-resident Indians (NRIs) who have transportation. In 2004 – the latest year for which
set up businesses in the IT sector in India (see Textbox data are available – the major points of attraction
2.2) return home to attend to their business interests for more than half a million African visitors were
but do not go back permanently. South Africa’s array of shops, mainly wholesalers.
“These are typically low to middle-income people
(b) Developing to developing countries who come because there is a wide variety of goods
and good quality. And these stores may just be
Disparities in economic development between popping up in their own country”, says urban
neighbouring countries frequently give rise to consultant Neil Fraser of the newly formed Joburg
short-term and often irregular movements for the Cross-Border Shopping Association. Most visitors
purpose of trade. For example, in 2003, over 300,000 are from Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, Zimbabwe,
individuals crossed the border from Mongolia into Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia and Malawi, where
China, mostly for trading purposes. People come from many people live on less than a dollar a day (Star
Russia and eastern European countries, as well as and Reuters, 2006).
from Mongolia, to buy cheap goods and to sell them
elsewhere. The building of a free-trade zone and a (c) Developing to developed countries
new Trading Hall in Erlianhaut in Inner Mongolia led
Many irregular migration flows from China and other

parts of Asia (India, Pakistan, the Philippines), Latin
Cross-border migration is discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.

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 World Migration 2008

America and Africa (Morocco, Senegal), as well as from quantify. However, both countries of origin and of
eastern Europe (especially Albania and Romania) to destination stand to gain from short-term business
the more developed countries in Europe have been migrants. Host countries can sell more goods and
associated with the establishment and operation of provide accommodation and other services for
small businesses. In recent years, southern Europe business clients, and are themselves introduced
has attracted many new irregular migrants (see also to new products, technologies and business and
Chapter 8), including Chinese nationals, to take up management practices. It is with these benefits in
job opportunities in the informal sector. mind that the city of Johannesburg is seeking to
develop a visitor-friendly approach, for instance by
[An] important reason is that these new destinations setting up a welcome booth for cross-border traders,
provide fresh business niches for the Chinese. and building a new passenger boarding area. The
Communities of Chinese in western Europe have private sector is considering to contribute to the
usually been concentrated in the catering business. effort through the construction of basic lodgings
The catering business has become increasingly with cheap overnight rates.
saturated since the 1990s, however, and there
is not much evidence that the communities are At an early stage of its industrial development,
entering new industries. By contrast, the Chinese Taiwan Province of China realized the value of the
in eastern and southern Europe are often engaged contribution its citizens abroad, particularly in
in the import/export trade between China and the U.S., could make to its economy and society.
Europe, and even manufacturing (e.g. the leather Beginning in the 1950s, it implemented a series of
and garment industries in Italy), partly encouraged policies and programmes to encourage the return
by the economic structures particular to these of highly educated expatriates. Such return was to
countries (Laczko, 2003). be preferably permanent, but short-term exchange
and business trips were also promoted. The major
New types of flows have often emerged in response incentives included a travel subsidy for returnees
to tighter regulatory systems in developed countries. and their family, helping them to find jobs, providing
Peraldi (2004) documents the rise of Algerian business investment assistance, facilitating visits
suitcase traders throughout the Mediterranean of academics and experts, setting up recruitment
region, replacing traditional labour migration to programmes by offering competitive salaries and
France. “Often serving tourist markets, their moves improving working conditions (Tsay and Lin, 2000).
take place within family networks which allow them
to seize trading opportunities in whichever city The contribution of short trips to economic growth is
they are present” (Salt, 2006: 18). Such business evident, but the means to measure such contributions
movements are generally unrecorded or included in are mostly lacking. One exception is research by Tani
tourist figures. (2006), who surveyed business travellers at Sydney
Airport and found that most Australian business
3.5 Economic and Social Benefits of Short-term persons going abroad were male, aged 35 to 54,
Business Movements, Especially in the highly skilled, had a university degree (83%) and
Developing World were born abroad (64%). His survey reported that
38 per cent of these business travellers go to attend
The circulation of people as part of international a conference or trade fair or to look for international
business activities, aid programmes and projects alliances (37%), that is, to seek out information or
and for other reasons is significant, but difficult to to share knowledge. Only 31 per cent travelled for

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 Chapter 5 - TOURISM AND SHORT-TERM BUSINESS TRAVEL

reasons related to production and administration. 1. Groups vulnerable to HIV infection and their
Incoming business travellers were more likely to “bridge populations”, such as overseas contract
be intra-company movers (44%) followed by 32 per workers and their partners, commercial sex
cent attending conferences. He argues that the data workers and their clients, transport workers/
for true business arrivals, as defined earlier in this traders and their partners/families.
chapter for Australia, should not be analysed in terms 2. “Hot spots” where there is a volatile mix of
of net flows but as gross flows. The combination highly mobile people (traders, visitors) or
of inflows and outflows, or gross flows, is a better temporary workers (industrial workers, miners,
measure of the importance of such mobility per sailors, etc.) and commercial sex workers.
se in the “formation and diffusion of knowledge”.
He makes a distinction between “embodied” and On the other hand, the tendency for short-term
“disembodied” knowledge, and argues that business business migrants to seek to become permanent
movements generate “disembodied” knowledge. The residents is met with different responses. It is
more trips, the more knowledge is generated that encouraged in some developed countries, viz.
benefits both the source and destination countries. Australia, New Zealand and the U.K., while others
Thus, from this point of view, it pays for countries to have provisions that enable some “desirable” short-
encourage, rather than discourage, such flows. stay business migrants to apply for permanent
residence status. The situation is less clearcut when
3.6 The Challenges Posed by these Different small traders, who have entered a country irregularly
Types of Movements or as tourists perhaps, decide to stay permanently.
They frequently meet with a different response. Their
The rapid growth of large trading and business situation is often regarded as being identical to that
locations and the difficulties in providing them of many other irregular migrant workers who stay on
with adequate housing, health, education and other after their working visas have expired and who are
facilities can be a major issue. For example, a study subject to mandatory return provisions.
on the spread of HIV/AIDS in Northeast Asia found
that the growth of major trading posts/towns on 4. Conclusion
the borders between China and the neighbouring
countries of Mongolia, Russia and North Korea, posed This chapter has sought to make the recent massive
major infrastructure problems. At the same time, the growth in tourism and short-term business travel
emergence of an underground sex industry added evident. The scale of these movements is much larger
another, very volatile factor. Together they have the than for any other form of mobility, but they are
potential to create a major health issue (Iredale et not usually covered in migration reports. They have
al., 2004). been included in this report because, although their
links with labour migration are not immediately
Zheng and Ren (2004) emphasize that, in order evident, such movements are nonetheless of
to stop the spread of HIV/AIDS in the general major importance. The movement of tourists can
population, relevant services or projects should not have ramifications for labour mobility and affect
only focus on the high-risk populations, but also the employment opportunities and practices of
the “bridge populations”, i.e. those who may have destination countries.
sexual contact with the high-risk population. Urgent
programmes and research are needed to focus on two The chapter has shown how such flows can give rise
broad areas: to labour mobility to service tourist needs, how they

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 World Migration 2008

may metamorphose into labour movements or so issues of overstay, irregular entry and engagement in
resemble labour movements (viz. Working Holiday activities not covered by the visa entitlement must
Schemes) that it is difficult to separate them. Short- be addressed.
term travel for the purpose of business is often
not differentiated from tourism in some national Innovative ways of encouraging skilled migrants
statistics, while in others (e.g. Australia) there is (such as through the use of dual citizenship or
an array of visas covering various types of business special travel cards), in particular, to invest in or
visits. Many small business people are engaging in manage businesses at home are being found and
trade and other activities a long way from home, such information needs to be disseminated so that
while other business people are moving as part of developing and not only developed countries, can
intra-company transfers or related arrangements. benefit from their skilled diasporas. Mahroum et al.
(2007) stress the important role for governments in
Countries are endeavouring to find the best ways to source countries in connecting with their diasporas,
handle these mushrooming flows that, on balance, establishing networks, recognizing the potential
are perceived to be beneficial to their economies and contribution diasporas can make and creating
societies. Short-term business travel is productive opportunities that would allow them to contribute
for source and destination countries, as well as for to local development through short-term visits to
the individuals themselves, and therefore warrants their home countries (see also Chapter 12).
good management rather than limitation. However,

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 Chapter 5 - TOURISM AND SHORT-TERM BUSINESS TRAVEL

Greico, E.M.
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Zealand”, Current Issues in Tourism, 3(3): 246- 2006 “Harmonised statistics on immigrant inflows
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 World Migration 2008

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Maurer, A., J. Magdeleine and B. d’Andrea Saxenian, A.

2006 “International Trade in Services – GATS, 2001 “Silicon Valley’s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs”
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MigrationTrends200405.pdf.
Tsay, C. and J. Lin
Pe-Pua, R., C. Mitchell, R. Iredale and S. Castles 2000 “Return Migration and Reversal of Brain Drain
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The Cycle of Migration between Hong Kong and unpublished paper, The Institute of Economics,
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United Kingdom, Department of Health
Rogerson, C.M. 2007 “Access to healthcare abroad”, National Health
2004 “The Rise of African Tourism to South Africa”, Service (NHS), www.nhs.un/healthcareabroad/
Migration Policy Brief No. 13, Southern African pages/healthcareabroad.aspx.
Migration Project (SAMP), http://www.queensu.
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ca/samp/sampresources/samppublications.
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Salt, J.
United States, Department of State
2005 Report of the United Kingdom SOPEMI
2007 “Treaty Traders and Treaty Investors”, Bureau
Correspondent to the OECD, 2005, Migration
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types_1273.html.

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 Chapter 5 - TOURISM AND SHORT-TERM BUSINESS TRAVEL

United States, Department of Homeland Security, Office of

Immigration Statistics
2007 “Temporary Admissions of Nonimmigrants to
the United States: 2006”, Annual Flow Report,
July, Office of Immigration Statistics, U.S.
Department of Homeland Security, Washington,
D.C., http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/
statistics/publications/NI_FR_2006_508_final.
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Wong, C.
2003 “Health tourism, to drive earnings”, Malaysian
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Y-Axis
2007 “The United Kingdom Working Holiday Makers
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Zheng, Z. and Q. Ren

2004 “People’s Republic of China” in R.R. Iredale, T.
Siddiqui, Z. Zheng, Q. Ren, S. Ghosh, H.K. Sung,
J. Lee and J. Weeramunda, No Safety Signs
Here, United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), Delhi, 43-68.

Textbox 5.1 - Economic and Social Benefits

and Costs of Tourist-related Migration for the
Countries Concerned

Asian Development Bank (ADB)

2005 The Greater Mekong Subregion Tourism Sector
Strategy, ADB, Manila, http://www.adb.org/
GMS/tourism-study.asp.

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2006 “Several ongoing challenges face GMS
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page/12155.

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 World Migration 2008

FAMILY MIGRATION*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
6 and the United Kingdom (Martin, 2007), family
migration remains significant. In contrast, family
Immigrants migrate for various reasons. For some, migration remains less significant in countries
the motivation is primarily economic, with the that hinder or prevent long-term settlement, as in
prospect of better wages or working conditions or the Middle East and Southeast and East Asia. In
more simply, of employment. Some come with their these regions family reunification is, as a general
families with the aim of permanent settlement, rule, unavailable, although cross-border marriages
others bring them in when they are themselves between citizens and foreigners have become more
settled and are able to satisfy host country common, especially in Southeast Asia (Constable,
requirements for family reunion. … Other reasons 2005). Contract workers have married nationals, as
may include movement for marriage, adoption, is the case in Taiwan Province of China (but this is
retirement, or by aged parents of adult children not permitted in Singapore nor in Malaysia); brides
(OECD, 2006: 34). are sponsored in Japan; and male tourists marry Thai
women (Piper, 2004).
Family-related migration has been the main channel
of legal entry into the European Union (EU) as well Family migrations remain under-theorized (Bailey
as to traditional immigration countries, such as and Boyle, 2004) and have been relatively neglected
Australia, Canada and the United States. It accounts by academics and policymakers. In part, this has been
for two-thirds of immigration into the U.S. and due to their conceptualization as a feminized and
between one-third and a quarter in Canada and dependent form of movement with little relevance
Australia (OECD, 2006). Even in countries where for labour force participation. Family migration is
worker entries are now more common than in the not only the largest single category in developed
past, for example in Portugal, Denmark, Switzerland countries; it is also generally dominated by females,
the extent of which depends on the type of family
migration. The majority of women migrating to
* This chapter was written by Eleonore Kofman (Social Policy Research
Centre, Middlesex University, United Kingdom) and Veena Meetoo Australia, New Zealand, Europe and North America
(Institute of Education, United Kingdom). do so for family reunification, followed by labour and

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 Chapter 6 - FAMILY MIGRATION

asylum (UNFPA, 2006). In the United States, female of international migration and recent developments
family migration constituted 58.5 per cent of the that have generated interest in the role of families in
total intake in 2000 and in Canada 61.6 per cent migration. Second, it outlines the trends and types
(UNRISD, 2005). It is necessary, however, to move of family migration and difficulties of comparing
beyond the narrow economic approaches adopted situations in different countries. Third, it examines
in previous work on family migration (Bailey and international conventions concerning the right
Boyle, 2004) and to examine the changing forms and to family life and policy developments within the
(re)composition of the family, the diverse strategies context of managed migration. This includes recent
deployed in the course of migration, the gendered restrictions on entry, especially the control of
composition of family migration, the position of marriage, and integration measures required for long-
specific members of the family, such as children and term settlement as well as debates on the relationship
the elderly, and the implications of policy measures between family migration, skills and employment.
for men and women (Kofman, 2004). Furthermore, as The chapter focuses on policies in destination
women migrating as heads of household now make countries and the impact of family migration on
up almost half of global flows, they are themselves host societies, although it is important to underline
becoming major initiators of family reunification. that mobility for the purpose of employment also
has important economic and social consequences on
This chapter first considers the reasons why family societies of countries of origin as well as on those
migration has traditionally been marginal to studies family members left behind (see Textbox 6.1).

Textbox 6.1
Social and Economic Costs of Migration on Family Members Left Behind - Bangladesh

International migration has profound impacts on family members left behind. The nature and importance of such impacts will
depend on whether the migrant is a female or a male member of the household. In particular, the gender dynamics within
households will be affected differently depending on whether it is women who migrate or are left behind. The different impacts
are explored below and illustrated by drawing on the example of Bangladesh. In this particular instance it is important to note
that typical rural Bangladeshi households often require the wife who is left behind to move in with her in-laws where she and
her children live with her husband’s extended family, including his father, mother, brothers and sisters.

A recent study conducted in Bangladesh examined the impacts of male migration on family members, specifically on wives left
behind. In the majority of the observed cases, women, along with their children, experienced an increase in their standard
of living as a result of the remittances sent by their migrant husbands. However, this increase varied significantly from one
household to another. It was also noted that women who lived with their in-laws and did not receive the remittance directly
in their names benefited less than women whose husbands sent the remittances to them directly. In other words, control over
remittance earnings significantly dictated the degree of their financial independence and, consequently, their decision-making
power. In almost all cases, women assumed many of the responsibilities previously held by their husbands, such as going to the
market, dealing with household repairs and supervising the education of children. Hence, empowerment often also meant an
increased workload. The research also sought to establish whether this empowerment was of a temporary or permanent nature
and found that a majority of women resumed their traditional roles once their husbands returned.

The absence of migrant husbands also affected the women’s sense of personal security. Women reported that they felt more
vulnerable to harassment and indecent advances by other men, including members of their husbands’ families. This feeling of
insecurity, along with restrictions imposed on the women by the in-laws, also led to the increased use of purdah. Many women
also admitted to being worried about the possibility that their husbands might be attracted to other women and abandon them
and their family. In general, therefore, the study revealed that the social impacts on women resulting from the migration of
their husbands are mixed and varied from case to case, depending on personal circumstances.

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On the other hand, the migration of women appeared to have a particularly strong impact on the children left behind. In
some cases, the mother’s absence was felt to contribute to the decline in her children’s school attendance while, in others,
the remittances sent by the mother enabled her children to benefit from better schooling. There was also some evidence that
the migration of mothers often led to the early marriage of the children, especially of adolescent girls, as fathers and other
household members considered it too much of a burden to look after their daughters. However, the remittance earnings of the
mothers also made it easier for the families to bear the costs of marriage. There was also evidence that some children suffered
emotionally from the absence of their mothers, particularly when the fathers were unable to give them sufficient attention.

While women often assumed the roles and responsibilities traditionally assigned to men during the husbands’ absence, husbands
who stayed behind were usually more reluctant to perform housekeeping duties, although some of them did become more
attentive towards their children during the mothers’ absence.

The study concluded that, although both female and male migration brings financial benefits for the families left behind, it also
incurs significant and gender-differentiated social costs.

Source: Priyanka Debnath, formerly IOM Geneva.

2. The Neglect of the Family represents the social dimension, often associated
with tradition; and (2), especially in Europe, the
For a long time the family has constituted the treatment of family migration in policy terms as a
forgotten form of migration (Bouamama and Sad secondary type of migration, viewed initially as an
Saoud, 1996). As Sriskandarajah (2005) notes: unintended consequence of the stoppage of mass
labour migration in the 1970s, and consisting of
Scan the UK’s current immigration policies and you female dependants joining the male breadwinner as
are likely to get the impression that “families” do the primary migrant.
not migrate. Rather, there are measures to deal
with ‘principal applicants’ who seek permission to This gendered view can also be fostered by immigration
work or claim asylum or want to become a British legislation. One of the major consequences has been
national. Sometimes there are separate regulations to treat family migration as having few repercussions
to deal with an associated and residual category of on the labour market, which is widely regarded as the
people called “spouses and dependents” (sic). The essential driving force of international migration.
word “family” is rarely mentioned. There is a dearth of studies on the labour market
outcomes of family migrants, except for recent
Zlotnik (1995) has argued that two factors have analyses of longitudinal surveys in settler societies
militated against the use of the family unit in the such as Australia (Liebig, 2007b) and Canada, which
analysis of migration. The first is that economic have begun disaggregating data according to visa
theory neglects the family because the activities that categories. There is also an unwarranted view that
take place within it cannot be measured in monetary women migrants are uninterested in, or do not seek,
terms. The second factor is the view that transactions employment. This issue is taken up in the discussion
occur between the individual and the state, and this on family migration, skills and employment.
is reinforced by the emphasis on the principal or
primary applicant, assumed to be the male head of Nonetheless, since the late 1980s, theoretical,
the household. However, two other elements should methodological and empirical aspects of family
be added: (1) the dichotomy between the economic migration have become the subject of scholarly
and the social spheres in which the economic research (Boyd, 1989; Dumon, 1989). Dumon points
motivation initiates migration and the family out that the role of the family in migration was

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 Chapter 6 - FAMILY MIGRATION

recognized as far back as the nineteenth century and, more recently, European research has been
by Le Play (1871), writing on the organization of stimulated by a growing interest in transnational
the family. Boyd and Dumon ascribe the interest families (Bryceson and Vuorela, 2002; Lauth Bacas
in the role of the family in migration first to the 2002) and transnationalism (Faist, 2000; Vertovec,
growing significance of family migration both in 1999; Vertovec, 2004). This refers to migrations
North America and in Europe after the stoppage of across international borders in which persons
mass labour migration, and second to the changing establish and maintain activities and connections
theorization of migration as a system connecting in both the polity from which they originated and
societies of origin and of destination through various the new state in which they live, and includes
personal and familial networks. Families are seen as actors that are not states (Glick Schiller et al., 1995;
socializing agents; they support a geographically Guarnizo and Smith, 1998; Levitt and Glick Schiller,
dispersed social group and constitute networks 2003; Portes et al., 1999). Many of these writers pay
of assistance, information and obligations (Boyd, due regard to gendered aspects of transnationalism
1989). Boyd identified a number of issues as being (Fouron and Glick Schiller, 2001; Pessar and Mahler,
of relevance for the 1990s, including the refinement 2003), drawing attention to migration and its impact
of the concept and dynamics of networks and the on family forms, relations and strategies that are
role of gender in their development and persistence pursued in maximizing the benefits of migratory
across space and time. Lopes et al. (1994), writing opportunities (Yeoh et al., 2002).
about the failure to recognize the significance of
the family in European Community migration policy, Transnational families have been defined as those
argued forcefully that family mobility represents the “that live some or most of the time separated from
interface between the individual and the social, in each other, yet hold together and create something
other words, of public and private spaces. As a social that can be seen as a feeling of collective welfare
unit, the family offers support for its members in and unity, namely ‘familyhood’, even across national
accessing resources and services and in migrating. borders” (Bryceson and Vuorela, 2002: 3). Some
women are increasingly migrating without their
Nauck and Settles (2001) argue that the decision children, particularly to countries that do not permit
to migrate is seldom the product of individual family reunification, or where the nature of their
decisions; its timing is closely related to the family work, such as in households, makes it difficult for
life cycle and major events over the course of the them to have their children with them. They therefore
lives of first and second generations of immigrants, leave their children in the care of female members
and not necessarily understood as a direct response of the extended family, while they work abroad
to labour market opportunities. A different way (UNFPA, 2006), while in some societies, for instance
of understanding migrant families is to see them in the Philippines, large numbers of children live in
as fluid and as being constantly reconstituted and separated families and have to cope with intimacy
negotiated, adapting across spaces and through time at a distance (Parrenas, 2005). A national study of
(Baldassar and Baldock, 2000; Bryceson and Vuorela, the consequences of separation on young children
2002; Creese et al., 1999; Foner, 1997; Vatz Laaroussi, in the Philippines found that children of migrants
2001). were significantly better off in socio-economic terms
than children of non-migrants (e.g. home ownership,
Moreover, family migration is now beginning to durable goods) and more likely to attend private
capture more academic and policy attention. North schools and engage in extra-curricular activities
American and Asian-Pacific (Creese et al., 1999; Parr (Scalabrini Migration Center, 2003-04). Where one
et al., 2000; Waters, 2001; Yeoh et al., 2002; 2005) or both parents were absent, children experience a

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reconfiguration of gender roles and maintain a close Several types of family migration need to be
family relationship through constant communication distinguished. The first category is family
(Scalabrini Migration Center, 2003-04). reunification, which refers to the process of
bringing in immediate family members (children,
In policy terms, too, there is increasing interest in spouses and parents and others, where permitted) by
family migration, while there is a simultaneous shift the primary migrant. Although Geneva Convention
away from seeing it as a positive force for integration refugees normally have the right to bring in
to one which maintains traditional divisions immediate family members straightaway, those with
of gender roles and responsibility, and fosters subsidiary statuses usually have to wait for a given
community separations and social divisions (Kofman period and then satisfy certain conditions (e.g.
and Kraler, 2006). This has resulted, especially in housing, income) for family reunification. In the
European countries, in a tightening of conditions of U.K. (Home Office, 2000), for example, immigration
entry and settlement for family members. Another figures recorded an increase in numbers of husbands,
policy debate, for example in relation to the new wives and fiancé(e)s (of citizens and non-citizens)
immigration policy in France and the discussions accepted for settlement, due partly to the growing
in the United States (Malanga, 2006), has raised number of asylum seekers, who have now obtained
the issue of whether high rates of family migration indefinite leave to remain (permanent residence), as
bring in too many low-skilled migrants (see Section well as the clearance of backlogs in 1999, leading
5 below). Before family migration policy issues are to larger numbers qualifying for family reunification
discussed, however, the next section sets out trends and family formation (see Table 6.1).
and types of family migrations.
The second category, in the past often statistically
3. Trends and Types of Family Migration treated as an aspect of family reunification, should
instead be classified as family formation or marriage
Family migration is complex, variable in its migration (Piper and Roces, 2003). It can be broken
significance (see Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1) and down into two subgroups. The first consists of second
raises problems of comparison across countries and subsequent generations of children of migrant
(OECD, 2006; Salt, 2005). Firstly, for those moving origin (both citizens and non-citizens) who bring in
under free-movement regimes, i.e. within the EU, a fiancé(e)/spouse from their parents’ homeland or
or between Australia and New Zealand (see also diasporic space. This group has increased due to the
Chapter 13), visas or permits may not be required growth of second and subsequent generations who
and, even when they are, the reason for migration continue to marry external partners, a particular
may not always be explicitly identified in the permit characteristic of Turkish and North African immigrant
system. Secondly, in some countries it has not populations (Lesthaeghe and Surkyn, 1995; Muñoz,
been possible to distinguish between accompanying 1999). The second variant of marriage migration
family members and those arriving to join a worker, a involves permanent residents or citizens bringing in
distinction which the Organisation for Economic Co- a partner they have met while abroad for work, study
operation and Development (OECD) has presented for or holiday. In this case, the marriage is a secondary
the first time, but is not available for all countries. effect of the reason for going abroad. In terms of
In some countries, such as Australia and Canada, migration legislation, this category may be separated
the educational characteristics and work intentions into categories of family reunification, especially
of spouses are known. In contrast, there are many where the partner does not have an immediate right
other countries for which data on family migration of permanent residence, as with third-country (non-
could be greatly improved. Thirdly, statistics do not EU) nationals in the EU, particularly those from
include unauthorized worker movements.

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developing countries (de Hart, 1999). Increased in countries such as Germany and the U.K., family
international mobility and subsequent marriage migration is likely to become more prevalent. Some
do not only result from citizens travelling abroad, refugees, especially those entering on settlement
but also from the increasing presence of transient schemes or quotas, also enter with their whole
and long-term migrants in a society, leading to family.
rising percentages of mixed marriages. Increasing
cross-border marriages in Asia and Europe often A fourth category, largely restricted to settler
involve men of wealthier countries marrying women societies, consists of sponsored family members
from economically less-developed countries, and who are not necessarily defined as being of the
intermediated marriages. The majority of the couples immediate family and, as discussed more fully below,
are introduced with the prior intention of marriage constitute discretionary flows. In settler societies,
and have either no or only a comparatively short a wider range of family members may be sponsored
period of courtship (International Institute for Asian (Khoo, 2003), but stricter conditions and capping
Studies, 2006). The internet is increasingly replacing of numbers are applied, as in the U.S., for categories
face to face contact (hence the rather derogatory such as unmarried children over 21 years, married
“mail-order bride” label) as a means of introducing children, and brothers and sisters.
potential spouses. In Asia, the demand for foreign
brides has sharply increased to the point where Figure 6.1:
half the total foreign population in Taiwan Province International Migration by Category of Entry in
of China are brides. Since 1990, nearly 100,000 Selected OECD Countries as a Percentage of Total
Vietnamese women have married Taiwanese men Inflows, Standardized data, 2005
(Wong and Chang, 2002; UNFPA, 2006). Similarly,
in the Republic of Korea (South Korea) and Japan, U.S.

foreign women are marrying local men. An estimated U.K.

10,000-15,000 Russian women migrate as fiancées

each year, of whom 80,000 have entered the U.S. in
the past decade (UNFPA, 2006).

There is a third category of family migration where

the entire family migrates. In the absence of official
permanent immigration, as in settler societies, which
encouraged this form of migration on the assumption
that it would facilitate integration and contribute
to population growth, this category is less common
in Europe. Many countries do not allow temporary
permit holders to be accompanied by family members
(OECD, 2000), except the very highly skilled. The
U.K. is the most liberal of the EU Member States, in
allowing spouses of students, work permit holders
and those undertaking training to enter with the Source: OECD, 2007.
right to work. With the increased demand for skilled
labour (especially in the information technology (IT)
and welfare sectors, such as education and health) 
This administrative procedure allows the government to set annual
and acceptance of long-term migration for this group limits on the number of entries under a given migration category.

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Table 6.1:
in certain instances the decrease may partly stem
Proportion of Family Migrants among Long-term from reclassifications. In Australia, for example, the
Migrants, 2005 category of concessional family migration covering
Family Long-term the sponsorship of relatives with skills has been
Country Migrants Migrants Family (%) relocated to the skilled migration stream as skilled
(‘000) (‘000)
sponsored migration. Changing skilled migration
Australia 102.3 179.8 56.9
policies may lead to increasing numbers of family
Austria 32.3 56.8 56.0
Canada 158.0 262.2 60.3
members entering as dependants, as has been the
France 102.5 168.6 60.8 case in the U.K., where the proportion of dependants
Germany 89.1 198.6 44.9 among work permit holders rose from 25.5 per cent in
Italy 106.7 184.3 57.7 2001 to 33.4 per cent in 2006 (Home Office, 2007).
Japan 26.9 81.3 33.1
Netherlands 27.6 60.7 45.5 What constitutes the family for the purpose of
New Zealand 37.1 59.4 62.4
migration differs among states, as these apply
Norway 12.6 21.4 59.9
Portugal 5.3 13.3 39.6
different rules to members of a family, as discussed
Sweden 30.9 53.8 57.4 above. The 1990 International Convention on the
Switzerland 37.0 78.8 46.9 Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
U.K. 113.8 362.4 31.4 Members of their Families (see Textbox 13.1) defines
U.S. 782.1 1,122.4 69.7 the family in terms of those who can benefit from its
Note: provisions. These are the migrant worker’s spouse,
Family migrants in this table include family members of economic
and work permit migrants, but not those entering either through persons in a relationship with the migrant worker
humanitarian channels or through family streams. that, according to applicable law, produces effects
Source: OECD, 2006. equivalent to marriage, and dependent minors
and unmarried children. It largely corresponds to
Both Figure 6.1 and Table 6.1 show that in countries the distinction between non-discretionary and
with low levels of permanent skilled migration, discretionary family migration (OECD, 2006 and
such as the U.S. or France, and with high levels Table 6.2).
of asylum seekers and refugees, such as Sweden,
there are high levels of family migration, especially Discretionary family migration, which accounts
family reunification. In the U.S., the country with for a high percentage of migrant entries in settler
the largest proportion of family migration, family societies, includes those members of the family
reunification has accounted for about two-thirds of not recognized by human rights conventions or
lawful permanent migration since the mid-1980s, free movement provisions (e.g. EU) for family
except for 1989-1994. If family members of other reunification, for example adult children, siblings
categories, such as migrants for employment and and, in many countries, non-dependent parents.
refugees, are also included, then family migration In Australia, though the number of visas issued to
becomes even more significant, as indicated in Table parents is capped, they do not have to prove economic
6.1. In some countries, such as Italy, the right to dependence on their child(ren). In addition, there
family reunification has been claimed by the growing is a separate category for aged dependent relatives,
number of foreign workers who have settled. In other remaining relatives or carers. These are the family
countries, such as Australia, Canada and the U.K., members whose numbers may be subject to capping
the increasing emphasis on skilled migration has or restricted interpretations of dependence on
resulted in lower levels of family migration, though the sponsor. This is very much at the heart of the

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Table 6.2:
Inflows of Permanent Family Migrants in Selected OECD Countries, 2003
Non-discretionary % Discretionary %
Spouses, children, Work or
Total (including Total (including Family migration
fiancé(e)s, settlement with
Selected OECD countries non-family non-family (non-immediate
recognized asylum accompanying
migrants) migrants) family)
seekers family
Australia 39 25 61 48 5
Canada 28 28 72 55 10
France 83 61 17 4 6
Italy 74 64 26 19 n.a.
New Zealand 28 18 72 49 12
Sweden 95 73 5 1 -
Switzerland 94 31 6 4 -
U.K. 49 23 51 34 2
U.S. 39 39 61 12 32
Note:
n.a. = not applicable

Source: OECD (2006).

criteria laying down who belongs to the immediate 4. International and Regional Instruments
family and therefore permitted to enter as a family
member. One of the major differences between the A number of international instruments recognize the
EU and settler societies is that, in the former, only right to family reunification and to found a family,
those deemed dependent, whether as children or and call on states parties to respect the right to family
parents, may enter as family members. Those who life (Lahav, 1997). The right to family reunification
are considered to be independent, such as children has been included in two human rights conventions:
over a certain age and/or married, or independent the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child,
parents, are generally excluded from entering as in particular in Article 9, and the 1990 International
family members. Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All
Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, in
However, it should be noted that, over time, many particular in Article 44. The latter only came into
countries have recognized the changing ways in force in 2003, but it still has to be ratified by any
which familial relationships have been forged. For major industrialized country of destination.
example, an increasing number of states recognize
social units akin to the family, such as same-sex EU law also foresees that spouses, and children under
relationships (Cooke, 2005), cohabitation, single the age of 21, or who are dependants, have the right
parents and adopted children. However, major cultural to join EU citizens employed in other EU Member
differences remain concerning divorce, cohabitation, States. More recently the EU Council Directive on
single parent families, reproductive technologies and the right to family reunification for third-country
same-sex partnerships and will have direct impacts nationals lawfully resident in the EU has been
on migration (Bailey and Boyle, 2004). transposed into the laws of EU Member States,
except in Denmark, Ireland and the U.K.; however, it


Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 September 2003 on the right to
family reunification, OJ 2003 L 251/12.

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allows a large measure of discretion in its application procedure on grounds of family reunification was
under national law (European Migration Network, organized in 1994 (Arango, 2005). However, frequent
2008; Oliynik, 2004). A number of points should be regularization programmes generally lead to larger
noted in this connection. The Directive specifically pools of family migrants entering in anticipation of
recognizes unmarried partners and family members future regularization programmes.
dependent on the sponsor or the spouse. In the case
of family reunification, unmarried couples will be In Europe, family reunion policies are used as a
treated as married couples depending on the laws means to facilitate integration (e.g. in Spain and
in the Member State in question where the sponsor Italy), but many northern European countries have
is in a “duly attested stable long-term relationship” also increasingly come to perceive family migrants
or bound by a “registered partnership”, which vary as hampering the integration of the migrant
according to the particular national laws concerning population (Denmark, France, Netherlands, U.K.)
the treatment of such categories for the purpose and maintaining different family norms (Kofman
of family reunification. Under the Directive, family and Kraler 2006; Van Walsum, 2004). As a result
members are, in the same way as the sponsor, inter they have tended to tighten their policies regarding
alia, entitled to work in a dependent or independent certain preconditions to be fulfilled by the sponsor,
(self-employed) capacity, although local laws may such as sufficient financial resources and minimum
restrict such access for up to one year depending on standards of accommodation, and for the family
the labour market situation. For a lawfully resident member, passing a prior language test and the
third-country national seeking to bring in a spouse, obligation to participate in integration measures.
Member States may determine a minimum age of up to There has also been an increase in controls on
21 years for both parties to ensure better integration transnational marriages, especially between citizens
and prevent forced marriages (Oezcan, 2003). and residents of migrant origin and persons from
their homeland.
5. National Policy Changes and Management of
Family Migration By imposing stricter conditions to qualify for
permanent residence, such countries have sought to
At the national level, family migration policies substantially reduce the numbers of family migrants.
generally have evolved in very different directions. In France, for example, in response to a rise in the
Some OECD countries have introduced new measures number of persons entering for family reasons,
to grant migrants the right to family reunification, legislative changes have been introduced marking a
simplified procedures and facilitated the integration shift away from family migration to a selective policy
of their relatives (OECD, 2006). This has been the to attract more skilled migrants.
case in Italy and Spain. Spain’s family migration
policies have undergone numerous changes making
them less restrictive (Ortega Perez, 2003). The 1996 
This increase was mainly due to persons joining or marrying a French
amendment to the 1985 immigration law established citizen, and is more related to the granting of a personal and family
a permanent residence category and for the first permit rather than to classic family reunification with a primary migrant
(Régnard, 2006). Unlike many other European countries, France created
time formally included family reunification. The a personal and family life category in 1998, incorporating into French
2000 Plan Greco was designed to address key areas, law Article 8 of the European Convention of Human Rights protecting
the right to respect of private and family life. Its remit is wide, seeking
one of which was the integration of foreign residents to encompass a variety of family members, the initial stages of marriage
with a French citizen, and diverse reasons for residence, e.g. the need for
and their families as active contributors to the medical attention and legalization of the irregular status of long-term
economic growth of Spain. A special regularization residents and children.

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In contrast to migrants, French and EU citizens are migrant family reunifications, where migrants have
not required to satisfy any resources conditions in to complete a basic integration test in their home
order to bring in existing or future family members. country before arriving in the Netherlands, to be
Thus, renewed debates about immigration have led to followed by another test at a higher level five years
further legislative changes marking a shift away from after admission. This was the first European country
family migration to a selective policy to attract more in recent times to require permanent immigrants to
skilled migrants. The immigration and integration complete a pre-arrival integration course (Expatica,
law (No. 2006-911 of 24 July 2006) pursued four main 2004). Other countries, such as France, Germany,
objectives: recruiting skilled workers; facilitating Netherlands and the U.K., require family members to
entry and stay for foreign students; tightening the pass language tests as a precondition for obtaining
rules for family reunification; and limiting access a long-term residence permit (UKREN, 2007), as the
to residence and citizenship (Murphy, 2006). It has inadequate knowledge of the language has been
tightened the conditions for the sponsor, for example identified as a major barrier to integration.
by extending the period of residence from one year
to 18 months, and requiring for non-EU migrants a Denmark has introduced restrictions on family
probationary or conditional period of marriage of migration, reducing numbers in this category since
two to three years. The subsequent Bill No. 2007- 2001. The 2001 elections saw the Danish People’s
1631 of 20 November 2007 aimed specifically at Party introduce new provisions in force since 2003.
further reducing family migration, proved highly The provisions foresee that Danish citizens cannot
controversial in its introduction of DNA testing for bring a foreign spouse into the country unless
children joining their mother in France. The test will both are at least 24 years old and provide evidence
be in place for an 18-month trial period, voluntary that the sponsor is able to support the nominee
and paid by the French government (BBC News, 24 (in most cases, this requirement will be met if the
October 2007). In addition, the level of resources spouse/partner has not received public assistance
required to be eligible to bring in family members for at least 12 months prior to the application
will depend on the size of the family. Parents will being processed by the Immigration Service). More
have to sign a parental contract vouching for the importantly, Danish citizens who are themselves
good behaviour of their children. The effects of first or second-generation migrants have to provide
these legislative changes in radically altering the evidence that their ties with Denmark are stronger
migratory regime will depend not only on their than with any other country (Denmark, Ministry
capacity to reduce levels of family migration but also of Refugee, Immigration and Integration Affairs,
on an expansion of labour migration. 2006). The effects of such changes can be seen in
the drop of family reunification permits from 13,000
A number of countries, apart from France, have in 2001 to under 5,000 in 2003 (BBC News, 2005) and
imposed mandatory integration conditions. In a substantial reduction in non-western immigrants
Austria, the Settlement and Residence Act foresees a (Hedetoft, 2006). In addition to the tightening of
mandatory integration agreement (Carrera, 2006). The family reunification rules in recent years, since July
Netherlands also foresees integration as a condition for 2005 applicants for family reunification and their
family reunification to be legally sanctioned. Recent
developments have meant that both newcomers and 
See, respectively, the Act on Preliminary Integration Abroad (Wet inburgering
settled migrants will have to pass an integration test in het buitenland) of 22 December 2005, and the Act on Integration (Wet
inburgering) of 7 December 2006. EU citizens, EEA nationals, Swiss citizens
to demonstrate their actual integration into Dutch and non-EU nationals who are family members of EU citizens are exempt from
society. These rules are primarily aimed at non-EU these rules.

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spouses have to sign a declaration of integration U.K., for instance, after continuous lobbying from
which obliges the applicant to actively participate women activists, a concession was introduced in
with his/her children in Danish language courses 2002 to allow a woman indefinite leave to remain
and integration into Danish society. if she can prove that she left a relationship because
of domestic violence (Southall Black Sisters, 2001;
Sham marriages have been in the spotlight in 2004). The U.S. also has a two-year conditional
countries such as Denmark, France and the U.K. A period, but differs from the U.K. in that it takes
sham marriage is characterized as a marriage that is into account the duration of the marriage. In the
contracted purely to procure the right of residence for U.S. the conditional residency provision applies only
one of the partners. In Denmark, prima facie or pro if the marriage is of less than two years’ duration
forma marriages, as they are also known, are assessed (workpermit.com 2006). In the U.K. all spouses are
by the immigration services to determine, inter subject to the two-year conditional period.
alia, whether the parties are able to communicate
in the same language, whether there is a large age In the EU, the sponsor generally has to meet
difference between them, and how well they knew minimum standards of income and accommodation
each other before the marriage (Ministry of Refugee, when bringing in a third-country national spouse.
Immigration and Integration Affairs, 2006). In the The Directive on family reunification, discussed in
U.K., as of February 2005, any non-EU migrant with Section 4 above, enables Member States to impose
a short-term visa had to seek permission to marry similar conditions on sponsors who are third-
from the Home Office. However, in April 2006, a High country nationals lawfully resident in the country
Court judgment found this to be in breach of human in question. In Denmark, which does not apply this
rights (Article 12 of the European Convention on Directive, further criteria have been introduced
Human Rights concerning the right to marry) and under which the person in Denmark is required to
discriminatory on grounds of religion (i.e. those provide evidence that no financial assistance has
marrying in the Church of England were regarded been requested or received for one year prior to the
more favourably) and nationality. The challenge was application for the residence permit, and that there
brought by a male Muslim Algerian irregular migrant has been no conviction for a violent act against a
and a female Polish Roman Catholic migrant, who former spouse or companion for a period of 10 years
had entered the U.K. following EU enlargement prior to the processing of the application (New to
(Daily Telegraph, 2006) and who had been refused Denmark, 2006). Furthermore, it is often the case
permission to marry in February 2005 under the U.K. that during the initial years family migrants are not
regulations. entitled to income-related public funds or welfare
benefits. For example, in the U.K. there is no recourse
A further means of testing whether a marriage is to income-related public funds for two years for
bona fide or not is to impose what is known as a British citizens and settled residents.
probationary or conditional period, during which
the marriage must continue for the spouse to acquire The arranged marriage stands out as one of the forms
a permanent right of residence. Recently, several of marriage migration that needs to be scrutinized,
EU Member States have extended the probationary contained and managed (Gedalof, 2007).
period; for example, from two to three years in
France as of 2007 and from one to two years in

However, if the sponsor is an EU citizen who has taken up employment
the U.K. in 2003. Many European countries have in another EU Member State, the more liberal EU rules on family reunion
introduced exemptions for domestic violence. In the apply.

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The White Paper and the 2002 Act continue a long- residents (i.e. Green Card holders), married children
standing theme in the history of British immigration of U.S. citizens, and siblings of adult U.S. citizens.
policy that takes the family (or at least some kinds In these numerically limited categories, no single
of family) as a potential danger to border integrity country can account for more than seven per cent
by providing an entry point for difference (Gedalof, of total admissions. But if immediate family quotas
2007: 84). are not filled, these can be transferred to family
sponsored categories (McKay, 2003).
The White Paper (Home Office, 2001) focuses in
particular on two issues: arranged marriages and 6. Family Migration, Skills and Employment
family visits for events such as weddings and funerals,
which the White Paper presents as serious problems Although family migration continues to occupy an
that need to be managed (Gedalof, 2007). It focuses in important place in the immigration programmes of
particular on “those communities that continue the established immigration countries, there has been
practice of forced marriage” (Home Office, 2001: 18). a general tendency to adjust their composition
“Those communities” means the Asian communities, and reorient their intake towards skilled labour
although this is never explicitly mentioned. This has migration. In large part, this stemmed from a
been used as a reason to raise the marriage age to 21 concern to maximize labour market outcomes and
years, as in the Netherlands. Similarly, in Denmark, enhance integration prospects, although Baringhorst
arranged marriages are also seen as a form of marriage (2004) sees it as a response to conservative requests
to be managed and scrutinized. This has led to the for stricter policies. This strategy has been pursued
raising of the minimum age at which marriage with a most noticeably in Australia, where the family
foreign spouse can take place from 18 to 24 years. stream of the migration programme fell in relative
terms from 47 to 35 per cent between 1997-98 and
In settler societies, the capping of family members 2004- 05. Family migration entries have remained
permitted under discretionary rules is applied in the stable in Canada (Richardson and Lester, 2004) and
management of family migration. In the U.S., each remain dominant in the U.S. Textbox 6.2 examines
category of family migrant is numerically limited, the relationship between family and skilled migration
including unmarried adult children of U.S. citizens, policies in the established countries of immigration.
spouses and unmarried children of permanent

Over the same period, the actual number of visas issued rose from 31,310
in 1997-98 to 41,740 in 2004-05.

Textbox 6.2
Family and Skilled Migration Policies in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United
States

Immigration policy discussions often fail to distinguish between administrative mechanisms and individual motives. Policymakers
tend to see their programmes in terms of sets of rules and regulations that are meant to allow right of entry to very specific
groups of migrants. On the other hand, potential migrants see these same rules and regulations as a means (or opportunities)
to achieve personal goals that may or may not coincide with programme objectives. This produces a situation where immigrants
admitted under family reunion programmes and as partners are, in many instances, actually strongly motivated by economic
factors while, conversely, significant proportions of skilled workers migrate to join their families abroad. This blurring of the
distinction between family and skilled labour flows raises policy questions about the labour market performance and impact
of family migration, and how it measures up against skilled workers who are admitted on the basis of labour market screening

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criteria. Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States all operate elaborate programmes for managing family and skilled
migration. What do the results show?

Given the dichotomy in the debate over family versus skilled migration, perhaps the most surprising observation is how
little is actually known about the economic performance of either group. The reason is that most surveys do not identify the
programmes under which immigrants gained entry. Newly introduced longitudinal surveys in all four countries will start to shed
more light on this topic in the next few years. In the meantime, the discussion below reveals some of the preliminary evidence
that has emerged from the research in the four countries cited.

Family-related flows are not uniform in their labour market behaviour. Partner flows exhibit different behaviours from parents
and other relations, and accompanying family members differ from sponsored family. These differences are recognized by
authorities and the component flows are managed differently. All four countries prioritize the entry of partners and dependent
children. These flows are not subject to any volumetric controls, while parents and other relatives are managed more tightly.
Except for the United States, same-sex relationships are recognized and same-sex sponsorships are permitted.

Though none of the countries (except in very limited ways) manages the labour market characteristics of family migrants, the
overall “quality” of family flows is nonetheless linked by virtue of social and cultural factors to the “qualities” of their sponsors
– which are managed. This suggests that the economic performance and impact of family migration is functionally related to the
overall structure and totality of a country’s admission programmes. Supporting evidence from Australia finds that, following the
reform of the skilled worker selection process, partner admissions show a higher proportion in skilled jobs, rising employment
and participation, and falling unemployment. Trends in other countries corroborate this.

Limited measures aimed at influencing partner characteristics appear in the skilled worker selection systems of Australia, Canada
and New Zealand. Additional points are awarded to the principal applicant if the spouse or partner possesses characteristics
deemed favourable. Opinion is divided, however, as to whether the additional partner points create a stronger overall family
unit or (since points are generally fungible in relation to an overall pass mark) or permit entry for candidates with weaker
labour market skills.

Australia, Canada and New Zealand confine family reunion migration to roughly 30 per cent of total intake. In contrast, the U.S.
system focuses predominantly on family migration. On the face of it, this would suggest huge differences in labour “quality”
and economic performance between the three countries that screen immigrants and the United States, which does so only in
a minority of cases. In practice, however, the differences appear small. This suggests that either the labour market impacts of
family migration are larger, and more benign, than many analysts believe, or that the returns to foreign skills and education are
smaller than is generally acknowledged. There is probably some truth to both. Other possible explanations are that authorities
screen only a small percentage of skilled applicants (accompanying dependants are not tested), and sponsors are likely to “screen”
relatives to ensure they will not be a permanent burden. An additional factor that may “explain” performance differences between
migrants selected on the basis of family as opposed to economic criteria may lie in the different sources of these flows. Weaker economic
outcomes ascribed to family migration may, in fact, be concealing differential (and, possibly, discriminatory) treatment by host
country labour markets.

Notwithstanding overall inter-country comparisons, preliminary evidence from longitudinal surveys suggests that family migrants
generally show weaker labour force attachment than migrants selected for the labour market. This manifests itself as follows:
weaker labour market skills and a greater likelihood of ending up in low-skilled jobs (in services, light assembly or primary
occupations, depending on the country); lower incomes (though how much lower and whether this persists is open to debate);
weaker English language skills; and a greater propensity to rely on social assistance. This last point needs to be nuanced.
Canadian data suggest that while both family reunion spouses and the accompanying spouses of skilled applicants report low
earnings, the latter show higher rates of labour market participation and a lower incidence of dependency on employment
insurance and social assistance. This reinforces the earlier point about programme structure and labour market impact.

Five important qualifiers need to be kept in mind with respect to the points made above concerning the economic and labour
market impact of family migration:

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 Chapter 6 - FAMILY MIGRATION

• Notwithstanding overall trends, significant proportions of family migrants possess excellent qualifications and skills.

• The earnings of all groups, regardless of entry mode, improve with time spent in the country.

• There is uncertainty about the “catching-up” rates of family migrants as compared with skilled workers. Some American
analysts argue that family migrants benefit from social capital in the form of greater investments in training, which produces
favourable results in the long term.

• The labour market performance of all migrants is affected by the state of the macro economy. Higher propensities by skilled
workers in Canada to suffer low income (i.e. below poverty levels) during economic downturns may be attributable to a lack
of social capital.

• According to some analysts, family migration tends to be complementary, while skilled migration competes with the domestic
workforce. This conclusion is based, in part, on the fact that forecasts of labour shortages have tended to be unsuccessful,
leading to labour “imports” in areas of robust domestic supply.

Source: Meyer Burstein, Consultant and former Chair of the Metropolis Project.

In Australia, until the mid-1990s, family-linked dependants who, if possible, will be entering the
migration accounted for the largest proportion labour market. In Canada, for example, 77,976 out of
of permanent visas issued, but this was gradually 130,242 in the skilled worker class were spouses and
changed through increased emphasis on skilled dependants (Citizenship and Immigration Canada,
migration. Of the migrants who arrived between 1996 2005). Only 30 per cent of Australian immigrants
and 2004, 56 per cent were highly skilled (diploma are directly selected on the basis of their skills, i.e.
or above) compared with 32 per cent for the period principal applicants in labour migration flows. As has
1981-1985 (Liebig, 2007b). Another reason for the been pointed out, skilled migrants are often married
“decline” in family migrants is the reclassification of to other skilled migrants, and their children are also
elements of family migration. What had previously skilled (Liebig, 2007b). Thus, as the skill levels of
been a family concessional category with points for principal labour applicants increase, so do those of
skills was moved to the skilled stream in 1997 and their accompanying family members. Both Australia
eventually renamed Skilled Australia-Sponsored in and Canada include points for the skill level of the
1999, in which the migrant has to accumulate points spouse.
in the same way as skilled independent migrants, but
in addition is sponsored by a relative. The immediate While there is consequently little doubt that
family members of humanitarian migrants were also many if not most of those entering in the family
taken out of the family category and relocated into stream are skilled, it is also clear from Table 6.3
the humanitarian stream where they are able to tap that there are, in Australia at least, very different
a wide range of services (Liebig, 2007b). employment outcomes for men and women in every
visa category and especially in the family stream.
Many of those attributed to the skilled worker Gender differences within each category would merit
category in Australia and Canada are in fact educated further investigation.

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Table 6.3:
originating in Central and South America (whose
Employment-population Ratios of the Native skill and English-language levels are low) compared
and Foreign-born Population in Australia by Visa to, for instance, Australia, where the level of
Category, 15-64 years old, 2004 migration from English-speaking countries remains
Men (%) Women (%) high. Differences in female skill levels between these
By place of birth three countries are evened out once adjustments are
Native-born 81 66 made for the Central and South American migrants
Foreign-born 76 57
in the U.S. flows.
By visa category*
Skilled-main applicant 86 79
Skilled-other than main applicant 89 71 Family migration within a state varies quite
Family 78 43 considerably according to nationality. Particularly
Humanitarian 68 40 in states with family sponsorship (Khoo, 2003)
Note: where a broader notion of the family applies, family
* Only immigrants after 1984 aged 15 and above at arrival.
migration in effect substitutes for labour migration,
Sources: “Data by visa category”, Labour Force Status and Other Character-
istics of Migrants Survey; Liebig (2007b: 27).
as has happened with Mexicans and other nationals
from Central and South American countries who
have not been able to use the skilled routes for entry
There has been a noticeable improvement in the (Paral, 2005). Migrants looking for employment in
employment outcomes for parents and other the U.S. may therefore seek sponsorship by family
preferential relatives between the first and second members who have previously migrated and can be
cohorts of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants in seen in the high percentage of discretionary non-
Australia, most likely owing to the restrictions placed immediate family members (see Table 6.4). Hence,
on this category. Overall, the employment rates for they rely heavily on family migration as a pathway to
skilled and family categories in Australia are higher labour migration. In contrast, Indian nationals, who
than for similar Canadian surveys (Richardson and are well represented in temporary skilled migration,
Lester, 2004). have a relatively low proportion of family migrants.

In the U.S., debates have been conducted on the Table 6.4:

declining skill levels of the immigrant (permanent) Family Migrations in the U.S. – Top Ten
population (Borjas, 1995) and the extent to which Countries of Immigration through Family
family migration is able to compensate for deficiencies Reunification (FR), 2001
in labour migration. While some argue there are too
Country of origin Total FR FR (%)
few opportunities for the entry of the less skilled All countries 1,064,318 675,178 63.44
(Paral, 2005), others criticize the excessive number Mexico 206,426 196,234 95.06
of the less skilled and the dominance of family Philippines 53,154 40,863 76.88
migration (Malanga, 2006). China 56,426 33,202 58.84
India 70,290 30,157 42.90
Viet Nam 35,531 24,112 67.86
There is evidence that source countries may be an
Dominican Republic 21,313 20,969 98.39
important determinant of the skills mix in family Haiti 27,120 16,356 60.31
streams. Antecol et al. (2002) argue that whilst skill Colombia 16,730 14,884 88.97
levels of migrant women in Australia and Canada Jamaica 15,393 14,536 94.43
are much higher than in the U.S., this is due in El Salvador 31,272 13,932 44.55
the latter case to the high proportion of migrants Source: Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) Statistical Yearbook
(2001).

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In many European countries, access to the labour their nationality) of EU citizens employed in other
market for family members has been at times denied EU Member States. Furthermore, in the Directive
or restricted. Already at the beginning of the 1980s, on Family Reunification discussed earlier, Article
the Council of Europe (1981) expressed concern at 14 grants the admitted spouse the same access to
the obstacles facing family members accessing the employment as the third-country national sponsor,
labour force and its consequences for irregular work. although Member States retain the discretion to
There is evidence of its negative effects on migrant preclude family members from accessing the labour
women’s employment. Until the new immigration law market for up to a maximum of one year after entry.
came into force in Germany in January 2005, spouses However, Spain remains an exception in Europe
could only enter the labour market after a one-year where spouses and dependants are not granted
waiting period and were subject to the labour market immediate authorization to work based on the
test, i.e. confirmation that they were not taking away principal migrant’s status. For work permit migrants,
work from a German or EU citizen. The difficulties accompanying spouses and children will only be
of access to employment confronting female family granted leave to enter, and they must obtain their
migrants, especially among Turkish women, who own work visas to secure employment (workpermit.
have very low labour market participation (40%), are com, 2006).
thought to be in part due to the restrictions imposed
on labour market entry for family reunification Nonetheless, whether they are accompanying
spouses (Liebig, 2007a). spouses, or entering through marriage migration or
family reunification channels, aside from anecdotal
The recent trend has been to remove existing evidence (see Portrait 6.1), little is known about
restrictions. Spouses, especially of skilled migrants, their labour market outcomes. There is simply no
are generally able to enter the labour market statistical evidence to hand of the kind available in
immediately (e.g. U.K.), though they may encounter settler societies, such as the longitudinal surveys
obstacles and deskilling. This is the legal requirement disaggregated by visa category or route of entry.
under EU law concerning spouses (irrespective of

Portrait 6.1
The Story of a Software Specialist Family

Nothing in Helen and Alex Lis’ name indicates that they are from Belarus. Two years ago, Elena Liseitchikau, which is her full
name, came to Prague with her daughter to join her husband, Alexey, on the basis of a family reunification visa. Alexey had
already been running a successful business in the Czech Republic for several years. Together with a friend, also from Belarus,
they had established a successful software company and even managed to penetrate other markets in Europe.

“Of course, Alex could also have set himself up in business in our homeland”, observes Elen, “but there are more opportunities
for him here in the Czech Republic.”

As their original Belarusian surname is not easy to pronounce or retain for most people, and could make communication
difficult, they decided to abbreviate it to Lis, which is easier to say and remember.

Elen had learned about the Pilot Project on the Selection of Qualified Workers (see Portrait 2.1) from the Czech Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs while still in Minsk. Together with her husband, they decided to apply for participation in the project.
They were accepted and have now completed the two-and-a-half year qualifying period required for permanent residence in
the Czech Republic.

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 World Migration 2008

Elen works as a promotion manager for a Russian newspaper published in Prague. There are tens of thousands of foreigners
living in Prague, many of whom speak Russian. “My customers are mostly Russians”, Elen confirms.

Elen likes living in Prague, even though the cost of living there is higher than in other parts of the country. Obtaining
permanent residence status will allow her family to resolve the problem of accommodation in a more acceptable way than
through an expensive lease, and also give them the opportunity of taking up better or different employment.

“We also like to visit other parts of the country”, Elen remarks. “I like southern Bohemia very much. It reminds me of Belarus,
although the countryside is more rugged there. There are many ponds. The Czech countryside is nice, and I like living here,
though I do not forget my homeland.”

She says all this in Czech, although she has not fully mastered the language. She has the possibility to attend Czech language
courses, but there is simply not enough time for everything. By contrast, her six-year old daughter, Alina, is as fluent as only
a six-year old can be. She has a good teacher, who helps her cope in her new environment, and classmates who have accepted
her without any problems. No doubt, she will soon start to help her mother to speak Czech better, as will the contacts and
conversations with customers and friends and the steadily growing familiarity with the country and its people.

Source: Adapted from Pilot Project Selection of Qualified Workers (Reporter: Milan Daniel, 15 October 2006), http://www.imigrace.mpsv.cz/
?lang=en&article=media2&mm=4017.

7. Conclusion There is a clear need to acknowledge the labour

force participation of family migrants and to rethink
This chapter has argued for much more information the outdated image of the female and dependent
about different types of family migrations in different family migrant with little interest in working. There
parts of the world and, in particular, for research are family members who may be engaged in “low
into the relationship between family migration and visibility” occupations, such as older women, who
employment. Family migration, in its very diverse may be carers enabling their children to enter the
forms, has been with few exceptions (the position of workforce.
overseas contract workers in the Middle East comes
to mind) a major component of migration intakes. More recently, policy objectives have been shifting
In policy formulation and debate it has often been away from family migration as an adjunct to
placed in contradistinction to labour migration: in social integration towards the recruitment of
substance, family migration has been ascribed social (often extended) family members to meet specific
significance, whereas labour migration has been skilled labour market needs. Given the importance
attributed economic value. governments place on economic outcomes, this trend
was perhaps inevitable, but there is more at stake
In reality, these two concepts are more closely here than just a re-orientation of policies towards
intertwined than appears at first glance. Historically, skilled migration and a downsizing of the family
family migration has tended to be seen as an component. A devaluation of family relationships
instrument of integration, but work concerns and is unlikely to be of assistance in the management
interests have never been entirely absent from the of the complex human process that is international
scene. The fact that family migrants, and women migration.
especially, may not be selected on the basis of
skills does not support the assertion that they do A great deal more research obviously needs to be
not contribute to the labour supply. Many, if not done, first to define in more realistic and precise
most, family migrants had work experience prior to terms the issues at stake and to offer appropriate
entering a country of destination, including in skilled policy options to provide policymakers as well as the
occupations, and many again use family reunion community at large with effective choices.
provisions to obtain access to employment abroad.

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 Chapter 6 - FAMILY MIGRATION

Borjas, G.
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 World Migration 2008

INTERNAL MIGRATION*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
7 “internal” and “international” migrants are totally
distinct. The borders in question are often highly
Discussions on migration and globalization often porous, and the journeys undertaken are not very
tend to involve international migration; so much so, different from those within the country of origin.
that the term migration has become synonymous In the case of West Africa, as Adepoju (1998) notes,
with international migration. Yet, in many countries, seasonal and short-term migrant workers regard
internal migration, i.e. that which occurs inside the their movements as simply an extension across
borders of a country, is actually far more important national boundaries of internal movements and of
both in terms of the numbers of people involved and rural-rural migration. In addition, in some cases it
the resulting flow of remittances. This is especially can be difficult to establish when, in fact, a traveller
true of countries with marked regional inequalities, crosses international borders. Finally, borders often
but is not limited to the developing world. cut through the habitations of ethnic groups where
their free movements across the region predates
This chapter deals essentially with internal migration. the drawing of colonial frontiers or the emergence
In a slight departure from tradition, it also covers of independent nation states and the creation of
some types of cross-border migration, even though international borders and concomitant regulations
these are theoretically international movements. governing immigration.
This is done to move away from simplistic typologies
of migration that may lead to the impression that The chapter begins with a brief overview of the major
patterns of internal migration. Rather than dwelling
* This chapter was written by Priya Deshingkar (Research Fellow, Rural on what is already well known, the discussion focuses
Policy and Environment Group, Overseas Development Institute (ODI),
London) and Claudia Natali (Associate Expert, Migration Policy, Research
on five broad issues that have been highlighted
and Communications, IOM, Geneva). recently in the international research and policy

A new study by the Centre for the Study of Living Standards has found community and which have immediate implications
that even a developed country like Canada received a huge boost in
2006 due to high migration from low-productivity eastern provinces to for donor and government programming, namely:
high-productivity western provinces; the study provided evidence that
migration to western Canada offers jobs to unemployed people from
eastern Canada (Sharpe et al., 2007). While it is worth underlining • the growing incidence of temporary movements;
that internal migration is also making a difference in richer countries,
this chapter will analyse more closely the impact on the less-developed
• internal remittance flows and their impact on
regions of the world. development and poverty reduction;

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• the migration of women, children and ethnic their situation in order to increase the benefits of
minorities and the associated segmentation of migration.
migrant labour markets;
• the links between international and internal 2. Broad Patterns of Internal Migration
migration focusing on three types of movement:
step migration, replacement migration and return It is well known that internal migratory flows are
migration; and diverse and complex in terms of their direction
• undocumented or irregular cross-border (rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-urban and urban-
migration. rural); composition (men only, women only, entire
families, children only, and ethnic minorities) as well
It should be stressed at the outset that this as duration (seasonal, circular and permanent). Many
chapter is concerned with voluntary migration for of these exist side by side, and it is not uncommon
employment. It does not include displacement caused to find in a single village several different kinds
by development projects, conflict and civil unrest. of migration streams that have evolved separately
Nor does it attempt to provide a comprehensive view according to historical patterns of employment,
on trafficking in human beings, which has become social networks between source and destination
a subject in its own right. However, the divisions areas, and the demand for specific skills.
between migration for work and other kinds of
migration are not watertight, and several forms of Any discussion on internal migration patterns
migration for work are akin to trafficking in human and trends is severely hampered by the paucity of
beings, especially in migration involving vulnerable data. Even where national data on demographics,
and often marginalized groups, such as women, occupations and incomes exist, short-term movements
children and ethnic minorities. Some aspects of for work are not captured adequately. This creates
migration that overlap with trafficking will therefore an enormous gap in understanding migration and
be touched upon. partly explains the lack of interest and political
commitment to address it. For this reason, many of
In the spirit of this volume, efforts have been made, the important trends discussed below are highlighted
where possible, to link movements with processes through case studies (often undeservedly relegated
that have arisen as a consequence of globalization. to the category of anecdotal evidence) rather than
And, finally, although this chapter is meant to be large-scale surveys.
global in scope, it draws conclusions on the basis of a
review of material pertaining to several, but not all, The following discussion shows that mobility has
major economic and geographical regions of the increased, especially short-term movements for work,
world, namely East, South and Southeast Asia, Latin despite the fact that regional economic trajectories
America, sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East are very different. Rural-urban migration appears to
and North Africa. Gaps reflect the availability of be the fastest growing type of internal migration
information rather than any kind of bias. in many parts of Asia, and a typical representation
of such movement is illustrated in Portrait 7.1, On
The chapter concludes with remarks about the the other hand, Latin America and Egypt show high
need for further policy development and research, levels of urban-urban migration. Return migration
recognizing the difficulties faced by internal and is also significant as demonstrated by studies from
cross-border migrants and the need to improve West Africa and China.

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Portrait 7.1
Seeking a Better Living in Ho Chi Minh City

Trung is part of a growing group of Vietnamese migrants who have left their rural home communities in search of better
opportunities in the city. Born in 1979, just four years after the reunification of North and South Viet Nam, in the southern
border province of Tay Ninh, life during Trung’s childhood was never easy. “I was the youngest of four brothers. My parents
worked in the field growing vegetables and rice. Sometimes they would also work on the rubber plantations or on government
public works projects to earn additional income“, Trung recalls.

His parents’ hard work allowed him and his brothers to attend primary school, but, in time, educating all four children became
too expensive. “When I was ten, my brothers and I began selling lottery tickets in the streets after school to support our
education. However, even this was not always enough, and sometimes my parents had to borrow money to pay our tuition
fees.” Not wanting to accumulate debt, and realizing that of the four brothers Trung was the best student, his parents decided
to concentrate their efforts on funding his education, while his older brothers took up jobs as labourers.

“Despite having been chosen by my parents to continue my education, I never felt any pressure, because I knew that my family
loved and supported me,” Trung says. “But it was not easy for my brothers, and when my eldest brother was sixteen, he went
on foot to Cambodia to try and find work in the construction industry; but, after working there only for some weeks, he came
back as he had been beaten by his employers.”

In 1990, Trung’s father migrated to Ho Chi Minh City, about 150 kilometres from Tay Ninh Province, to work as a security guard
for a foreign company. Every month, he sent money home to support Trung’s schooling, and in 1998 Trung completed secondary
school. Trung soon went to join his father in the city, and they worked together for a short time at the same company.

“Having been educated in rural Tay Ninh put me at a disadvantage compared to students from Ho Chi Minh City. Still, I was
able to enrol in the open university, where I studied accounting and finance. At that time, I also met some Australians in a café
near my university. They wanted to learn Vietnamese, so I began teaching them for 50,000 dong per hour (about 3 US dollars).
I was happy to have the extra income to buy the necessary books for my studies.”

Around the same time, Trung met his wife, another migrant student from the central highlands city of Buon Me Thuot. They
soon married, and the following year had a son.

“The money I earn is used to support my family. I spend about 500,000 dong (about USD 30) per month to rent a small room
for my wife and son. I also send 300,000 dong (about USD 20) home to my mother who is now old, so that she can buy food
and pay her bills. The rest of my income I try to save so that I can support my son’s education in the future.”

Trung says that it was not easy migrating to the big city. “People often looked at me strangely when they heard me speak with
my rural accent. When I went to buy something, they assumed that I couldn’t afford to buy certain things, as I am from the
countryside. Sometimes my landlords raised my rent and my family and I had to change rooms frequently – we do not have
much bargaining power, as we are not registered with the local authorities. But one day, maybe in ten years’ time, my wife and
I hope to buy some land and a house of our own and set up a small pharmacy. Once we have some property, we will no longer
be considered as migrants.”

Source: IOM Hanoi.

at an unprecedented rate in the last two decades.

2.1 Asia: Temporary and Circular Movements for Internal regional inequalities and uneven
Work in Economies in Transition development that characterize many Asian countries
today (Balisacan et al., 2005; Kanbur and Venables,
There is persuasive evidence from several locations 2005) are important drivers of migration. Foreign
across Asia that population mobility has increased direct investment and export-oriented industries

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have benefited some regions more than others and (b) South Asia: Low-skilled migrants dominate
attract cheap labour from underdeveloped rural seasonal labour flows
areas. The service and construction sectors are also
magnets for workers. Most South Asian economies have experienced
growing inequality, mainly because of unequal access
What is especially striking is the increase in to land and education. Migrants typically come from
temporary and circular movements, which include agriculturally backward and poor areas, such as
a range of diverse movements from trips that last Bihar, to move to towns and cities, industrial zones
several months to daily commuting for work. At the and coastal areas to work in fish processing and
same time, there has been a dramatic improvement salt panning, such as in Gujarat. High productivity
in communication and transport facilities, which has agricultural areas (“green revolution areas”) continue
created the conditions for the large-scale internal to be important, but more migrants are opting for non-
movement of people at unprecedented levels. farm activities because of greater returns. Moreover,
they are increasingly becoming major sending areas
(a) China: A life cycle strategy for people of both skilled and less-skilled migrants to Australia,
from poorer regions in a rapidly growing Canada and New Zealand. Migration rates are high
economy among both the most and least educated and, unlike
in East and Southeast Asia, people with little or no
In 2005, China had the fastest growing economy in education appear to dominate seasonal labour flows.
the world and also the highest level of economic National statistics have underestimated the extent of
inequality in East Asia (Balisacan et al., 2005). Such mobility in the sub-region with the result that there
internal regional differences have been an important is still some disagreement over whether it is actually
cause of migration, especially since the mid-1990s increasing or decreasing. An International Monetary
(Song, 2004). The number of internal migrants has Fund (IMF) report states of India, for example:
increased dramatically over the past two decades
from about 26 million in 1988 to 126 million in 2004, The anaemic response of cross-state migration to
a majority of whom are circular rural-urban migrants income differentials in India is most likely due to
who retain strong links with their rural family. a combination of barriers to the mobility of labour:
Current projections suggest that between 12 and 13 strong local workers’ unions, which act to keep
million migrants will move to urban areas each year out competing potential employees; rigidities in
over the next two decades, and the actual numbers nominal wages; lack of housing in fast-growing
will depend on the extent to which the household urban areas and, most important, social, cultural
registration (hukou) system is relaxed. Around 70 and linguistic barriers to the cross-regional
per cent of migrants are aged between 16 and 35, substitutability of labour (Cashin and Sahay,
and they generally view migration as an intermediary 1996: 49).
period in their life between leaving middle school and
settling down to marry and having children (Murphy, Munshi and Rosenzweig (2005), based on panel data
2006). Roughly a third of Chinese migrants return collected by the National Centre for Applied Economic
to their native homes as it is extremely difficult for Research, argue that India’s relatively low spatial
them to find permanent white-collar jobs on which and marital mobility, despite increased growth rates
they would be able to retire (Murphy, 2006). and rising inequality in recent years, is due to the
existence of sub-caste networks that provide mutual
insurance to their members. On the other hand, a

Daily and weekly commuting are usually excluded from the category
of temporary/circular migration, and this approach is followed in this
very large number of village studies show very high
chapter. levels of short-term seasonal and circular internal

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 World Migration 2008

migration (for an overview, see Deshingkar, 2005). A South, West and Central Asia, as they opened up
vast majority of low-skilled workers are employed their economies earlier. Thailand was the earliest
in the informal sector and are largely untouched by to implement an export-led growth strategy, and
applicable labour laws. rural-urban migration, especially to the expanding
service sector in Bangkok, increased during the
In Bangladesh, too, migration is an integral part of period 1985-1990; net immigration to Bangkok more
the livelihood strategies of poor people. A three-year than doubled between 1975-1980 and 1985-1990
study on the livelihoods of the extremely poor in (Anh, 2003; Guest, 2003). Although the economic
16 villages by Proshika – one of the largest NGOs crisis of 1997 radically altered the economic context
in Bangladesh, funded by the U.K. Department for and migration patterns in Southeast Asia, especially
International Development (DFID) – found that for seasonal and short-term workers to the informal
110 of the 294 respondents had migrated. While 51 sector, it did not curtail or reverse the long-term
respondents said that they had benefited in some growth in labour migration. Seasonal migration from
way, others spoke of theft, difficulties for those left the northeast of Thailand has continued on a large
behind and tough living conditions at the destination scale. Indeed, north-eastern households depend on
(Khan and Seeley, 2005). On the whole, migration remittances from their family members who migrated
to urban areas has been rising for some time, first to Bangkok. Such seasonal movements are facilitated
to the urban informal sector and, more recently, to by extensive networks of friends and relatives spread
garment manufacturing units. A study of internal all over the country.
migration in Bangladesh (Afsar, 2003), based on
the analysis of data sets generated by the United Although poorer and less urbanized than Viet Nam
Nations, the International Labour Organization and Thailand, Cambodia has also recently witnessed
(ILO) and the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, a sharp increase in rural-urban migration as more
showed that all types of migration had increased young girls and women migrate to urban centres to
significantly. Rural-urban migration was found to work in garment factories, as domestic helpers, or
account for nearly two-thirds of out-migration from as bar girls and sex workers (Acharya, 2003). The
rural areas, while rural-to-rural migration accounted Ministry of Planning estimates internal migrants
for ten per cent of out-migration from rural areas, at 35 per cent of the total population, and most
compared with 24 per cent migrating abroad. The of these internal movements are intra-provincial
latest estimates by the Coalition for the Urban Poor and very short-range (Maltoni, 2006). The garment
of migration into the capital of Dhaka indicate a 6.3 sector was a major employer of rural-urban migrants,
per cent annual increase in migration. Dhaka is the absorbing some 250,000 workers, but this avenue of
most common destination because it offers greater employment may have suffered setbacks after the
work opportunities. Most people look for work in termination of the Multi-Fibre Agreement in early
the garment industry, rickshaw transport and the 2005.
domestic sector.
Circular migration and commuting from rural to
(c) Southeast Asia: Export-led growth and urban areas in Indonesia has been documented since
better infrastructure facilitates circular the 1970s (see e.g. Hugo, 2003). While Indonesia
migration had relatively low levels of inequality due to more
equal access to land and education, differentials
Many Southeast Asian economies saw increases in
population mobility long before the countries in 
The Multi-Fibre Arrangements (MFA) (a.k.a. Agreement on Textile and
Clothing (ATC)) governed the world trade in textiles and garments
from 1974 through 2004, imposing quotas on the amount developing

On the basis of panel data generated from 62 randomly sampled villages countries could export to developed countries. It expired on 1 January
in Bangladesh (Rahman et al., 1996). 2005.

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have increased in the 1990s and appear to be driving job or further their education. The study also found
internal migration to some extent. that an exception to this trend was the significant
migration of less educated men to nearby urban areas
The Viet Nam Living Standards Surveys show a rapid to engage in construction and other low-paid manual
increase in seasonal migration over the course of the labour. However, rural-rural migration is significant,
1990s (de Brauw and Harigaya, 2004). According to especially for first-time male migrants.
Anh (2005), spontaneous inter-provincial migration
occurred in three major directions during the 1990s: 2.2 Latin America: Urbanizing Countries
north to north, south to south, and north to south,
while migration from the south to the north was Latin America as a whole has seen a rise in population
not significant. This reflects the pull effect of the movements fuelled by increasing disparities in
south-eastern areas and central highlands of Viet the distribution of wealth due to globalization,
Nam in terms of economic development and natural restructuring of national economies and a succession
endowments. A migration survey was carried out by of financial crises since the mid-1990s (Serageldin
the government of Viet Nam in 2004 in eleven major et al., 2004). While during the import-substitution
migrant-receiving cities and provinces covering 5,000 era rural-urban migration constituted the major part
migrant households and an equal number of non- of internal movements, this has recently levelled
migrant households. The survey showed that nearly off or even decreased with urbanization. With a
63 per cent of those who moved for work had KT4 dwindling rural population, urban-urban migration
registration, and 50 per cent of those who moved to has increased steadily since the 1980s. In Mexico,
improve their living conditions had KT4 registration for example, between 1987 and 1992, 50 per cent of
(Deshingkar et al., 2006b). interstate movements (excluding intra-metropolitan
movements) originated in and were directed at urban
Internal migration in the Philippines is a areas and, between 1995 and 2000, 70 per cent of all
fundamental part of rural livelihood strategies and inter-municipal (intermunicipio) movements took
rural transformation, and not only to escape poor place between urban areas. In Brazil, 61 per cent
rural areas (Quisumbing, A.R. and S. McNiven, of all inter-municipal movements between 1981 and
2005). Research undertaken by the International 1991 were between cities (Cerruti and Bertoncello,
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the 2003). In a study of internal migration in Argentina,
Research Institute for the Mindanao Culture, Xavier Brazil and Chile, Busso (2006) concludes that
University (RIMCU) in the mid-1980s and repeated population mobility is characterized by urban-urban
in 2003-2004, found that poblaciones and cities movements, although, in some parts of Brazil, rural-
attract better educated individuals to either find a urban migration is still high. Cities are often areas
of both origin and destination in the three countries
studied. In fact, a large proportion of migration on

There is a complex household registration system in Viet Nam. The
system is applied in both urban and rural areas. There are four categories
the South American continent takes place between
of residents: KT1, KT2, KT3 and KT4. The 2004 Migration Survey defines small administrative divisions within the city and
these categories as follows:
• KT1 – Person registered in the district of residence;
from the centre to the periphery. Intra-metropolitan
• KT2 – Person not registered in the district of residence, but reg- movements are attracting the attention of academics
istered at another district of the same province;
and policymakers alike as they have many important
• KT3 – Person who has temporary registration for a period of six
months and more; consequences for urban policies (Pellegrino, 2006).
• KT4 – Person who has temporary registration for a period of less
than six months.
There is also a category of “no registration” at the destination. 
A municipio is an administrative entity corresponding roughly to a

Primary administrative seats of rural districts in the Philippines. county.

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 World Migration 2008

Their link with issues of territorial segregation is high transfer) accounts for about a quarter (23%) of all
on the political agenda given that migrants tend to migration, and the majority of these movements are
concentrate in poor areas separate from those where towards urban centres.
better-off people live. At the same time, there has
been an increase in international migration, often to The importance of temporary migration for work is
the United States, a theme explored in more detail evident in many areas. Research conducted under
later. Migrants are predominantly young, female and the International Network for the Demographic
with an educational level higher than their non- Evaluation of Populations and their Health (INDEPTH)
migrant counterparts. migration and urbanization project in eight countries
(Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique,
2.3 Sub-Saharan Africa: High Mobility, Much South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda) between 1996
of it Temporary and Driven by the Need to and 2001 by a consortium of researchers from Brown
Seek Alternatives to Farming University, the University of Pennsylvania and the
University of Witwatersrand among others, found
Results of the surveys carried out by the Network that internal migration accounted for 15 to 25 per
of Surveys on Migration and Urbanization in West cent of the sample population and that much of it
Africa (NESMUWA) in seven countries (Burkina Faso, was temporary (Choi, 2003).
Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and
Senegal), summarized by Konseiga (2005), show Recent studies indicate that mobility has been
very high rates of internal migration. Côte d’Ivoire affected by economic crises and structural
and Senegal had the highest figures (62% of total adjustments. Country studies conducted under the
migration flows) followed by Mauritania (54%), Mali De-agrarianization and Rural Employment project
and Guinea (51%) and Niger (47%). Burkina Faso (DARE) and the Sustainable Livelihoods, Access and
had the lowest internal migration incidence (30%), Mobility (SLAM) project by Bryceson and others
probably due to the limited work opportunities (2003) found increased mobility resulting from
available locally and the exodus of migrants to Côte structural adjustment programmes, which, in turn,
d’Ivoire. led to occupational diversification and increased
travel. There are also examples of reduced mobility,
East Africa is not different. The 1999 Labour Force as seen in Zimbabwe, where the fear of contracting
Survey (LFS) in Ethiopia shows high rates of internal AIDS and a rise in oil prices has curtailed travel
mobility with rural–rural flows (as opposed to (Bryceson and Mbara, 2003).
stocks) dominating and involving nearly a million
people. Urban-urban migration accounted for a On the whole, although rural-urban and rural-rural
further million people and rural-urban flows are also migrations are still significant, the incidence of
significant and account for over half a million people return migration, i.e. urban-rural, is rising in some
(Casacchia et al., 2001). Reverse migration, i.e. urban- countries. In Nigeria, retrenchment of workers in
rural migration, was also recorded, involving around both the public and private sectors in the 1980s is
370,000 people even though counter-urbanization thought to have increased return migration. Indeed,
is not yet the dominant process in Ethiopia. The a study of Aba and its surrounding area in south-
LFS analysis found that the change of residence
for employment purposes (looking for a job or job 
It is noteworthy that some of the movements classified as “along with
family” may be included in the categories of migration for work reasons,
since they derive from the decision of the head of the household to
migrate for work (Casacchia et al., 2001). See Chapter 6 for a more
detailed analysis of the link between employment and family mobility.

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 Chapter 7 - INTERNAL MIGRATION

eastern Nigeria by Okali and others (2001) found in rural areas. Therefore, urbanization and partial
that nearly half the households in rural areas are “de-agrarianization” are general processes that
headed by return migrants, who average about 50 occur also within rural Morocco, as so-called rural
years of age. In Ghana, about 35 per cent of migratory populations increasingly earn additional income
movements were urban-rural, 32 per cent rural-rural outside the traditional agricultural sector.
and almost one quarter (23%) urban-urban (Ghana
Living Standards Survey, 2000). 3. Cross-border Migration

2.4 Middle East and North Africa: Internal The issue of cross-border migration needs to be
Movements are often more Significant than viewed together with internal migration, especially
International Movements with Public Sector for countries that are separated by porous borders
Downsizing an Important Cause and populated by people who are historically very
similar in language and culture.
In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), internal
migration has increased with public sector downsizing Ratha and Shaw (2007) assert, on the basis of
(Al-Ali, 2004) and the resulting occupational datasets constructed by the University of Sussex,
diversification. Nonetheless, long-distance rural– that almost 80 per cent of South-South migration
urban migration to Cairo from Upper Egypt is a long- takes place across the land borders of adjacent
standing phenomenon that has existed for at least a countries and appears to occur between countries
hundred years. Greater Cairo, which includes Cairo, with relatively small differences in income. However,
Giza, and Qualyoubyya governorates, attracted the official statistics cannot capture the vast numbers of
bulk of internal migrants as shown by a number of undocumented cross-border migrants.
studies mentioned in Zohry (2005). But successive
censuses show only a slight increase in rural-urban An analysis of examples of cross-border migration in
migration. In contrast, return migration, i.e. urban- Africa and Southeast Asia will serve to illustrate the
rural, has increased steadily and accounted for nearly similarities with internal migration and the rationale
a quarter (23%) of all movements in 1996. Urban- for considering both types of movements within the
urban migration represented the bulk of movements same framework.
(60.4% in 1996) between the large governorates of
Cairo, Guiza, Qualyoubyya and Alexandria. Rural- The NESMUWA surveys in Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire,
rural migration was the least important type of Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal recorded
movement, remaining at around four per cent at more than 6.4 million migratory movements
each census. between 1988 and 1992, of which 2.3 million were
international, with flows between Côte d’Ivoire and
Internal migration in Morocco continues to be Burkina Faso dominating. However, migration from
more important than international movements in Burkina Faso to Côte d’Ivoire has since dropped
numerical terms, notwithstanding the high number of significantly due to the economic recession in the
international migrants originating from this country latter country. This has also been accompanied by
(De Haas, 2005). Interestingly, De Haas (2005) return flows of migrants from urban areas of Côte
notes that patterns of rural-to-urban migration
have changed lately, which is particularly the case 
The bilateral migration matrix was created for the Global Trade Analysis
in the provinces of the interior, as the policies of Project using national censuses, population registers, national statistical
bureaux and a number of secondary sources (OECD, ILO, Migration Policy
decentralization and improved road and electricity Institute (MPI), DFID, UNDP) to compile bilateral migrant stocks for 162
infrastructure favoured the growth of urban centres countries.

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 World Migration 2008

d’Ivoire. Most of the return migrants are active are looking for economic opportunities and are not
(93.8%) and are entrepreneurs. eligible for refugee status. An estimated 50 per cent
of Mae Sot’s 80,000 migrant workers from Myanmar
The circular migration10 by West Africans dates back do not have proper work permits, which leaves them
to the pre-colonial period. This process has received a open to abuse from unscrupulous bosses, most of
boost with the increasing liberalization of economies. whom run garment factories (BBC News, 26 February
New communication technologies are helping to 2007). Many others, especially women, commute
consolidate historical social networks between on a daily basis from Cambodia to Thailand for
peoples who are ethnically and linguistically similar, petty trade, domestic work or agriculture, as the
but artificially separated by political borders. This has two countries share a very long and porous border.
led to unprecedented levels of flows of information, Men tend to migrate farther afield and for longer
ideas, people, goods and money (Balbo and Marconi, durations (Godfrey et al., 2001). Finally, in South
2005). The circularity of the movements allows Asia, India has a long history of migration from
migrants, a large proportion of whom are women, Bangladesh. Poorly demarcated borders between
to maximize the returns from seasonal agricultural the two countries, cultural affinities (language and
production. lifestyle) with certain Indian provinces such as West
Bengal, physical proximity and the presence of
The other major area of cross-border migration earlier migrants contribute to the acceptance of these
in Africa is to South Africa from countries in the migrants as de facto members of local communities.
sub-region, especially Lesotho, Mozambique and These factors also explain why the largest numbers
Zimbabwe. South Africa is home to an estimated of migrants are believed to be concentrated in north-
three to eight million migrants, most of whom are eastern India, close to the Bangladesh border, even
employed in the mining industry (Stalker, 2000, though this region is not as economically robust as
cited in Sanders and Maimbo, 2003). other areas in India that are now witnessing increased
inflows from Bangladesh (Ramachandran, 2005).
In Southeast Asia, Thailand has emerged as the major
destination for migrants in the entire Greater Mekong 4. Internal and International Labour Migration
Sub-region (GMS). As Thailand’s own population has
aged and the economy has grown, the demand for The links between internal and international labour
foreign labour has increased, especially for low- migration have recently begun to attract attention at
skilled labour. Thailand currently hosts an estimated the international policy level, especially in response
2.5 million migrants from Cambodia, Laos and to concerns by developed countries over migrant
Myanmar (Maltoni, 2006) with nearly 90 per cent in flows. Important questions are whether today’s
an irregular status (World Bank, 2005). Thousands internal migrants are tomorrow’s international
of border crossers from Myanmar flow into the Thai migrants; whether international migration and
border town of Mae Sot every year. Most of them internal migration are substitutes for each other; and
whether internal and international migrants share
10
Circular migration here refers to the livelihood strategy that has been the same profile. Needless to say, the answers depend
traditional in West Africa for over 1,000 years as people followed very much on the local context and thus can only
livestock and crops on a seasonal basis; this concept therefore differs
slightly from what is currently put forward in the European Union be arrived at through location-specific case studies.
(EU) as a temporary labour migration policy (see Chapter 11): “Circular In very broad terms, the links between internal
migration is a form of mobility that most closely ties migrants to their
countries of origin, and allows them to build bridges between it and and international migration are of three types:
other (usually more developed) countries, thereby creating opportunity
for the migrant’s country of origin to make the most of its comparative
step migration, where people move to one or more
advantages” (MPI, 2007: 3). locations within their country before emigrating to

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another country; replacement migration,11 where the finds that some returnees relocate to border regions
“vacuum” created by workers departing for another to facilitate their next documented or undocumented
country is filled by workers from other parts within trips to the U.S.
the country; and return migration, where people who
had migrated return to their place/region of origin. Morocco is another country where rural-urban
These processes are illustrated through examples migration often is a precursor of international
from different parts of the world. migration (Laghout, 1989, cited in De Haas, 2005).
But in this Maghreb country, the link between
The occurrence of replacement migration, whereby internal and international migration is not limited
migrants of rural origin move to towns to fill jobs to only international out-migration from small towns
left vacant by nationals who have emigrated to other within rural provinces, as the concomitant counter-
countries, can be observed in several sub-Saharan flow of remittances contributes to employment and
African countries (Adepoju, 2006). In Burkina Faso, entrepreneurial opportunities, creating an opposite
Gabon, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Senegal, replacement movement of internal migration (i.e. from urban
migration has occurred where urban workers migrated provinces to towns in rural provinces) (De Haas,
to France. It has also been noted in Egypt (Zohry, 2005).
2005) where people have migrated to the Gulf.
Replacement migration has also been documented But not all cases are as clear-cut. A recent study in
in the Indian state of Kerala where the gaps in the Egypt by Zohry (2005) found that people migrate
workforce left by skilled workers leaving for the Gulf internally and externally without any logical order or
are filled by migrants from the neighbouring states common pattern. In fact, buying a bus ticket to Libya
(Zacharia and Rajan, 2005). is not much different from internal migration to Cairo
or Alexandria. Pieke’s (2004) work on migrants from
Step migration, i.e. rural-to-urban movement followed Fujian Province shows that Chinese emigration has
by international migration, has also been observed in become much more intertwined with socio-economic
Mexico by Fussel (2004), using the Mexican Migration changes and migratory flows within China itself. Many
Project dataset. She finds that, while the movement of the migrants they studied had spent considerable
from the central-western rural area of Mexico to the time elsewhere in China, or had worked for a few
United States still predominates and is reinforced years in Singapore, or in the Macao SAR or Hong
by well-established social networks, there is a newer Kong SAR on fixed-term contracts before returning
stream of migrants from interior urban communities. to Fujian and subsequent emigration to Europe. They
Using econometric analysis, she identifies within also found that international migration in Fuqing
this group a sub-stream of migrants who first settle in coastal Fuzhou prefecture was often supported
in the northern region (border urban community of financially by wives or other female family members
Tijuana) and then, in a second phase, emigrate to circulating or commuting into nearby Putian county
the United States. Step migration to the border is to work in factories producing shoes and other
a way to gain migration-related information and to consumer items. Conversely, areas of emigration in
improve one’s chance to make it to the U.S., with Fujian attract in-migrants from elsewhere in Fujian
or without authorization (Fussel, 2004). Fussel also or farther afield to undertake agricultural work that
the local population either does not want or cannot
11 do because of their absence.
While the UN refers to replacement migration as the “international
migration that a country would need to offset population decline and
population ageing resulting from low fertility and mortality rates” (UN,
2001), it is defined here as the internal movement of workers in response
What these examples illustrate is that even those
to international migration. who live in rural areas may be indirectly benefiting

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from international migration by filling jobs that protection.12 There are sharp sub-divisions even
international migrants have left behind. They also within caste categories with particular sub-castes
respond to the demand created by the flow of doing particular kinds of work. In Bihar, for example,
remittances from abroad. However, it is not clear how a recent study (Deshingkar et al., 2006a) found that
these patterns will change in the longer term and the Musahars, who were traditionally landless rat-
more empirical research is needed. Moreover, there catchers and have largely remained on the fringes of
are no clear-cut policy implications, and governments society, almost always migrate for work in brick kilns,
in Europe and North America endeavouring to as casual construction labourers, farm workers and
regulate immigration through interventions aimed rickshaw pullers. Their earnings are too low to result
at interrupting these migratory chains and steps in any savings and working conditions are difficult
find that there are no easy solutions. However, and degrading. Another study found that tribal girls
creating more attractive employment opportunities from Jharkhand are employed as domestic maids
in countries of origin by facilitating the flow of in Delhi. All of these occupations involve strong
remittances (among other strategies) is something elements of exploitation and bondage. Migration
that governments in both source and destination offers Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes
areas need to heed. (STs)13 an escape from traditional structures of caste-
based oppression in villages and gives poor labourers
5. Labour Market Segmentation and the some bargaining power vis-à-vis their traditional
Migration of Ethnic Minorities employers. However, some analysts maintain that
structures of oppression are reproduced through
Circular migration is largely driven by labour labour contracting arrangements at the destination
market segmentation, as populations in prosperous and may even be more exploitative (Mosse, 2002;
destination areas are, or become, reluctant to Olsen and Ramanamurthy, 2000).
perform low-wage, low-status, seasonal or physically
demanding work. More often than not, the dirtiest, 5.2 Ethnic Minorities
most dangerous and most difficult jobs (“3D” jobs)
are performed by migrants who belong to the lowest In Viet Nam, ethnic minorities accounted for over
segments of society; lower castes and tribes in the four per cent of total recorded movements in 2001
case of India, and ethnic minorities elsewhere. (Anh, 2005). Detailed information on employment
Segmentation is best captured through in-depth patterns collected under the 2004 migration survey
case studies that gather detailed information on conducted by the Government of Viet Nam shows
ethnicity, occupations and seasonal movements. that migrants belonging to minority groups earn half

5.1 Castes
12
Deshingkar and Start (2003), for example, found that the scheduled
tribes had higher migration rates in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh
Several case studies from India show that the lower and Madhya Pradesh. Similar observations have been made by Dayal and
Karan (2003) regarding Jharkhand: whereas 15 per cent of scheduled
castes and tribes have a greater propensity to castes and tribes migrated, only eight per cent of upper castes and
migrate, and many of them migrate for short-term, three per cent of “other backward castes” migrated. A study by Jagori
(2001), an NGO on migration in Rajasthan, found that 95 per cent of
low-skilled and low-paid work with the highest the migrants congregating at recruiting centres are dalits (dalits, often
levels of vulnerability and lowest levels of social called untouchables or outcasts, have historically been prevented from
doing any but the most menial jobs) coming from Bhilwara, Ajmer, Tonk
and Kota. The latest Human Development Report for the State of Punjab
notes that many migrants coming into the State from Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh are dalits and tribals.
13
SCs and STs are the lowest castes and most vulnerable persons in the
Indian Caste System.

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as much as those from the Kinh majority, are far less point to the negative, but also the positive aspects of
likely to have a work contract, or to receive help to this labour mobility. On the one hand, they confirm
find a job, and are far less likely to find work in a that young migrants are vulnerable – as shown by
government organization (Deshingkar et al., 2006b). their efforts to obtain work, to remain in work, to
In Indonesia, too, minorities have faced difficulties receive their wages and to avoid being cheated or
in integrating into mainstream labour markets due manipulated. On the other hand, these studies also
to language differences. There are more than 200 give a strong sense that such children are not just
distinctive ethno-linguistic groups in Indonesia, and passive victims of circumstances and that motivation
although universal education has helped to some for migrating often involves the child’s own desire to
extent, difficulties in integrating in the mainstream earn an income (Anarfi et al., 2007).
remain.
Kiell and Sanogo (2002) also found that poor rural
6. The Internal and Cross-border Migration of families see it as desirable, or even a good investment,
Women and Children to send a child to the city or abroad to work. This
is probably why NGO and government initiatives
6.1 Children to return trafficked children to their villages have
sometimes been met with an unhappy response from
The independent migration of children (i.e. without children, incredulity from parents and teasing and
their parents) appears to be very prevalent in certain humiliation from the children’s peer group (Black et
regions such as West Africa and South Asia. Child al., 2004). A much more differentiated and sensitive
migration has received much attention recently approach is needed, one that understands the
because of its similarities to trafficking, given the aspirations of the poor and creates the conditions
involvement of intermediaries, exploitation and to enable them to better look after their children
infringements of rights. According to one estimate, at home.
approximately one to 1.2 million children are
trafficked globally each year, and most of those 6.2 Women
in or from Africa originate from the West African
region (Beyrer, 2004, quoted in Kiell and Sanogo, There is no doubt that migration is becoming
2002). Burkina Faso has a high incidence of child increasingly feminized, and this development
migration. For example, a World Bank study by has been driven by two main factors. On the one
Kielland and Sanogo (2002) estimated that around hand, the improved access of females to education
330,000, or 9.5 per cent of children aged between six and training opportunities has enhanced their
and 17 years, lived away from their parents. Of these, employability in the organized labour market, locally
165,000 migrated for work, with poverty being the and across national boundaries (Adepoju, 2006), but,
main reason for migrating. However, as case studies on the other, women have also been obliged to seek
have shown, there are more sides to this phenomenon additional income-generating activities to support
than blatant exploitation. For example, Hashim’s the family due to the loss of male employment
(2005) study of the extremely poor Bawku East following structural adjustment policies. Adepoju
District of the Upper East Region in the very north- (2006) notes, for example, that the traditional
eastern corner of Ghana found that children viewed pattern of migration in sub-Saharan Africa – male-
migration as a positive opportunity. Moreover, case dominated, long-term and long-distance – is rapidly
studies on child migration in West Africa, published changing as more women migrate. Women in West
by the Development Research Centre on Migration, Africa work mainly in the informal sector, which is
Globalisation and Poverty at the University of Sussex, less affected by economic recession compared to the

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wage sector, where most male migrants work. As the parts; textiles and garments; chilled, frozen and
formal job market becomes tighter many families canned food; precious stones and jewellery; and
are relying on women to earn money. Bah et al. footwear. Work in the sex trade is also significant;
(2003) draw on research in six case studies in Mali, however, while it provides more disposable income
Nigeria and Tanzania and point out that the great to women and their families at home, it also puts
increase in female migration in Africa in recent years them at great personal risk. Cambodia experienced
is linked to employment opportunities as domestic a sharp increase in female migration as more young
workers in urban centres or in new international girls and women migrated to urban areas to work
tourist resorts. They also highlight that women’s in garment factories, as domestic helpers, beer girls
migration is increasingly acceptable socially in as and sex workers (Acharya, 2003). A similar trend can
much as it contributes to their family’s household be observed in Viet Nam as female labour migration
income through remittances. to Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City is increasing
(Anh, 2005), reflecting a large demand for female
The INDEPTH surveys between 1996 and 2001 found workers in labour-intensive manufacturing (textiles,
that female migrants outnumbered male migrants in garments, footwear and food processing), commerce
five sites and were equal at the other two. Female and service jobs (shopkeepers, housemaids, street
migrants are on average younger than male migrants. vendors, café/restaurant workers, entertainers and
In particular, those aged between 15 and 35 years trash collectors).
have the highest propensity to migrate. The 1999
Labour Force Survey in Ethiopia showed that roughly On the one hand, segmented labour markets reduce
55 per cent of migrants are women. competition among migrants because different
groups of migrants occupy different niches; but, on
South African internal migration has also become the other, there are also negative aspects that require
more feminized as a recent study has shown (Posel, urgent policy attention because the niches occupied
2004). Overall, the migration of women has risen by the most vulnerable and historically subjugated
steadily between 1960 and 2000. are often unregulated and authorities may turn a
blind eye to exploitation.
Bryceson et al. (2003) argue that the migration of
women and children increased with the diversification 7. Remittances, Poverty and Development
of household livelihood strategies in response to the
growing pressure on land and the deterioration of Remittances are an important additional or even
the international terms of trade for African small principal economic resource for poor rural households
producers. Households increasingly abandoned the worldwide, helping them to smooth income flows and
traditional pattern of growing food crops and relying to invest in assets and human capital. Yet, internal
on male migrant earnings in favour of one where remittance flows are seriously under-reported,
everyone earns and non-farm activities are becoming especially flows through informal channels.
central.
Although generalizations are risky, there is some
In Southeast Asia and Latin America the feminization evidence to support the view that internal circular
of migration streams exceeds that of many other migrants often bring back more money than the
regions of the world. In Thailand, women are remittances sent home by permanent migrants. For
employed in five major export-oriented, labour- example, Van der Geest’s study in Ghana (2003) found
intensive industries, namely: the manufacture of that seasonal migrant earnings amounted to about
small electrical appliances, electronics and computer seven per cent of total household income and 14

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per cent of the total cash income (while remittances Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh; Deshingkar et al.,
from permanent migrants abroad accounted for 3% (2006) on Bihar; Haberfeld et al. (1999) on Rajasthan
and 5%, respectively). Other contributions included and Dayal, and Karan (2003) on Jharkhand).
food, clothes and payment of school fees. Rural-
urban migrants usually send money, and rural- 7.2 Impacts on the Source Economy
rural migrants are more likely to send food. As a
cash earner, seasonal labour migration was more The development and poverty reduction impact of
important than livestock production and the sale of remittances remains disputed, but there is ample
food crops. evidence to support the argument that remittances
can lead to overall economic development.
In Bangladesh, the Coalition for the Urban Poor (CUP)
estimates that migrants in Dhaka remit up to 60 per On the one hand, remittances have often been seen
cent of their income to relatives. For the receiving as “disequalizing” because receivers are typically
households, remittances provide up to 80 per cent better off than their fellow villagers. It is known that
of the household budget. A recent study in the poor migrants usually come from poor regions, although
Indian state of Bihar, from where very large numbers not necessarily the poorest regions, and that they
of migrants leave to work in small industries all over are often poor but not the poorest of the poor since
India, also found very high levels of remittances the poorest lack even the most basic resources (e.g.
among circular migrants. These migrants, who are labour, information, social networks) needed to
away for eight to nine months in a year leave mainly migrate (de Haan, 2005). Moreover, there is evidence
to earn and send money back home, and migration is that the degree of inequality in remittances-receiving
part of the life-cycle planning of extended families. villages will depend on the actual use of remittances.
When the sons reach an age where they can begin to An empirical study by Barham and Boucher (1998)
migrate, the fathers stay at home to look after the in Nicaragua adopts a “counter-factual approach”
family farm (Deshingkar et al., 2006a). (i.e. the observed income distribution is compared
to a counter-factual scenario without migration and
7.1 Impacts at the Household Level remittances) to determine the impact of remittances
on inequality. The study highlights that conclusions
Earlier analyses questioned the significance of depend on the way remittances are treated in the
remittances in the household budget as well as analysis: when they are used as a substitute for home
their impact on poverty reduction (see, for example, earnings, they tend to increase income inequality in
Lipton, 1980), and many scholars still maintain the receiving community, while, when treated as an
that migration is mainly a distress phenomenon exogenous factor, they decrease inequality.
that perpetuates poverty (cf. Breman (1985, 1996))
and Reddy (1990) on India, and Blessing (2005) On the other hand, on the basis of research in
on Ethiopia). However, they rarely examine the Bangladesh, Afsar (2003) argues that remittances
counter-factual proposition, i.e. what these people help to expand business in agricultural products
would have done in the absence of the opportunity and construction materials. Remittances also help
to migrate, and what their life prospects would have to generate savings, the major source of capital in
been in their villages. the absence of institutional credit on easy terms.
She believes that migration and remittances have
Recent case studies show that even small migration invigorated the land tenancy market in rural areas:
earnings can contribute to household well-being (see the proportion of tenant farmers increased from
for example, Deshingkar and Start (2003) on Andhra 42 per cent to 57 per cent between 1988 and 2000,

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and the land under tenancy cultivation rose to 33 contributed 16 per cent annually to the growth in
per cent, which was 11 per cent more than in 1988. China’s GDP in recent years (Cai Fang, 2001, quoted
Studies conducted in Thailand by Guest (1998) show in De Wind and Holdaway, 2005). Similarly, the ILO
that remittances are an important supplement to study on internal migration in Indonesia (2004)
household income and have a multiplier effect on concludes that migration to urban areas can be
the economy, with many major items of expenditure, associated with macroeconomic growth.
such as construction materials and labour, procured
locally. Anh (2003) draws similar conclusions based Any positive impacts notwithstanding, internal and
on data from Bangladesh, China, Viet Nam and the cross-border migration is full of risks and costs that
Philippines. Cai Fang (2001) writes that migration can reduce the benefits, especially for poor families
(Textbox 7.1).

Textbox 7.1
The Hazards of Internal and Cross-Border Migration

Internal and cross-border migrants often face difficulties on account of their poverty and powerlessness. Among the many
hardships are:

• debt bondage – many borrow to migrate;

• long working hours;
• living in the open or in very poor accommodation with inadequate water and sanitation;
• vulnerability to sexual abuse;
• restriction of freedom and movement because of fear of arrest and/or deportation on account of migrants’ irregular status;
• lack of safety and vulnerability to criminals;
• dangerous, dirty and difficult working conditions;
• lack of access to health services and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS;
• unreliable and unsafe remittance systems;
• difficulties in registering with the local authorities;
• discrimination;
• language barriers;
• difficulty in contacting the family in the village of origin (although this is improving rapidly with the spread of mobile
telephone networks);
• lack of information about rights, entitlements and the applicable law in general;
• inability of children to gain access to schooling;
• inability to access assistance and government services.

8. The Future and Directions for Policy question, demographic and economic trends, and
levels of skills and education.
Internal migration will continue as long as regional
inequalities persist. Circular migration will continue The Delphi Consultations,14 conducted by the
as long as land and other rural ties have a significant Italian organization CeSPI (Centro Studi Politica
economic and cultural value and urban conditions
are not secure enough to enable more permanent 14
CeSPI and SID used the Delphi methodology to bring together
settlement. However, cross-border migration international experts and researchers in an online discussion to analyze
migration and development from various viewpoints. Delphi is a formal
trajectories also depend on a range of other factors, and iterative process of survey and discussion often used in the private
including relations between the countries in sector to bring large groups of experts to a consensus estimate on the
underlying drivers and assumptions.

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Internazionale) and SID (Society for International 9. Policy Developments

Development) with the assistance of the Director
General for Cooperation of the Italian Ministry of 9.1 Policies Aimed at Labour Supply and
Foreign Affairs, were undertaken to forecast the Demand
pattern of migratory movements likely to emerge
in Africa. Mazzali et al. (2006) assess the outcomes Few countries have taken a progressive attitude
of a series of interviews with experts in the field towards rural-urban migration. In sub-Saharan Africa,
of migration and development representing varying for instance, current policies do not suggest that
viewpoints and come to the conclusion that the such is the case concerning either internal or cross-
largest migrations are likely to take place within border migration. Adebusoye (2006) considers that in
continental boundaries. Similarly, the West Africa most African governments there is as yet insufficient
Long-Term Perspective Study (WALTPS), conducted awareness of the poverty reduction effects of internal
by the Club du Sahel and the OECD (Cour and migration. This view is supported by the UN (2002)
Snrech, 1998), warns that West Africa must come to review of policies affecting migration in sub-Saharan
terms with particularly high rates of intra-regional Africa, which shows that governments are averse
migration flows and rapid urbanization. Migration or at best neutral to migration, especially rural-
will continue from landlocked countries to the rest urban migration. This is based on the concern that
of Africa under the increasing constraints of climatic movements from rural to urban areas burden urban
changes and environmental limits, as well as the services, and that housing, education, health and
demand for migrant labour in coastal countries. various welfare provisions will be strained because
Such mobility is expected to reduce inequalities and of a sudden influx of migrants, which is indeed the
foster growth. case as urban authorities are ill prepared to receive
migrants. The focus of African governments has
Forecasts of labour mobility and migration trends in been on underdevelopment, poverty, socio-economic
Asia, prepared by the Economist Intelligence Unit instability, population pressure on limited natural
(2006), indicate that in all major Asian countries, resources, and conflict as drivers of migration.
especially the Philippines, Malaysia and India, but Their main goal is to reduce migration and limit the
not Japan, working-age populations will increase. A formation of urban slums.
positive outlook for economic growth of the region
as a whole will drive demand for labour up to 2015. Similarly, internal migration was until very recently
China will have one of the lowest growth rates viewed negatively by many policymakers in Asia.
because of its rapidly ageing population and as its Most governments have tried to control rural-
working-age population is expected to peak by the urban movements through a combination of rural
early 2020s and decline thereafter. employment creation programmes, anti-slum drives
and restricting entry to urban areas. However, this
In absolute terms, China and India will see the largest limited approach is changing for a variety of reasons,
increases in working-age populations by 2015 (88 including: a) ineffectiveness of controls; b) the
million and 148 million, respectively), followed by value of migration to poor households and growing
Indonesia and the Philippines. However, HIV/AIDS industries becoming more visible; and c) the growing
could impact on changes to the size of the working- strength of the political voice of migrant workers.
age population. China is at the forefront of efforts to recognize
the importance of internal migration, and the
government is testing labour migration agreements

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between provinces of origin and destination.15 The restricts access to government services outside the
Ministry of Labour and Social Security has announced authorized location of residence/work. The fact
several measures aimed at improving conditions for that the government conducted a special survey
millions of farmer-workers currently working in on internal migration, among other key issues,
cities. The measures include approaching companies to understand the difficulties faced by migrants,
to abolish all limitations and unreasonable fees on is in itself an indication of their concern to make
workers seeking employment, and for charges for migration less costly and risky.
information and consultations provided by public
agencies to migrants looking for work to be dropped. In the case of cross-border migration, bilateral
Local governments have been asked to establish and multilateral agreements in such areas as trade,
professional training and education plans for workers. migration, financial channels, labour standards and
However, while controls on population movements information have a particularly important role to play
have been relaxed, the right to settle still remains in regulating migration and maximizing the potential
restricted under the household registration (hukou) returns for both areas of origin and destination (see
system, which excludes rural migrant workers from also Chapter 13). Adepoju (2006) welcomes the
claiming state benefits in urban areas as long as they determination of the Economic Community of West
remain registered in their place of origin. African States (ECOWAS)18 to abolish rigid residence
permits and introduce modern border procedures,
A number of events in India have also signalled a information sharing and staff exchange programmes.
change of attitude to internal migration in the The adoption of an ECOWAS passport as a symbol of
country. There have been two high-level policy unity to progressively replace national passports
dialogues on internal migration and its potentially over a period of ten years is intended to advance the
positive impact since 2005, and consultations at concept of a borderless sub-region (Adepoju, 2002;
state level have been organized with the help of U.K. see also Textbox 13.2). The Common Market for East
(DFID) funding by the Gramin Vikas Trust. Two state and Southern Africa’s (COMESA) Protocol on Free
governments, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, are Movement of Persons has been established, but has
actively engaged in developing policies to reduce the not made much progress so far on the free movement
hardships faced by migrants. Rajasthan is piloting of workers owing to the reservations of some of its
mobile ration cards16 for 5,000 migrants, while member states,19 notably South Africa, which is the
Madhya Pradesh is introducing a comprehensive
migrant support programme (see the next section on major recipient of migrant workers. Peberdy and Crush
migrant support). At this point, it is difficult to say (1998) point out that within the Southern African
whether other states are likely to follow. Development Community (SADC)20, agreements on
free trade have been much more successful than
Viet Nam has an elaborate and complex KT registration
system17 for residents in urban and rural areas, which 18
ECOWAS members are Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire,
Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria,
Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo.
15
Personal communication with Hans van de Glind, Manager/Chief 19
COMESA members are Angola, Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic
Technical Advisor, ILO Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour of the Congo (DRC), Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya,
(ILO-IPEC) project to prevent trafficking in girls and young women for Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland,
labour exploitation in China (CP-TING project). Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Protocol on Free Movement of
16
Ration cards are issued to poor families in India to enable them to access Persons has not yet entered into force. Members need to ratify the
subsidized foodgrains and other essentials. But entitlements through Protocol for it to come into force, and only four have done so to date.
ordinary ration cards are based on proof of residence and cannot be 20
SADC Members are Angola, Botswana, DRC, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi,
transferred to another location. Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania,
17
See n. 5 above. Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

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those on free movement. In South Asia, the main 9.2 Migrant Support
focus of the South Asian Association for Regional Co-
operation (SAARC) is on trade and transport rather (a) China
than migration. The SAARC is working towards a
South Asian Customs Union by 2015 and a South The Chinese Ministry of Labour and Social Security
Asian Economic Union by 2020, which will have a has rescinded the working card requirement
bearing on the intra-regional mobility of the people for migrant farmer-workers in urban locations.
of South Asia. However, progress has been slow so Previously, farmers needed such permits to work
far. outside their place of birth. The ministry has also
asked local labour and social security departments to
Similarly, in Latin America a proposal within the reform policies and cancel illegal charges targeting
Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR) for the migrant workers. In addition, it is working on a draft
gradual implementation of free movement of persons law on household registration management to create
in the Southern Cone for Latin America was not conditions for free movement and settlement.
followed up due to the subsequent redefinition of
MERCOSUR,21 and the current focus is mostly on the The All-China Federation of Trade Unions has
free movement of goods and capital (Maguid, 2007). submitted a proposal to the Legal Committee of the
Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference,
In Southeast Asia, efforts are being undertaken to suggesting the ministry concerned issue a law
match labour supply and demand across the borders concerning rural migrant employees to safeguard
of adjacent countries in a regular and orderly their legal rights, and advising the State Council
manner with a view to countering trafficking in to establish a special working committee on the
human beings. For example, a Memorandum of protection of migrants.
Understanding has been drawn up between the Thai
and Cambodian governments to create a bilateral The ILO CP-TING project in China, which aims to
administrative process for structured employment prevent the trafficking of young women and girls
procedures regarding inter alia recruitment, a for labour, has succeeded in raising the level of
mechanism for the return of migrant workers at the understanding of migration and trafficking among
end of their contract, labour protection guidelines policymakers. Hans van de Glind, project manager,
and prevention and intervention mechanisms to believes that migration will continue and many will
combat irregular migration and human trafficking. use irregular channels if regular channels are not made
However, the rules and procedures have been available.22 This puts migrants at risk of trafficking
criticized for their complexity and lack of user- and exploitation, as it is very difficult to protect
friendliness. In the meantime, people continue to the rights of migrant workers if their movement is
move and face unnecessary hardship because they not through safe channels. The project is trying to
are often perceived as engaging in unauthorized develop cheap, fast and transparent labour migration
activities (Maltoni, 2006). channels on a larger scale, geared especially towards
those with low education and skills.
Efforts are being made to reduce the costs and risks
of migration in some countries, for instance in China,
and by civil society organizations in others, such as
in India and Viet Nam, often with donor support.

21 22
MERCOSUR members are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay See n. 15 above.

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 World Migration 2008

(b) India the District Poverty Initiatives Project (DPIP) in

Madhya Pradesh, called Mazdoor.org, funded by
In India, a large number of migrant support initiatives the World Bank. This initiative will provide skills
have emerged over the last two years, which can be enhancement and certification programmes, advice
broadly classified into five categories: and information on jobs, and help workers to link
up with government schemes on insurance and
(i) The social protection model workers’ funds. The project implementers intend to
work within the existing industry and labour market
This model provides a range of subsidized support structures, i.e. recognizing that capital and labour
services. Social protection aims to reduce poverty are highly mobile and that capital/industry relocate
and vulnerability by promoting efficient labour where cheap labour is available. They also recognize
markets, limiting risk exposure and enhancing the that a majority of industrial workers are not listed
capacity of migrants to protect themselves against on the employment registers of industries and are
hazards and the interruption or loss of income. A recruited by intermediaries who are not accountable
well-known example is the DFID-funded Migrant to anyone under the existing law. Mazdoor.org will
Labour Support Programme implemented by the take on responsibility for the welfare of workers,
Gramin Vikas Trust. The project provides a range of even though by law it would be the responsibility
services to migrants moving to the states of Gujarat of the industry and employers. For this, they plan to
and Rajasthan from poor tribal districts of Madhya make industry pay service charges.
Pradesh. These include identity cards issued through
local government bodies, job information, creating (iii) The labour union model
awareness on rights, assistance with negotiating
wages, communication facilities and help in accessing This is a rights-based approach for better
government programmes. The rationale of the social implementation of labour laws and the regulation of
protection model is that poor migrants cannot fend labour flows. Some NGOs, such as Sudrak in Rajasthan
for themselves in a job market that is dominated and Disha in Gujarat, believe that unionizing migrant
by labour market intermediaries and employers who workers will go a long way towards realizing their
are stronger, better informed and connected than rights, strengthening their bargaining power in the
they are. They are in need of support to reduce their market and preventing exploitation. The Aajeevika
vulnerability, but are unlikely to be in a position Bureau, established by Sudrak, for example, has set
to pay for such services on a full-cost recovery up a union of migrant workers who work in cotton
basis immediately. The services provided will enable fields. One of its main objectives is to regulate the
them to access better jobs and reduce the level of supply of labour as an oversupply of labour lowers
uncertainty and harassment that they face in the the bargaining power of migrants. So far some 1,500
job market. “mates” have enrolled, and the union has created a
charter of demands and also set up around 16 manned
(ii) The market-based approach check points at all the border crossings between
Gujarat and Rajasthan. As a result, employers have
This model works with existing labour market offered partial wage rate increases and negotiations
patterns and offers services on a cost recovery are continuing. A similar approach has been
basis. An example of such an approach is the adopted by the Bandhkam Majoor Sangathan (BMS)
initiative launched by the NGO Samarthan and established by Disha in Ahmedabad.

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 Chapter 7 - INTERNAL MIGRATION

(iv) The rehabilitation model 10. Research Needs

The best example of this model is the work by Action Data on internal and cross-border migration need
Aid with brick kiln workers in Orissa and Andhra to be improved, and this has to be integrated into
Pradesh. This NGO believes that migration of this large-scale data collection efforts such as censuses,
kind amounts to a form of trafficking where workers living standard surveys and other panel datasets.
are lured with false promises and often borrow money The Indian Government has planned to focus
from recruitment agents whom they must then repay on migration as its theme for the 2008 National
through punishing work schedules. Their movement Sample Survey.23 The Government of Viet Nam has
is restricted at the work site, and wages are well already conducted a special survey on migration.
below the legal minimum. In addition, women and It is heartening to note that there are now several
children are also exploited in various ways, and living academic institutions engaged in research and data
conditions are appalling. Action Aid conducts raids collection, such as those involved in the Africa
on brick kilns together with the police to release and Migration Alliance in South Africa, the South Asia
rehabilitate bonded migrant workers. Migration Research Network in Bangladesh and the
Asia Pacific Migration Research Network (APMRN) in
(v) Providing migrant-friendly financial services Australia. A large number of NGOs are also conducting
their own surveys and could use technical support
Poor migrants carry money themselves and at and help with methodology. The importance of
great risk. Some private banks have now started researchers’ networks and lesson-sharing cannot be
to recognize the need for financial services for overstated. Finally, a greater understanding of the
migrants. For example, the Industrial Credit and segmentation of migrant labour markets is essential
Investment Corporation of India (ICICI) Bank has for the development of effective and appropriate
recently launched an initiative for Tamil migrants support systems able to reach different groups of
from Thirunelveli living in the slums of Dharavi in people with different needs.
Mumbai. Some NGOs have also entered this area.
Adhikar, an NGO in Orissa, has been helping migrants 11. Conclusion
in Gujarat to send money back to Orissa. This service
was started following the 2001 earthquake, when Assuming that labour migration can benefit areas
they found more than 10,000 migrants from Khurda of origin and destination, as well as migrants
district working in and around Gandhidham: at the and their families, there is a strong argument for
Kandla port, in the free-trade zone, at the Indian facilitating internal and cross-border migration,
Farmers Fertilisers Cooperative (IFFCO) and for the while limiting their negative aspects. However. until
railways. Adhikar was supported by the research and recently, policy attitudes towards such movements
innovation fund of CARE India’s Credit and Savings have been, for the most part, reserved if not entirely
for Household Enterprises (CASHE) project. negative. As Harris (2002) points out, such attitudes
are hardly justified, given that globalization has
Possibilities for cross-learning on migrant support created markets in which some locations specialize
between different countries should be further
explored. This is an area where donor organizations
23
Personal communication by Professor Amitabh Kundu, Jawaharlal Nehru
can effectively add value to efforts being made by University, New Delhi, a recognized authority on rural-urban links and
government and civil society organizations. migration.

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 World Migration 2008

in making particular types of workers available to

other locations, thus creating a circulation of labour.
There is a need for greater recognition of this at all
policy levels, and the policy discourse needs to be
informed by solid research of internal and cross-
border migration and accompanying patterns and
impacts of remittance flows.

[193]
 Chapter 7 - INTERNAL MIGRATION

Anarfi, J. S. Gent, I. Hashim, V. Iversen, S. Khair,

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 World Migration 2008

IRREGULAR MIGRATION*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
8 in 1990. Governments, for their part, expend
considerable energy on the formulation of legislation
Irregular migration is undoubtedly one of the most and policies to deter irregular migration, including
discussed issues in migration management, whether through regularization of status programmes, which
in political debate, in conferences on migration some regard as appropriate solutions, while others
management or on the front page of news dailies. consider that they do little more than invite further
It is by no means a recent phenomenon, although influxes of unauthorized arrivals.
there is reason to believe that it has increased in
magnitude and complexity since migration started Almost 40 years of attention to irregular migration
to attract concerted attention from governments have therefore produced a great deal of analysis and
and international organizations in the early 1970s. experimentation, but there are no indications that
It was largely in response to concerns about the the phenomenon is on the wane or that the living
problems faced by irregular migrants that the and working conditions of irregular migrants have
International Labour Conference of the International improved significantly.
Labour Organization (ILO) adopted the Convention
concerning Migrations in Abusive Conditions and the This chapter begins with a brief discussion of
Promotion of Equality of Opportunity and Treatment terminology and methods of measurement of
of Migrant Workers, 1975 (No. 143). Those same irregular migration. It then goes on to identify some
concerns featured strongly in the discussions basic determinants of irregular migration. Following
that led to the finalization of the International an overview of current patterns of movement across
Convention for the Protection of the Rights of All different regions of the world, the chapter concludes
Migrant Workers and Members of their Families

UN General Assembly Resolution of 18 December 1990. The text of the
Convention is available from the web site of the Office of the UN High
* This chapter was written by Graziano Battistella, Director, Scalabrini
Commissioner for Human Rights at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/
International Migration Institute (SIMI), Rome, Italy.
law/cmw.htm. See also Textbox 13.1.

Known also by its shorter title, Migrant Workers (Supplementary 
For some examples of recent regularization programmes, see the
Provisions) Convention, 1975 (No. 143). The text of the Convention
discussion in Section 6.6 below and Chapter 11.
is available from ILOLEX, the ILO database of international labour
standards, at http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/convdisp1.htm.

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with a brief survey of policy strategies commonly migrants whose status does not conform, for one
utilized against irregular migration. reason or another, to the norms of the country
in which they reside. The term “irregular” may
2. Irregular Migration: Towards Terminology refer variously to conditions of entry, stay and
Convergence employment, including possession of appropriate
documentation. Most commonly, irregularity is
A word about terminology is necessary to establish determined by reference to the norms of the
the scope of the phenomenon under consideration country of destination or transit, although
in this chapter. Many descriptive labels have recent research has shown that irregularity is a
been proposed and discussed, often heatedly, multifaceted concept that is often not reflected
over the years. They include “illegal” migration, in policy responses (see Textbox 8.1). Countries
“undocumented” migration and “unauthorized” of origin with specific legislation governing
migration, each of which has its proponents and employment of their citizens abroad may also
detractors in migration literature. Some convergence consider the latter to be irregular when they do
seems to be emerging on the use of irregular not comply with its provisions.
migration as the most appropriate word to refer to

For a discussion on the definition of irregular migrant, see Guild

See also Chapter 11 for a fuller discussion of some of these policy (2004). The term was officially endorsed by the UN General
strategies. Assembly Resolution 3349 (XXX) of 9 December 1975.

Textbox 8.1
Contested Spaces of (Il)Legality

Policy debates on illegality in the immigration and employment of migrants are typically based on simple conceptual dichotomies,
for instance “legal/illegal”, “regular/irregular”, “authorized/unauthorized” or “documented/undocumented”. However, the legal
frameworks that govern the immigration, residence and employment of migrants in most destination countries are typically
quite intricate. This means that, in practice, rather than a clearly defined dichotomy, it is “spaces of (il)legality” that are
created. The spaces of (il)legality are contested, particularly where complex immigration laws collide with flexible labour
markets.

In the United Kingdom, where flexibility is at the core of the government’s labour market policies, there are currently more
than eighty different types of entry and immigration statuses. Each type of immigration status is associated with specific
conditions. For example, arrivals on student visas – the largest category of non-European Union (EU) entrants in recent years
– are legally allowed to work 20 hours during term time, but full time during vacations. Migrants on self-employed permits (a
type of “business visa”) cannot work as employees. Au pairs must not work outside their host families, and so on.

The complexity of these rules and conditions means that there are a potentially significant number of migrants who are
legally resident (i.e. with “leave to remain in the U.K.”), but working beyond the employment restrictions attached to their
immigration status. To account for this contested space of (il)legality, the notion of “semi-compliance” is introduced.

It is useful to distinguish between three levels of compliance. Compliant migrants are legally resident and working in full
compliance with the employment restrictions attached to their immigration status. Non-compliant migrants are those without
the right to reside in the host country (i.e. those “illegally resident”). Semi-compliance indicates a situation where migrants
are legally resident but working in violation of some or all of the employment restrictions attached to their immigration
status.

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The category of semi-compliance – the “space between” strict legality and (il)legality – is extremely broad and captures a
wide range of violations of the conditions of employment attached to a migrant’s immigration status, with varying degrees of
severity. Consider the case of four student visa holders working 20, 21, 25 and 40 hours per week, respectively, in the U.K.
Clearly, there is a substantial difference – in terms of the degree to which the employment restrictions attached to immigration
status are violated – between a student who works 21 hours per week and a student who works 40 hours per week. The
discussion of where and how the line should be drawn between semi-compliance and non-compliance – or indeed between
compliance and semi-compliance – can be highly politicized or rest on a personal judgment. Different actors may draw the line
in different places, an example of how illegality is “socially constructed”.

National laws – and the popular legal/illegal dichotomy in policy debates – usually make no distinction between semi-
compliance and non-compliance. In the U.K., any action that violates the conditions attached to a migrant’s immigration
status makes the migrant subject to removal and employers subject to sanctions. However, a study based on survey and in-
depth interviews with over 600 east European migrants and over 300 employers carried out in April 20041 showed that both
migrants and employers perceive semi-compliance as different from non-compliance. Many interviewees felt that they were
“bending” rather than “breaking” the rules. (“There are times when you do twist it a bit … you work for an extra couple of
hours, you know, nudge, nudge and so on,” as an employer of a student visa holder in the hospitality sector put it). Although
some migrants in this situation faced difficulties similar to those of the illegally resident, others perceived semi-compliance
as a way of accessing the U.K. labour market that was preferable to illegal entry or overstaying. From the employers’ point of
view, semi-compliance was often perceived as a way of circumventing the complex U.K. immigration laws to suit the needs of
the flexible labour market.

If governments are serious about wanting to understand and address what is typically described as “illegal migration”, they
need to go beyond the simple “legal/illegal” dichotomy and instead recognize the spaces of (il)legality in the migrant labour
market. Otherwise, policies and public debates risk being increasingly distanced from the actual practices of employers and
migrants. A more nuanced approach to the study of various types of illegality may also help to switch the debate away
from viewing illegality as a social “problem” that needs to be eliminated, to analyses and policies that view illegality as a
multifaceted phenomenon that can have complex consequences, not all of which are as problematic and undesirable as typically
assumed.

Note:
1
The interviews were part of a research project on Changing status, changing lives? The socio-economic impact of EU enlargement of low wage
migrant labour in the UK, by Bridget Anderson, Martin Ruhs, Sarah Spencer and Ben Rogaly.

Source: Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson, Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS), University of Oxford, United Kingdom.

In view of the central topic of World Migration 2008, the smuggling and trafficking of human beings, on
namely labour mobility, an attempt to identify in the other.
accurate statistical terms those migrants whose
irregularity is demonstrably linked to active According to the Protocol Against the Smuggling of
participation in employment might be expected. Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, which supplements
However, the scarcity of data in this field and the International Convention Against Transnational
the absence of reliable databases thwart any such Organized Crime 2000, “smuggling of migrants” is
intention. Irregular migrants do not have a single defined as
prime motivation. Some of them seek family reunion,
others move in search of asylum and protection. the procurement, in order to obtain, directly or
There is nonetheless good reason to believe that a indirectly, a financial or other material benefit, of
preoccupation with gainful employment is common the illegal entry of a person into a State Party of
to virtually all of them. If explanatory distinctions
must be established, there may be value instead in 
UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/55/25 of 15 November 2000.
laying out the conceptual linkages and differences The text of the Convention and its Protocols is available on the web
site of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime at http://www.unodc.org/pdf/
between irregular migration, on the one hand, and crime/a_res_55/res5525e.pdf.

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which the person is not a national or a permanent services, slavery or practices similar to slavery,
resident (Article 3(a)). servitude or the removal of organs (Article 3(a)).

Trafficking is another process that feeds irregular For the purpose of this definition, the consent of the
migration flows, most frequently for work purposes, victim is irrelevant if any of the identified means are
and is characterized by its exploitative nature and a used, and “the recruitment, transportation, transfer,
disregard for the migrant’s human rights. The Protocol harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of
to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, exploitation” is considered “trafficking in persons”
Especially Women and Children, supplementing the even if such means are not used (Article 3(b), (c) and
United Nations Convention against Transnational (d)). As this definition and indeed the very title of
Organized Crime (2000), defines trafficking as: the Protocol indicate, many forms of trafficking affect
mainly women and children, who are most frequently
(t)he recruitment, transportation, transfer, trafficked for sexual abuse or labour exploitation,
harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the although they may also be trafficked into forced
threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, marriages or delinquency. Victims of trafficking are
of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse exposed to physical and psychological abuse, denied
of power or of a position of vulnerability or of human and labour rights and often found in a forced
the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to and unwanted dependency relationship with their
achieve the consent of a person having control over traffickers, originating in the financial debt incurred
another person, for the purpose of exploitation. for migration and placement services. A perspective
Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the on the extent of trafficking for forced labour of men,
exploitation of the prostitution of others or other women and children, extrapolated from the data
forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or in the International Organization for Migration’s
Global Human Trafficking Database, is described in
Textbox 8.2.
Textbox 8.2
Trafficking for Forced Labour

No discussion of the place of labour migration in an evolving global economy is complete without reflection upon the
phenomenon of trafficking in persons.1

Traditionally, national and international counter-trafficking activity and policy have sought to combat the phenomenon by
addressing the supply side, or what can be referred to as the root causes of trafficking in countries of origin, including economic
inequality, gender discrimination, violence and corruption, and the lack of safe and regular migration opportunities. However,
there has been increasing international recognition that serious attention must also be given to the root causes in countries
of destination, and above all the demand for cheap and unprotected labour.

Irregular migration, and particularly the trafficking in persons for all forms of exploitation, cannot be separated from the
process of globalization in general and the move towards a more global economy. New labour markets emerge, creating new
employment opportunities across the globe for skilled and less-skilled workers, both men and women. But such economic
growth has not been matched with the evolution of safe, humane and orderly migration channels to facilitate and satisfy this
demand for labour. This tension between the growing need for labour and services on one side, and too few regular migration
opportunities on the other, creates a niche for intermediaries to intervene and make profit. These intermediaries are the human
traffickers, who exploit, abuse and victimize the migrant workers, especially those in an irregular, and hence more vulnerable,
situation.

Only recently has the necessary attention been afforded to trafficking for non-sexual forms of exploitation as well as to men and
boy victims. The exploitation of individuals by human traffickers exists in a number of employment sectors, often informal ones

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that are less subject to official labour inspections, including construction work, agriculture and food processing, the fisheries
sector, domestic and care work, hospitality and entertainment. Women, men, boys and girls are also trafficked for the purposes
of begging and low-level criminal activities.

While accurate figures on the number of persons trafficked each year are difficult to obtain given the clandestine nature of the
phenomenon, one estimate states that, globally, there are at least 2.45 million people in forced labour as a result of internal or
international trafficking in persons (Belser et al., 2005).2 It is clear that significant numbers of male and female migrants are
being exploited and their human rights abused by human traffickers. Child trafficking for sexual and labour exploitation also
continues to exist to an alarming degree.

If human trafficking for all forms of labour exploitation is to be combated, it is necessary to tackle also the demand for cheap,
unprotected and often irregular labour. Informal and unregulated work activities need to be brought within the protection
of labour laws so that the rights of all workers are protected. And lastly, though by no means least, the demand for migrant
workers needs to be matched with safe, humane and orderly migration channels, and with migration management policies
between source and destination countries that fully stand to protect the rights of all migrants.

Information from the IOM Global Human Trafficking Database

The International Organization for Migration (IOM)’s Global Human Trafficking Database is a unique tool, which is used to collect
information and monitor IOM’s return and reintegration assistance to victims of (human) trafficking (VoTs). The database is the
world’s largest of primary data on registered VoTs, containing only primary data on registered victims of more than 80 different
nationalities trafficked to more than 90 destination countries. At the end of December 2007, the database contained data on
12,681 registered cases of VoTs assisted by IOM, with a breakdown of 10,510 females (83%) and 2,169 males (17%) (Table
8.1).3 Individuals assisted by IOM encompass all age groups, with just under half the caseload aged between 18 and 24 at the
time of interview, and approximately one-fifth aged below the age of 18.

While the majority of individuals assisted by IOM are females trafficked for prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation
(8,326 cases to date), IOM’s return and reintegration assistance programmes do not focus solely on trafficking for sexual
exploitation; assistance is also provided to individuals who have been trafficked, both internally and internationally, for
exploitation in such sectors as agriculture, construction work, food processing, domestic employment and childcare work,
fisheries, and for the purposes of begging to name but a few.

Table 8.1:
Victims of Trafficking Assisted by IOM, by Gender and Type of Exploitation, 1999-2007
Type of Exploitation Sex 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007* Total
Female 0 17 50 78 172 161 392 367 303 1540
Labour exploitation
Male 0 0 6 120 219 251 514 453 290 1853
Labour exploitation and low-level Female 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 3
criminal activity Male 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 3
Female 0 0 0 9 13 22 32 8 5 89
Low-level criminal activity
Male 0 0 0 0 4 7 3 1 2 17
Female 0 8 24 13 9 43 61 87 61 306
Other exploitation
Male 0 0 2 21 3 0 1 5 3 35
Female 28 566 725 957 639 1,224 1,584 1,567 1,036 8,326
Sexual exploitation Male 0 0 11 19 45 21 24 78 57 255
Not known 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2
Sexual exploitation and labour Female 0 0 0 7 27 48 69 52 43 246
exploitation Male 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 2 6
Total 28 591 818 1,225 1,134 1,780 2,681 2,619 1,805 12,681
Note:
*
Based on cases registered in the database up to and inclusive of 31 December 2007.
Source: IOM Global Human Trafficking Database.

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Although not readily citable as a trend per se, given that IOM counter-trafficking activities are project-specific,4 it can be
noted that IOM field missions are increasingly assisting individuals trafficked for labour exploitation (3,393 cases), and also an
increasing number of male VoTs (2,169 cases). For example, IOM has provided return and reintegration assistance to Ukrainian
males trafficked to Russia for labour exploitation. Within the IOM global human trafficking dataset, the most significant
number of individuals trafficked for forced labour are indeed trafficked to the Russian Federation, with Ukrainian and Belarusian
nationals appearing as the most represented nationalities of individuals trafficked for forced labour.

IOM has further assisted 2,046 VoTs under the age of 18 at the time of interview. The majority consisted of girls trafficked for
sexual exploitation; however, it can be noted that IOM has a regional counter-trafficking project in Ghana, which, at the time
of publication, had assisted more than 500 children (boys) internally trafficked for exploitation in the fishing industry.

Notes:
1
See Section 2 above for the definition of trafficking under the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially
Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime.
2
The Trafficking in Persons Report 2006 of the U.S. Department of State estimates that 600,000 to 800,000 persons are trafficked across
international borders each year. Other organizations have stated similarly higher and lower figures.
3
There are missing data for two cases.
4
Further, as stated, policy and practice have predominantly focused on the trafficking of women and girls for sexual exploitation and thus
there has arguably been a bias towards the number of VoTs identified as having been trafficked for sexual exploitation compared to the
number of VoTs identified as having been trafficked for labour exploitation. Such a bias in turn impacts upon data collection.

3. Determinants of Irregular Migration migrants to make use of asylum procedures not

because of a genuine need for protection, but to gain
In very broad terms, the determinants of irregular entry to new countries and access to their labour
migration are not different from those of regular markets. This pattern is particularly evident when
migration. It can be argued that both movements are asylum systems are perceived as the primary or only
outcomes of the various and interconnected social official mechanism sanctioning the entry and stay of
and economic dynamics operating in our globalized foreigners in the absence of an alternative means of
world. However, while, by definition, regular migration access to the labour market.
proceeds along open and established channels,
irregular migration seeks to circumvent them. In Channels for regular migration, in particular labour
this regard, the Global Commission on International migration, are defined by the policies of countries
Migration (GCIM) draws attention to limitations of of destination, sometimes, but not always, in
the meaning of a “global labour market”: highly consultation with and the assistance of countries
skilled professionals such as information technology of origin (see also Chapter 13). They are, to a large
specialists or health professionals and world class extent, a response to the demand for foreign workers
athletes may be able to pursue their careers across coming from domestic labour markets. When the
the world, but “for the majority of people and in supply through established channels does not match
most regions of the world, national labour markets the demand, irregular migration dynamics come into
prevail and the opportunities for them to seek their own. For instance, in Italy, 520,000 requests
work in other countries remain limited” (GCIM, from employers for foreign workers contended
2005: 15, para. 22). This mismatch between supply with 170,000 available places offered in 2006 by
and demand is one of the factors underlying the government decree (see Section 5.1 below).
so-called “nexus” between asylum and migration:
the propensity of significant numbers of irregular Another way of gauging the magnitude of
opportunity, if not demand for irregular migration,

See Chapter 1 for a discussion of “global labour market”. is to examine the operation of informal economies,

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their underlying social networks and, ultimately, the to linkages with migration brokers, employers and
migrant-recruiting industry that services them. The social networks abroad. This, however, does not
informal economy is the natural point of insertion imply that there is one monolithic system overseeing
into the labour force for migrants who cannot irregular migration around the world. Rather there
find regular employment because of their lack of is a multiplicity of profit-making concerns that
appropriate documentation. According to Schneider change their configurations at will, setting up and
(2004), the informal economy as a percentage of dismantling business fronts, initiating and reacting
official GDP accounted for 28.2 per cent in Greece, to market needs and opening or closing routes in
25.7 per cent in Italy, 22.0 per cent in Spain and 21.9 response to enforcement patterns (Salt and Stein,
per cent in Portugal in 2003 – all of them countries 1997; Battistella and Asis, 2003).
that have repeatedly implemented regularization
programmes. However, the informal economy is 4. Measurements of Irregular Migration
not evenly developed throughout all sectors of the
economy. According to conservative estimates by the Virtually every research paper on irregular migration
Italian National Institute on Statistics (ISTAT, 2006), deplores the lack of reliable data on the subject
11.5 per cent (2.7 million) of employed workers since, by its very nature, it eludes established data
were in an irregular situation in Italy in 2004; the collecting systems. Accurate statistics are rarely
figures were much higher in the service (18.4%) and available and, at best, one generally has to make do
agricultural sectors (18.3%). It is important to note, with estimates, and at worst with wild guesswork.
however, that migrants accounted only for a very The data are often influenced by the methodology
modest proportion (4.5%) of the informal labour utilized and sometimes by the agenda of those
market, with nationals actually making up the vast reporting on the subject.
majority of those working in an irregular situation.
Jandl (2004) and Massey and Capoferro (2004)
Social networks are constantly linked to irregular explore the limitations of both commonly exercised
labour migration, as they provide the necessary and less frequently utilized methods of measurement.
information and contacts to migrants for both Census data provide very sound and comprehensive
unauthorized entry into the country and subsequent information on immigrant populations as a whole
insertion into the workforce. Some studies contend since they identify the place of birth and citizenship
that the impact of social networks is limited of respondents, but they do not distinguish between
compared to that of employers (Krissman, 2005), regular and irregular migrants. Highly sophisticated
but there is much evidence that little irregular residual techniques must then be applied to arrive
movement can occur without the information, at estimates of the irregular migrant contingent, but
advice, encouragement and support of family and the results require careful interpretation (Costanzo
friends, although it is by no means unknown for the et al., 2004). Intercensal surveys are more focused
latter to seek to exploit those who rely on them. and more frequently conducted than statutory
censuses, but they are not based on sufficiently
Beyond family and friends, there are more structured large samples for safe conclusions to be drawn about
systems of recruitment, sufficiently developed to bear the size and composition of the irregular migrant
the collective name of a recruitment industry. The
industry has a pervasive role in the phenomenon of 
According to these calculations, the estimated “residual” foreign-born
irregular migration, from advertising and recruiting population in the U.S. was 3.77 million in 1990 and 8.71 million in 2000.
These figures include irregular migrants, arrivals residing lawfully, but
in the country of origin, to connections with not yet included in official figures, and arrivals awaiting finalization of
migration officials and transportation employees, their requests for regularization.

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population. Some, but by no means all, countries countries (Mitsilegas, 2004).12 Officials are relying
have registration systems that require individuals more on data from removals of non-nationals,
to notify authorities of their arrival, departure or although such data do not specify whether removal
change in status, but irregular migrants are unlikely was forced or voluntary, nor whether the same
to bring themselves to notice, at least not until they person might have been involved and counted more
can apply for regularization. Matching arrival and than once.
departure records would appear to be a relatively
simple and reliable way of determining the number Estimates of the number of irregular migrants based
of overstayers in a country. However, in addition on those remaining after regularizations have been
to errors in reporting such information, there are used in particular in southern Europe. One advantage
many countries that do not require exit controls of such data is that they concern the stock of
(for instance, the U.S. abolished them in 1957) and irregular migrants present in the territory and that
record matching can be costly in terms of both time they contain a host of qualitative data. Obviously,
and money.10 Massey and Capoferro (2004) suggest this measurement does not capture those migrants
the use of ethnosurveys, which combine quantitative ineligible for regularization or who decided for some
and qualitative methods with ethnographic and reason not to take advantage of it. A similar data
survey techniques. The resulting databases are set results from mass registration exercises, which
certainly rich in information, but the question have often been conducted in Asia. In the case of
remains whether they can really lead to a better registrations, however, as persons are invited to
approximation of the number of irregular migrants return to their country either immediately or after a
in a particular country.11 short time, the danger of missing people who would
prefer to remain in an irregular status is higher,
The European Union (EU) has established the Centre and the possibility that the same person might be
for Information, Discussion and Exchange on the counted in a subsequent registration very real.
Crossing of Frontiers and Immigration (CIREFI), which
began its work in 1995. It gathers data on irregular Given this rather bleak picture, it is hardly surprising
migrants derived from different administrative that specialists in this field are reluctant to provide
operations, but the results are subject to numerous anything more specific than orders of magnitude
limitations, including the important issue of or scales of possibility. On the basis of a national
comparability of the figures among participating survey of employers, Piguet and Losa (2001)
concluded, for instance, that there were between
70,000 and 180,000 foreign-born persons employed
without authorization in Switzerland. Similarly,
the estimated number of unauthorized migrants in
France in the late 1990s was between 140,000 and
500,000 (Delaunay and Tapinos, 1998).

An exception might be Spain, where even irregular migrants are
registered at local municipalities. 12
10
However, on 11 July 2007, the EU Council of Ministers and the European
In the “Schengen zone”, applicable for the time being to 25 of the 27 EU Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No. 862/2007 on Community
Member States as well as Iceland and Norway, the passports of all third- statistics on migration and international protection (OJ 2007 L 199/23),
country nationals have to be stamped on entry and exit, which should which establishes common rules for the collection and compilation of EU
make it easier to detect overstayers as well as the extent of the problem. statistics on inter alia immigration to and emigration from the territories
See Regulation 562/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of Member States, including on third-country nationals refused entry,
of 15 March 2006 establishing a Community Code governing the movement those found to be present without authorization and the number of
of persons across borders (Schengen Borders Code), OJ 2006 L 105/1. undocumented third-country nationals who are obliged to leave (or who
11
See also Chapter 9 for a discussion of the various sources of data on have in fact left) the territory of the Member State concerned (Articles
irregular migration. 1, 5 and 7).

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At the global level, ILO estimates refer to irregular during the industrial development phase in Europe
migrants as representing 10 to 15 per cent of total and North America. Then, when the economies of
migrant stocks and flows (ILO, 2004),13 although this these countries progressed to the post-industrial
average obviously masks large regional or national stage at the beginning of the 1970s, they became
variations. the main destination of new migrations, first from
Africa, then from eastern Europe and Latin America.
5. Irregular Migration Flows and Trends In the years following the fall of the Berlin Wall,
Germany was the major net destination of migrants
Any ambition to identify clear routes and patterns in Europe (almost 70% of the total) as it experienced
involved in irregular migration flows is quickly the arrival of Aussiedler14 as well as asylum seekers.
dispelled when one is confronted with the diversity Since 1998, Spain has become the leading net
of possibilities offered in an increasingly mobile immigration country in the EU, accounting for 35
world. Maps that try to depict such routes often per cent in 2003, followed by Italy with 28 per
appear as intricate webs of arrows and dots, with cent, while Germany ranks fourth, after the United
limited explanatory power. However, it is true, Kingdom (European Commission, 2005). Portugal’s
particularly for irregular migrants, that the migration conversion to being a net destination of migrants
process depends on information and that mediators occurred as recently as 1998.
play a crucial role. If clear routes might not always
be identifiable, some cities and border-crossings As irregular migration is a component of migration
have emerged as hubs, offering a high density of flows, it is hardly surprising that Europe has also
information sources on how to proceed with the become a major destination of irregular migration.
journey. At these staging posts, smugglers set up The major entry points are in the south and
their operations to offer travel packages, often southeast of the continent. North Africa, for a long
proposing the guarantee of one or several repeat time an important region of origin, is now also a
attempts should the first one fail. main region of transit. The short distance to the
mainland or to islands that are constituent parts of
Considering the difficulties and limitations of European countries and the increasingly organized
reporting on irregular migration flows by routes and smuggling industry override the potential dangers
hubs - and bearing in mind that a large proportion of a journey at sea. Based on apprehension data,
of regular migrants lapse into this status after entry the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (2006) estimates
through a legal point of entry - this section attempts that at least 200,000 irregular migrants enter Europe
to provide a broad overview of patterns of movement from Africa annually. However, although most
discernible across geographical areas that do not prominent in terms of media exposure and numbers
correspond to strictly defined migratory systems, but of tragedies, irregular migration from Africa is not
represent zones of more or less intense activity. the most important source of irregular migrants,
as many irregular migrants enter over eastern land
5.1 Southern Europe – Irregular Access by Sea borders with a valid visa and subsequently, owing to
intervening circumstances, such as overstaying and
Countries in southern Europe were the source of working without authorization, shift into irregular
large migratory outflows for almost two centuries status (see Section 5.6 below).

13
“Information obtained from regularization programmes and other
14
sources suggests that 10 to 15 per cent of migrants are irregular” (ILO, Persons of German ancestry mainly from central and eastern Europe and
2004: 11, para. 37, citing Hatton and Williamson (2002)). the former Soviet Union.

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The two main destinations for irregular migration number was limited to 170,000, but 517,000 who
in southern Europe are Spain and Italy, where the were already present and working in Italy, filed an
phenomenon has been resistant to both regularization application. The approval of an additional 350,000
programmes and reinforced interdiction efforts at residence permits16 puts the size of the irregular
sea.15 migration contingent living in Italy at that point in
time at around 500,000. About 90 per cent of arrivals
On the basis of the difference between the number consist of 10 nationalities, among which migrants
of foreigners registered on the census lists and the from North Africa and the Middle East are the most
number of residence permits issued, it was estimated numerous, underlining that geographic proximity is
that there were over one million unauthorized still one of the main factors influencing the decision
migrants in Spain in 2003 (SOPEMI, 2004). Two to migrate irregularly; Egyptians account for the
years later, nearly 700,000 applied under a major largest group (45%), followed by Moroccans (15%),
regularization programme. The overwhelming Eritreans and Tunisians.
majority of irregular migrants in Spain come from
Latin America (at 20%, Ecuadorians were the largest Portugal and Greece rank after Spain and Italy as the
group, followed by Colombians (8%) and Bolivians two major recipients of irregular migrants in southern
(7%)). Eastern Europeans, especially Romanians Europe. According to government estimates, Portugal
(17%), were also present in significant numbers, as would have had 500,000 irregular migrants at the
were Moroccans (12%). Information derived from end of 2004, with about 30,000 from Brazil. Results
the 2005 regularization exercise reveals that 59 per of the regularization process in Greece indicate that
cent of migrants were male and 41 per cent female. the total number of irregular migrants in April 2006
Most of the applicants held low-skilled jobs: 32 per could have reached about 550,000, although fewer
cent were domestic workers (83% women), 21 per than 200,000 applied for regularization around that
cent construction workers (95% men), 15 per cent time, possibly because of the high application fees
working in agriculture, 10 per cent in catering and 5 (EUR 1,176 per person) and the complexity of the
per cent in commerce (Karaboytcheva, 2006). application process.

According to the Italian Ministry of Interior, the Crossing the Mediterranean has always been, and still
number of unauthorized arrivals by sea has increased is, the main route for migrants to irregularly access
by almost 50 per cent since 2003, reaching a total southern Europe from Africa. This pattern seems
of 22,016 people in 2006 (Caritas/Migrantes, 2007). to persist notwithstanding the recently increased
The corresponding figures for 2005 show that 96 per controls. However, in response to this reinforcement
cent of the arrivals were male, while a disconcerting of surveillance and interdiction activities, alternative
7 per cent were minors (Caritas/Migrantes, 2006). routes have been developed. While the traffic was
To have a more realistic picture of the dimension once concentrated in the Gibraltar Strait, through
of irregular migration in Italy, one can turn to the the two enclave cities of Ceuta and Melilla, the route
2006 amendment to the decree establishing the via the Canary Islands has now become the preferred
number of residence permits to be granted to third- staging post into Spain from various departure points
country nationals with a work contract in Italy. The along the West African coastline. However, in the
first seven months of 2007, the number of migrants
intercepted on or off the Canary Islands dropped by
15
It has been reported that EU patrols have substantially reduced arrivals
since the beginning of 2007, although the European Commission has
16
also called for improvements in EU cooperation (EU business.com, 2007a, Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana [Official Journal of the
2007b). Republic of Italy], Anno 147, No. 285, 7 December 2006, p. 13.

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55 per cent to 5,700 from 13,700 during the same 5.2 Western Europe – In and Out of Irregularity
period in 2006. This drop has been attributed inter
alia to greater vigilance on the part of countries of Compared to the southern borders of Europe, western
departure and surveillance missions conducted by European countries appear less exposed to the large-
Spain alone or within the framework of the EU border scale entry of irregular migrants, particularly those
agency FRONTEX (Migration News Sheet, September entering without documents in a clandestine manner.
2007). In the past, intermediate central European countries
operated as a buffer zone. Since the EU enlargement,
Substantial patrolling operations have also been to 15 and now to 27 countries, the former buffer role
undertaken along the short route which connects played by central European countries has become
the Libyan and Tunisian coasts to the island of rather more complex. They are now the frontline
Lampedusa, the main entry point for irregular states on the external EU border and are major
migrants heading to Italy from Africa. While traffic suppliers of migrant workers to western Europe.
along this route decreased by 4.5 per cent in 2006
(Corriere della Sera, 5 January 2007), it is very likely All western European countries are host to a number
that migrants have opted to enter Europe through of irregular migrants, many of whom entered with a
the alternative Canary route. In addition, patrolling regular visa but then overstayed and worked without
operations have not been really effective in limiting authorization. Figures on irregular migration are not
the presence and power of organized gangs, who still published regularly, but at the political level there are
handle the whole operation and charge between EUR frequent acknowledgements of both the magnitude
1,000 to 2,000 per person for the sea crossing from and persistence of the problem. In France, the then
Libya to Italy (Moscarelli, 2008). Minister of Interior, Nicolas Sarkozy, estimated in
June 2006 that there were between 200,000 and
In both routes towards Spain and Italy, countless 400,000 irregular migrants (PICUM, 2006). In April
migrants perish along the way. If the numbers 2005, a report on “sans-papiers” in Switzerland
of irregular migrants can only be estimated, revealed that there were some 90,000 persons living
the number of migrants dying en route to their in the country without authorization (Swiss Federal
destination is even more uncertain. According to Office for Migration, 2005). In the United Kingdom,
the NGO Andalusian Association for Human Rights a report for the Home Office estimated the number
[Asociacion Pro Derechos Humanos de Andalucia], of irregular migrants in 2001 at 430,000, suggesting
289 irregular migrants were confirmed dead or lost that the actual number could be as low as 310,000
at sea in 2004, but some estimates suggest that the and as high as 570,000 (Woodbridge, 2005).
real number of deaths might have been closer to
500. Yet, approximately 1,200 to 1,700 migrants who The participation of irregular migrants in the
left Mauritania in February and March 2006 never economy, especially the informal one, is a subject of
reached Spain and might have died. Finally, the much conjecture, but it is generally acknowledged
then EU Commissioner Franco Frattini’s conjecture that it is high, especially in agriculture and in the
was that during the summer of 2006 perhaps 3,000 construction and service industries.
people died while crossing the Mediterranean to
reach Europe (Palidda and Cuttitta, 2007).

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5.3 North America – The Focus on the U.S.- As to the mode of entry, the Pew Hispanic Center
Mexican Border estimated that up to half of irregular migrants might
have entered the country legally and overstayed
Irregular migration is an issue affecting, in particular, their visa, while the rest entered by evading border
the United States, where the number of irregular inspection in many ways (hiding in vehicles, trekking
migrants has continued to increase, irrespective of through the desert, wading across the Rio Grande).
countervailing legislative measures, beginning with Perhaps between 250,000 and 350,000 annually
the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) overstay their visa, a tiny fraction of the 179
in 1986 and all control measures thereafter. The million non-immigrant admissions, but a significant
consistent demand for labour in the U.S. economy, contribution to the stock of irregular migrants. A
the still hefty, though now reduced to a 1:6 ratio specific group of overstayers consists of holders of a
income differential between the U.S. and Mexico, Border Crossing Card (Mexicans and Canadians), who
the long border between the two countries, the are authorized to stay for a maximum of 30 days
increasing trade and industrial relations, the large within 25 miles of the border (75 miles at the border
Mexican community residing in the U.S. (about with Arizona) but fail to observe these conditions.
12 million, approximately 10% of the Mexican
population, perhaps half in an irregular status17) with Mexico is not only the major country of origin of
large social networks, are among the determinants of irregular migration to the U.S. (over 450,000 a year),
a social phenomenon which remains a major concern but also a transit country for irregular migration from
of policymakers and public opinion. Central and South America. This flow has become
more pronounced since the 1990s. At the same time,
Estimates of the number of irregular migrants in the under pressure from the U.S., Mexico has increased
U.S. are for the most part convergent. A report of the number of apprehensions and deportations
the U.S. Department of Homeland Security estimated of irregular migrants. In 2004, 215,695 Central
the number of irregular migrants at 11 million as Americans, half of them arrested in the border region
of January 2006, an increase of 500,000 compared of Chiapas, were deported. According to the Mexican
to January the previous year, while a report by the Government’s National Migration Institute (Instituto
Pew Hispanic Center (Passel, 2006) put the estimate Nacional de Migración), deportations increased to
at between 11.5 and 12 million as of March 2006, 240,269 in 2005, to decrease again to 167,437 in the
two-thirds of whom would have been in the country first 10 months of 2006. The decline could be a sign
for ten years or less. A breakdown by nationality of a more general decline in migration from Central
indicates that six million are from Mexico, 470,000 to North America, but some experts point instead
from El Salvador, 370,000 from Guatemala, 280,000 to the development of alternative routes and the
from India, 230,000 from China, 210,000 from South use of more effective methods to evade detection.
Korea, 210,000 from the Philippines, 180,000 from The Central American region and the Caribbean are
Honduras, 170,000 from Brazil and 160,000 from Viet not only points of origin of irregular migration, but
Nam. In terms of occupations, 7.2 million, almost five also transit areas, even for people coming from other
per cent of all workers in the U.S., were employed, continents, for example, the Chinese.
with a significant presence in some occupations, such
as farm work (24%), cleaning (17%), construction The 5,500 mile border between the U.S. and Canada (a
(14%) and food preparation (12%). third of which is with Alaska) is subject to increasing
levels of border security. The U.S. is adding Border
Patrol agents, and Canada plans to provide its agents
17
When not indicated otherwise, figures concerning irregular migration
to North America are taken from the Internet quarterly Migration News:
with arms. The number of irregular migrants in
http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/index.php. Canada was estimated at approximately 200,000

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in 2006, employed particularly in construction skilled jobs in agriculture/landscaping, construction,

and other blue-collar jobs. The government is not domestic service and informal trading (Fernández-
considering granting them amnesty as demanded Alfaro and Pascua, 2006). Smuggling rings take
by some employers. However, employer demands advantage of the demand for labour by bringing in
for more workers are being met to a certain degree irregular migrants from Haiti.
through the recent expansion of Canada’s temporary
migrant worker programme (see Chapters 3 and 11). 5.5 South America – Fluctuating Policies and
Fluctuating Flows
5.4 Central America and the Caribbean – Mainly
Labour Movements Migration in South America has traditionally been
organized around two sub-systems: one involving
Significant irregular migration flows also occur within the countries of the Andean region with Venezuela
the Central American sub-region.18 Approximately as the major destination; the other concerning the
half of the 500,000 migrant workers in Costa Rica countries of the south, with Argentina as the main
have irregular status. Many of these irregular migrants destination.
come from neighbouring countries, particularly
Nicaragua (somewhere between 65,000 to 100,000)19 Migration in these two regions, as on the continent
and are concentrated mainly in agriculture20 but also as a whole, has changed considerably in recent times.
in other forms of lower-skilled employment, such as Both the Andean region and the countries of the
construction, tourism and domestic work. south have become characterized by intensive out-
migration, particularly from Ecuador and Peru, but
In the case of Haitian migration, the enhanced U.S. also from traditional countries of destination like
policies to protect its coastal areas and territorial Argentina and Brazil. Increasingly, these migrants
waters from incursions over the past decade have head towards North America and Europe as intra-
reduced the number of attempts by irregular regional movements have declined, especially in
migrants to reach the State of Florida, with the the years of economic crisis in Argentina. During
result that the migration route has switched towards the crisis, perhaps as many as 300,000 migrants left
other Caribbean islands, especially the Bahamas and Argentina, by far the largest immigration country in
the Dominican Republic. Estimates of the number South America with 1.5 million immigrants in 2001.
of Haitian migrants in the Dominican Republic This movement has already subsided, and Argentina
vary from 500,000 to 1.5 million. However, reliable once again attracts low-skilled foreign workers,
sources suggest there are between 500,000 and particularly from Paraguay and Bolivia, who arrive
700,000 Haitians living in the Dominican Republic, to find seasonal employment and feed the informal
the majority of whom do not have valid visas or work economy.
permits (Achieng, 2006).21 An estimated 40,000 to
50,000 Haitians or Haitian descendants reside in the Regularization mechanisms have certainly been
Bahamas, most of whom work in low-paid, lower- one of the major policy strategies pursued by
South American countries in an effort to tackle the
18
Some of these movements are also described in Chapter 3 on low and
phenomenon of irregular migration. Overall, changes
semi-skilled workers. in migration trends and policies have resulted
19
Most of this migration responds nevertheless to the demand for seasonal in a drop in the numbers of irregular migrants in
jobs (IOM, 2001).
20
According to the Costa Rican Ministry of Labour and Social Security, in the southern part of South America. Chile, Bolivia
2002-03 there were 50,400 seasonal migrants working in agriculture, of and Peru regularized about 700,000 migrants in
whom 40,900 (or 81%) were undocumented.
21
Only some five per cent of these Haitian migrants are said to have
2004 (O’Neil et al., 2005) within the Common
identification (Achieng, 2006). Market of the South (MERCOSUR) cooperation

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framework. Following its migration policy reform of social security contributions. The regularization
of 2003, Argentina suspended the repatriation of launched in Argentina in April 2006, called “Patria
Peruvian citizens in 2004 and, beginning in July Grande”, is having more success and, in November
2004, immigrants coming from non-MERCOSUR 2006, the Minister of Interior estimated that 332,000
countries were given 180 days to regularize their people were eligible for regularization, 80 per cent of
status (Jachimowicz, 2006). These opportunities them from Paraguay and Bolivia, and the remainder
for regularizations did not attract a large response from Brazil, Peru and Uruguay. Textbox 8.3 presents
(although about 200,000 migrants regularized their a fuller account of some of the recent regularization
status), mostly because the benefits only partially programmes in this region as well as other countries
offset the costs of regular status, including payment in Latin America.

Textbox 8.3
Regularization Programmes: The Latin-American Case

The issue of migrant regularization is of importance for both the migrants concerned and their host societies.

While countries of destination can rely for guidance on general international instruments addressing the fundamental rights
of migrants, their specific attitudes and approaches to regularization will be influenced by a wide range of factors, such as
their available human and material resources, their perceived need for foreign talent and their capacity for the integration of
newcomers.

Regularization processes grant legal status to non-authorized immigrants in countries of destination on the basis of certain
criteria and vary considerably in both format and content. They may, for instance, be established unilaterally by a country of
destination or may be part of a bilateral agreement between a country of origin and a country of destination. They can be
ongoing or limited in time, individual or collective.

The Latin American region has a long tradition of implementing regularization programmes, some of which are referred to
below:

Argentina

In December 2005, the Argentine Government launched the National Programme for the Regularization of Migrants “Patria
Grande”, which seeks to facilitate the insertion and integration of the migrant population through the granting of residence
status. The programme is in keeping with the government’s ideal of South American integration and intended to eradicate
exploitation of irregular migrants by the business sector.

In its first phase, the programme was aimed at migrants from outside the MERCOSUR, the Common Market of the South
consisting of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. According to the Interior Ministry, a total of 13,000 people, mainly from
Asia and eastern Europe, were granted residence during this phase. The second phase, which started on the 17 April 2006,
has facilitated the regularization of 552,909 migrants from MERCOSUR and associated countries, including Bolivia, Colombia,
Ecuador and Peru (Ministry of the Interior, Argentina, 2008).

In this regard, a new settlement criterion is to be implemented, based on the possession of the nationality of one of the
countries of the region and the principle of good faith, as a guiding principle for further regularization programmes.

Ecuador

In Ecuador, a decree has been issued to coordinate administrative processes enabling the regularization of undocumented
Peruvians in the southern part of the country.

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Through dialogue, Ecuador seeks to create legal options to introduce a regularization process for third-country nationals
present in Ecuador and to establish a database for authorities to know how many foreigners are living in Ecuador, where they
are living and their occupations.

Mexico

Mexico implemented a large regularization programme which benefited 15,000 migrants in the period 2002-2006, most of whom
were from countries in Central America (National Institute of Migration, 2007).

Venezuela

The “Mision Identidad” (Identity Mission) implemented by Venezuela provided documentation to migrants who had been
living in the country for many years and who did not possess identity cards, thereby formally incorporating them into the
country’s national development plans. The government regularized over 415,000 migrants during 1998-2006 (Ministry of
Foreign Relations, Venezuela, 2006).

Source: José-Angel Oropeza, IOM Bogotá.

5.6 Africa north, through Algeria, where it bifurcates east

towards Libya and west towards Morocco. Agadez
Africa is a vast continent characterized by many in Niger, Gao and Kidal in Mali, and Tamanrasset
different migratory sub-systems besides two clearly in Algeria are transit nodes. A different route cuts
defined poles of attraction. On the one hand, North southwest towards Senegal and Mauritania to cross
Africa attracts people heading for Europe as their over to the Canary Islands. The route that originates
final destination (but who increasingly diversify from East Africa cuts across Sudan, with Selima
their points of departure in West and East Africa) as the nodal point, and enters Libya at Kufra, the
and, on the other, there is South Africa, which major port of entry, where migrants stay a short time
receives migrants from a large catchment area in the before reaching the coast. Tripoli and Benghazi are
southern part of the continent. The Sahara desert the main departure points, with Lampedusa as the
used to serve as a separation boundary, but it has preferred destination.
increasingly become a transit area, often a deadly
one. Finally, it is worth noting the partial transformation
the Maghreb countries are undergoing. They are now
(a) North Africa – the African gate to Europe: both transit and destination countries for sub-Saharan
from transit to settlement migrants. The countless tragedies that have occurred
during the passage across the Mediterranean have
The presence of North African migrants in Europe, certainly played a role in prompting some potential
particularly in southern Europe, is, at least in irregular migrants to delay their departure and in
part, the result of irregular movements eventually discouraging others from undertaking the crossing
normalized through regularization processes. This altogether. Some studies concerning Morocco have
experience has generated the knowledge and logistics estimated the average time a migrant will stay
to sustain well established routes for migrants from between entry and embarkation for Europe at
East and West Africa. The most utilized one originates approximately 15 months (Collyer, 2006). The total
from the Gulf of Guinea (Benin, Cameroon, Ghana, number of such migrants has not been very high
Nigeria, Togo), crosses Mali and Niger, and leads (between 7,000 and 13,000), but their condition as

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irregular migrants puts them under severe stress, as form of overstayers or persons engaging in work
Morocco is under pressure from European countries without proper documentation. In the Republic
to act to control irregular migration from its shores. of Korea (South Korea), the phenomenon was
The same can be said of Libya, where migrants break connected in a very specific way to the presence
their journey to collect money for the crossing, and of foreign trainees, employed in the textile, rubber
where they also end up if their attempts to proceed and plastic industries (Ja-young, 2006), who turned
fail. In Libya, an economy for transit migration has into irregular workers in response to the ample
flourished, both in Kufra, where people of many employment opportunities provided by medium and
nationalities have settled to provide information to small-sized companies but also to move away from
arriving new migrants, and the coastal cities where stringent working conditions in their designated
they prepare for departure (Hamood, 2006). workplaces (UN Human Rights Council, 2007). The
adoption of the Employment Permit System (EPS) in
(b) Sub-Saharan Africa – diversity of movements 2004, which was subsequently expanded to replace
the industrial trainee system in January 2007,
Sub-Saharan irregular migration is characterized offered the opportunity to many irregular migrants to
by significant cross-border movements (see also obtain regular status.22 However, irregular migration
Chapter 7) as well as flows to Europe and South – mainly in the form of overstaying – continues to be
Africa. significant, but the number seems to be stabilizing:
by mid-2006, about 190,000 individuals – half of all
As opposed to migrants from North Africa, sub- the migrant workers – lived and worked irregularly
Saharan communities are much less numerous in in South Korea (OECD, 2007). Similarly, in Japan,
Europe and tend to gather by nationality. Irregular irregular migrants are mostly overstayers, and the
migrants from Senegal are found mostly in France Ministry of Justice estimated that at the beginning
and Italy, Nigerians are more numerous in the U.K. of 2005 they numbered approximately 207,000, while
and Ireland. In the U.K., there are also irregular another estimated 30,000 persons were smuggled in
migrants from Zimbabwe and South Africa, while by boat. Taiwan Province of China, is reported to be
irregular migrants from Cape Verde, Angola and experiencing some irregular migration in the form
Guinea are found mainly in Portugal. of regular migrant workers who become clandestine
residents because of problems with employers or as a
South Africa is the most prominent, although certainly result of lay-offs.
not the only African destination of irregular sub-
Saharan migrants (see also Chapter 3). Categories of A new trend in East Asian irregular migration is the
irregular migrants include, among others, retrenched decrease of some intra-regional flows, while other
miners who remain in the country, tourists and less traditional destinations are becoming more
students who work without permits, overstayers and attractive. On the one hand, “irregular migration”
migrants who entered evading border controls. A from mainland China to Hong Kong SAR and Taiwan
study estimated their numbers at anywhere between Province of China has decreased, particularly because
390,000 and 470,000 (Crush and Williams, 2005). of the rapid development of the inland provinces
(Hong Kong SAR is planning to attract skilled
5.7 East Asia – The Lure of Strong Economies
22
In 2003, the number of irregular migrant workers registered by the
A region with diversified migration policies, East Ministry of Labour exceeded 227,000, and 80 per cent of them were
Asia experiences irregular migration mostly in the afforded regular status under the Employment Permit System (UN
Human Rights Council, 2007).

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workers from mainland China under its Quality 5.8 Southeast Asia – Cross-border Irregular
Migrant Admission Scheme). On the other hand, it is Migration
estimated that up to 200,000 irregular migrants from
China are taking advantage of work opportunities Southeast Asia is a region of origin, transit and
created by the declining population in the Russian destination of migrants, where the most prevalent
Far East (Akaha, 2004). mode of entry is over land borders (see Chapter 7).
Irregular migration in this region, however, takes
many forms as illustrated in Portrait 8.1.

Portrait 8.1
Sailing to Nowhere – A Cambodian Migrant’s Tale

Nang, aged 25, is a Cambodian fisherman from Banteay Meanchey province. He has very little formal education and, following
the advice of some friends, decided to leave Cambodia in early 2004 to work in neighbouring Thailand to support his family.

He was recruited by a Cambodian broker (mekhal) who came to his village and promised him a job in the construction industry
in Thailand paying up to THB 4,500 (USD 128) per month. The broker’s fee, payable in advance, was THB 3,000 (USD 85).

Nang borrowed the money for the broker’s fee from relatives, and he was then taken to the Malay district in Banteay Meanchey,
where the broker helped him cross the border into Thailand unlawfully for an additional fee of THB 200 (USD 6).

Once in Thailand, he was taken to Patnam in Samut Prakan province, where he was kept in a guesthouse for several days before
being told that there was no job in construction and that he would have to work on a fishing boat.

When he complained that he had been promised a job in construction, the broker threatened him that he could easily find
himself in the custody of the Thai police as an irregular migrant. In fact, Nang believes that the broker sold him to the captain
of the fishing boat for THB 5,000 (USD 150).

According to Nang, the conditions onboard his boat, which sailed towards Indonesian waters and remained there for six months,
were extremely harsh. The crew had to work day and night for three days before having a day to rest, and was continually
harassed and threatened by the captain.

Nang was never allowed to leave the boat, and even if the captain had allowed him ashore, he would have not gone for fear of
being arrested by local police as an irregular migrant.

Eventually the boat docked in Ranong on the Thai-Myanmar border, where the Cambodian crew was replaced by a crew from
Myanmar prior to moving on into that country’s waters. Nang was paid a total of THB 2,000 (USD 57) for six months of work.

With no travel documents and unable to afford transport back to Cambodia, let alone the sum of THB 6,000 (USD 171)
demanded by a broker to help him return home, Nang realized that it was only a matter of time before he would be picked up
by the Thai police as an irregular migrant.

On the advice of other Cambodian fishermen stranded in Ranong, he signed up with another Thai fishing boat and was given
forged papers identifying him as Thai.

In August 2004, while fishing illegally in Indian waters, the boat was intercepted by the Indian navy and escorted to Port Blair
in the Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Before they arrived, Nang and the other Cambodian crew members were threatened by the crew that unless they stuck by their
story that they were Thai, they would never be allowed to return home.

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The entire crew was jailed, but after six weeks the Thai owner of the vessel arrived to stand bail and obtain their release. The
Thai crew immediately left India, leaving Nang and the other Cambodians to fend for themselves.

Nang was then taken to the Port Blair Immigration Police Centre and held there for three months. When the case was finally
heard in court, he pleaded guilty to entering India unlawfully and was sent to an internment camp, where he remained for
two years.

In March 2007, working with the Cambodian and Indian governments, IOM was able to at last repatriate Nang from Port Blair
to his home province of Banteay Meanchey.

Source: IOM Bangkok.

Both Malaysia and Thailand have large numbers of ensure that workers respect their conditions of entry
irregular migrants. In July 2006, some 1.8 million and employers abide by the terms of work contracts
regular foreign workers, 65 per cent from Indonesia, (Yeoh, 2007).
were known to be employed in Malaysia, particularly in
manufacturing, construction, service and plantation Irregular migration is also of concern in the
industries, though actual numbers are thought to Philippines, an important country of origin, where
be much higher, and the Malaysian Interior Ministry illegal recruiters make use of various schemes,
estimates that at least a further 600,000 irregular including internet advertising, to lure workers to
migrants were present, notwithstanding periodic work abroad, including deployment to prohibited
repatriations (Hugo, 2007). destinations such as Iraq,24 or impose working
conditions inconsistent with the minimum conditions
In Thailand in 2004, approximately 1.28 million laid out in the standard employment contract, in
migrants from Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos violation of the regulatory framework established by
registered with the Ministry of Interior. Registration the government.
is a process by which such migrants are still
considered to be present without authorization but 5.9 South Asia – The Close Line Between
which enables them to stay in the country and to Trafficking in Human Beings and Labour
apply to the Ministry of Labour for a work permit, Migration
which, if granted, can be renewed on an annual
basis. Out of those irregular migrants who registered While irregular migration in South Asia is mostly
in 2004, nearly 850,000 received work permits. In discussed in connection with human trafficking
the subsequent registration process conducted in cases (Textbox 8.4), irregular labour migration is
2006, a further 220,892 irregular migrants registered also a focus of attention. This is particularly the case
with the Ministry of Interior, and 208,262 of these from Bangladesh to India, where the phenomenon
obtained work permits.23 has been going on for more than a century and does
not seem to be decreasing (Joseph, 2006). On the
Although figures for irregular migration are contrary, the flows of migrants irregularly crossing
not available for Singapore, the government is the border have intensified lately, prompting the
particularly watchful over the domestic services installation of a fence at the border to stem entries
sector, and has introduced numerous regulations to
24
The Philippines, along with Bangladesh, India and Nepal, expressly
outlaws travel to Iraq for its nationals, while in Sri Lanka employment
23
Information provided by the Ministry of Labour to IOM Bangkok. agencies are prohibited from offering jobs in Iraq (Brothers, 2007).

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into the State of Assam. Bangladeshis in India have (sometimes via the Gulf States) and taking the
now begun to move away from the border into more common Saharan route to Morocco, or by entering
prosperous areas in northern and northwestern North Africa through Egypt and moving on to Libya
India as well as into cities such as Delhi and Mumbai and Tunisia. From these three Maghreb countries
(Joseph, 2006; Ramachandran, 2005). Once at they then attempt the sea crossing to Italy and
destination, these migrants are mainly employed in Malta (de Haas, 2007).
daily work wage labour, or as seasonal agricultural
workers, construction or domestic workers. However, Sri Lanka is another country affected by irregular
some of them become part of settled communities migration, although the government has recently
and acquire land or engage in business. introduced several measures, such as bilateral
discussion with countries of destination and
Reliable statistics about the number of Bangladeshis pre-departure orientation for potential migrants
irregularly living and working in India are very to promote their regular migration. Among the
difficult to obtain, but one source, drawing on both destinations of irregular migrants from Sri Lanka are
official and unofficial estimates, reports a figure as Canada, Italy, Japan, and South Korea. A study carried
high as 10 million (Joseph, 2006). Deportation data out on 200 irregular migrants sheds some light on the
collected by the different states provide additional many different and circuitous routes used by irregular
information on trends, but they can be contradictory. migrants to reach Italy. For example, sometimes they
For instance, statistics provided by the Delhi were taken to Karachi by small and very unseaworthy
authorities state that a total of 2,957 migrants were boats and from there to central or eastern European
deported between 1995 and 2002, with the number countries such as Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania or the
increasing to 5,028 in 2003. However, another source Russian Federation. The last leg of the journey was
claims that from 2001 to 2004 the Delhi police undertaken by land to Italy. The study also found
sent back some 12,200 individuals to Bangladesh that a majority of the study sample did not have any
(Ramachandran, 2005). vocational training and would engage in low-skilled
jobs (Siddiqui, 2006).
Irregular migration from Bangladesh does not affect
India only but also farther destinations such as the Irregular movements for work in South Asia also
Gulf States. Research conducted on 200 Bangladeshi include flows from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and
returnees from the Gulf (Siddiqui, 2006) found that, Myanmar to Pakistan. Many irregular Afghani
while 80 per cent migrated with valid documents, migrants, for instance, manage to enter and work
70 per cent of them fell into irregularity at some in Pakistan with the help of networks established
stage of their migration process. While some of the during the conflict period.
migrants became irregular simply by switching to
better paid jobs without authorization, the study
identified unscrupulous recruiters, intermediaries
and travel agents in the country of origin, as well
as some employers, recruiters and members of law
enforcement agencies in the country of destination
as contributors to the problem (Siddiqui, 2006).
Irregular migrants from Bangladesh, India and
Pakistan have also begun to make their way to
Europe, either by flying to West African capitals

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Textbox 8.4
Out-of-reach and Out-of-danger: Keeping Girls Safe from Traffickers in Nepal

Every year an estimated 12,000 Nepalese women and girls are trafficked into India. The Asian Development Bank estimates that
100,000 to 200,000 Nepalese women and girls are held against their will in Indian brothels, with roughly 25 per cent under
the age of 18 years. Traffickers typically lure impoverished girls with promises of jobs in urban areas or abroad. Some families
knowingly send their daughters to brothels because they consider them a burden. Many of the women and girls are illiterate
and are not even aware that they have been taken across the border. The Government of Nepal has identified 26 districts from
which women and girls have disappeared.

In response, the Reproductive Health Initiative for Youth in Asia (RHIYA), a partnership of the European Union and the United
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) working in collaboration with NGOs, is focusing on 19 “high-risk” impoverished districts. The
programme educates parents, community leaders, district health officials and young people about the dangers of trafficking. It
also provides girls and young women with training and empowerment opportunities. Trafficking survivors are reintegrated into
their communities through efforts designed to reduce stigmatization and are referred to social and legal services for additional
assistance.

The initiative is proving effective. In the district of Prasauni VDC, a RHIYA peer educator was able to rescue three adolescent
girls the very same day they were scheduled to depart. She had learned that the young men who had promised the girls work
were, in fact, traffickers. After the peer educator raised the alarm, villagers caught the traffickers and handed them over to the
police. They soon admitted their guilt. In Rupandehi District, a young woman was asked by her brother-in-law to accompany
him on a one-day shopping trip to Gorakhpur, just across the border. But when she arrived at the crossing, her brother-in-
law introduced her to two other girls and asked her to accompany them into India, claiming that he would join them later
after taking care of some personal business. She became alarmed, recalling the RHIYA educational sessions on trafficking, and
realized that her brother-in-law must be a trafficker. She immediately sought help from the border NGO Maaiti Nepal, and all
the girls were returned safely to their homes.

Source: UNFPA (2006: 50).

5.10 Middle East the other.25 Another striking characteristic of the

region, which to a certain extent nurtures irregular
Irregular movement for work is also an issue in flows, is the high dependence on foreign workers
the labour markets of Gulf Cooperation Council (remittances sent home from the Gulf States in 2005
(GCC) States. As restrictions on work permits are represent nearly 9% of GDP). According to United
progressively tightened, more migrant workers are Nations figures, 12.8 million foreigners lived and
prepared to enter without authorization or to stay worked in the GCC States in 2005. The proportion of
beyond the expiration of their permits. In Kuwait, non-nationals within the local population is as high
for instance, the Department of Immigration in the as 62.1 per cent for Kuwait and 71.4 per cent for the
Ministry of Internal Affairs estimates the number of United Arab Emirates (UAE) (UN DESA, 2006). The
irregular migrants at up to 60,000 (UN DESA 2006, Gulf States are committed to reducing the number
citing Shah, 2005). Two mechanisms working in of irregular contract workers: for instance, in Saudi
favour of irregular migration are to be found in the Arabia and the UAE by making the sponsorship
employment sponsorship system, on the one hand, system more flexible and allowing workers to change
and the annual pilgrimage to Mecca (the Hajj), on employer before the traditional one-year period,

25
Approximately 700,000 persons are deported from Saudi Arabia annually.
Many come for the Hajj and then stay and work in the country (Shah,
2005).

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and in Saudi Arabia by discouraging nationals from • Although irregular crossings attract the highest
harbouring overstayers by imposing a maximum fee attention, most irregular migration occurs
of SAR 5,000 (i.e. USD 1,335) and imprisonment of through the lawful entry of persons who then drift
up to two years. However, the effectiveness of these into irregularity by violating the terms of their
measures has yet to be determined. Other important admission through overstaying and/or working
patterns of irregular movements in the region include without authorization to do so. It may, therefore,
arrivals from Somalia, Ethiopia and other African be argued that the possibility of finding work is
countries in Yemen, and irregular Afghan workers the ultimate determinant of irregular migration.
(perhaps 800,000) in Iran, where the authorities
have announced their intention to proceed with 6. Policies
repatriations.
Policies to address irregular migration have coalesced
5.11 Summary Points around a number of well-established policy objectives:
the fight against organized smuggling in migrants;
Following this broad, though cursory, overview of control of external borders to reduce irregular
irregular migration in various regions some summary entries; inspection of labour sites to reduce irregular
points may be offered: employment; and cooperation towards development
to ease migration pressure from countries of origin;
• Irregular migration is present in all major and repatriation and return programmes, and
regions; therefore, it is of general interest to the agreements between countries of destination, origin
international community. and transit. Another policy option, the regularization
• The magnitude of irregular migrant populations of migrants to lower the number of irregular migrants
differs significantly across the various regions. present in the country, does not attract general
Irregular migration seems to be a function of the consensus. While some countries have implemented
overall volume of migration in a given region, it repeatedly, others have remained sceptical.
the proximity of places of origin and destination,
the permeability of borders and the strength of 6.1 Efforts against Organized Smuggling
migration networks.
• The existence of work opportunities for lower- There is international consensus on the need to
wage, low-skilled migrant workers is an important combat the organized crime of smuggling in migrants
incentive for irregular migrants. and this is one of the few areas where a multilateral
• Although irregular migration is a complex approach to migration management is pursued. The
phenomenon and resistant to analysis, it is a global 1990 International Convention on the Protection of
industry with connections to both legitimate the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of
migration agencies and to criminal networks. their Families specifically calls for such cooperation
• The choice of regular or irregular migration (Article 68). The 2000 Protocol against the Smuggling
channels depends on a variety of factors: of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air has attracted
availability of regular channels; time necessary 114 ratifications. There are numerous declarations
for the migration process to be completed; and statements of governments committing or
bureaucratic difficulties in the process; excessive re-committing themselves to action (among the
conditions and requirements; preference for most recent ones are the 11 July 2006 Rabat Plan
immediate profit over long-term benefits; and lack of Action, adopted by the Euro-African Ministerial
of or difficult access to available alternatives.

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Conference on Migration and Development,26 and migrants. A major challenge is the prevalence of
the 13 January 2007 Association of Southeast Asian forged documents; hence the ongoing attempts to
Nations (ASEAN) Declaration on the Protection and introduce tamper-proof travel documents through
Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers).27 Many the inclusion of high-technology security features.
Regional Consultative Processes have the topic as Another is the fact that irregular migrants are
a standing item on their agenda.28 However, the routinely advised by smugglers to conceal or destroy
constant reiteration of the need for common efforts their travel documents to delay identification and
against organized smuggling is in itself an indication make repatriation more difficult.
of how difficult it is to translate intentions into
practice. As employment opportunities play a key role
in encouraging irregular migration despite the
6.2 Control of Borders administrative obstacles, inspections of labour
sites constitute an important deterrent, and indeed
In recent years, and particularly after September 11, there are indications that many governments are
2001, much attention was given to the link between moving in that direction. In 2006, for instance, the
migration and security and the control of borders. U.K. Border Agency (2008a) carried out over 5,200
At times, this has resulted in the reinforcement operations to detect unauthorized employment and
of border controls as best exemplified perhaps by removed more than 22,000 people from the country.
the U.S. decision to build a 700-mile long fence At the end of February 2008, new rules have been
along the U.S.-Mexican border, under the terms of brought into effect, whereby employers could be
the 2006 Secure Fence Act. The construction of a fined up to £10,000 for every unauthorized worker
wall at the border between Thailand and Malaysia, they negligently hire or, if they knowingly hire such
the fence between Bangladesh and India, and the a worker, an unlimited fine and/or a maximum two
fences around Ceuta and Melilla reflect the pressures years prison sentence (U.K. Border Agency, 2008b).
governments are facing from people wishing to move However, there are challenges in conducting such
irregularly in search of better life opportunities. operations in a planned and systematic way over
time rather than relying on highly publicized one-
Increasing use is also being made of high off interventions. Human resource limitations
technology, including movement and heat sensor and differences in enforcement priorities among
devices, sophisticated radar systems and automated the relevant agencies are hurdles that have to be
identification systems incorporating biometric overcome. In addition, such inspections are very
components (Redpath, 2007). difficult in areas of employment where migrants are
scattered, for instance in the agricultural sector, or
6.3 Internal Controls and Labour Inspections where controls can be carried out only indirectly, as
in domestic employment.
All countries of destination are faced with the
problem of establishing the identity of irregular 6.4 Prevention through Development

26
The text of the Action Plan is available from the website of the The idea that prevention should begin with the
Government of Morocco’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation at stemming of migration pressures at source has
http://www.maec.gov.ma/migration/Doc/PA%20final%20EN.pdf.
27
See the ASEAN website at http://www.aseansec.org/19264.htm. been much debated over the years without leading
28
E.g. the Regional Ministerial Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking to the development of concrete and sustainable
in Persons and Related Transnational Crime, known simply as the Bali
Process, is devoted largely to this issue. See http://www.baliprocess.
intervention strategies. Put simply, the argument is
net/. that prevention of irregular migration should begin

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with socio-economic development in countries of 6.5 Repatriation and Return Programmes and
origin, although a reduction in flows in the short term Agreements
is not to be expected, as theorists of the “migration
hump” have articulated (Martin and Taylor, 1996). Enforcement measures against irregular migration
In more recent times, the linkage between migration are often intended to lead to the repatriation of
and development has taken on renewed significance, those identified as irregular migrants. Large-scale
but from a different perspective, as demonstrated repatriations have been conducted in specific
at the UN General Assembly’s High-Level Dialogue circumstances, for instance between Thailand and
on International Migration and Development in Myanmar or Malaysia and Indonesia. They appear to
September 2006, and the Global Forum on Migration work best when coupled with offers of legitimate re-
and Development in July 2007.29 The switch in entry for the purpose of employment. In industrialized
international thinking is that migration, while not countries of destination, the acceptance rate is
a panacea for economic distress, can itself be a generally modest, even when return assistance is
development factor, contributing in the shorter term provided (see Portrait 8.2). Deportations are also
to the reduction of poverty levels in the longer term, practised, but are expensive to conduct on a large
to sustainable growth. The spectacular increase scale. It has been estimated, for instance, that the
in the recorded levels of remittances transferred expulsion of one person from Spain to Romania costs
to developing countries has played a large part in USD 2,300, to Senegal USD 2,500, to Ecuador USD
ensuring broad acceptance of that shift of perception 4,900 and to China USD 8,600 (Caritas/Migrantes,
in the international community. Research and 2005). Consequently, EU interior ministers decided
international consultations have yielded a wide in April 2004 to cooperate on organizing joint
range of recommended actions, some of which are flights for the expulsion of third-country nationals
being implemented, although a comprehensive to reduce costs.31
global effort has yet to be attempted.30

31
29
Council Decision of 29 April 2004 on the organization of joint flights
For the GFMD, see also Textbox Int. 2. for removals from the territory of two or more Member States of third-
30
Chapter 12 offers a fuller discussion of the labour migration and country nationals who are subjects of individual removal orders, OJ 2004
development relationship. L 261/28.

Portrait 8.2
From Kayes to Tripoli and back

Diakite was born in Kayes, Mali, on 1 January 1943. The name Kayes comes from the Soninke word karre, meaning a low, humid
place prone to floods in the rainy season. Kayes is also referred to as the “pressure cooker of Africa” because of its extreme
heat, to which the iron ore found in the surrounding mountains is said to contribute.

Diakite has always been a farmer, working the five hectares of land he inherited from his father. A drought in 2004 made it
difficult to eke out enough from the arid soil to live on, and his son decided to search for a better life by heading towards
North Africa and later, perhaps, Europe. Then, one year later, Diakite also left to search for his son, who had disappeared. At
the time of their last phone call, he had been working as an employee in Ghatt, south-western Libya.

Diakite travelled across his large country by any means he could find; he entered Algeria with the “assistance” of a smuggler,
and then Libya. “Unfortunately, I did all this just to find my son’s name written on a gravestone in a Ghatt cemetery. I never
did find out how and why my son died”, Diakite said. When he found himself a stranger and irregular migrant in a new country,
without a job or money, he decided to go to Tripoli to find work that would allow him to earn the money needed to get back

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home. “Like many others from sub-Saharan Africa, I was sitting on the sidewalk of a street near a big market in Tripoli, with
a brush and a tin of paint in front of me to indicate to passers-by the service I could offer for a few dinars. Sometimes I was
lucky, and I found work for a few days or weeks decorating Libyan houses. At other times, I would wait in vain sitting under
the sun the whole day”, relates Diakite. For one year, he managed to survive by doing occasional jobs, but was unable to save
enough money to return home. At the beginning of 2007, the Malian Embassy in Tripoli referred him to IOM as a possible
candidate to benefit under an Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR) programme. Diakite was able to return to
Kayes, where he will buy a water pump to make his land prosper again. “This water pump will be beneficial to my family and
the whole community, and I am glad to be back and able to tell the young people in my town how the dreams of emigrating
can turn into nightmares.”

Source: IOM Tripoli.

Another crucial aspect of repatriation is the such agreements (IGC, 2002), but not all of them
willingness of countries of origin to accept expelled are yet operative. Spain has succeeded in signing
migrants. In December 2005, in response to a agreements with some sub-Saharan countries (Cape
Parliamentary question, the Spanish Government Verde, Gambia, Guinea Conakry, Guinea Bissau,
announced that between 1 January 2001 and 31 May Mauritania, Nigeria, Ghana) (Embassy of Spain
2005 a total of 122,238 expulsion orders were not (London, U.K.), 2007), but others are resisting
carried out (Migration News Sheet, December 2005). entering into readmission agreements. However,
Most consulates of sub-Saharan countries refused there are no indications of a close correlation
to recognize the migrants to be returned as their between numbers of agreements signed and numbers
citizens. Consequently, countries of destination have of irregular migrants sent home.
been eager to sign readmission agreements with
countries of origin. Italy has signed more than 20 Some lessons learnt from return programmes are
described in Textbox 8.5 below.

Textbox 8.5
Return Programmes – Lessons Learnt

• Return programmes are best implemented as one important element within a comprehensive approach to migration
management.

• To be successful, return interventions must not be a policy afterthought. Return interventions begin at the point of entry
through the provision of timely and accurate information about options and consequences, not when weeks or months later
a decision on return is eventually taken.

• Counselling by authoritative and credible interlocutors can create an appropriate context for return decisions.

• Protection of the dignity and integrity of the individual is essential.

• Both mandatory and voluntary programmes have their place in a properly designed approach to return, although there is a
real challenge in ensuring that they are complementary and mutually supportive.

• Return programmes are best developed in partnership between countries of origin and destination. A prerequisite to this is
the establishment of effective communication lines between the two parties, and the creation of mutual confidence.

• Carefully designed reintegration programmes that take account, where appropriate, of the needs of local residents as well as
of returnees can contribute significantly to the sustainability of return.

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- The range of available options is practically unlimited, ranging from preparation for return to return visits, on-the-job
training, setting up of small businesses and community development activities.

Among the most successful return programmes are those that operate on a small scale and are tailored to the particular
circumstances of particular returnees and countries of origin.

Source: Nicoletta Giordano, Former Head, Return Migration Management, IOM.

6.6 Regularizations In the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) States and

Southeast and East Asia, irregular migrants are not
Beginning in the 1980s, regularizations have become regularized as permanent residents. Rather, they
a frequent means of addressing the presence of a are invited to register for the right to reside and
large number of irregular migrants, especially those work on a temporary basis (see Sections 5.7 and 5.8
with a stable record of employment and other claims above and Map 7b). The frequency of registrations is
to local integration, for whom any other outcome even higher than that of regularizations, indicating
would be politically or socially unacceptable or too that this policy is not necessarily more effective in
difficult to implement. There are wide differences in discouraging irregular migration.
both terminology and actual administrative measures:
amnesties, regularizations, and registration have In the U.S. there has been a vigorous ongoing
all been decreed from time to time (Levinson, debate about the policies that should be introduced
2005). In southern Europe, since the early 1990s, to address the problem of the estimated 11 to 12
regularization campaigns have been conducted more million irregular migrants present in the country.
often than anywhere else in the world (three in Since 2004, the government has tried repeatedly
Greece, three in Portugal, four in Italy, five in Spain, to put into place a plan to address the issue of
involving more than three million migrants in total), undocumented workers within the context of a
to the point of being a major instrument of migration comprehensive temporary worker programme that
management. The last regularizations by Spain and would be accessible to both irregular migrants within
Italy were directed only at migrants in employment the U.S. and applicants from abroad. The issue
with applications submitted on their behalf by their remains unresolved (Levinson, 2005).
respective employers. While regularizations may
represent a highly favourable outcome for irregular 7. Conclusion
migrants (particularly if they do not fall back into
irregular status) who can thus accede to legitimate Irregular migration is undoubtedly one of the
employment and services, they are also criticized most complex, sensitive and intractable migration
for creating the perception that irregular entry and management problems confronting the international
stay is a calculated risk, and one worth taking as community. Most of the responses to the problem have
it pays off eventually. This reasoning explains the been and continue to be implemented essentially at
policy stance of countries, such as Germany, which the national level, but there is a clearly discernible
have remained steadily opposed to the idea of evolution towards the development of cooperative
regularization programmes.32 approaches on either a bilateral or multilateral basis
(for example, see Textbox 8.6).
32
But see the decision of the German Länder in November 2006 to legalize
the situation of migrants with the precarious temporary Duldung status
(referred to in Chapter 11), which may represent a turning point in the
One form of cooperation has focused increasingly on
traditional line taken on regularization in Germany. measures of control between countries of destination

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and transit. Such cooperation typically covers joint migrants, apply the remittances to sustainable
interdiction operations and capacity building – development enterprises and to mobilize the
including the training of personnel and procurement resources of diasporas.
of equipment. One unintended consequence of this
approach is that irregular migrants become more In parallel with this, there is good reason to be
inclined to seek to gain access to informal economies optimistic about the part that managed labour
and settle in the country of transit (Collyer, 2006), migration programmes can play. While there is no
thus giving rise in the medium to longer term to evidence that labour migration programmes spell the
problems of social exclusion and petty criminality. end of irregular flows, they do offer an important,
more manageable and more predictable alternative.
Another avenue of cooperation leads to migration And crucially, they provide better protection for the
and development initiatives, to lower the costs of rights and dignity of migrants, which is what all
remittance transfers, create savings schemes for policies should aim to do.

Textbox 8.6
Cooperation on Preventing Unauthorized Employment of Migrant Workers with a view to
Promoting Regular Employment

In 2006, IOM Helsinki carried out a project called “Cooperation on preventing illegal employment of labour migrants with a view
to promoting legal employment opportunities” (PIELAMI), involving partners from Finland, Latvia and North-West Russia. The
project was funded under the European Commission’s ARGO programme,1 with co-funding from the Finnish Ministry of Labour,
and largely focused on the service and construction sectors.

The impetus for the project came from IOM Helsinki’s interest in exploring the interplay between unauthorized employment of
migrant workers and labour market demand.

The project involved three main activities:

1. The drafting of working papers on the scope of unauthorized employment as well as regular employment opportunities for
third-country nationals in Finland, Latvia and North-West Russia.2

2. A seminar in Helsinki in November 2006 attended by representatives from the Baltic Sea states.

3. A project report including the material and findings of the project (available from http://iom.fi/content/view/159/8/).

The working papers concluded that it was not possible to either generalize or simplify the causes or, indeed, the outcomes
of unauthorized employment of migrant workers, as they reflected the very different migration contexts and labour market
conditions of each country. Furthermore, different countries use different methods to combat unauthorized employment,
often with little coordination between relevant authorities such as the police, tax authorities and migration officials. Officials
who participated in the PIELAMI seminar pointed to the need for intensified administrative cooperation and exchange
of information not only on methods to prevent unauthorized employment of migrant workers, but also to promote lawful
employment opportunities.

Based on the papers and seminar discussions as a source of inspiration, IOM formulated a number of recommendations on the
subject, which focused on the questions at issue from various angles. Some of the key recommendations are listed below:

• The encouragement of cooperative action among all stakeholders, including employers’ associations and unions.

• Wide dissemination of information about employment opportunities and working conditions abroad.

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• The creation of regular channels to enable workers to obtain access to the labour market in countries of destination.

• The protection of the rights of migrant workers, including through the signing and ratifying of relevant international
conventions, the setting of minimum wages and the provision of access to justice and health care systems.

• The adoption of measures to combat intolerance, discrimination and xenophobia to facilitate the integration of migrant
workers in host societies.

Notes:
1
Action programme for administrative cooperation in the fields of external borders, visas, asylum and immigration (2002-2006).
2
For North-West Russia, the term “foreign national” was used because in Finland and Latvia “third-country national” refers to a citizen from
outside the European Economic Area (EEA).

Source: IOM Helsinki.

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Costanzo, J., C. Davis, C. Irazi, D. Goodkind and R. Ramirez

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 Chapter 8 - IRREGULAR MIGRATION

Karaboytcheva, M.K. Mitsilegas, V.

2006 “Una Evaluación del Último Proceso de 2004 “Measuring Irregular Migration: Implications for
Regularización de Trabajadores Extranjeros Law, Policy and Human Rights” in B. Bogusz,
en España (Febrero-Mayo de 2005). Un Año R. Cholewinski, A. Cygan and E. Szyszczak
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Levinson, A.
2005 “The Regularisation of Unauthorized Migrants: O’Neil, K., K. Hamilton and D. Papademetriou
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Regularisation%20Report.pdf. Migration (GCIM), September, Geneva, http://
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2006 “The Size and Characteristics of the
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Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Shah, N.M.

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Scott, P.
2004 “Undocumented Migrants in Germany and
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United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs United States Department of State
(UN DESA), Population Division 2006 Trafficking in Persons Report 2006, June, U.S.
2006 International Migration in the Arab Region, Department of State, Washington, D.C., http://
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UN Expert Group Meeting on International
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Challenges and Opportunities, Beirut, 15-17
Latin-American Case
May, UN DESA, Population Division, http://
www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/EGM_
Ittmig_Arab/P14_PopDiv.pdf. Arango, J. and M. Jachimowicz
2005 “Regularizing Immigrants in Spain: A New
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Argentina, Ministry of the Interior
Woodbridge, J. 2008 “Programa Patria Grande”, Ana Alfonso, Jefa de
2005 Sizing the unauthorised (illegal) migrant la Oficina de Temas Internacionales, Dirección
population in the United Kingdom in 2001, Nacional de Migraciones, Ministerio del Interior,
Home Office Online Report 29/05, http://www. Argentina, presentación realizada en la primera
homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/rdsolr2905.pdf. Sesión Especial sobre Temas de Actualidad
del Derecho Internacional de los Refugiados
Yeoh, B.S.A. de la CAJP. 29 de enero, Organización de
2007 “Singapore: Hungry for Foreign Workers at All Estados Americanos (OEA), http://www.oas.
Skill Levels”, Migration Information Source, org/dil/esp/refugiados_sesion_especial_2008_
January, MPI, Washington, D.C., http://www. presentacion_adriana_alfonso_anexo_III.pdf.
migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.
cfm?ID=570. Geronimi, E.
2004 Admisión, contratación y protección de
trabajadores migrantes: Panorama de la
Textbox 8.1 - Contested Spaces of (Il)Legality legislación y la práctica nacionales de Argentina,
Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador,
Ruhs, M. and B. Anderson España, Perú, Portugal y Uruguay, International
2007 “The origins and functions of illegality in Migration Papers No. 70, International Labour
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migrants, employers and the state in the UK”, english/protection/migrant/download/imp/
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Working%20papers/wp-06-30a.shtml. Mexico, National Institute of Migration
2007 Estadísticas Migratorias [Migration Statistics
2007], Instituto Nacional de Migración [National
Textbox 8.2 - Trafficking for Forced Labour Institute of Migration].

Belser, P., M. de Cock and F. Mehran Turner, E. and M.R. Rosenblum

2005 ILO Minimum Estimate of Forced Labour 2005 “Solving the Unauthorized Migrant
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Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD)
2001 Trends in International Migration, SOPEMI,
OECD, Paris.

Venezuela, Ministry of Foreign Relations

2006 “Sistema de identificación nacional es uno de los
cinco mejores y más seguros del mundo (II)”,
27 November, Ministry of Foreign Relations,
http://www.minci.gob.ve/entrevistas/3/11048/
sistema_de_identificacion.html.

Textbox 8.4 - Out-of-reach and Out-of-danger:

Keeping Girls Safe from Traffickers in Nepal

United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA)

2006 The State of World Population 2006. A Passage
to Hope: Women and International Migration,
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file/650_filename_sowp06-en.pdf.

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 MANAGING LABOUR MOBILITY IN
THE EVOLVING GLOBAL ECONOMY

PART B
 World Migration 2008

ENHANCING THE
KNOWLEDGE BASE*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
9 labour market concerns need to base their decisions
on reliable information and migration data.
Migration management is a sensitive public policy
domain where every policy proposal is the subject This chapter discusses the ways in which governments
of close scrutiny by political parties, the media, can and do enhance their knowledge base and
interest groups and the community at large. their capacity to devise timely and effective labour
Migration is increasingly recognized by countries migration policies. As discussed in greater detail in
of origin and destination as having the potential to Chapter 11, the governments of destination countries
provide appropriate solutions to problems of labour often rely on the available knowledge base in the
supply and demand, but public opinion is sharply labour market provided by, for example, employers
divided over this issue. Some may see migration and trade unions, to formulate, implement and
as the answer to demographic problems, such as evaluate their labour migration policies. Governments
low birth rates, population ageing and contracting may, however, also develop their own knowledge
labour forces. Others view migrants as competing for base by collecting and analysing appropriate data
scarce resources. Policymakers therefore confront and sponsoring/conducting their own research on
various challenges as they seek to develop balanced migration, including labour migration. This chapter
and effective migration policies. They are conscious deals primarily with the knowledge base at the
of the risks they incur in generating unintended disposal of governments and the means to enhance
dynamics that can be detrimental to the labour it. Since labour migration is an integral part of
market in particular, and economic growth in general international migration, some of the initiatives
(Boswell et al., 2004). discussed in this chapter are of relevance to the
management of international migration in general,
Governments considering the introduction of labour but the main focus is on labour migration. Three
migration programmes as a means of addressing areas of activities are emphasized.

* This chapter was written by Jobst Köhler, Research Officer (Statis- The first addresses the nature and quality of existing
tics and Survey Analyst), IOM, Geneva. The author would like to
thank Christine Aghazarm for her research assistance and Marina
data collection mechanisms. Official government
Peunova for her comments. statistics may suffer from a lack of reliability and

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 Chapter 9 - ENHANCING THE KNOWLEDGE BASE

comparability, in part owing to different definitions of governments require reliable aggregate and
used, concepts of measurement and data collecting analytical information from which to draw the
methods. Governments and international bodies are necessary insights and understandings concerning
therefore looking for ways and means to improve the the different trends and impacts of migration in
reliability and comparability of their official data. various areas of interest to the public domain.

Second, governments sometimes need to adjust In the middle, there are those officials who run
their statistical systems in order to respond to new the agency offices that deal directly with migrants,
labour migration challenges for which only limited in either service or law enforcement roles; they
or no data are available. The chapter discusses are largely involved in the effective day-to-day
different strategies and initiatives to collect data management of services offered and activities
on emerging or rapidly evolving policy issues such performed. At this level, the need is also for
as transnational communities or diasporas, circular aggregated information, but of a somewhat different
migration, remittances, highly skilled migration, nature. Generally limited in detail or characteristics,
irregular migration and the impacts or outcomes of the data consist of summaries – of the number of
various migration programmes. clients processed at a particular time or similar
measures used to measure productivity and outcomes
Lastly, a range of measures exists to improve of a particular programme.
the availability and policy relevance of data and
information on migration. Though many and diverse Finally, the various categories of staff involved in
sources are engaged in the collection and generation frequent and individual contact with migrants, such
of migration data, such sources are not necessarily as case workers, require detailed and individual
always known to policymakers, or may not be information and access to records of migrants to be
perceived to be of relevance to their decision-making in a position to align and conduct their programmes
processes or, indeed, such data as exist may not always and activities in accordance with the particular
reach or be available to them. The chapter discusses characteristics, experiences and needs of individual
different approaches and mechanisms to make data or groups of individual migrants on a predominantly
more widely accessible and policy-relevant. personal and individual basis (Pember and Djerma,
2005).
2. Enhancing the Knowledge Base on Labour
Migration: A Comprehensive Approach to Although policymakers, programme managers and
Data Collection case workers have different interests in the data
collected, they typically have to rely on the same
The collection of pertinent data is fundamental to data collection system. In fact, much of the data
appropriate and timely policymaking. As in other used for policy or programme management purposes
policy areas, data collection systems in the field of and/or on which expert reports may be based, are
migration, especially concerning labour migration, initially generated by the programme staff who often
face the challenge of having to serve and reconcile have little stake in, or understanding of, how the
different, and at times conflicting, information aggregate records of their individual transactions
needs at various levels of government. are used by agency heads and policymakers. In order
to generate accurate and timely data on labour
Thus, to formulate and enact legal and policy migration for policy purposes, a data collection
frameworks, the legislative and executive branches system needs to recognize the different information

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needs at the various levels of government and find (a) Administrative records
ways to balance them.
Official international migration statistics are often a
3. Improving the Reliability of Existing Data by-product of administrative processes and record-
Sources keeping related to the activities of institutions and
agencies dealing with various aspects of migration
The compilation of statistics on international or migration-related areas, such as, for instance,
migration, including labour migration will also depend population management. Each country has its own
on how “international migration” is defined. There data collection methods and traditions. This is one of
are no universally agreed definitions. Although there the main reasons why the sources from which official
are international recommendations on “international statistics on international migration are compiled
migration statistics”, differing national definitions tend to differ from country to country.
still persist, especially regarding subsets of
international migration such as labour migration A number of European countries (e.g. Austria, Estonia,
(UN DESA, 1998). Indeed, varying definitions and Lithuania, the Netherlands) have comprehensive
the methods used to assess labour migration can population registers and/or registers of foreigners,
lead to very different results. The broadest definition which are accounts of persons residing lawfully in a
includes all international migrants who are currently country. These registers can be used to measure the
in the labour force (both employed and unemployed, total stocks of international migrants in a country,
regular and irregular) as migrant workers. A more as well as inflows when new migrants are recorded
restrictive definition counts as migrant workers only (usually after one year in the case of population
those who entered a country for the explicit purpose registers) and outflows when people de-register and
of employment. leave the country (Hoffmann, 1995; IOM/OSCE/ILO,
2006, 2007).
Compared to data on demographic variables, such as
fertility and mortality, international migration data Countries that do not have a population register
are inherently difficult to obtain. For instance, while often use residence and work permits to measure
birth and death occur only once in an individual’s migration flows. These administrative sources
life cycle, migration may occur repeatedly, and it is generated from operations designed to regulate
at times hard to determine with precision when it international migration are particularly suitable
begins and when it ends. Furthermore, many official to produce information about specific subsets of
sources for migration data are frequently intended international migrants. Records covering the grant of
to achieve particular administrative objectives rather residence and work permits, for example, are popular
than to yield reliable measurements of migrant stocks sources for the measurement of labour migration
and flows. For that reason, statistics compiled from statistics (IOM/OSCE/ILO, 2006, 2007).
such sources may often be unsatisfactory in terms of
coverage and accuracy. Data on visa issuance are another administrative
source that allows greater disaggregation of migration
3.1 Main Data Sources and Their Limitations flows into specific subsets of international migrants.
Such data are typically collected at the point of
To obtain quantitative information about migration, issue (usually an embassy or consulate) and allow
including labour migration, multiple sources are
typically used to measure flows and stocks. 
A problem with emigration statistics from registries, however, may ­occur
when people leave the country and fail to de-register.

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 Chapter 9 - ENHANCING THE KNOWLEDGE BASE

visa holders to be grouped into specific categories international migration, such as reasons for moving.
according to the purpose of entry (e.g. to study, for They are able to measure socio-economic conditions
family unification or for employment). Such data of migrant workers that are not captured elsewhere
can be cross-checked against information captured and allow the use of statistical methods to estimate
at the point of entry through passenger cards. Visa degree of accuracy.
and border collection data are a popular source of
international migration statistics, particularly for (c) Limitations of existing sources
island states that have a small number of well-
controlled ports of entry and departures, such as the The strengths and limitations of various sources
U.K. and the Philippines (Bilsborrow et al., 1997). vary. Administrative records can be reliable sources
of statistics in cases where the administrative
An important statistical source of information on system is well organized, the quality of reporting is
labour migration for countries of origin, especially sound and coverage is reasonably complete (owing
in South and Southeast Asia, are emigration to incentives for registration or correct reporting,
clearances. Such information on the number of major penalties for not reporting or registering, or a
workers departing each year, disaggregated by combination of both incentives and penalties). This
destination, gender, age, education and occupation is often not the case, especially in countries that
is available from the Philippines, Sri Lanka and lack the appropriate resources to ensure complete
Thailand, for instance (Bilsborrow et al., 1997). coverage. The collection costs for administrative
statistics are low, but there may be high processing
(b) Population censuses and other household costs to convert administrative records into useable
surveys forms. The concepts, definitions and classifications
used in the legislation and or procedures within the
Administrative records are not the only source of administrative system are often different from those
information on labour migration stocks and flows. required to meet statistical user needs. Furthermore,
Population censuses are a major statistical source administrative records may miss certain elements of
for measuring stocks of international migrants. information, given the greater mobility of workers
Depending on population coverage and definitions of across borders with the liberalization of travel
usual residence, census returns that include “place and cheaper transport, especially within regional
of birth” or “citizenship” provide a good estimate of integration areas. In addition, the data are not
international migrant stocks. If the census collects always entered into the administrative database in
labour force data, these can also be used to identify accordance with the normal statistical standards of
migrant workers. International migration inflows can quality (Pember and Djerma 2005). Thus, the data
also be estimated from previous residence questions, content of administrative records, although rich in
while questions about household members or family detail, often remains insufficiently exploited.
members living abroad can capture international
migration outflows. Among the limitations of official statistics from
administrative sources is that they fail to capture
Annual labour force surveys (see Section 3.2(a)(ii), irregular migration, or pay insufficient attention to
below) provide the richest source of labour force qualitative elements of information, such as working
information related to migration. These surveys conditions or respect for the rights of migrant
ask questions on place of birth, citizenship and workers.
previous residence, as well as other dimensions of

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The particular strength of population censuses and (i) Centralizing data collection
surveys is that they yield information that is used
only for the production of statistics. This means Some of the countries that rely on population
that information provided through surveys does registers as a source of their international migration
not have direct consequences for the responding statistics, including on labour migration, have
person or organization who are thus able to reply sought to link these registers with other registration
without constraint or apprehension. The reliability systems that are more directly concerned with the
of the information derived from statistical sources is employment situation, such as social security and tax
therefore relatively high compared to administrative registrations (Hoffmann and Lawrence, 1995). A good
records (Hoffmann and Lawrence, 1995). example of centralized data collection can be found
in Scandinavian countries where different data sets
A drawback of population censuses is that the are linked. All vital events (births, deaths, marriages,
collection costs for survey data are relatively high etc.) and demographic characteristics, such as age,
and the information obtained is not always timely. marital status, citizenship and number of children,
Population censuses are normally only conducted among others, are registered against a Personal
once every ten years. Identification Number (PIN), which is assigned to any
migrant included in the central population register.
Special household surveys, such as annual labour In addition, a number of registers in the private
force surveys, also have limitations. They tend to and governmental sectors that are relevant for the
suffer from small sample sizes, particularly for labour market, including employment, educational
small groups such as migrant workers. This reduces attainment and activity records, use the same PIN.
the comprehensiveness of data, particularly with From this information it is possible to reconstruct
regard to stocks and flows, even if detailed labour the individual demographic and labour market
force information is collected from them. Another biographies of a migrant (Aalandslid, 2006). Other
drawback to household surveys is that they often do countries with centralized registers, such as Belgium
not collect information from collective housing or and the Netherlands, have followed the example of
group quarters, where many migrant workers often Scandinavian countries of improving links between
live. diverse sets of administrative records (Poulain and
Perrin, 2003).
3.2 Improving the Reliability and Accuracy of
Existing Data Sources? Similar initiatives to move away from statistics based
on documents to those based on the person have
(a) Using complementary sources to improve also been introduced in countries that do not rely
data reliability on population registers. For example, Australia has
sought to improve its border registration statistics
No single data source can meet all needs, and by introducing a unique person identifier for each
governments must carefully choose the source(s) of arrival/departure passenger card record to match
statistics concerning their strengths and limitations it to other passport movement transactions within
to develop a system of labour migration statistics the immigration system. This measure is intended to
that is both comprehensive and as statistically avoid double counting and to provide more accurate
sound as possible. Users will need to relate statistics data on movements to and from Australia (Corr et
from different sources in order to make statistics al., 2005).
more coherent and consistent in regard to concepts,
definitions and units of measurement.

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 Chapter 9 - ENHANCING THE KNOWLEDGE BASE

Some countries operate centralized statistical Timeliness remains an important issue nonetheless.
systems with a single agency being responsible for Population censuses are normally conducted once
the coordination and operation of the national every ten years. National statistical authorities
statistical system. Other countries have decentralized have therefore tried to reduce the interval between
systems in which sectoral ministries are responsible population censuses. For example, the new American
for a range of statistical services. In decentralized Community Survey can provide quality data on an
systems there may be a need for greater coordination annual basis through new sampling and outreach
to improve the coherence and consistency of the techniques. The more frequent collection of census
data collected and to ensure that statistical services data now enables the U.S. Census Bureau to provide
of sectoral ministries receive the necessary technical more timely data on the year-to-year change in the
and political support. These considerations may foreign population (Norris and Costanzo, 2005).
have prompted countries like the Philippines to set
up a specialized body coordinating the compilation While population censuses provide broadly aggregated
of migration related statistics. To obtain a more information on labour migration, annual labour
accurate estimate of overseas Filipino emigration, force surveys enable closer analysis of the situation.
the Philippines set up a Commission on Filipinos Labour force surveys are standard household-based
Overseas (CFO). As the Secretariat of the Inter- surveys of work-related statistics, but may also
Agency Working Group on the Shared Government include questions on place of birth, citizenship
Information System on Migration, the Commission and previous residence, as well as other aspects of
compiles annual estimates of the number of Filipino migration, such as reasons for moving. The samples
citizens abroad from a range of sources, including the of these surveys are quite large and representative
emigrant registration system of CFO and statistics on of the country’s working-age population. The
departing overseas Filipino workers (Castro, 2006). International Labour Organization (ILO) is currently
testing a number of migration-related questions for
(ii) Greater use of statistical sources of information inclusion in international labour surveys, Armenia
such as household surveys being one of the test countries (Schachter, 2006).

A major drawback in using migration information (b) Improving comparability of data sources
from administrative records is that the administrative
rationale for their collection may be quite different Greater reliability of data collection systems does not
from their intended ultimate use as migration necessarily guarantee comparability of data between
statistics. For this purpose, population censuses countries. This is becoming an important concern
and surveys are often preferable methods of data because the comparability of national and regional
collection, as illustrated by evolving practice in migration flows and stocks of migrants is an essential
the U.S. For many years, the U.S. Census Bureau prerequisite for the proper study and understanding
relied on administrative records from the former of the functioning of international labour market
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) in its dynamics. International bodies, such as the United
annual estimates of international migration. The Nations and the Statistical Office of the European
concern for comparability when using administrative Communities (Eurostat), are prominently involved in
(flow) data to measure a stock population has led the coordinating efforts to harmonize data on migration,
Census Bureau to turn to census data to improve the including labour migration. The approaches to
estimates of international migration, especially after improving comparability of migration data may
the development of new nationally representative take different forms: (i) top-down approaches
household surveys. where data harmonization is the result of national

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data collection systems adjusting to internationally A joint questionnaire has been developed and agreed
recognized definitions and recommendations on to. Governments are requested to present data
international migration statistics; and (ii) bottom- matching as closely as possible the internationally
up approaches where data harmonization is a by- recommended definitions of long-term and short-
product of enhanced data-sharing mechanisms term migrants. The joint questionnaire includes a
among states. range of questions related to migrant workers and
the labour force. In order to understand problems
(i) Top-down approaches to data harmonization of international comparability in the data, it is
requested that countries should highlight, for each
Top-down approaches are particularly associated with of the data items, any differences in definition
the UN system. Outside the UN framework, Eurostat between the national data supplied and the standard
and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and definitions published in the UN recommendations
Development (OECD) are actively involved in data (Herm, 2006).
harmonization.
Greater regional economic and political integration
A basic working method adopted by the UN system is can also trigger efforts to harmonize data at the
the development of recommendations on international regional level. In Europe, for example, the gradual
migration statistics, such as the definitions and extension of EU decisions in the field of migration
sources to be used to measure international has prompted demands for reliable and timely
migration stocks and flows (Bilsborrow, 1997). The Community statistics. The 2007 Regulation on
UN Recommendations on Statistics of International Community statistics on migration and international
Migration were adopted by the UN Statistical protection constitutes a milestone in the
Commission in 1976. Much of UN activity in the harmonization of migration statistics. Until the
field of international migration statistics is aimed at adoption of this measure, harmonization of statistics
encouraging states to adopt and collect data on the was mainly governed by informal agreements
basis of the UN Recommendations. Given both the (Poulain et al., 2006) among Member States, but
changes in international migration and continuing now, for the first time, there is a legally binding
lack of uniformity among countries in the collection regulation concerning migration statistics across
of data, the Recommendations were subject to expert the whole of the European Union. The Regulation
review and a revised set was published in 1998 (UN establishes common standards for the collection of
DESA, Statistics Division, 1998). statistics relating to international migration flows,
foreign population stocks, acquisition of citizenship,
One way in which international bodies promote asylum applications and decisions, measures taken
data harmonization is through standardized data against unauthorized entry and stay, returns of
collection programmes in which countries are irregular migrants, and residence permits issued to
requested to provide data not only on the basis of third-country nationals. The focus of this Regulation
existing practices, but also adjusted to correspond as is on harmonized statistical outputs, with common
far as possible to the UN recommendations. Since the definitions based on existing and forthcoming EU
latter half of the 1990s, Eurostat, the UN Economic measures relating to immigration, border management
Commission for Europe (UNECE), the UN Statistics
Division (UNSD), the ILO and the Council of Europe 
Regulation (EC) No. 9862/2007 of the European Parliament and the
have set up a joint data collection programme in Council of 11 July 2007 on Community statistics on migration and
international protection and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No.
order to reduce the response burden on governments 311/76 on the compilation of statistics on foreign workers, OJ 2007 L
caused by the duplication of data collection efforts. 199/3.

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and asylum issues, and on established international For example, under the umbrella of Eurostat,
standards (EUROPA, 2007). bilateral migration flows between Belgium, on the
one hand, and Denmark, Sweden and Italy, on the
An important criticism of the UN recommendations other, were compared on the basis of anonymous
is that they approach international migration individual records (Herm, 2006; Perrin and Poulain,
from a demographic rather than labour market 2003). Individual events were matched using age,
perspective. The OECD has started to redress this sex and citizenship, date of migration and code of
international bias towards a demographic perspective municipality of arrival and departure, as a result
on international migration by encouraging of which it was possible to estimate the impact of
harmonization of international migration statistics missing records of immigrants.
on the basis of residence permit statistics. The OECD
has no authority to impose changes in national data There are also data collection projects where the
collection procedures. It mainly collects statistics sharing of relevant migration data between states
through its continuous reporting system (Herm, is the primary aim rather than harmonization of
2006). However, in the 2006 and 2007 editions of migration data. However, greater harmonization of
the SOPEMI report, International Migration Outlook, data collection among participating states may often
the OECD changed its approach and used residence be a positive additional consequence of such data
permit statistics rather than traditional sources to sharing (IOM, 2003; Folden et al., 2007).
harmonize statistics on flows of long-term migrants.
This enables the OECD to provide more information Some of these data-sharing mechanisms are the
on the composition of migration flows, including the concrete outcomes of Regional Consultative Processes
inflows of migrants for the purpose of work (OECD, (RCPs) (see Chapter 13). For example, the oldest RCP
2006; Lemaître, 2006). Residence permits are used to in the field of migration, the Inter-Governmental
regulate the duration of stay and economic activities Consultations on Migration, Asylum and Refugees (IGC),
of migrants and therefore provide a good basis for has had experience in the collection of data on asylum
statistics on labour migration. and refugees from participating states since 1992. The
data submitted are operational rather than statistical
(ii) Bottom-up approaches: harmonization as the and follow a national rather than a pre-designed format.
result of data sharing Participating states may nevertheless adjust their
national practices in the light of the practices and
While initiatives to improve the quality of data data submitted by other states (Folden et al., 2007).
on migration have been particularly stimulated The end result is a de facto harmonization process
by international organizations, pairs or groups over a period of time.
of countries have also collaborated bilaterally
by establishing inventories of data sources and Broader in focus than the IGC’s data-sharing
definitions, proposing data comparisons and mechanism is the Statistical Information System
developing other efforts towards data comparability. on Migration in Mesoamerica (SIEMMES), which
All this work has helped to illuminate and explain includes information on migrant workers. SIEMMES is
the inconsistencies in the data and show the way to also a product of an RCP, the Regional Consultation
possible solutions. on Migration, also known as the Puebla Process.
The data shared are from statistical sources, such

Most of the OECD Member States base their official statistics on other as population censuses, household surveys and
sources than residence-based statistics, such as population registers,
border collection statistics and similar data. Therefore, there may be
entry and departure records, and are standardized
discrepancies between the country’s official data and OECD statistics. according to five variables: type of movement, age,

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border point crossing, sex and nationality (Folden et and Co-operation in Europe’s Office for Democratic
al., 2007). Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE/ODIHR) upon
the request of participating OSCE countries in eastern
Some of the data-sharing projects also focus specifically Europe and Central Asia. The “Model” combines data
on capacity-building assistance, especially in cases sharing with targeted capacity building through
where some of the participating states lack adequate the mapping of the national infrastructure and
capacity to collect data. A good example of this holding of specific training modules and workshops
approach is the “General Model” for the Collection, at national and regional level. The “Model” was first
Application and Sharing of Migration-related Data, pilot tested in Moldova, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and
developed by IOM and the Organization for Security Ukraine (Folden et al., 2007; see also Textbox 9.1).

Textbox 9.1
The “General Model” for the Collection, Application and Sharing of Migration-related Data
– An Emerging Approach

Introduction

At the workshop on Organizational Structures, Collection and Sharing of Migration-related Data, held in Prague in July 2002,
hosted by the OSCE’s Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE/ODIHR), IOM and the Government of the
Czech Republic, and representatives from eastern Europe and Central Asia (EECA) called for the establishment of a mechanism
to facilitate the systematic, timely and reliable exchange of migration-related data, both at the national and regional level.
In response, IOM, OSCE/ODIHR – with inputs from the Inter-Governmental Consultations on Migration, Asylum and Refugees
(IGC), and the Danish Immigration Service – initiated the Programme for the Creation of a General Model for the Collection,
Application and Sharing of Migration-related Data in early 2003 (hereinafter “The Model”).

All countries in EECA were invited to take part in the Programme – at the regional level or nationally (pilot countries are
Kazakhstan, Moldova and Ukraine, with initial introductory activities being carried out in Belarus, the Russian Federation,
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan).

The Model

For those countries interested in and committed to developing and enhancing their statistical infrastructure, the “Model” offers
a flexible, proactive approach to data management. The Model can be used for all types of migration data. Its elements can
be applied at different times and in a different order and are therefore not mutually exclusive, nor do they represent an “all or
nothing” approach. The Model recognizes that the reality of migratory trends is based on timely, consistent and objective
data which already exist – though not necessary shared – in the country. The approach also includes an important principle of
connecting producers and users of migration-related data.

The “Model” includes the following elements:

• Establishment of a national network, including core institutions, which handle migration data with well-defined focal points
(national institutions) coordinating activities at the national level and facilitating regional exchange of agreed-upon data.
• Mapping out existing statistical infrastructures, including the definition of data governments wish to collect and share
(where, when, why, how and by whom).
• Identification of the national demand for migration data at different levels and of a minimum set of 5-10 aggregated, overall
data indicators recognized and recognizable for the country concerned, e.g. asylum data, labour migration, data on cross-
border flows and some demographic variables. Documentation for the data is essential.

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• Establishment of a data-sharing mechanism with data that are not necessarily comparable (i.e. minimum format), yet
will enable the sharing of information and data in an informal, transparent and effective manner. Data sharing occurs
electronically on the basis of agreed principles. It is driven by the network and, depending on user needs, can be gradually
expanded by adding new data indicators, increasing the frequency of data collection (from annual to semi-annual and
quarterly data submission) and introducing new data categories (i.e. gender, age, occupation).
• A homepage on the web for the exchange of information on statistical, policy and legal issues of relevance for understanding
and using the data.
• Regional workshops for countries with a view to exchanging effective practices, discussing new issues and approaches, and
identifying common trends of interest in the region.
• Training modules which satisfy regional and national demand for basic training on different issues related to data collection,
sharing and management. Study tours are also envisaged.
• National projects developed in response to national needs and priorities.

Source: Folden et al. (2007: Annex 1).

4. New Challenges in Collecting Labour characteristics of their expatriate communities. As

Migration Data discussed earlier, their statistics on emigration often
cannot meet these needs. Most governments are
As discussed in Part A of the Report, employment- reluctant or unable to closely monitor the exit of
related mobility across and within borders is their own nationals and emigrants often do not have
becoming increasingly more complex and diverse. much incentive to notify the authorities of their
The geographic origin, direction and the nature of departure. Departures, therefore, tend to be less well
flows continue to change and new migratory patterns recorded than arrivals. This applies to both stocks
emerge. Established categories of data collection and flows. Once these persons have left the country,
are therefore no longer sufficient to capture the they are difficult to seize statistically. Censuses
complexity of labour-related migratory movements and sample surveys, which collect information on
(Hovy, 2006) or to promote understanding of the resident population, are not designed to yield
attendant policy issues. New data collection statistical returns on absent persons and have
strategies are therefore required to explore these difficulty in trying to do so, especially when no
emerging realities, including: family member is present in the country of origin
(UNECE/Eurostat Taskforce, 2006).
• Transnational communities/diasporas
• Return and circular migration One possible way of compensating for the weakness
• Migration of the highly skilled of emigration data is to use existing immigration
• Remittances data in countries of destination. Some international
• Irregular migration bodies have pioneered the use of immigration data
• Outcomes/impacts of migration of countries of destination to estimate the size of
diaspora communities. An example of such practice
4.1 Transnational Communities/Diasporas is the Database on Foreign-born and Expatriates
developed by the OECD. Using data mainly from the
There is growing awareness in countries of origin of 2000 census and national statistical offices, the OECD
the potential benefits of migration for economic and obtained statistics on the foreign-born population
social development (see Chapter 12). Consequently, for each OECD Member State by country of birth
their governments have become interested to and educational attainment (Dumont and Lemaître,
obtain more reliable information on the size and 2004). A more comprehensive version of the OECD

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database, the Bilateral Migration Matrix, was recently defined long-term travellers interrupt their 12-month
developed by the World Bank and the University of stay, and there is discrepancy between the intended
Sussex in the U.K. (Parson et al., 2005). The Matrix and actual length of stay. The ABS is responding to
covers more countries than the OECD database and this particular challenge by matching movement
provides time-series data on the stock of emigrants. records of individual travellers to build up movement
histories (ABS, 2006).
There are also activities that focus on developing
guidelines to improve emigration data. On the basis Few initiatives to measure circular/short-term
of a data exchange exercise in which 19 countries movements are as systematic as the one used in
participated, a UNECE/Eurostat Taskforce proposed a Australia. Evidence of circular migration is often
set of guidelines for measuring emigration through acquired incidentally through related data collection
the use of immigration statistics of countries of activities. For example, the National Agricultural
destination (UNECE/Eurostat Taskforce, 2006). Workers Survey, conducted by the U.S. Department of
Labor, specifically targets the nature of agricultural
4.2 Return and Circular Migration work through an employment-based, random survey
of the demographic and employment characteristics
Return and circular migration hold considerable of crop workers hired in the U.S. The Employment
benefits for countries of origin (see also Chapters and Migration Profile components of the survey
11 and 12). For instance, it is widely acknowledged cover the profile and history of all farm workers
that circular migration and, in some cases, the including occupation, type of non-agricultural work
return migration of highly skilled nationals have if employed off-farm, periods of unemployment and
benefited China and India by promoting skills time spent outside the U.S., and the respondent’s
transfer and creating social and economic linkages whereabouts for every week of the year preceding
to important export markets (Kapur and McHale, the interview. Thus, the survey provides detailed
2005). Short-term return migration is difficult to information on circular migration among foreign
capture statistically as this type of migration does farm workers.
not necessarily involve a change of usual residence.
Furthermore, to measure the flow of nationals poses 4.3 Migration of the Highly Skilled
an even greater challenge, as data collection on
inflows and outflows of nationals is usually poorer Detailed information about the emigration and flow
than for non-nationals. of highly skilled individuals (see Chapter 2) is in
high demand, especially in countries experiencing
Movement-based data collection systems, such as a rapid loss of human capital owing to this type of
the one used in Australia, are more likely to capture migration (Diallo, 2004).
this type of migration flow than those that focus
primarily on stock data. Australia is able to gather As in the case of data on emigration more generally,
useful information on departures because of the several international organizations have launched
high quality of its border controls, which allow close initiatives to improve the availability of data on the
measurement of border movements. However, the movements of highly skilled persons. As discussed
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) identifies the earlier, the OECD database includes statistics on
increasing frequency and complexity of international
travel as one of the key challenges to measuring 
See the U.S. Department of Labor website at http://www.doleta.gov/
migration (see also Chapter 5). Many of the legally agworker/naws.cfm (Employment and Training Administration).

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the foreign-born population for each OECD country authorities in IMF member countries, and reported
by educational attainment. The World Bank has as part of the IMF’s Global Balance of Payments (BOP)
developed a similar database with greater coverage statistics (Bilsborrow, 1997).
of countries and drawing on a wider range of data
sources. The World Bank has also conducted a series Useful as they are, however, official remittance data
of econometric studies on the impact of highly derived from BOP suffer from certain limitations.
skilled migration on the economy of the country of These include the inability of banks to distinguish
origin (World Bank, 2006; Özden and Schiff, 2005). between short and long-term migrants; lack of
information about “informal” (e.g. hand-carried) or
These databases rely on statistics collected by host “in kind” remittances; the exclusion of transactions
countries of highly skilled migrants. Few attempts made at money transfer centres (which comprise a
have been made to assess the actual or potential large percentage of remittances); the inability to
level of highly skilled emigration from countries of identify flows (i.e. the origin and destination of
origin. Although they are often the most affected in remittances); and different recording and reporting
social or economic terms by the emigration of their practices of BOP across and even within countries
highly skilled nationals, developing countries lack over time (UN DESA, 2005; Schachter, 2006).
the resources to set up appropriate data collection
mechanisms. Most initiatives in this field remain Detailed data on remittances are usually obtained
based on specialized surveys conducted by academic from surveys. When they are conducted, nationally
research institutions, such as the Potential Skills representative household surveys of income usually
Base Survey of the Southern African Migration include questions on remittances, although they are
Project (SAMP), to assess the propensity to emigrate not always identified separately. Specialized surveys
of final-year students at training institutions across on remittances and migration are also conducted
the region. It is nonetheless encouraging to note that on an ad hoc basis, for example to study remittance
many developing countries are now calling for more “corridors” and sending and receiving practices.
importance to be accorded to the collection of reliable There are also a number of surveys sponsored by
data on highly skilled emigration, as illustrated by the World Bank that include questions on migrant
the recent decision of the National Statistics Offices remittances, such as Living Standard Measurement
in India and Sri Lanka to identify the development of Surveys (LSMS). The LSMS multi-topic questionnaires
improved tools for the measurement of highly skilled are designed to study multiple aspects of household
migration as a priority for future work (Castro, 2006; welfare and behaviour, including remittances, and
Gunasekera, 2006). have been used for remittance corridor studies. IOM
has also developed specialized surveys to explore
4.4 Remittances the relationship between migration patterns and
remittances (IOM, 2005, 2006; Petree and Baruah,
In recent years, remittances have received increased 2007). Rather than conducting specialized surveys,
attention because of their visible and positive impacts ILO has developed a project that uses standard
on the economies of countries of origin. Relevant labour force surveys to measure remittances on the
data for measuring remittances are collated by the assumption that adding a migration module to pre-
International Monetary Fund (IMF) from national existing surveys reduces costs while ensuring a large
data compiled and reported by appropriate statistical sample size (Schachter, 2006).

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4.5 Irregular Migration Another rich source of data on irregular migration

is the annual survey and analysis of border
As measures to prevent or reduce irregular employment management and border apprehensions carried out
and migration gain increasing prominence, reliable by the International Centre for Migration Policy
information on the size, structure and dynamics Development (ICMPD) in central and eastern Europe.
of irregular migration becomes more important. By Besides data on border apprehensions, removal of
its very definition, irregular migration is difficult non-citizens and refusal of entry, the survey yields
to capture statistically as it concerns (mainly) data on the demographic breakdown of irregular
undocumented and covert events. There are no migrants and information on their particular routes.
official statistics on irregular migration. Statements ICMPD, the European Police Office (EUROPOL) and
about the magnitude of this phenomenon tend to FRONTEX, the European agency for coordination of
draw on statistics of observed events that are usually cooperation between EU Member States in the field
collected for law enforcement purposes (e.g. by the of border management, have also sought to improve
police and border guards). Given the sensitivity the data exchange and information on irregular
surrounding this type of information, such data are migration from the Mediterranean basin and Africa
rarely shared and generally not released for public to Europe by developing a map on African and
use. Mediterranean Irregular Migration Routes in the
framework of the ongoing Dialogue on Mediterranean
An exception is the data flowing from the Centre for Transit Migration (MTM).
Information, Discussion and Exchange on the Crossing
of Frontiers and Immigration (CIREFI) developed by A more reliable official source of data on irregular
the European Commission and Eurostat. CIREFI is migration can be derived from regularization
the only available Europe-wide source of data on law exercises, if and when they occur (see Chapters 8
enforcement measures taken in the field of irregular and 11). Regularization data can provide an estimate
migration. Three types of published data from the of the stock of irregular migrants, although not
CIREFI database are linked to irregular migration: all irregular migrants may decide to seek or be
refusal of entry, apprehension of non-citizens present eligible for regularization. Explanatory notes on the
without authorization and foreigners removed. specific conditions of regularization programmes
are, therefore, important to interpret the estimate
Different assessments of the data show that all three of irregular migrants derived from regularization
types are inadequate to capture the various levels figures (Jandl and Kraler, 2006).
and trends in irregular migration. For example,
the data on apprehensions submitted to CIREFI’s There are also databases that contain data on special
database by EU Member States may not distinguish categories of irregular migrants, such as trafficked
between stocks and flows, while data on refusal of persons. One such database, the Global Human
entry often do not distinguish between the reasons Trafficking Database (see Textbox 8.2), has been
for such refusals. Similarly, the data on removals developed by IOM to gather data from the counter-
do not specify the type and category of removals trafficking programmes it conducts. A unique feature
in question. The EU Regulation to govern national of this database is that the information is collected
statistics, referred to earlier in Section 3.2(b)(i), directly from the victims of trafficking and therefore
may present an opportunity to improve the quality
of the CIREFI data (Poulain and Singleton, 2006). 
For this map, see the FRONTEX web site at http://www.frontex.eu.int/
gfx/frontex/files/mtmmapen.pdf.

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provides a rich source of qualitative and quantitative accurate projection of human resource development
data on this type of migration (see Textbox 8.2). needs in this area, as well as means of measuring
losses of skilled personnel through emigration. The
4.6 Evaluating the Outcomes or Impacts of World Health Organization (WHO) assists developing
Migration countries in their efforts to meet these needs through
special survey work and research, and its World
As migration acquires increasing prominence on the Health Survey aims to provide a range of quantitative
socio-economic agendas of many countries of origin information that can be used to assess population
and of destination, it spurs demand for information health and health systems. This survey, conducted in
on outcomes and/or the impacts of migration on more than 70 countries, includes follow-up questions
the economy and society. All public implementing on migration (Diallo et al., 2003).
agencies of migration programmes resort to some
form of evaluation to accompany a number or all 5. Linking Data and Research with
stages of the policy cycle, i.e. ex ante to assess Policymaking
the anticipated impact and viability of planned
policies and programmes; at mid-term to assess the The collection and processing of appropriate data is a
ongoing outputs of policies and programmes; and necessary, but not a sufficient condition to provide a
ex post to measure the final outcome and impact government with adequate information to guide and
of policies, and their sustainability. Countries with support the decisions to be made. Data providers often
long experience of employment-based migration are face the challenge of how to present the information
particularly advanced in developing the appropriate collected for use by policymakers. The latter work in
tools to gather data for ex post evaluations of labour a fast-paced environment and do not have the time
migration programmes and policies. As the integration to engage in the intricacies of statistical analysis.
of immigrants is essential to ensure social cohesion They demand timely information that addresses
and public support for particular programmes, the directly the issues at hand. A “filter” is therefore
efforts in these countries are particularly focused on needed to convert the analytical information into a
gathering data on the labour market outcomes of format more readily usable by policymakers, while
immigrants. respecting the complexities of the issues.

An example of good practice in obtaining outcome One filter some governments have adopted is
data is the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to the creation of inter-ministerial working groups
Australia, which interviews cohorts of immigrants composed of both data users and providers. The
at regular intervals during three years after their dialogue between data users and providers sensitizes
arrival. Data are collected on labour market outcomes data providers to the needs of users when designing
and a range of other settlement indicators, including new, or adjusting existing, data-collection methods.
housing, health and settlement services. Plans are For example, in Denmark, an ongoing data user
also under way to link this database with census data and provider dialogue has made it easier to publish
to provide more detailed information on how migrants commonly defined statistics and to agree on common
fare after longer intervals following their arrival (ABS, principles underlying the definition and compilation
2006). of statistical indicators (Folden et al., 2007).

The impact of the emigration of health workers on the Research networks are another mechanism for the
health sector is a particularly significant concern in improvement of the dissemination of migration
many African countries. There is a great need for the statistics and research that has recently received

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considerable attention from donors. Research In contrast, the issues of timeliness and accessibility
networks have, potentially at least, the dual do not arise with electronic web networks because
advantage of ensuring broader dissemination of information can be accessed instantly and shared
migration data and research, while building local publicly. They can be useful mechanisms in regional
capacity for conducting policy-relevant research. integration processes, such as the European Union, to
They are also flexible structures that can easily be ensure synergies and avoid overlaps among existing
extended to incorporate other existing networks. networks. For instance, the purpose of the EU-
Research networks are therefore often regarded as sponsored European Migration Network (EMN) is to:
the appropriate tool to overcome the divide between (a) provide a clearing house to filter and synthesize
developed and developing countries in terms of information; (b) develop comparable up-to-date
research capacity and technological resources information on legal and policy developments related
(Costello and Alimuddin, 2000; Wickramasekara, to migration and asylum in EU Member States; and
2006). (c) provide accurate, up-to-date and comparable
statistical data on migration and asylum (Laczko and
Two models of research networks prevail: (a) academic- Long, 2006; Folden et al., 2007; Kraler and Jandl,
based networks, which focus on capacity building, 2006). The EMN relies largely on a web of national
primarily among scholars, and promote academic focal points to keep track of developments in their
research on migration; and (b) the electronic web respective countries and transmit and exchange
networks that focus primarily on cataloguing timely information. On the other hand, electronic
information, networking institutions and other web networks such as this may not be conducive
research communities, and disseminating policy- to generating the kind of network opportunities
relevant information (Laczko and Long, 2006). that arise from face-to-face encounters in research
seminars or training workshops. To ensure maximum
Each type has its specific strengths and weaknesses productivity and results, electronic web networks
in the dissemination of policy-relevant information. need to rely not only on virtual but also face-to-
Academic-based net­works may not produce the kind face exchanges between users and producers through
of research that policymakers require. Policymakers training and capacity-building workshops (Laczko
need rapidly available results in order to make timely and Long, 2006). The EMN has, therefore, introduced
decisions, and cannot wait for the kind of long-term, regular meetings for national focal points to maximize
in-depth research preferred by academics. However, the exchange between EU Member States.
through research training, seminars and research
competitions, these networks can stimulate new The coordination of activities at the national level
research initiatives and disseminate new tools to related to data harmonization may become a more
analyse data of use to policymakers. important activity for regional research networks as
it is included on the agendas of regional integration
and trade regimes in different parts of the world. One
recent illustration of this trend was a study on the
prospects of migration data harmonization in the

One of the first academic networks set up in the field of migration is the Southern African Development Community (SADC)
Asia Pacific Migration Research Network (APMRN), funded primarily by
UNESCO and based at Wollongong University in Australia. APMRN has a region (Williams and Tsang, 2007) by the Southern
network of partner institutions in Australia, China, Fiji, Hong Kong SAR, African Migration Project (SAMP), an international
Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand,
and implements projects related to the “social and political aspects of network of organizations founded in 1996 to promote
international migration and growing ethno-cultural diversity as major
factors in the social transformation of the societies of the Asia-Pacific
awareness of migration-development linkages in
region” (APMRN, 2002). SADC, with the help of IOM.

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6. Conclusion the improvement of the reliability and comparability

of existing data sources; (ii) the gathering of new
As labour migration becomes more prevalent at the data on emerging issues, especially regarding labour
global level, the demand for reliable and comparable migration; and (iii) the dissemination and utilization
statistics on migration for employment becomes more of data and research on labour migration.
insistent. The changing nature of current labour
mobility makes the task of harmonizing statistics The chapter has also emphasized the importance
on international migration more complex. As new of recognizing and catering to different data needs
categories of labour migration flows are emerging, at the policy, programme and case management
their origins and destinations also diversify. How level. Success in this endeavour will depend on
these particular challenges are addressed will the development of a comprehensive approach to
depend partly on the development of new concepts the collection, analysis and dissemination of data
of measurement and data collection techniques, through the mobilization and coordination of all
but also on improved quality of the administrative national bodies and instrumentalities involved, both
data collected for different labour migration generally in international migration management
programmes. and specifically in the management of labour flows.

It is commonly recognized that governments require However, to be fully productive and meaningful, these
an appropriate knowledge base to effectively manage national efforts need to be complemented by broader
migration. It is also acknowledged that this is regional and global endeavours with the support of
particularly so in the area of labour migration. Three appropriate international bodies to promote the
types of initiatives to enhance the national knowledge adoption of a new culture of measurement, record
base were discussed in this chapter, concerning: (i) keeping and exchange of information in this field.

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 World Migration 2008

Corr, P., A. Hakim and J. Farrow

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 World Migration 2008

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

AND FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT
POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
10 without facilitation of the state, many people seek
overseas employment opportunities to augment
An increasing number of developing countries and their income, improve the living conditions and life
countries with economies in transition have adopted prospects of their families and acquire new skills and
or are seeking to adopt legislation and policies to experience. However, while regular, albeit selective
take advantage of foreign employment opportunities entry channels are available to skilled workers, this is
for their citizens, while ensuring that safeguards are often not the case for low and semi-skilled workers,
in place for the protection of their rights. For these who may be tempted to resort to irregular modes of
countries, job creation at home remains, in theory at entry and employment.
least, the preferred option, but labour migration is
seen as an important and reliable vector of economic This chapter discusses policy approaches to the
development through the remittances that workers management of international labour movements
send back home. At the individual level, with or from the perspective of countries of origin. It opens
with the argument that human resource development
* This chapter was written by Edita Tan, Professor Emeritus, Department of planning is a vital element in the management
Economics, University of Philippines, and Nilim Baruah, Chief Technical of international worker mobility. Section 2 looks
Adviser, Regional Migration Programme, Subregional Office for Eastern
Europe and Central Asia, ILO Moscow (Formerly Head of the Labour closely at key constituent elements of the process
Migration Division at IOM).

of human resource development (HRD) planning,
In keeping with the standard terminology used in this report, such
countries are referred to as “countries of origin” in this chapter, including the setting of appropriate goals and
although it is acknowledged that the labels “labour-sending countries” objectives, the identification of quality standards
or simply “sending countries” are often used, particularly to describe
those countries that have designed and implemented explicit policy and indicators, and the financing and provision of
frameworks aimed at sending their citizens for work abroad. It is appropriate education and training opportunities.
recognized, however, that such frameworks may differ significantly
in terms of purpose, content and degree with the result that not all The importance of maintaining coherence of purpose
governments are prepared to consider themselves as promoting overseas
employment. Use of the neutral term “countries of origin” is therefore
and action is underlined. Due attention is paid to
preferred throughout. For similar reasons, “countries of destination” the further aim of preventing the loss of local talent
has been used instead of “receiving countries”. “Foreign employment
policies” is used in this and the next chapter as a generic term covering
and the role to be played by the private sector.
the international labour mobility policies of both countries of origin and
destination.

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Chapter 10 - HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN

Section 3 acknowledges the diverse characteristics acquired their skills through a combination of formal
of countries of origin, and considers those with education and experience. As a general rule, and
long-established labour migration programmes; depending on the particular educational system in
those in the process of economic and socio- question, professions, including those in the modern
political transition; and still others that are relative creative sectors, require higher formal qualifications,
newcomers to organized labour migration. Such such as a first postgraduate degree for a career in
diversity notwithstanding, most countries face computer science or genetics, and a higher post-
similar policy challenges. The first part of this section graduate degree up to doctoral level for the medical
focuses on the actual management of international and legal professions. For most other professions,
worker mobility through policy measures aimed including nursing and engineering, the requirement
at protecting migrant workers from exploitative is normally a first degree. Blue-collar occupations
recruitment and employment practices, and at have less stringent formal education requirements.
ensuring worker welfare and productivity through Generally, a high school background is sufficient
pre-departure and on-site support services. The to ensure that the worker is able to be trained and
second part of the section proposes policy options to perform his or her duties. The skills are acquired
for the optimization of the benefits of organized mainly through experience, loosely referred to as
labour migration through the development of new on-the-job-training (OJT). The low-skilled category
markets; the facilitation of remittance flows and has the lowest requirements in formal education or
the enhancement of their impact on development training.
(see also Chapter 12); the strengthening of local
institutional capacity; and, finally, the promotion Though job applicants are carefully screened by
of international cooperation (see also Chapter 13). prospective employers to ascertain how much
While the issues covered in this chapter are of broad schooling they have had and what job skills they have,
international relevance, its research base is grounded the wide diversity of standards and requirements in
in contemporary developments in Asia. the educational systems worldwide make it difficult
to evaluate and compare the level of competence
2. Human Resource Development of highly skilled workers. The value of a degree
programme depends on such diverse factors as the
Although world demand for foreign workers is very curriculum and the quality of the instructors, the
diverse, for ease of exposition, when discussing library, laboratory and other instructional facilities.
labour mobility, foreign workers fall into three Globally, there are many thousands of higher
broad categories. First, there are the highly skilled educational institutions from which a professional/
or those who hold at least a first degree from a scientific degree may be obtained, but no universally
reputable university, college or other institution recognized benchmarks exist by which to rate the
of higher learning. The second group consists of quality of the instruction offered or the educational
skilled blue-collar workers such as, for example, attainment of graduates. Although highly selective
aviation technicians, heavy equipment operators, quality ratings of universities/colleges have been
automotive mechanics, welders, metal workers and conducted, they cover only a relatively small
pipe setters. They make up a large group of migrant number of institutions. This poses a serious problem
workers. The third group of low-skilled workers in relation to the employment of highly skilled
includes housemaids, janitors and waiters in hotels foreign workers, since employers have to develop
and restaurants, and manual labourers, for instance their own measures to evaluate the quality of the
on construction sites. All workers would have institutions from which applicants have graduated.

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 World Migration 2008

By comparison, the evaluation of the competence of skills they should invest in will have to be taken
blue-collar workers appears less difficult, as it is based into consideration. Successful HRD planning in
more on experience than on the quality of formal open labour markets characterized by significant
schooling, and skills are assessed through trade or and continuing migration, such as the Philippines,
skill testing and quality and length of experience. for example, will have to take due account of the
The quality of experience is reflected by the scale particular skills requirements of foreign labour
of production, the technology embodied in the markets.
machinery and equipment used as well as Information
Communications Technology (ICT) applications and 2.1 Human Resource Development Planning
other physical operational features. Some overseas
employers require experience in the use of particular Human capital theory may be applied to HRD
brands of machinery and equipment. planning in an education labour market (ELM).
When factoring migration into their computations,
A recently completed survey conducted by the the aim of HRD planners should be to maximize social
International Organization for Migration (IOM) of and economic returns from the outflow of migrants
placement agencies in the Philippines indicates that for the purpose of employment (see Textbox 10.1).
foreign employers require very specific qualifications This means guiding would-be migrants and assisting
(Tan, 2007). A variety of quality indicators are used them financially and in other ways to enable them
for highly skilled workers, that differ according to invest in the acquisition of skills that promise the
to the particular professions or occupations. highest returns. Planners should also ensure that they
The minimum requirement for doctors is to have have access to reliable information on skills that are
completed the corresponding degree course, passed in strong demand abroad, the respective qualifications
the professional licensure examination and gained required and how and where the requisite standard of
relevant experience in a large general hospital. qualifications and skills is best acquired. Moreover,
In addition to their studies, teachers are required improving quality requires financial resources. For
to have gained relevant experience in a reputable a country to be able to take advantage of skilled
teaching institution. On completion of their degree, employment opportunities abroad, human resource
engineers must obtain experience in selected fields planners will have to develop a financing system to
such as the petrochemical industry and industrial support the aim of raising quality standards in major
design, while blue-collar workers are expected to skill areas in demand abroad.
have the appropriate experience in the use of modern
production equipment and techniques.

Faced with the complexities of the global market

for skilled labour, how should a country of origin
go about designing its human resource development 
The ELM is characterized by three interacting parties: the employers
policy? At the outset, of course, it will be necessary who need and hire human resources, the suppliers of human resources
to have clearly defined objectives and the necessary and the education/training institutions. The government is an employer
and policymaker and influences both demand and supply. The employers
means to achieve them. Such an undertaking may be consist of domestic and foreign entities who require appropriate human
hampered by the scarce or incomplete information resources and whose demand for labour of a particular skill level is
relayed to human resource suppliers and education/training institutions.
concerning the demand and supply of the numerous The response to this demand can be twofold: if available, to either offer
the requisite skills; alternatively, to acquire them through formal or
skills. Moreover, the financial constraints most information channels with a view to offering them in due course and
families and individuals face in deciding which joining the active labour force.

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Chapter 10 - HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN

Textbox 10.1
HRD Planning and Maximizing Economic Gains from Labour Migration

What may be the objective of HRD planning for the whole education labour market (ELM) market, including foreign employment,
albeit of selective skills? In theory, the government would wish to maximize the social returns to investment in human capital
of the population as a whole. There are private (both economic and non-economic) and social returns to the investment. Most
visible are the private returns that consist of monetary and non-monetary gains from the investment. There is enjoyment to be
gained from the possession of knowledge, and there are benefits to be derived from the ability it offers for making life choices
and to further develop the knowledge acquired. The calculations below focus on the more tangible monetary gains, i.e. the
incremental income gain minus the cost of investing in a category of human capital formation, for instance nursing education.
Theoretically, it is possible to think of maximizing private returns to individuals pursuing the best investment options/skills.
The returns to a skill i relative to skill j are estimated as follows.

Returns to a skill i is estimated as:

T  
Ri ,t = ∑ DtWi ,t − Ci −  ∑ Dt W jt − C j 
t =D  
Where: R = returns to investment in skill formation
W = nominal wage rate
C = cost of investment
D = discount rate 1/(1+r)t
r = interest rate (cost)
i, j = skill categories
t = time period in years

Note the returns to investment in skill i takes account of its opportunity cost, or returns to investment in alternative skill j.
Skill i is preferred to skill j if its (net) return R is positive. Another way of assessing skills is to array the skills according to
their own returns:

 T 
 ∑ Dtr Wt − C t 
 t =0 
It is assumed that the skills with the higher returns will attract more workers or labour units. In the short term, labour supply
would originate from the current stock of available workers with the required skill. In the long term, the increased supply would
come from the existing stock of workers with the skill and from new entrants, i.e. the students who would pursue the skill
and those workers who might switch from other skills by retraining. In the equation, the reservation wage is the total cost of
investing in skill i, comprising the cost of investment in that skill and the opportunity cost in forgoing skill j, or
 T

 C i + ∑ DtW jt − C j 
 t =0 
When there is migration, the return takes account of the foreign wage and the probability of finding a job abroad. Return to a
skill is estimated as follows:

 T T
  T T

Ri =  Pd ∑ DtWi ,d ,t + Pf ∑ DtWi ,d ,t  − C i −  Pd ∑ DtW j ,d ,t + Pf ∑ DtW j ,d ,t − C j 
 t =0 t =0   t =0 t =0 

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 World Migration 2008

The gross returns are averages of expected domestic and foreign wages. Gross returns to a skill rise as the probability of
obtaining a foreign job, Pf , rises, given that foreign wage rates are significantly higher than the domestic wage rate.

It is possible to view an efficient ELM as one where information about demand for various skill categories and their specific
job qualifications exists and where persons can acquire skills without significant financial constraints. Foreign job openings are
taken for skill i. These jobs pay much more than the domestic wage. Consequently, the youth and some workers already in the
labour force will be drawn to invest in skill i. The supply in other skills will fall and raise their wage rate. Skill i will continue
to attract people until its return equalizes the returns to the other skills. This adjustment leads to maximum private returns on
the investment. An efficient market needs no government intervention. However, if the ELM is inefficient because information
about demand, the required job qualifications and where to obtain the skill is unavailable, or if the youth are prevented by
poverty from acquiring the skill, there will be supply rigidity.

Market imperfections are known to be serious in the intervention. The U.S. Government, for instance,
ELM. There are millions of youth preparing for entry poured resources in science education and research
into the labour market and millions of employers in in response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik in the
the domestic and foreign labour markets. Information 1950s. The Kennedy administration established the
is generally poor and unevenly distributed; it is Equal Opportunity Program to mitigate inequality
usually concentrated among the more educated of access to higher education. In a similar way,
in the cities. Financial resources for education are scholarship programmes have been instituted by
notoriously lacking for the great majority of families many governments to address the inequality problem
who may wish to invest in their children’s education/ and/or to increase enrolment numbers and research
training. Additionally, there are some highly skilled in science and technology (S&T) so as to promote
professionals, such as research scientists, innovative technological progress.
business executives, historians or creative artists,
whose outputs are in the nature of public goods or 2.2 Defining Requirements (Quantity and
have large positive social impacts or externalities. Quality)
Governments would be well advised to invest in
their education/training in order to increase the To define requirements at the national level, both a
number of persons pursuing them. Producing profile of current human resources and a forecast of
and disseminating information on employment future requirements are necessary, as well as reliable
opportunities, required job qualifications and where and up-to-date information about employment
to acquire the necessary skills is essential so that opportunities and skill requirements in relation to both
members of the labour force, and young people the domestic and foreign labour markets. Although
especially, can make optimal choices. HRD planners international demand for major skills categories, such
should also identify where financial constraints on as engineering, computer science, natural science,
education or training choices arise. Which are the management and finance, education and medicine is
employment categories with significant positive high, detailed information, for instance, on the specific
externalities or that are public goods by nature and skills and levels of competence required is lacking. Such
hence require government subsidies? What subsidy information is necessary to allow for realistic and timely
strategy ought to be developed to address critical national HRD policy planning and implementation, as
financial constraints? The task is so daunting in scale well as to guide and support individuals in their choices
and complexity that, in many cases, governments regarding education, work and migration.
tend to be very selective when choosing areas of

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2.3 Quality Standards and Indicators skills, as the pool of heavy equipment and machinery
operators is too small and only a few workers are
Quality standards used by foreign employers able to become proficient at operating them. Less
evolve through different means. Through observed stringent qualifications may be required of other
performance of their workforce, foreign employers blue-collar workers, especially when employers
arrive at standards by which to gauge the competence are willing to provide the necessary training, as in
of applicants from countries of origin and use these the case of household workers. The Government of
yardsticks to identify reliable sources of qualified the Philippines has undertaken skill certification
professionals. As a result, universities and colleges – accepted in most countries of destination – based
acquire a reputation based on employers’ experience on occupational tests for low-skill categories such
with their graduates, consultations with other as household employment, popular entertainment,
employers and academic ratings based on periodic hotel and restaurant services, and general welding.
assessments through independent evaluators of However, this initiative does not yet amount to a
higher education. ICT companies in the U.S. and fully developed strategy for the training of skilled
Europe, for instance, compete for graduates from the blue-collar workers.
highly acclaimed Indian Institutes of Technology.
Similarly, hospitals in other countries recognize As yet, no information system has been developed
the licensure examinations administered by the in countries of origin concerning the prospective
Philippine Professional Regulatory Commission. The demand for specific skill categories and the
Japan-Philippines Economic Partnership Agreement qualifications they call for and there is no known
provides for the employment of Filipino nurses on programme for collecting this information on a
condition that they undergo two to three years’ systematic and continuous basis and relaying it to
language and practical training in Japan before being the public and to education/training institutions in
recognized as professional nurses. The adoption in order to adjust their course offerings to coincide with
1984 of the International Standard for Training, world market requirements. It is difficult for potential
Certification and Watchkeeping of Seafarers has migrants to obtain information about specific job
contributed greatly to the establishment of high opportunities and required levels of proficiency. Any
quality standards of education/training for Filipino available information on the qualifications required
seafarers and to their recognition by international by foreign employers is generally disseminated by
shipping companies. recruitment agencies to job applicants, and by job
applicants to their friends and relatives. The reach
For blue-collar occupations, the quality of experience of such informal channels is necessarily limited.
is critical. The recently completed survey of placement Most, if not all, overseas employment initiatives of
agencies in the Philippines for the IOM by one of the countries of origin have been concerned mainly with
authors (Tan, 2007) demonstrates that experience in the protection of workers in their workplace and
operating modern equipment is essential for tool and the fight against fraudulent recruitment agencies.
die makers, welders, pipe setters, heavy equipment They have not yet taken on the responsibility of
operators and other construction workers. However, guiding would-be migrants to acquire the skills and
the country’s industrial base has only a limited competencies that would maximize the returns on
capacity to produce experienced workers with these their investment in training and migration. The next
section considers whether the education/training

The text of this agreement is available from the website of the Ministry
system can be relied upon to produce these skills.
of Foreign Affairs of Japan at http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/
philippine/epa0609/.

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2.4 The Education/Training System university-educated persons in low-wage countries,

but states that the surveyed TNCs found that only a
The quality of formal education, especially at fraction qualified for employment in professional jobs
university/college level, is a serious issue in most in their firms. Of Philippine graduates, only 20 per
developing countries. For example, only a small cent qualified in engineering, 30 per cent in finance/
proportion of the numerous universities and accounting and 25 per cent in general occupations.
institutions in South and Southeast Asia are of The corresponding figures for Indian graduates are
world standard. Asian countries have established 25 per cent, 15 and ten per cent. The respective
large numbers of higher educational institutions. shares for Chinese graduates are even lower – ten, 15
India has 10,403; China 4,102; Bangladesh 2,711; per cent and three per cent. Ratings for Malaysia are
Indonesia 1,891; the Philippines 1,314; Pakistan similar to those of the Philippines. The Asian sample
1,108; and Thailand 750 (Tan, 2006). Sri Lanka is countries have higher proportions of qualified
the only country to have strictly limited the number graduates than the other low-wage sample countries.
of its universities or institutes, currently at 13. Each The differences in ratings between India and the
country also maintains a small number of prestigious Philippines in engineering and finance/accounting
universities and colleges. Graduates from the good reflect the relative strength of India’s science and
universities account for only a small fraction of technology institutes and the accounting schools in
individuals with tertiary education. Many of the the Philippines.
professionals who qualify for highly skilled jobs in
destination countries are likely to have graduated When Asiaweek magazine undertook to assess the
from the elite institutions. The Indian ICT specialists “best” multi-disciplinary universities and Science
in the U.S. are most likely to have graduated from and Technology (S&T) centres in the Asia-Pacific
the Indian Institutes of Technology and other region in 1999 and 2000, it focused on a small but
well-known Indian schools (Murali, 2003). In the representative sample of the region’s more than
Philippines, placement agencies actively recruit 20,000 institutions. The institutions were rated
nurses for American hospitals from reputable nursing according to several criteria: academic reputation,
schools, such as the Medical College of the University student selectivity, faculty reputation, research,
of the Philippines (Tan, 2006). financial resources, student/academic staff ratio,
citations in international journals and internet
Two sources of data serve to indicate the scarcity bandwidth per student. The schools were ranked
of high-quality higher educational institutions: from the highest to the lowest according to the
the McKinsey study, The Emerging Global Labor scores obtained overall. Among the 77 participating
Market (2005), and the Asiaweek Rating of the best universities, five were in Thailand, four in China,
universities and Science and Technology Institutes in four in the Philippines, four in Indonesia and two in
the Asia-Pacific region in 2000. The McKinsey study India; all ranked below the median. Pakistan did not
looked into demand and supply of high-level human rate in the multi-disciplinary group of universities,
resources by conducting a survey of transnational but three of its science and technology institutes
corporations (TNCs) from Australia, Canada, Ireland, ranked, respectively, 20th, 23rd and 32nd. Three
Republic of Korea (South Korea), the U.K. and the institutions in China participated in the science and
U.S., to “quantify the supply of talent in 28 low- technology rating and eight in India, all above the
wage countries (including China, India, Malaysia and median ranking. According to the Asiaweek survey,
the Philippines) and eight mid and high-wage ones”. the institutions with the highest ranking in the
The study points to the very large number of young Asia-Pacific region were all located in the advanced

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economies – Australia, Hong Kong SAR, Japan, New developed. Another option is for foreign recruitment
Zealand, Singapore and Taiwan Province of China. companies to establish training institutions in
countries of origin to meet their employment needs.
2.5 Experience as an Important Source of Several such institutions now operate in countries
Training like the Philippines. Placement agencies for U.S.
nurses provide instruction to nurses applying
On-the-job training is the most common form of for U.S. visas to improve their chances of passing
training for most skilled workers in either the highly the U.S. nursing examinations (National Council
skilled or blue-collar category. While medical doctors for Graduates of Foreign Schools and the National
and nurses have to complete their respective degree Council for Licensure Examination). It is informally
programmes and pass their respective licensure reported in the Philippines that U.S. hospitals face
examinations, the quality of their experience such a shortage of nurses that they are willing to
matters as a gauge of their competence. The capacity pay recruitment agents USD 10,000 to USD 12,000
to produce high-quality experience depends to per nurse placed.
a large extent on the size of the economic sector
and the technology it uses. The more advanced and 2.6 Role of the Private Sector
industrialized an economy, the larger the workforce
with experience in high-tech skills. Consequently, Wherever there is the opportunity, the private sector
a well-developed sector is required in this field to will respond to demand for education, as indeed
be able to produce a large number of high-tech demonstrated in several Asian countries. Private
experienced workers. Nurses and doctors need to be colleges and universities have assumed a relatively
familiar with state of the art medical interventions. large responsibility in higher education in Indonesia,
Engineers must work in industries that use modern Japan, the Philippines and South Korea. Thailand
machinery and equipment, as too must electricians, has begun to authorize private institutions to offer
welders, pipe-setters and metal workers. The less tertiary education. The participation of private
developed countries of origin of the Asia-Pacific schools naturally increases access to education.
region face the challenge of a high demand for such However, the challenge is to ensure quality. Moreover,
workers while having only a small industrial base as discussed in Chapter 4, the Asia-Pacific region is
to train workers in modern and high-tech skills. also a popular testing ground for the adoption by
There is said to be a large demand for a variety of foreign universities of contractual arrangements
aviation skills, but countries with a relatively small with private or public institutions in the form of
airline industry will not have the capacity to produce franchises or twinning programmes with the objective
large numbers of specialists in this field. Similarly, of offering their academic courses to local students.
most countries in the region have no petrochemical
industry and their universities and technical 2.7 Emigration of Skilled Human Resources
institutes do not produce engineers and technicians
in this field; neither do they produce design engineers Skilled migration is a controversial issue (see also
when their firms are generally of small size. Faced Chapter 2). From one perspective, the movement
with these industrial realities, what HRD strategy of highly skilled workers may be seen as equally
can the region adopt? Formal education and training benefiting developed and developing countries by
could provide workers with technical knowledge that reducing the supply-demand mismatch in the former
would pave the way for on-the-job training. But such
formal courses need to be carefully identified and 
Information obtained from interviews with recruitment agencies in the
preparation of Tan (2007).

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and reallocating unused human resources from the small and fragile economies, through managed
latter. Seen from a different perspective, however, recruitment under bilateral labour agreements
this movement is seen as detrimental to both by (see also Chapter 13);
creating an unhelpful reliance on the “import” of • creation of a system to recoup some of the loss
talent from abroad (as opposed to the development of investment in countries of origin by requiring
of home-grown skills) in developed countries, and the inclusion of practical training as part of some
by depriving developing countries of their scarce higher education programmes; investment by
professional and technical resources. There is also destination countries in training and education,
an ethical dimension to be considered, as the poorer proportional to the loss in investment suffered
countries of origin bear the cost of educating their by the country of origin; and retention of skilled
nationals and potential migrants (including through workers through voluntary means; and
private funding of students), while the countries of • better targeting of subsidies in higher education
destination reap the benefits. by, for example, concentrating such subsidies in
priority programmes of instruction and research.
Clearly, when there is a skills shortage or when
skills are difficult to replace, the cost is high for the 2.8 Achieving Policy Coherence
country of origin. This is the case in much of Africa
as well as in the Caribbean. Two-thirds of Jamaica’s Given the complexities of developing education and
nurses emigrated over the period 1980-2000 and only training policies to meet the prospective demand for
few return (Lowell and Findlay, 2001). According to skilled human resources, countries of origin cannot
Docquier and Bhargava (2006), Grenada and Dominica rely on one-dimensional modes of intervention,
have lost more than 90 per cent of their physicians, however important they may be. The concept of HRD
while the small island nations of Saint Lucia and planning needs to be mainstreamed to give purpose
Cape Verde have lost more than 50 per cent (Ratha and coherence to efforts aimed at matching labour
and Xu, 2008). The problem has not been as acute in demand with supply while at the same time providing
other parts of the world, but it exists nonetheless. The the necessary means to mitigate the loss of skilled
shortage of high-quality professionals and high-tech workers.
experienced blue-collar workers can be symptomatic
of brain or skill drain. The number of nurses leaving 3. Foreign Employment Policies
the Philippines has exceeded the number of those
who pass the licensure examination over the past Countries of origin have different profiles. Some
five years. Foreign employers usually select nurses have long-established labour migration programmes,
who already have experience, leaving hospitals and while others are experiencing a migration transition
clinics with new graduates or those who may not characterized by both labour inflows and outflows,
have passed the licensure examination (Tan, 2007). and finally there are those that are relative newcomers
to organized labour migration. Nevertheless, as countries
The following steps can be taken to mitigate the of origin, they all face some common challenges, such
adverse impact of brain drain, although they should as:
not prevent migrants from exercising the right to
leave their country: • Protecting migrant workers from exploitative
recruitment and employment practices, and
• promotion of ethical recruitment to prevent providing appropriate assistance to migrant
indiscriminate international recruitment in
sensitive sectors such as health, particularly in 
This section has been updated and distilled from the OSCE/IOM/ILO
Handbook on Labour Migration (2006, 2007).

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workers in terms of pre-departure, welfare and social exclusion (OSCE/IOM/ILO Handbook on Labour
on-site services. Migration, 2006, 2007).
• Optimizing the benefits of organized labour
migration, particularly regarding the development These abuses erode the potential benefits of migration
of new markets and directing remittance flows for all parties concerned, and seriously undermine
through formal channels, as well as enhancing the expected development impact. Migrant workers
the development impact of remittances. are best able to realize their potential and make the
• Mitigating the adverse impacts of the emigration best contribution when their working conditions are
of skilled human resources. correct and their fundamental human and labour
• Building institutional capacity and inter- rights respected.
ministerial coordination to be able to respond to
new issues and challenges arising in relation to Although there is no single perfect labour migration
labour migration. regulation system, countries of origin do have a range
• Increasing cooperation with destination countries of policy strategies at their disposal with which to
for the protection of migrant workers, access to expand the scope and improve the efficiency of their
labour markets and the prevention of irregular regulatory mechanisms and support services. Key policy
migration. strategies include:

These challenges call for very specific responses in • Conducting pre-employment orientation seminars
terms of policies, structures and procedures. (PEOS) and intensified information campaigns to
provide applicants with sufficient information on
3.1 Protection of Migrant Workers and Support which to base their decisions.
Services • Empowering migrant workers, especially through
the formation of community-based organizations,
Given that the supply of lower skilled workers far to make their voices heard and taken account of
exceeds demand and that many more workers wish to in policy formulation and development.
work abroad to than there are jobs, migrant workers can • Streamlining and simplifying regulations and
be vulnerable to abuse during recruitment, travel and procedures for the protection of workers, and
employment abroad. A problem many migrant workers preventing the regulatory framework from
face is high migration costs as a result of excessive, becoming too unwieldy and complex, which may
and mostly illegal, intermediation fees. In addition, itself act as an unintended inducement to irregular
problems occur in the country of employment. Those migration.
most commonly cited by migrant workers are contract • Close supervision and monitoring of recruitment
substitution and violations; the late, insufficient or activities undertaken by overseas employment
total lack of payment of agreed wages; non-fulfilment promoters/agencies, to minimize malpractice and
of return airfare obligations; and harassment and abuse against those seeking overseas jobs.
actual abuse of women workers by employers (IOM, • Foreseeing criminal proceedings against serious
2003). Other problems encountered include poor offenders, in addition to cancellation of agencies’
working conditions, the lack of social protection, licences.
denial of freedom of association and other human • Paying special attention to the supervision of
and labour rights, discrimination and xenophobia and recruitment and deployment of categories of
workers especially vulnerable to malpractice and

abuse, such as women domestic workers and low-
For cooperation with destination countries, see also Chapter 13.
skilled workers.

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• Raising workers’ skill levels to improve their The evolving migration industry has opened
employment opportunities and promote their opportunities for a wide range of private recruiters,
deployment abroad, with due attention to from small and specialized private employment
concerns relating to brain drain (see Section 2.7 agencies to multinational companies. Apart from
above). such legally operating businesses, there are “the
• Introducing effective measures to ensure parallel operations” of semi-legal or outright unlawful
observance of the employment contract at recruiters, with some often linked to smuggling or
the worksite, in particular through bilateral trafficking networks. Research has shown that where
arrangements and agreements between home and regular migration channels are limited, migrant workers
host governments (see also Chapter 13). will largely turn to illegitimate recruiters or their own
• Providing support services such as pre-departure social networks (OSCE/IOM/ILO Handbook on Labour
orientation to ease adaptation to a new life and Migration, 2006, 2007). Government intervention is
work environment abroad, and inform on the therefore required to regulate private employment
availability of and access to welfare funds and agencies, to curb unfair and unethical recruitment
services. methods and thus to protect migrant workers against
abuse.
• Establishing mutual cooperation on common areas
of concern between home and host countries.
There are different approaches to regulating and
monitoring the activities of recruiters, while trying to
Some of these key policy strategies are discussed in
ensure that migrant workers are protected from abuse.
more detail below.
The most suitable approach will best be identified
through an analysis of the recruitment industry, its
A number of international instruments have also
main type of activities and possible problems. The
been negotiated and concluded under the auspices of
scope of regulation may differ according to the type
the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the
of private employment agency (PEA) concerned;
United Nations concerning the protection of migrant
however, it is important that the legal status of PEAs
workers and their families (see Chapter 13). If widely
be properly defined and determined in all cases. Since
ratified and implemented by countries of origin and it is relatively straightforward for recruiters to pursue
destination, they would provide a comprehensive their activities covertly, it is essential to combine
normative framework for the protection of this regulatory measures with promotional campaigns to
group. ensure compliance with the law.

(a) Regulation of private employment agencies (i) Registration and licensing

Many migrant workers lack information about job The most common approaches to regulating the
opportunities, particularly when they leave their activities of PEAs are registration and licensing.
country for the first time in search of employment Registration requires the agency to register with
abroad. Likewise, employers in destination countries the Ministry of Labour or other relevant authority
who wish to fill particular vacancies with migrant and pay a fee. A registered agency is then subject
workers require information about suitable candidates. to routine checks by tax authorities and labour
In a global environment characterized by the rapid inspectors like any other business. However, given the
expansion of new migration routes and increasingly level of concern about unfair recruitment practices,
diversified migration flows, the role of private many countries have opted for a licensing system.
recruiters is gaining in importance.

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Unlike registration, requirements to obtain a license when regulating fees. In India, fees vary according to
are more rigorous to fulfil. the worker’s level of qualification (Table 10.2).

The Philippines and Pakistan are two countries Table 10.2:

with an active private recruitment sector. In 2003, Fees Charged to Migrant Workers by PEAs in
there were 1,327 licensed recruitment agencies India
in the Philippines. Table 10.1 illustrates licensing
Type of worker Fee (in USD)
requirements in Pakistan and the Philippines.
Low-skilled 45

Table 10.1: Semi-skilled 65

Skilled 110
Licensing Requirements in Pakistan and the
Highly skilled 220
Philippines
Source: Adapted from India, Office of the Protector General of Emigrants
Requirements Pakistan Philippines (2004).
National Yes Yes
Application fee USD 16 USD 200
In the Philippines, the recruitment fee must not
Registration Company Company (with paid
exceed one month’s salary, although charging fees
up capital of
USD 40,000) is not permissible when the prevailing system in
Character Certificate Certificate of good Clean criminal record the destination country where the worker is to be
conduct deployed, either by law, policy or practice, does
Refundable Deposit USD 5,000 USD 20,000 not allow the charging or collection of placement
Other Licence fee – Licence fee – and recruitment fees. Responding to problems
USD 500 USD 1,000 of overcharging by recruitment intermediaries
Surety bond – and exorbitant migration costs, some countries of
USD 2,000
destination have placed legal limits to such fees. In
Minimum capital
– USD 40,000 Israel, for example, the maximum fee the migrant
Validity of Licence 3 years 4 years
worker can be charged is approximately USD 950,
which includes the sums paid to recruitment agents
Note:
Original sums were in national currencies and converted to U.S. dollars by abroad as well as the sum paid to the Israeli agency
the authors. but which excludes the airfare (MOITAL, 2008).
Source: Mughal and Padilla, 2005.
(iii) Involvement of public employment agencies
(ii) Fees
While in most countries of origin the role of public
ILO Convention No. 181 on Private Employment recruitment agencies has been taken over by the
Agencies (1997), ratified by 20 countries and in private sector, there are arguments in favour of
force since 10 May 2000, stipulates that recruitment the deployment through state-run agencies of
fees and costs should not be charged to workers categories of workers that are especially vulnerable
other than in exceptional circumstances. While it to malpractice and abuse, such as women domestic
is clearly preferable for all the costs to be borne by workers.
the employers, in practice this is often not the case,
and many governments do allow fees and costs to

be charged to migrant workers. Supply and demand See 2002 Revised POEA Rules and Regulations Governing the Recruitment
and Employment of Land-based Overseas Workers (http://www.poea.gov.
factors underpinning migration also require attention ph/rules/POEA%20Rules.pdf), Rule 5, Section 3.

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International organizations like IOM with wide- 2008) concerning labour migration to Canada, Italy
ranging experience in migrant application processing and Spain. A particularly interesting example is the
and services can also be called upon to facilitate Seasonal Agricultural Workers Project: Guatemala-
recruitment and are indeed taking up this role within Canada (see Textbox 10.2 and Portrait 10.1).
the framework of bilateral arrangements (e.g. IOM,

Textbox 10.2
Seasonal Agricultural Workers Project - Guatemala-Canada

The Guatemala-Canada Seasonal Agricultural Workers Project is the result of joint efforts by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare, and IOM cooperation.

The project was established in 2003 through an agreement with La Fondation des entreprises en recrutement de la main
d’oeuvre agricole étrangère (FERME) of the Province of Québec under the supervision of the Department of Human Resources
and Skills Development Canada (HRSDC).

The Government of Guatemala and FERME agreed to promote the migration of seasonal agricultural workers with the objective
of benefiting the country of origin and the host country, while reducing irregular migration and the associated risks. The
Government of Guatemala requested technical cooperation and implementation of the agreement by IOM as follows:

• Assistance in the selection of candidates to meet the Canadian needs for seasonal agricultural workers.

• Coordination with the Ministry of Labour to assure that the rights of Guatemalan seasonal workers are protected and
compliance with other requirements of the Ministry in addition to immigration requirements.

• Travel arrangements for seasonal migrant workers.

IOM signed a Memorandum of Understanding with FERME regarding the project.

Guatemalan workers are also protected under Canadian labour laws and have access to life and medical insurance. The project is
monitored by Guatemalan consular staff in Canada who supervise the farms where Guatemalans work, with the aim of supporting
Guatemalan workers as well as Canadian employers.

Main Procedures

Demand: Associated farms in Canada submit requests for seasonal workers to FERME, which are then processed and assessed
for approval. Once approved, they are sent by FERME to IOM Guatemala with copies to the Guatemalan Embassy in Canada.
Each request includes the number of workers, expected date of arrival in Canada, duration of the work contract and type of
farm crop.

Recruitment: Recruitment is carried out in different communities and municipalities in various departments in Guatemala.
During that process, candidates are interviewed and assessed to ascertain that they meet the requirements under the project,
and fill in a form with general information for their possible selection. Some Canadian entrepreneurs also participate in the
recruitment process. Workers then visit the IOM office and submit the documents required for inclusion in the project. Once
these documents have been received, a visa application is made and the respective file created.

Visa Application: The visa application and all the appropriate documents are forwarded to the Canadian Embassy for the relevant
Medical Examination Forms to be issued. Depending on the test results workers are deemed to be fit to undertake seasonal
agricultural work in Canada.

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Chapter 10 - HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN

Work Permit Application: Workers who have passed the medical test are registered for seasonal agricultural work and a work
permit from HRSDC is requested through FERME. Once the Canadian Embassy has the HRSDC work permits, the visas are
issued.

The Journey: Workers are invited to visit the IOM office a few days before leaving to receive information regarding their journey,
the expected conduct and discipline to be observed during their work in Canada, and their relations with other people on the
farms. Each worker receives a folder with all travel documents on the first day of the journey. These documents are classified
to facilitate emigration and immigration clearance in Guatemala and in Canada, respectively, and include the documents the
worker will be handing over to the employer.

Main Results

The number of beneficiaries is increasing and the institutional coordination mechanisms between national institutions (e.g.
foreign ministries and labour ministries) are being supported and reinforced through technical cooperation from IOM. Project
evaluations carried out with the participation of national authorities and Canadian employers confirm these positive results.

The project was launched in 2003 with an initial group of 215 workers: 180 men and 35 women. Since then the number of
workers included in this programme has increased substantially: 2,075 as of 2 November 2007, including 1,948 men and 127
women.

Source: IOM Guatemala (November 2007), http://www.oim.org.gt/SeasonalAgriculturalWorkersProject.pdf.

Portrait 10.1
Temporary Migration of Agricultural Workers to Canada

Ernesto is from the Guatemalan indigenous community of El Llano, Patzún, Chimaltenango. He has already travelled twice
with the Guatemala/Canada Seasonal Agricultural Workers Project to work on a farm tying onions, cutting lettuce and washing
carrots. As instructions on the Canadian farm are given in Spanish, it is not difficult for him to follow them and to carry out his
work efficiently. Also, he gets along well with his co-workers and generally feels that his stays in Canada have been positive.

“When I travel to Canada, I am usually sad saying goodbye to my wife and six children,” he recalls, “but I am happy for this
opportunity to improve my family’s living conditions. Work in Canada is hard, but it’s worth the effort as I am able to send
money to my family every two weeks. In Guatemala, it is so much more difficult to earn money!”

Moreover, any new skills he acquires in Canada help him to improve his own land and farming methods in Guatemala. “However,”
explains Ernesto, “it will not be easy as the farm machines used in Canada are expensive.” Then he adds, “I thank God and
the Project as in the first year I was able to build a home for my family, and with my earnings from the second year I bought
another piece of land to grow peas. Also, I have bought a TV set and a CD player. In Canada, I usually buy presents for my wife,
and clothes and toys for my children.”

During the last years, Ernesto and his family have been able to improve their diet and to occasionally add meat. “At first, my
wife was sad when I left to work in Canada. But now she is grateful and happy as this allows us to live a better life.” “I tell my
children that I have to work in Canada to earn enough money in order to buy their food and to send them to school.”

When working in Canada, Ernesto sends his wife money for food and basic expenses, and she knows that the extra money they
are saving could be used in case of any emergency.

“The Project is a great help for poor people like me, as it gives us the chance of working and earning enough money to improve
our life and future prospects for our children. I am thankful to have been given this opportunity which allows me to look ahead
and gain hope and confidence, and to leave poverty behind us.”

Source: IOM Guatemala.

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(b) Minimum standards in employment incumbent on the host country authorities to ensure
contracts the availability of legal recourse if labour contracts
are violated, for instance such as provided for by the
Ensuring that employment contracts guarantee fair Department of Labour in Hong Kong SAR (Abella,
wages and basic provisions has been an important 2000).
concern for countries of origin in protecting their
nationals abroad. For that reason, countries of origin In Jordan, the government has endorsed a legally
have developed model employment contracts which enforceable Special Unified Working Contract for
establish minimum requirements for their workers in foreign domestic workers, developed with the
the countries where they will be working. assistance of the United Nations Development Fund
for Women (UNIFEM) and national stakeholders. The
Such provisions take into account the existing contract is the first of its kind in the Middle East and
labour and social laws of the host country, as well as is required for the issuance of visas and permits. The
national customs, traditions and practices, and local government is also amending national labour laws to
labour market conditions. They should also be in provide domestic workers with legally recognized and
conformity with applicable international standards enforceable rights protection (UNIFEM, 2004).
and bilateral labour migration agreements adopted
between countries of origin and destination. Implementation of regulatory measures, whether
by controlling recruitment or by using emigration
The Philippine Government, for example, has set clearance to check the validity of overseas employment
minimum wages for certain occupations, such as contracts, becomes more challenging for countries
household employees, seafarers and production of origin when movement is facilitated through the
workers, which must not be lower than the standards introduction of visa-free regimes (e.g. such as in the
fixed under bilateral agreements or international Commonwealth of Independent States) or by proximity
conventions to which the host country is a party. In (e.g. Indonesians and Filipinos working in Malaysia).
no case may a migrant worker be paid a salary lower The easing of movement, whether deliberate or due
that the prevailing minimum wage in the Philippines. to physical factors, enables potential migrant workers
Recently, the Philippine Government imposed a to travel to the country of destination without
minimum wage of USD 400 per month for out-bound necessarily first obtaining a job (and employment
domestic workers. contract). In such cases, while regulatory measures
remain important, countries of origin will need to rely
Standards set by the local administration and included more on support services and interstate cooperation
in model employment contracts may form the basis to ensure the protection and welfare of their citizens
for permitting the employment of nationals abroad. working abroad.
However, in the absence of a bilateral agreement
between countries of origin and destination to ensure (c) Support services
the observance of minimum wages, it is relatively easy
for contract substitution to occur or for workers from The provision of support services to migrant workers
one country to be replaced by those of another. It is may include access to information, the establishment
of a contributory welfare fund to meet emergency
needs in the country of destination, the provision of

See Guidelines on the Implementation of the Reform Package Affecting
Household Service Workers, http://www.poea.gov.ph/hsw/Guidelines%
insurance coverage and posting of labour attachés to
20on%20the%20Implementation%20of%20the%20Reform%20Package% advise and assist workers abroad.
20Affecting%20Household%20Service%20Workers.pdf.

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(i) Information dissemination abroad for purposes of employment with sufficient

information to make informed choices about regular
Pre-employment travel options, means of recruitment and travel
and employment arrangements. Such information
As millions of people move across borders each year, can be conveyed in two ways: through preparatory
the need for information has become fundamental pre-employment sessions for particular contingents
to all migration decisions. Distorted perceptions of workers or through broader mass information
and insufficient knowledge about the realities in the campaigns. The latter can be especially useful in
countries they are intending to go to only serve to drawing attention to the risks and dangers of irregular
increase the importance of ensuring that migrants have labour migration. Information resource centres for
access to information. Most migrants are unaware of actual and intending migrant workers have also been
the practical, legal, social and economic consequences established in some countries with the assistance of
of moving to another country. This lack of awareness international organizations (see Textbox 10.3 and
heightens the risk migrants may be exposed to, while Portrait 10.2).
also undermining orderly migration. The dissemination
of relevant information reduces such risk and provides A variety of communication activities using
migrants with a sound basis on which to make informed various media can be used. Mass media ensure that
decisions. information reaches large audiences quickly, while
direct grassroots contacts provide the informal setting
In recent years, countries of origin have recognized required for more in-depth and frank discussions.
the need to provide their citizens intending to go

Textbox 10.3
Information Resource Centre for Migrant Workers in Tajikistan

An Information Resource Centre for Migrant Workers was established in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, in 2004 by IOM and the Government
of Tajikistan with the support of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) to provide intending and
actual migrant workers with reliable information on living and working abroad. Tajikistan’s limited employment opportunities
and mountainous terrain make it difficult for its inhabitants to make a living. As a result, to escape poverty, almost every Tajik
family has at least one member who is a migrant worker. Tajiks seasonally migrate to neighbouring Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and
Uzbekistan, though most go to the Russian Federation. An IOM study on labour migration in the region revealed that some
600,000 Tajiks are migrants (Olimova and Bosc, 2003). Unfortunately, however, Tajik migrants are not well informed about the
realities of life abroad.

Most Tajiks work in informal and low-skilled sectors in Russia and, even when they have regular status, labour exploitation is
common. Many migrants do not know where to go to seek advice and information on travel and work abroad and are an easy
prey for unofficial recruiters and traffickers.

The Government of Tajikistan, IOM and OSCE agreed to create a public resource centre with qualified counsellors to provide
information relevant to the needs of migrants. The Resource Centre informs potential migrants about employment conditions,
travel and documentation requirements, registration, the rights of migrants, press reports, maps and contacts, the risks of
trafficking and smuggling in human beings, health risks and other useful tips. Through this project, information is also provided
on community organizations and resources, social services and longer-term integration facilities.

Particular attention is paid to collecting, preparing and disseminating up-to-date information in the field of labour migration
to intending migrant workers.

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1. Travel and documentation:

• documents required for travel (passport and other documents);

• entry and exit (rights and responsibilities of border guards and citizens);
• customs (customs procedures, rights and responsibilities on both sides of the border);
• police (how to prevent abuse);
• transport means and ticketing (air and road transport);
• visa information and embassy addresses;
• information on the dangers of trafficking.

2. Admission and post-admission:

• regularization in destination country (registration);

• regularization of employment (work permit);
• health (first aid, HIV/AIDS prevention);
• education (admission);
• overseas representations of the Republic of Tajikistan and other contact addresses;
• relationship with employer (employment contract and possible risks);
• housing (rental and leases, and risks);
• employment in foreign countries (realities and possible risks for Tajik citizens).

The information is disseminated via booklets, posters, counselling services, tours, mass media, meetings, workshops and
seminars.

Source: IOM Dushanbe.

Portrait 10.2
The Importance of Pre-departure Consultation

In June 2006, Oleg saw an advertisement in a local newspaper offering a well-paid job in the United States. Until then, he
had only been able to find some temporary jobs and the money he earned was quite insufficient to pay for his family’s daily
needs and the education of his children. Working in the U.S. for a monthly wage of USD 2,500, as stated in the advertisement,
seemed to offer a solution to his problems. Oleg called the agency and, when he got through, was told to prepay USD 1,200
for the agency to prepare the necessary documents and obtain a work visa from the U.S. Embassy. As this was much more than
Oleg could afford, he borrowed USD 1,000.

Oleg went to Kiev, located the agency and met the manager. The staff seemed friendly and accommodating. Oleg spoke of his
financial problems and the manager reassured him that the prospective job would not be difficult, and provide high wages,
accommodation and meals. Oleg signed the contract without even reading it, trusting what he had heard, and deposited his
passport and the requested sum of money with the agency, and returned home expecting to be contacted one week before his
departure for the U.S. as agreed.

However, nothing happened, and when he again called the agency, there was no reply. Becoming suspicious, Oleg continued
to call and eventually left again for Kiev to see what was happening. However, there was nobody at the address, only empty
offices. The cleaner informed him that the agency had rented the room only for a few days before leaving again, but she did
not know where to.

Oleg needed some time before he realized what had happened. Only now did it occur to him as strange that the office was so
small, that there was no official sign or name, that only a laptop had been placed on the table, and that the “manager” had
been far too friendly. He did not know what to do now.

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Oleg returned home and found a temporary job. He handed all the money he earned to the creditor to repay his debt. Although
working abroad to earn some money became more of a necessity each day, his experience had made him suspicious and he was
not ready to take any more risks.

One day, Oleg saw a banner at a railway station, with a hotline number. He called and was advised to apply to a Centre of
Migrant Advice (CMA). When Oleg went there for a personal consultation, he was informed of the possibilities available to work
abroad lawfully. Based on this information, Oleg chose to apply for work in the Czech Republic. The Centre assisted him to
access the employment websites in the Czech Republic and offered him the use of free Internet access. The CMA consultants
helped him to prepare his personal history form in English and to post it on the employment websites. He was then able to
contact some of the potential employers and, in time, received an answer from a construction company in Brno. This time, Oleg
prepared and collected all necessary documents himself and obtained a working visa. Before he left for his new job in the Czech
Republic, Oleg was provided with all useful and necessary contact information concerning the Ukraine Consulate in Prague as
well as non-governmental aid agencies able to assist migrants in the Czech Republic.

Oleg has since departed for Brno where he is satisfied with his new job. He has also referred his neighbours to the CMA.

Source: IOM Kiev.

Pre-departure orientation • services and benefits offered by government bodies

and non-governmental organizations (NGOs);
Pre-departure orientation courses are intended to • options and procedures for sending remittances;
prepare the departing migrants for life and work abroad, • travel documents, airport procedures and travel
including their protection from abusive employment tips;
practices. Such short courses are often seen as a useful • initial reception arrangements in the destination
way of providing basic, introductory information country;
relating to future living and working environments • return and reintegration;
such as cultural adaptation issues, language skills and • savings options.
financial services, including advice on the gains that
can be made; health counselling and human rights For similar reasons, the Italian Ministry of Labour
awareness; and eventual return and reintegration provided funds for IOM to develop five orientation
arrangements. modules covering legal aspects of migration; the
management of the migrant labour market; socio-
With this objective in mind, the Governments of the cultural aspects; psycho-cultural aspects; and
Philippines and Sri Lanka have developed two-day language learning. Those modules have been used
pre-departure orientation programmes for domestic as resources for pre-departure orientation courses
workers leaving for Hong Kong SAR and the Middle in a number of countries, including Moldova and Sri
East, covering the following areas: Lanka.

• rights of a domestic worker based on the standard (ii) Migrant welfare funds
employment contract;
• obligations of a domestic worker according to Migrant welfare funds (MWFs) are an innovative and
relevant regulations; financially sustainable means of providing support
• “do’s and don’ts” in relation to the employer and services to vulnerable migrants and to migrants in
living conditions in the destination country; distress. Although so far only implemented in Asia,
• destination country profile; they have the potential to be of value to all countries

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of origin by providing a solid resource base for action runs 28 migrant worker centres in countries with large
against the abuse of migrant workers and ensuring concentrations of Filipino migrant workers. It pays for
decent working and living conditions. They have legal services to defend migrant workers in foreign
proved to be particularly useful in assisting migrants courts. All three funds pay for the fares of migrant
who encounter problems on worksites. workers whose employment has been terminated
because of physical abuse, contract violations or other
Three major Asian countries of origin have established reasons, and for the cost of repatriating remains.
MWFs: Pakistan, the Philippines and Sri Lanka.
The principal objectives of the funds are to provide The three MWFs, but especially OPF, have tried to
protection to migrant workers on the job site. The establish other services such as scholarships, vocational
funds also provide for a number of other services for training and business loans to migrant workers and
workers and their families. their families to the point where they risk intruding
on services already offered by specialized government
MWFs are administered by public or semi-public agencies. In general terms, however, demand for these
agencies: the Overseas Pakistani Foundation (OPF), the extra services has not been particularly strong (Tan,
Philippine Overseas Workers Welfare Administration 2005).
(OWWA) and the Sri Lanka Overseas Workers Welfare
Fund (OWWF). All three involve representatives of (iii) Government assistance in destination countries
migrant workers and the national government office through labour attachés
in charge of labour migration. They are financed by
contributions from departing migrant workers fixed The role of embassies and consulates in providing support
at about USD 25 per person. OWWA, together with and assistance to migrant workers is most developed in
the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration established Asian countries of origin and Mexico. The
(POEA), were created by Presidential decree in labour attaché is a member of the diplomatic mission,
1977, just two years after the first group of 35,000 appointed from the ministry or department of labour,
construction workers left for the Middle East. The and charged with functions relating to labour relations
Pakistani Emigration Ordinance, adopted in 1979, between the home and the host country. For example,
provided for the establishment of OPF, while Sri a labour attaché from the Philippines has the following
Lanka created its welfare fund in 1985. Apparently, duties:
both funds were adapted from the Philippine model,
since there are great similarities in their objectives, • protection of workers abroad falling within the
organization and funding sources. diplomatic mission’s jurisdiction;
• undertaking marketing and identification of job
The operations of MWFs in the Philippines, Pakistan opportunities;
and Sri Lanka have been assessed in an IOM study (Tan, • assistance in the development of labour migration
2005) focusing on their effectiveness in achieving their policies;
objectives. Financial reports published by the welfare • promotion of good relations with the host country
funds reveal the scope of their activities. Pakistan on labour matters.
allocated 13 per cent of its welfare services budget to
job sites, covering consultations, legal services, the In the Philippines, labour attachés are supported by
return of migrants and repatriation of remains. Sri Philippine Overseas Labour Officers (POLOs), whose
Lanka allocated a higher proportion, 35 per cent of its work is described in Textbox 10.4.
budget, for the same purposes. The Philippine MWF

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Textbox 10.4
Philippine Overseas Labour Officers: Serving Overseas Filipino Workers Abroad

The Philippine Administrative Code and Labour Code provide the legal basis for a service delivery programme in countries of
destination through the Philippine Overseas Labour Officers or POLOs. The Department of Labour and Employment (DOLE) is
responsible for the development of policy and programme guidelines, while the International Labour Affairs Service (ILAS) of the
DOLE provides ongoing administrative support. The Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) and the Overseas
Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA) are the POLOs’ key institutional partners within the DOLE for the implementation
of their programmes and day-to-day operations. From a personnel management perspective, the POLOs are attached to the
Philippine diplomatic missions abroad and subject to the relevant regulations of the Department of Foreign Affairs for service
attachés. The POLOs’ activities are therefore supervised by their respective heads of mission at the posting station.

To ensure organized legal entry of Filipino workers to the place of work, POLOs verify whether foreign employers, foreign
recruiters, worksites, project sites, job vacancies and terms and conditions of employment meet the standards set by bilateral
agreements or Philippine Government policy. They also negotiate with host governments and employers to secure improvements
of the terms and conditions of employment and to facilitate worker recruitment and documentation.

Post-arrival orientation activities, worksite inspections, the social mobilization of workers and consultative dialogues are
undertaken to address adjustment needs by promoting a sense of belonging in their temporary work setting, the fostering
of cultural unity among Filipino workers and the maintenance of communication with the Philippine Mission. When problems
and crises arise, Filipino migrant workers are given access to counselling, mediation, conciliation, medical services, legal
assistance and court representation, as required. Visits to workers in detention can also be arranged, temporary shelter offered
and evacuation or repatriation effected in case of civil conflict or unrest, or for health reasons. Where permissible under host
country policy, referrals for employment transfer may be organized. In addition, POLOs help update and implement crisis
response programmes with the Consular Division of the Philippine Mission, whenever necessary. In preparation for their post-
employment options in the Philippines, Filipino workers are provided access to skills training, reintegration counselling and
service referral.

POLOs are counted upon to establish cooperative linkages with a wide range of partners and stakeholders, including host
governments, employers’ associations, worker organizations, Filipino communities, NGOs, faith-based organizations and the
media. They have the responsibility to provide regular situational analyses, identify new market opportunities or make a
recommendation when they are of the view that a ban on the deployment of workers to a company or country is warranted.
They can also make recommendations towards the imposition of administrative penalties against or blacklisting of abusive
foreign employers and recruiters.

POLOs have been deployed in 34 countries around the world and are led by 42 labour attachés. In most posts, the complete
staff establishment of a POLO team includes a welfare officer, an administrative assistant, an interpreter and a driver. The POLO
team works in partnership with Philippine consular officers and, depending on specific issues of concern, with other members
of the diplomatic service. For example, the POLO works closely with trade attachés whenever bilateral discussions on economic
cooperation agreements involve labour and employment issues. While police matters relating to nationals, including those
concerning irregular work, are handled by consular officials, the POLOs maintain an open system of informal cooperation to
assist in such cases. At other times, the POLOs work hand-in-hand with social workers and medical attachés deployed by the
Department of Social Welfare and Development and the Department of Health.

The Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 reinforced the role of the POLOs and provided impetus for further
experimentation in team management and mainstreaming of services within the Philippine diplomatic service to provide
overseas Filipino workers with the services they need wherever they may be.

Source: Ricardo Casco, National Programme Officer, Labour Migration Services, IOM Manila.

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3.2 Optimizing the Benefits of Organized the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states, Europe,
Labour Migration Asia, Oceania/Australia) or to occupational sectors
(e.g. seafarers, nurses/health workers, domestic
For countries seeking to promote foreign employment, workers). A monthly Market Situation Report (MSR)
labour migration policy must also address the is provided to private sector associations, which in
broader question of the promotion and facilitation of turn distribute it to their members. The MSR is a
managed external labour flows. Countries of origin consolidated report on current international labour
have an interest in discouraging irregular migration market developments and relevant economic trends and
(while advocating an increase in regular channels events that have a bearing on the Philippine overseas
for labour migration, including through circular employment programme. In addition, comprehensive
migration initiatives). The benefits of organized destination country reports are prepared, covering
labour migration can be optimized through the the labour, political and socio-economic conditions
promotion of foreign employment by way of as well as prospects and problems in each country
marketing strategies, cooperation with the private of interest. Information on immigration policies and
sector, human resource development (see Section 2 labour laws of different countries are continuously
above) and leveraging the funds migrant workers send gathered, analyzed and disseminated. This type of
home (remittances). The importance of marketing is research is essentially based on analytical reading
considered below, while circular migration and the of secondary sources such as trade journals, regional
question of enhancing the development impact of economic magazines and national development plans
remittances are discussed in Chapter 12. of countries of destination. This is complemented by
feedback derived from consultations and close liaison
3.3. Importance of Marketing work with the marketing staff of private sector groups.
Inputs are also derived from reports of labour attachés
Since labour migration is primarily determined by and whatever information can be culled from Philippine
demand, countries wishing to deploy their workers embassy reports.
abroad must be able to seek out prospective employers
and compete with other countries of origin. Thus, it In addition to disseminating market research
can be argued, a “marketing strategy” is the lifeblood information to the private sector, marketing missions
of any overseas employment programme. are undertaken by the Philippine Government to
negotiate bilateral agreements or arrangements for
Marketing is a necessary first step in the effort to the deployment of Filipino workers.10
“promote” a country’s labour. It also points to a
country’s deliberate purpose in using labour mobility As part of an inter-regional project for legal and
as a means to attain certain specific economic goals, managed labour migration,11 financed by the European
such as easing unemployment or the generation of Commission, IOM is helping to create or strengthen
flows of remittances to augment its foreign exchange existing marketing activities in ten Asian countries
earnings. Countries intending to deploy their nationals of origin. Market research units, or MRUs, are to be
abroad need to identify opportunities beyond located in the ministries of overseas employment/
their national boundaries in a highly competitive
international market. In this case, market research 
Information provided by Ricardo Casco, National Programme Officer,
becomes essential. Labour Migration Services, IOM Manila and former POEA official.
10
Information provided by Ricardo Casco, National Programme Officer,
Labour Migration Services, IOM Manila.
In the Philippines, the market research group 11
AENEAS: Regional Dialogue and Programme on Facilitating Legal
Migration between Asia and the European Union. A brochure describing
maintains a “desk officer” system that allocates work the programme can be downloaded from the Colombo Process website
responsibilities according to regions of interest (e.g. (see Textbox 10.5) at http://www.colomboprocess.org/.

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labour to collect labour market information on selected sets of policies and procedures. An analysis of those
European Union Member States and disseminate it to already in place in four Asian countries is shown
recruitment agencies. in Table 10.3 below. While there are undoubtedly
similarities in these countries’ policies, there are
3.4 Administration of Labour Migration - also significant differences in their content and
Sample Policy and Procedural Interventions application.

Ultimately, labour migration programmes are most

effective when they are supported by comprehensive

Table 10.3:
Government Functions and Services Provided by Overseas Employment Programmes, Selected
Countries of Origin
Bangladesh India Sri Lanka Philippines
Supervision of Recruitment
Registration and licensing of private recruiters ***** ***** ***** *****
Ban/restriction of direct hiring ***** ***** ***** *****
Periodic inspection of recruitment agencies ***** ***** ***** *****
Limit to recruitment fee charged to worker ***** ***** ***** *****
Cash/security bond requirement ***** ***** ***** *****
Regulation of job advertising ***** ***** ***** *****
Joint liability ***** *****
Complaints mechanism and adjudication ***** ***** ***** *****
Performance-based incentives *****
State recruitment agency ***** ***** ***** *****
Departure Procedures for Migrant Workers (MWs)
Minimum standards for employment contracts ***** ***** ***** *****
Emigration clearance ***** ***** ***** *****
Trade test ***** ***** *****
Support Services to Migrant Workers
State subsidized skills training ***** ***** ***** *****
Pre-departure orientation ***** ***** ***** *****
Migrant welfare fund ***** ***** *****
Labour attaché assistance ***** ***** ***** *****
Overseas Workers Welfare Centres ***** *****
Insurance ***** ***** ***** *****
Conciliation on-site ***** ***** ***** *****
Legal aid on-site ***** ***** ***** *****
Return assistance ***** *****
Reintegration assistance ***** *****
Marketing Support to Recruitment Agencies
Client referral system *****
Market research units ***** *****
Labour attaché reports *****
Interstate Cooperation
Social security arrangements ***** ***** *****
MoUs/agreements on deployment/protection of MWs ***** ***** ***** *****
Notes:
A migrant welfare fund is currently being established in India.
Policies by governments have also been formulated in the area of remittances.
***** In operation.

Source: Achacoso, 2002; updated in 2007 by IOM and author.

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4. International Cooperation cooperation on labour migration, which have been

concluded either on a global level as in multilateral
There are clear limits to what a country of origin can agreements and conventions protecting the rights
do to protect its migrant workers without the active of migrant workers under the auspices of the ILO
cooperation of destination countries. Interstate and the UN, on a regional level as in the treaties
cooperation and, more broadly, international establishing regional integration mechanisms, or
cooperation, can play an essential part, not only in the on a bilateral level as in the case of bilateral labour
protection and welfare of migrant workers, but also in agreements (see Chapter 13). The various forms of
the expansion of organized labour migration and the formal cooperation, such as mandated in bilateral
curbing of irregular movements. Cooperation may take agreements, regional integration and international
many forms. For instance, it may be conducted at the conventions, often operate simultaneously.
bilateral level, or regionally, between a number of like-
minded countries, or even at the global level.12 Nor Where it is not desirable or feasible to work on the basis
should such cooperation be restricted to government of formal commitments, other forms of cooperation
actors; the participation of other stakeholders, such are available. These include non-binding consultative
as employers’ or workers’ organizations, is of crucial mechanisms, such as regional consultative processes
importance. (RCPs), joint commissions on labour, working groups
and non-binding multilateral frameworks, such as the
Formal mechanisms of interstate cooperation are Berne Initiative which culminated in the elaboration of
essentially binding treaty commitments relating to the International Agenda for Migration Management
(IAMM) (Swiss Federal Office for Migration and IOM,
12
See Chapter 13 for a more detailed discussion of formal and less formal 2005) (see also Chapters 11 and 13).
mechanisms of interstate cooperation on migration, including bilateral
labour migration agreements, international agreements protecting the rights
of migrant workers and their families and regional consultative processes One of the most active RCPs in operation is provided by
(RCPs), as well as global means of cooperation. In the latter regard, see also the Ministerial Consultations on Overseas Employment
Textbox Int. 2 on the Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD).
Given its importance and cross-cutting nature, interstate and international and Contractual Labour for Countries of Origin in Asia,
cooperation is also discussed in other chapters in Part B of the Report (viz.
on the exchange of migration data in Chapter 9; from the perspective of
commonly referred to as the “Colombo Process” (see
destination countries in Chapter 11; and between countries of origin and Textbox 10.5).
destination as well as with and among other pertinent stakeholders, with a
view to harnessing the development potential of migration in Chapter 12).

Textbox 10.5
Ministerial Consultations on Overseas Employment and Contractual Labour for Countries of
Origin in Asia: The Colombo Process

In response to a request from several Asian countries of origin, IOM organized Ministerial Consultations in 2003, 2004 and
2005. The ten original participating States (Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka,
Thailand and Viet Nam) made recommendations for the effective management of overseas employment programmes and agreed
to the implementation of a range of follow-up activities.

The aim of the Ministerial Consultations is to provide a forum for Asian countries of origin to:

• share experiences, lessons learned and best practices on overseas employment policies and practices;
• consult on issues faced by overseas workers, countries of origin and destination;
• propose practical solutions for the well-being of vulnerable overseas workers;

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Chapter 10 - HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN

• optimize development benefits and

• enhance dialogue with countries of destination.

Achievements so far include:

• identification at ministerial and senior official level of policy challenges and needs, and exploration of the range of possible
responses and exchange of experiences in programme development;
• development of training curricula for labour attachés and administrators and implementing joint training courses;
• establishment of Market Research Units (MRUs) and creation of more channels for regular labour migration; and
• implementation of specific recommendations at the national level.

The third Ministerial Consultations in Bali, Indonesia, were greatly enriched by the participation of countries of destination,
with delegations from Bahrain, Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the United Arab Emirates.
Afghanistan was welcomed as a new member to the group after participating as an Observer in 2004. International and regional
organizations participating in the Consultations included the Asian Development Bank, the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), the European Community, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, the U.K. Department for International
Development (DFID), ILO, UNIFEM and the World Bank.

On 21 and 22 January 2008, Colombo Process countries met in Abu Dhabi with GCC countries and Malaysia, Singapore and
Yemen. The Abu Dhabi Dialogue resulted in the adoption of the Abu Dhabi Declaration which provides a basis for cooperative
action to be undertaken with the support of IOM. Four specific areas of partnership were identified:

• Partnership 1: Enhancing knowledge in the areas of: labour market trends, skills profiles, temporary contractual workers and
remittance policies and flows, and their interplay with development in the region.
• Partnership 2: Building capacity for the effective matching of labour demand and supply.
• Partnership 3: Preventing illegal recruitment practices and promoting welfare and protection measures for contractual
workers that are supportive of their well-being and preventing their exploitation at origin and destination.
• Partnership 4: Developing a framework for a comprehensive approach to managing the entire cycle of temporary contractual
mobility to the mutual benefit of countries of origin and destination.

Sources: IOM and http://www.colomboprocess.org/.

At the global level, the constituents of the ILO have on best practices and international standards.
developed a non-binding Multilateral Framework on The Framework also underlines the importance of
Labour Migration (see Textbox 10.6). The Framework international cooperation in dealing with labour
aims to provide a rights-based approach to labour migration. It is composed of 15 broad principles,
migration that takes into account labour market each with corresponding guidelines and a follow-up
needs, proposing guidelines and principles based mechanism.

Textbox 10.6
The ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration

The ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration: Non-binding principles and guidelines for a rights-based approach to
labour migration forms the centrepiece of the ILO Plan of Action for Migrant Workers, adopted by the tripartite constituents
(governments, and employers’ and workers’ organizations) at the 92nd Session of the International Labour Conference in June
2004. The Framework was the negotiated outcome of an ILO tripartite meeting of experts (31 October-2 November 2006),
subsequently endorsed by the ILO Governing Body in March 2006.

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The objective of the Framework is to provide practical guidance to its tripartite constituents and other stakeholders (civil
society, international and regional agencies) on the development, improvement or strengthening, implementation and
evaluation of national and international labour migration policies. The Framework supplements existing ILO and UN migrant
worker instruments, and takes into account new global challenges and developments such as the growth of temporary labour
migration programmes; the feminization of migration; the greater role of the private sector in arranging migration across
borders; high incidence of irregular migration, including trafficking and smuggling of human beings; and the growing interest
of the international community in migration and development linkages.

The ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration is the most comprehensive international collection of principles, guidelines
and best practices on labour migration policy. It is “rights-based” in the sense of bringing together the principles and rights
that apply to labour migration and treatment of migrant workers already contained in various international instruments. The
Framework consists of 15 principles and corresponding guidelines organized under nine broad themes, and a collection of 132
best practices worldwide. The five major themes that underlie the Framework are: decent work for all; international cooperation;
governance and management of migration; promotion and protection of migrant rights; and migration and development. The
Framework recognizes the important role to be played by social partners, social dialogue and tripartism in migration policy.
It advocates gender-sensitive migration policies that address the special problems faced by women migrant workers. It is
important to highlight that most of these principles and guidelines are already present in varying degrees in many parts of the
world, as shown by the extensive compilation of examples of best practices.

At the same time, the Framework acknowledges the sovereign right of all nations to determine their own migration policies.
Since it is a non-binding Framework, constituents can draw upon its extensive compilation of principles, guidelines and
practices – in full or in part – in formulating, improving, implementing and evaluating their own legislative and regulatory
frameworks on labour migration. Global trade union federations, such as the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC)
and international and regional NGOs (e.g. Migrant Forum in Asia), have incorporated the ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour
Migration into their policy agendas.

The ILO will continue to promote and support implementation of the Framework principles and guidelines by Member States
through its regular advisory services, advocacy work and technical cooperation programmes in active collaboration with its
tripartite partners, the Global Migration Group (GMG), and other concerned international, regional and national organizations.

Source: International Migration Programme, ILO, Geneva.

International cooperation is vital to an orderly and interests of countries of origin and of destination,
managed labour migration system. In the absence of governments at all levels (central, regional and
of a widely accepted international migration system local), migrant workers and their representatives,
for labour migration – for instance, the expansion social partners (employers and trade unions) and
of the General Agreement on Trade in Services civil society.
(GATS) to encompass broader categories of service
providers thus increasing the mobility of temporary 5. Conclusion
workers (see Textbox Int. 1) and considerably more
ratifications of the International Convention on An increasing number of developing countries
the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and countries with economies in transition seek
and Members of their Families, and of relevant ILO to adopt policies, legislation and administrative
instruments (see Chapter 13) – there is a need to structures that promote foreign employment for
expand and develop concurrently bilateral, regional their workforce and generate remittances, while
and international cooperation through formal and providing safeguards to protect migrants. While job
informal mechanisms on the basis of existing effective creation at home is their preferred option, these
practices. Cooperation has to take into account the countries see overseas employment as part of a

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national development strategy to take advantage of Foremost among these is a wide range of measures that
global employment opportunities and as a source of are collectively intended to protect migrant workers
foreign exchange. Countries of origin that are keen from different forms of abuse and to enhance their
to facilitate labour migration must grapple with the personal welfare. Access to authoritative, accurate
challenge of formulating policies and priorities that and up-to-date information is of great importance in
both satisfy the needs of their domestic markets and this respect. A well-informed worker is better able to
produce talent able to compete for job opportunities make choices – whether they concern the destination,
abroad. This chapter has argued that this challenge type of employment or duration of contract – and
is best addressed within a comprehensive HRD better equipped to adapt to a new social and
framework that emphasizes good information on working environment in the country of destination.
job opportunities and requirements, and quality In addition, processes of selection, recruitment and
education and training. employment, while, by their very nature, subject to
market movements, can and indeed do benefit from
At the core of such a framework is a properly careful regulation and monitoring to ensure that
resourced educational system that offers formal workers are shielded from exploitative practices.
learning complemented, where necessary, by Support services, for instance through the operation
practical work experience and training, with both of migrant welfare funds, or consular assistance, can
leading to assessment and certification by recognized further contribute to both the migrant’s well-being
authorities. Of necessity, however, HRD planning and productivity as a worker.
starts well upstream of educational processes, with
the identification and forecast of labour market Finally, two important interconnected policy
needs and employment opportunities in relation to undertakings concern the establishment of an
both domestic and international spheres. effective administrative infrastructure to bring
overall coherence and purposefulness to labour
HRD planning then connects with policies required mobility policies, and the pursuit of partnerships
for the specific management of labour mobility. among governments and with other stakeholders.

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Israel, Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labour (MOITAL)

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of January 2008, MOITAL, http://www.moital.
Abella, M. gov.il/NR/exeres/702AE5C9-4AD2-4F96-9BBB-
2000 “Policies and Institutions for the Orderly DCCE264A94EE.htm?wbc_purpose=ba
Movement of Labour Abroad”, ILO Briefing
Paper, Geneva. Lowell, B.L. and A. Findlay
2001 Migration of Highly Skilled Persons from
Achacoso, T.D. Developing Countries: Impact and Policy
2002 “International Labour Migration Institutions Responses - Synthesis Report, International
of Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka in Ferment: Migration Papers 44, International Labour
The Philippines as a Catalyst”, paper prepared Office, Geneva, http://www.ilo.org/public/
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tion%20Institutions%20of%20Bangladesh,%20I. McKinsey Global Institute
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2000 Asia’s Best Universities 2000, Asiaweek, emerginggloballabormarket/.
Special Report, http://cgi.cnn.com/ASIANOW/
asiaweek/features/universities2000/index.html Mughal, R. and L. Padilla
2005 “Regulatory Frameworks for Recruitment of
Docquier, F. and A. Bhargava Migrant Workers and Minimum Standards in
2006 “The Medical Brain Drain. A New Panel Data Set Employment Contracts: A Comparative Study
on Physicians’ Emigration Rates (1991-2004)”, of Pakistan, the Philippines and Sri Lanka”
September, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., in IOM, Labour Migration in Asia: Protection
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRES/ of Migrant Workers, Support Services and
Resources/DataSetDocquierBhargava_Medical_ Enhancing Development Benefits, IOM, Geneva,
BD100306.xls. 13-83, http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/cache/
offonce/pid/1674?entryId=7993.
India, Office of the Protector General of Emigrants
2004 Emigration and You: An Information Booklet, Murali, K.
New Delhi. 2003 “The IIT Story: Issues and Concerns”,
Frontline 20:3 (1-14 February), http://www.
International Labour Organization (ILO)
hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fline/fl2003/
2006 ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration:
stories/20030214007506500.htm.
Non-binding principles and guidelines for a
rights-based approach to labour migration, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE),
International Labour Office, Geneva, http:// IOM and ILO
www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/ 2006 Handbook on Establishing Effective Labour
migrant/download/multilat_fwk_en.pdf Migration Policies in Countries of Origin and
Destination, Vienna, OSCE/IOM/ILO, http://
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2003 Labour Migration in Asia – Trends, challenges
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publications/Labour_Migration_in_Asia- Vienna, OSCE/IOM/ILO, http://www.osce.org/
Trends,challenges_and_policy_respo.pdf. item/28725.html.

2008 “Facilitation of the Recruitment of Foreign

Workers”, IOM Position Paper, March, Labour
and Facilitated Migration Division, IOM, Geneva.

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Chapter 10 - HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN

Pritchett, L.
2006 Let their People Come: Breaking the Gridlock
Textbox 10.3 - Information Resource Centre for
on Global Labor Mobility, Center for Global Migrant Workers in Tajikistan
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cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/10174. Olimova, S. and I. Bosc
2003 Labour Migration from Tajikistan, IOM in
Ratha, D. and Z. Xu cooperation with the Sharq Scientific Research
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Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008, publications/labour_migration_2003.pdf.
Migration and Remittances Team, Development
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D.C., http://siteresources.worldbank.
on Labour Migration
org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-
1199807908806/Top10.pdf.
International Labour Organization (ILO)
Swiss Federal Office for Migration and IOM 2006 ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration:
2005 International Agenda for Migration Management, Non-binding principles and guidelines for a
16-17 December, IOM/Swiss Federal Office rights-based approach to labour migration,
for Migration, Geneva/Berne, http://www. International Labour Office, Geneva, http://
iom.int/jahia/Jahia/cache/bypass/pid/ www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/
1674?entryId=8005. migrant/download/multilat_fwk_en.pdf.

Tan, E.A.
2005 “Welfare Funds for Migrant Workers – A
Comparative Study of Pakistan, the Philippines
and Sri Lanka” in IOM, Labour Migration in Asia:
Protection of Migrant Workers, Support Services
and Enhancing Development Benefits, IOM,
Geneva, 153-218, http://www.iom.int/jahia/
Jahia/cache/offonce/pid/1674?entryId=7993.

2006 “Capacity of the Developing East Asian Region

to Supply Skilled Manpower to Foreign Labour
Markets”, working paper submitted to ILO.

2007 “Supply Response to Foreign Demand for Skilled

Manpower, the Philippine Case”, draft paper
prepared for IOM.

United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)

2004 The UNIFEM Asia-Pacific Arab States Regional
Program on Empowering Women Migrant Workers
in Asia, Phase I: 2001-2004 (Report), UNIFEM,
Bangkok.

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FORMULATION AND
MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGN
EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN
COUNTRIES OF DESTINATION*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
11 in Chapter 10, cannot be wholly successful without
the development of partnerships between these
Foreign workers are employed in many countries countries and countries of destination, either on a
at all skill levels, even though some of them may bilateral basis or in the context of regional economic
originally have arrived as students, tourists or family integration or trade agreements (see Chapter 13),
members (see Chapters 4, 5 and 6, respectively), and the adoption of transparent, flexible and
and then remained in the country to work. There complementary regulations and policies in countries
are significant numbers of foreign workers in the of destination. But, a “one-size-fits-all approach”
European Union (EU); established countries of to policymaking in this field is not feasible because
immigration such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand countries of destination have to address their own
and the United States; the Gulf Cooperation Council sovereign concerns regarding the employment of
(GCC) states; new immigration countries such as the foreign workers.
Russian Federation; as well as a number of middle-
income countries in the developing world, viz. This chapter presents the principal policy options
Malaysia, South Africa and Thailand. As described to be considered by countries of destination in
earlier in Chapters 7 and 8, cross-border labour their admission policies for both permanent and
mobility between neighbouring developing countries temporary migrant workers. It begins by underlining
is common, while considerable irregular labour the increasing importance of labour mobility in the
migration also occurs not only from developing to context of migration management and the need for
developed industrialized countries, but also among an explicit official statement to guide public policy
developing countries themselves. in this field and the appropriate administrative

The preparation of nationals in countries of origin


A country-specific approach to policymaking is inevitable because,
for their temporary employment abroad, discussed as Ruhs (2005: 203) observes, “the design and implementation of
immigration policy remain principally the domain of domestic
* This chapter was written by Ryszard Cholewinski, Labour Migration policymaking of sovereign and self-determining states” (original
Specialist, Migration Policy, Research and Communications, IOM, Geneva. emphasis) and because of significant contextual differences between
The author is particularly grateful to Elizabeth Warn (Labour Migration countries (e.g. levels of economic development, regulation of labour
Specialist, Labour and Facilitated Migration Division, IOM, Geneva), who markets, degree of democratic institutions).
provided material and assisted in drafting Sections 4 and 7.

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structure to put such policies into effect. Regarding negotiations and are reflected in bilateral or regional
the design of temporary labour migration programmes, trade and/or economic integration agreements
in particular, the chapter builds on the policy (Chapter 13), and regional and international human
discussions presented in Chapter 3 and appraises rights and labour standards.
some of the challenges involved in the effective
implementation of such schemes. The chapter goes 2. Labour Mobility at the Core of Migration
on to assess the main elements of a comprehensive Management
post-admission policy, taking account of the concerns
of destination countries regarding the protection An important line of argument in this Report is
of their labour markets, the economic and social that labour mobility lies at the heart of migration
integration of newcomers and maintenance of social management today against a background of economic
cohesion. It also considers the principal tools at the globalization and labour shortages at all skills levels
disposal of policymakers in destination countries to in such key sectors as health care, construction
comprehensively address irregular labour migration and agriculture; significant demographic decline in
and the related issue of an informal labour market. industrialized countries, and a decrease in asylum
Finally, the chapter provides an overview of the applications in these countries (see Textbox 11.1).
types of cooperation and partnerships destination Consequently, more attention to, and resources for,
countries might enter into with countries of origin migration management in these and more recent
and transit as well as other pertinent stakeholders, countries of destination (e.g. the Russian Federation)
to formulate and manage their foreign employment (see Textbox Reg. 2 in the Europe Migration
policies more effectively and equitably. Overview) might be devoted to the development of a
greater choice of regular labour migration channels,
While state sovereignty is the prevailing order in facilitated by explicit policy statements in support
international relations, it is not absolute. Global of appropriate policies and regulations involving
economic interdependence, exemplified in the the whole government structure and administration.
globalization process (Chapter 1), has a strong bearing Appropriate instruments to monitor and evaluate
on national policymaking in this field. States have the efficacy of foreign employment policies are also
also entered into agreements that foresee a certain integral to taking labour migration more seriously
balance of interest among the parties regarding their (Ardittis and Laczko, 2008). However, to do so
respective regulation of international labour mobility requires the existence of appropriate mechanisms
or the treatment of migrant workers. Such concerns to allow the collection of accurate and reliable data
have become an important subject of international (see Chapter 9).

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Textbox 11.1
The Evolution of Asylum Applications in IGC Participating States, 1983-2007*

Note:
*
The Intergovernmental Consultations on Migration, Asylum and Refugees (IGC) is an informal, non-decision making forum for inter-
governmental information exchange and policy debate on the management of international migratory flows. The IGC brings together 16
Participating States, UNHCR, IOM and the European Commission. The IGC maintains databases on, among others, the number of asylum
applications received in present and former IGC Participating States.
Present IGC Participating States are Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Former IGC Participating States from where IGC
continues to collect data on asylum applications are Austria, France and Italy.

During the period 1983-2007, over 10 million asylum applications were filed in countries participating in the Intergovernmental
Consultations (IGC; see above for a list of countries).

In 1985, some 100,000 asylum applications were received by IGC participating states. By 1989, annual applications had
increased fourfold to 435,000. From 1983 to 1992, the major countries of origin were Sri Lanka, Iran, Turkey, Poland, the Czech
Republic and former Zaire (today the Democratic Republic of the Congo).

In 1992, asylum applications reached a new peak of 840,000, with 85,000 applications received in July 1992, with most of the
increase attributable to the rise in claims filed by persons from the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

From 1993 onwards, numbers again dropped to a low of 390,000 applications in 1997; this was followed by a slight increase
between 1998 and 2001, again owing to a rise in claims by persons from the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Since 2001, applications have continued to fall to stand at 240,000 in 2006, which corresponds to the number of annual
applications in 1987.

In 2007, numbers increased for the first time since 2001 due to an increase in asylum applications by persons from Iraq.

Destination Countries

Throughout the period under review, Germany received the largest number of claims among all IGC participating states, with a
peak of 440,000 in 1992, or 52 per cent of total claims filed in the IGC states for that year.

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Chapter 11 - FORMULATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF DESTINATION

Distribution of Asylum Claims Among all IGC States, 1983-20071

Germany 27% Belgium 4%

United States 16% Norway 2%
United Kingdom 10% Spain 2%
France 9% Denmark 1%
Canada 7% Australia 1%
Sweden 6% Italy2 1%
Netherlands 5% Ireland 1%
Switzerland 5% Finland <1%
Austria 4% New Zealand <1%

Notes:
1
Greece is not included in this chart because data is only available for 2006 and 2007
2
Data for Italy are included only up to 2001.

France, the United States, the United Kingdom and Sweden receive most asylum applications, with Sweden, Austria, Switzerland
and Norway receiving the largest number of claims in relation to their populations.

Source: The Intergovernmental Consultations (IGC) Secretariat, Geneva.

2.1 The Case for an Explicit Policy Statement Canada (CIC) Minister’s Annual Report to Parliament
to Guide and Inform the Elaboration of on Immigration:
Transparent Regulations and Policies
Immigration will play an increasingly important
Ideally, the immigration and labour migration policies role in supporting Canada’s economic prosperity
and objectives in destination countries should be and competitiveness. In a few short years, given
clearly stated, and based on broad political and our aging population, Canadians who leave school
popular support, not only to enjoy wide legitimacy, for the workplace will only offset the number
but also to obviate the risk of subsequent policy of retirements. Immigration will therefore be a
inconsistencies espoused and pursued by different key source of labour force growth in the future.
political formations, which often become apparent Moreover, the country is currently facing significant
in the period leading up to general elections. labour market shortages in some sectors and
For example, the importance of immigration to regions. Immigration can contribute to addressing
Canada’s economic growth generally, and of labour both short- and long-term labour market needs
migration in particular, to countervail the prevailing by attracting people with the right mix of skills
demographic profile and labour shortages together and talents to support economic growth today and
with the importance of integrating newcomers, is in the future. With other industrialized countries
clearly articulated in the Citizenship and Immigration confronting similar challenges with respect to
sustaining population and economic growth, Canada
will be operating in an increasingly competitive

For a list of the different types of impacts that policymakers should give worldwide market for higher skilled workers.
regard to in defining policy objectives, see Ruhs (2005). High-level policy
objectives (which may however also be conflicting) include: realization …
of labour market objectives, protecting national security, minimizing
public expenditure, promoting social cohesion, compliance with human
Bringing immigrants to Canada is only part of the
rights obligations, and promoting international development and challenge. Just as important is ensuring that they
cooperation (Spencer, 2003).

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settle successfully upon arrival and integrate fully are an important part of the knowledge base on
over the longer term. The challenges newcomers labour mobility, discussed in Chapter 9. Clear and
face are many: acquisition of English and/or French; coherent rules concerning migration and admission
recognition of their credentials, skills and work for employment, together with information about
experience acquired abroad; and familiarity with labour migration opportunities, would encourage
the norms of the Canadian workplace and society, regular labour migration and access to destination
to name just a few. It will be important to look countries, with migrants either travelling individually
at ways in which the current range of settlement and by their own means, or with the assistance of
programs and services – including those provided legitimate public or private employment agencies.
by provincial and community partners – can be Second, transparent rules also send a signal to host
improved to better help immigrants in the early populations that the government has its labour
settlement period. (CIC, 2007a: 6). migration policy “under control”, provided that the
rules themselves reflect a realistic policy response
The importance of migration for the economy of the to the prevailing labour migration situation in the
United Kingdom and the contribution being made destination country concerned. For example, an
to the cultural and social fabric of the country are otherwise clearly defined admissions policy that
underlined in the proposal made by the government however fails to devote sufficient attention to an
in 2006 concerning the introduction of a points- obvious demand for domestic or agricultural workers
based system for migration management: (many of whom are often found in an irregular
situation) will not be conducive to the development
All the main political parties, employers’ of a coherent and realistic response to the actual
organisations, trade unions and educational labour market situation in the country concerned.
institutions agree that migration is vital for
our economy. Migration makes a substantial 2.2 Identifying an Appropriate Administrative
contribution to economic growth, helps fill gaps Structure and the Need for a Coherent
in the labour market, including key public services “Whole of Government” Approach
such as health and education, and increases
investment, innovation and entrepreneurship in In many countries of destination, migration
the U.K. Culturally we are enriched by people with management falls within the responsibility of the
diverse backgrounds from other countries (U.K. ministry of the interior or a government department
Home Office, 2006: 1). set up specifically for this purpose. Often, these
ministries are also primarily responsible for the
Clear policy statements serve to guide and inform design and implementation of managed labour
the elaboration and the adoption of comprehensible migration policies, which may result in the collision
and coherent regulations and policies on foreign of two philosophies: an enforcement approach on
employment; and this for two reasons. First, they the one hand, focusing on the control of borders and
the prevention of irregular migration, particularly
the eradication of its worst forms, i.e. human

In the South African context, for example, it has been argued that trafficking and smuggling, including trafficking for
“[p]erhaps, as the current Minister has pointed out on more than
one occasion, the biggest problem with the [2004 Immigration] Act
is that its provisions are not informed by any substantively agreed on
set of policy outcomes, given that the process of developing policy (in 
Also referred to as “household service providers”.
the form of a White Paper) was not completed before the process to 
draft legislation was put in place. As a consequence, amendments to E.g. the newly established Border Agency of the U.K. Home Office.

immigration legislation since 2002 have been ad hoc and by default E.g. CIC Canada, the Department of Immigration and Citizenship in
rather than by design” (Williams, 2007). Australia, or the Singapore Immigration and Checkpoints Authority.

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forced labour; and on the other hand, an approach foreign and home affairs/interior, labour, economy,
which seeks to facilitate the planned admission of finance, development) to ensure policy cohesion
foreign workers (on a permanent or temporary basis) and coherence. These mechanisms may take the
to fill gaps in the labour market, whether in highly form of statutory immigration advisory boards, such
skilled, semi-skilled or low-skilled positions. Given as the one established in South Africa under the
that the two approaches are hardly compatible, Immigration Act 2004 comprising representatives of
some commentators take the view that the economic a wide range of government departments and other
and social considerations linked with the latter stakeholders, namely the private sector, trade unions
type of movement are better handled by officials and the academic community (Williams, 2007). In
in economic or labour ministries in collaboration federal countries, policymakers will need to consider
with officials in other relevant departments, such whether internal coordination should extend to the
as finance, education and health. Indeed, this is constituent regional or state units, which, although
often the case in countries of origin, where labour they may not have primary and direct immigration-
emigration is the concern of specialized overseas related powers, often have responsibilities regarding
employment departments in labour ministries (e.g. the settlement, integration and welfare of migrants.
the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration
(POEA) or the Pakistani Bureau of Emigration and 3. Key Policy Considerations
Overseas Employment).
Although certain policy elements concerning the
Irrespective of whether a destination country employment of foreigners will differ according to
has opted for a centralized or decentralized the labour and demographic profile of the country
administrative structure, migration, and labour concerned, three important general considerations
migration in particular, call for a “whole of will remain valid.
government” approach, in collaboration with
agencies active outside of government, to ensure One such consideration concerns employment-
that all aspects of such migratory movements are based immigration and whether this is to form part
sufficiently taken into account in the policy response of a country’s foreign labour admissions policy in
(NESC/IOM, 2006). Needless to say, both centralized accordance with national interests. As discussed in
and decentralized systems have their strengths Section 5(1)(a) below, the established countries of
and weaknesses. For example, centralized systems immigration show a clear preference for this type of
as in Canada and Australia may find it a challenge migration to boost their population and labour force
to maintain the balance between enforcement and and sustain economic growth, although they also
facilitation but they do provide responsive programme support temporary foreign worker programmes to
delivery across the board. On the other hand, while fill urgent labour market shortages (see Chapter 3).
decentralized systems avoid potential internal On the other hand, European countries have only
lines of tension through the split of facilitation recently begun to seriously consider the permanent
and enforcement functions, “whole of government” admission of foreign workers, although labour
coherence can be harder to achieve when several shortages in a number of key sectors, in particular in
ministries are involved in migration management. health care, information communication technology
In those countries with decentralized systems, the (ICT), science and technology, and engineering,
formulation, implementation and management
of successful foreign employment policies require

However, as discussed in Section 8 below, a balanced national labour
responsive internal coordination mechanisms migration policy will also take account of the legitimate interests of
between and within government ministries (e.g. countries of origin.

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 World Migration 2008

together with demographic decline, have meant that, holders are allowed to remain in the U.S. for a total
even if not granted upon entry, permanent residence of six years (i.e. three years in the first instance,
is increasingly facilitated for these categories of renewable for a further three years). The Russian
foreign workers. Federation introduced new legislation in January
2007 to partly ease the excessively bureaucratic
Second, clear, transparent and flexible foreign features of the previous labour migration system (see
labour policies matched by efficient and streamlined Textbox Reg. 2 in the Europe Migration Overview).
administrative procedures are essential to successful These examples confirm the importance of the
labour migration management. The most appropriate need to devote sufficient administrative resources
way to address labour shortages, while also taking to remove cumbersome bureaucratic procedures in
demographic issues into consideration, is through the management of employment-based immigration
a combination of permanent and temporary foreign and to avoid the conflation with existing temporary
worker admissions. To be able to respond to increased labour migration programmes. If this is not heeded,
local demands for foreign labour, the processing of the inevitable result will be continued inefficiency
entry applications should not be unduly lengthy. and delays in the functioning of the migration
For example, the processing of employment-based system and policy incoherence.
permanent residence applications to Canada can now
take up to four years or more in certain countries Third, while the main aim in many industrialized
(Mason and Preston, 2007). In order to reduce this countries is to facilitate the settlement of highly
backlog, in March 2008 Canada proposed changes to skilled workers, shortages in low-skilled and semi-
its immigration laws that would enable applications skilled labour market segments also need to be
from needed skilled workers to be processed more filled. While many of these shortages are addressed
quickly. In the U.S., a backlog in labour certifications by the temporary admission of migrant workers and,
for the issue of immigrant visas (Migration News, in the absence of appropriate policies, by irregular
July 2006; Abella 2006) means that it continues to migrants, policy consideration should also be given
be easier for employers to meet rapidly changing to filling such vacancies with workers admitted on
labour needs by hiring foreigners in the “temporary” a permanent basis, particularly where the demand
skilled visa category (H-1B) and to subsequently is of a structural nature, such as in the domestic
sponsor them for immigrant visas, since H-1B visa services employment sector. The extent of demand in
low-skilled sectors is perhaps best illustrated by the

2002 regularization programme in Italy, which was
This does not mean that it had previously not been possible for migrant
workers to settle in European host countries. For a historical overview originally designed for migrant domestic workers.
of how migrant workers became permanent settlers in western Europe While the programme was eventually extended
following the halt to immigration after the 1974 oil shock, see Castles
(2006). In March 2001, in proposing the Directive on the status of to include other categories of workers, just under
third-country nationals who are long-term residents, the European half of the over 700,000 applications received were
Commission observed that EU Member States granted secure residence
status to such workers after two to 15 years of legal residence, as the submitted by migrant women domestic workers
case may be (with eight of the then 15 EU Member States requiring
five years of continuous regular residence in the country), subject to
(OECD, 2004, 2005). In such instances, therefore,
such considerations as whether the person concerned constitutes an the main policy challenge for governments is to
actual threat to public order or public security, possession of sufficient
means and employment (European Commission, 2001). For example,
openly acknowledge the existence of such specific
in the U.K., migrant workers can apply for indefinite leave to remain demands and, in the absence of a local labour force
(i.e. settlement) after a period of five years of employment under the
ordinary work permit scheme, subject to sufficient knowledge of the able and willing to undertake the work in question,
English language and life in the U.K. See U.K. Immigration Rules to convince the local population of the need and
(U.K. Home Office 2008: para. 134(iv)).

CIC, 2008: http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/laws-policy/irpa.
general benefit of admitting foreign workers through
asp. regular channels to fill such jobs.

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In addition to these general considerations, a 4.1 Detecting and Projecting Labour Shortages
number of specific policy elements can be identified
that, in broad terms, are relevant to destination There is no clear consensus as to what constitutes
countries seeking to manage foreign employment: a labour shortage,10 and much depends on how and
(i) assessment of the demand for foreign workers where such a shortage is perceived. Shortages may
in the light of current and projected shortages occur not because there is an overall lack of workers
on the national labour market, and demographic to fill the jobs in question, but because of mismatches
considerations; (ii) design of a foreign labour in the labour market:
admission policy; (iii) the protection of migrant
workers in the workplace and the host country In most cases, such shortages are not caused by an
generally, with particular attention to be paid aggregate shortage of labour, but can be attributable
to ensuring social cohesion (through integration to problems of mismatch between labour demand
and fighting discrimination and xenophobia); (iv) and supply. Jobs remain unfilled despite high
prevention or reduction of irregular labour migration; unemployment rates, because workers lack the relevant
and (v) consultation and cooperation with countries qualifications or skills, are reluctant to take up work
of origin at the bilateral, regional and international in particular occupations or geographical areas, or
level, as well as development of partnerships with have insufficient information about job opportunities.
other key stakeholders with an interest in labour Alternatively (or in addition), employers are unwilling
mobility, i.e. the private sector, trade unions and or unable to offer sufficiently attractive salaries or
civil society at large (NGOs, diaspora and migrant conditions to encourage occupational or geographical
associations). These specific policy elements are mobility (Boswell et al., 2004: 3).
discussed in the remainder of this chapter.
In Ireland, the Expert Group on Future Skills Need
4. Assessing the Need for Foreign Labour in a report in 2005 also drew a distinction between
skill shortages and labour shortages. The Expert
Regardless of the type of labour migration system in Group found that foreign workers with specific
place in any particular country, one of its objectives skills would probably be needed in certain sectors
is to address labour shortages. However, the mere in Ireland with skills shortages (e.g. foreign chefs
existence of a labour shortage does not necessarily received most of the work permits in the first half of
also express a need for foreign workers. For this to 2005) for a period during which national workers are
be the case, the causes of actual and potential labour acquiring the necessary skills; while labour shortages
and skills shortages and their potential scale have to (i.e. insufficient workers at prevailing wages and
be analyzed and the effectiveness of various possible conditions) were identified generally in low-skilled
policy responses to address them, including migration employment (i.e. agriculture, food processing and
policy, evaluated (Boswell et al., 2004). Even where jobs in services such as the security industry and
labour shortages are generally recognized to exist, catering) (NESC/IOM, 2006).
political factors and the need to manage conflicting
and competing migration policy concerns will Further, labour shortages are difficult to predict as
determine whether, and to what degree, shortages there may be limits to the accuracy of the available
call for the admission of foreign workers.
10
Boswell et al. (2004: 5) provide a working definition: “[I]n the most
basic sense, labour shortages occur where the demand for workers in a
particular occupation exceeds the supply of workers who are qualified,
available and willing to do that job”. They then proceed to make the
further distinction between aggregate labour shortages and shortages
resulting from mismatches in the labour market.

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information sources (Chapter 9), while the types of on labour requirements in specific sectors.12 However,
labour shortage (e.g. long or short-term, absolute or such sources should be interpreted with some caution
relative) may vary considerably among destination as they concern recruitment difficulties rather than
countries. A key feature of labour shortages is that labour shortages per se, and because employers may
they may be prevalent in only some employment have unrealistic or overly ambitious expectations
sectors and at certain skill levels; for example, in concerning growth in their sector. Governments
the EU labour shortages have been identified in the can also conduct research into labour sectors and
ICT, engineering, health and education sectors, as occupations. While such research may yield a more
well as among low and semi-skilled workers generally precise evaluation of the prevailing situation, it is
(e.g. agriculture, construction, food production less effective in predicting economic contraction or
and hospitality). The causes of labour shortages expansion and related changes in labour demand.
are various and influenced by a number of trends More sophisticated econometric models are used
in labour demand and supply (Boswell et al., 2004) to project future labour shortages, and these are
that are also linked to national and global economic considered essential for mid and long-term policy
patterns and demographic factors (discussed in planning, especially for countries characterized by
Section 4.2 below). population ageing and decline, although theoretical
and methodological shortcomings affecting their
One trend affecting labour supply is emigration: ability to produce accurate projections have also
“outflows of nationals (…) can have an important been identified.13 Indeed, there is always the risk
impact on skills composition where high-skilled of error as when governments subsidize the training
workers leave because of more attractive business of teachers, nurses or engineers to meet projected
or research conditions in third countries” (Boswell labour shortages only to find that ultimately
et al., 2004: 14). For example, emigration from the students graduate in a period of unemployment
U.K. has become quite significant in the last few (NESC/IOM, 2006). Regardless of the difficulties,
decades, with the country experiencing a total net government interventions play a critical role in
loss of approximately 2.7 million nationals between developing labour migration policies, particularly as
1966 and 2005. More than 198,000 nationals left concerns the different approaches needed depending
the country in 2005, while only 91,000 returned. on whether the problem to be addressed is one of
Moreover, two-thirds of those who left the country labour shortage or rather tightness in a particular
did so to take up or seek employment opportunities sector, and to provide the wider macroeconomic
abroad (Sriskandarajah and Drew, 2006). A similar net overview. As noted by one commentator:
exodus, though to a lesser extent, was experienced
in Germany (Landler, 2007).11 However, not all [I]t is necessary to recognize that, regardless of
countries quantify the emigration of their nationals economic conditions and the number of vacancies
and this question is rarely discussed in the context advertised in a given economy, there is always the
of designing foreign labour admission policies. need for host countries to manage the demand
for migrant labour [original emphasis]. This is
Conventional estimates of current labour shortages
include, in particular, surveys and employers’ reports
12
E.g. the U.K. annual Employer Skills Survey (ESS) of approximately
4,000 employers, which inquires into the nature, extent, causes and
implications of skills deficits, and the monthly Job Openings and
Labor Turnover Survey (JOLTS) undertaken by the U.S. Bureau of Labor
11
In 2005, 144,800 Germans emigrated and only 128,100 returned – the Statistics measuring labour market tightness and efficiency (matching)
first time in nearly four decades that more Germans left the country (Boswell et al., 2004; Abella, 2006).
13
than returned (Landler, 2007, citing figures from the German Federal For an overview of such models in Australia, Canada, Germany, the
Statistics Office). Netherlands, the U.K. and the U.S., see Boswell et al. (2004).

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because the level of labour immigration that is EU is likely to experience significant labour shortages
in the interest of individual employers is unlikely over the next 50 years according to projections that
to coincide with that in the best interest of the the share of the working age population (aged
economy as a whole (Ruhs, 2006: 14).14 between 15 and 64) will decrease significantly from
67.2 per cent in 2004 to 56.7 per cent in 2050, or
4.2 Taking Demographic Issues into by 52 million inhabitants of working age (European
Consideration Commission, 2005a).

As discussed above, it is more complex to predict labour 4.3 Tools for the Assessment and Designation of
shortages in the long term owing to demographic Levels of Need
factors, as well as national, regional and global
economic changes. For example, in the EU, which Once labour market shortages have been identified,
mainly comprises labour destination countries, the different policy tools are used to assess and designate
ageing of the population is the result of a number the levels of need for foreign workers taking account
of interactive demographic trends: a decline in birth of the possible impact of their admission on the local
rates; the post-war “baby boom” resulting in a large labour force. These policies include immigration
population now approaching retirement age; and quotas, labour market tests, occupational shortage
rising life expectancy. Though the EU receives 1.8 lists and employer fees, with no country allowing
million immigrants annually and will continue to an unlimited number of foreign workers to enter,
do so, with 40 million people estimated to emigrate irrespective of the potential economic gains such
to the EU between now and 2050 thus boosting the labour migration might be presumed to bring.
labour force and bringing down the average age of
the population, the longer-term demographic impact (a) Quotas
remains uncertain. There is general consensus,
however, that immigration can only partially offset Quotas are common means of regulating the
the negative effects of the ageing of the population number of workers entering the labour market
and the labour force (European Commission, 2006a; by establishing numerical programme targets or
Bijak et al., 2007).15 Based on current forecasts, the ceilings, and are seen as important tools by some
destination countries. They can be used in various
14
ways. National quotas and ceilings set fixed limits
According to Ruhs (2006), assessment of the size of the required migrant
labour force needs to take account of three considerations: (1) the (either expressed as percentages of the labour force
expense to employers of recruiting migrant workers, which depends not – e.g. Austria, Kazakhstan – or as absolute numbers
only on employers’ recruiting and wage costs but also the employment
conditions at which migrant workers are available; (2) that the demand – e.g. Italy, Spain) for the admission of foreign
for migrant workers in most countries is residual in that employers are workers to a country. Quotas are usually established
first required to make all reasonable efforts to recruit local workers
(i.e. nationals or lawfully resident migrants, or, in the EU context, EU on a periodic basis, in most cases annually, often
nationals); and (3) that the employment of migrant workers is often only at a high governmental level (e.g. Republic of
one of a variety of means to respond to a perceived shortage of labour,
such as relocating to countries where labour costs are lower, increasing Korea - South Korea), based on such criteria as
the working time of workers already in employment, or recruiting
inactive (in particular, women) or unemployed local workers. Abella
economic forecasts, employer reports or regional
(2006) observes that these forms of adjustment to labour shortages have unemployment rates (e.g. Italy), and negotiated and
been particularly notable in Japan, which from the beginning adopted a
policy of not importing low-skilled foreign workers.
administered in consultation with employers and
15
Moreover, as far as meeting labour shortages in ageing societies is trade unions, regional governments (e.g. Spain) and
concerned, temporary labour migration (see Section 5.2 below) is viewed civil society. Quotas normally distinguish between
as a preferable solution because it boosts the national labour force
while, assuming the migrants return home, not adding to the ageing different regions, industries and employment sectors
population as permanent immigration would in the medium and long
term (Abella, 2006).

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and can also set a maximum ratio of foreign to local evidence of labour scarcity (e.g. Mauritius, U.K.),
workers in individual enterprises.16 whereas in other countries this is incumbent on the
competent authority. For example, in Canada, before
The disadvantage of quotas is that they can be overly a foreign worker can be hired, the Department of
rigid and thus unable to readily respond to shifting Human Resources and Social Development Canada
labour demands. It should be possible, however, (HRSDC) must normally provide a positive labour
to devise more flexible quotas that can be revised market opinion (LMO) to certify the impossibility of
during the year in response to changing employer finding suitable local candidates to fill the job in
demand. For example, in 2007, Spain set a quota of question and that the admission of foreign workers
180,043, covering non-EU professionals, seasonal and would not negatively affect the Canadian labour
other migrant workers, but that could be reviewed market (Canada, 2006).17 In the U.S., the need for
upwards to 200,000. This was a significant increase certification by the U.S. Department of Labour in
from the 2006 quota of 16,878 when the government respect of specialty occupations (H-1B workers – see
found itself overwhelmed by requests from employers Chapter 3) has been replaced by a simpler system
(Migration News Sheet, January 2007). Despite of legally binding employer attestations, whereby
their potential inflexibility, quotas also provide the employer undertakes to respect the terms and
advantages, offering a clearly defined benchmark for conditions under which the foreign worker will be
administrators and employers and allaying concerns engaged, such as the payment of an appropriate
about immigration in the national population. wage and that there will be no adverse effect on the
working conditions of similarly employed workers
(b) Labour market tests (Abella, 2006). In the EU, the preference principle
applies, requiring Member States to ensure that there
Most European destination countries, as well as are no suitable EU workers available prior to hiring a
Canada and the United States, apply a labour market non-EU national lawfully resident within the EU or
test to first-time applicants for a work permit, or to newly admit a non-EU national for employment;
to migrant workers already in the country who wish however, more information is still needed to see
to change jobs. Though admission procedures are how this principle operates in practice in different
usually simplified, the existence of a quota does Member States. While a number of policy options exist
not necessarily mean that the labour market test in the application of labour market tests, it is also
is withdrawn. The test serves to ascertain whether important for evaluation and enforcement measures
there are local workers available, by either requiring to be built into their design to ensure they actually
employers to advertise the post for a set period of work in practice and serve the needs of employers,
time (e.g. U.K.), or demonstrate that they have local workers and the economy (Ruhs, 2006).
taken active steps towards recruiting local workers,
or both (e.g. the Netherlands). A third option, Several countries (including Norway, Spain and the
sometimes also combined with the latter, is to U.K.) have introduced exceptions to the labour
require that foreign workers are paid the average or market test in respect of certain professions with
prevailing wage in the industry or sector concerned
(e.g. Canada, U.S.). Where no local workers are 17
When applying for a LMO, the employer has to demonstrate that: (1) all
either available or willing to accept the conditions necessary efforts were made to recruit and/or train willing and available
offered, foreign workers can then be employed. In local candidates; (2) the wages offered are consistent with the prevailing
wages paid to local workers in the same occupation in the region; (3)
some countries, it is left to the employer to provide the working conditions for the occupation meet the current provincial
labour market standards; and (4) potential benefits may result from
the hiring of the foreign worker for the Canadian labour market (e.g.
16
See Abella (2006) referring to the approach taken in Latin America and creation of new jobs, transfer of skills and knowledge, etc.) (Canada,
the Caribbean. 2006).

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shortages, such as health professionals, engineers, are in fact brought in to fill genuine gaps in the
teachers and ICT specialists, and either do not labour market rather than just as convenient – and
apply the test or relax the rules. This more flexible perhaps cheaper – substitutes for local workers.
and less bureaucratic approach has considerable In Singapore, such fees are charged to employers
economic advantages, since it enables a speedier and wishing to employ medium-level skilled, semi-
more efficient admission of migrant workers to fill skilled or low-skilled workers in certain sectors, such
shortages in important employment sectors. as manufacturing, construction and services, and
which are increased if the worker is less skilled.20 The
(c) Occupational shortage lists official website refers to the foreign worker levy as “a
pricing control mechanism to regulate the demand
Occupational shortage lists can be an efficient way to of foreign workers in Singapore” (Singapore Ministry
channel foreign workers into sectors of the economy of Manpower, 2008). Such policies serve to minimize
suffering from a lack of workers with specific skills. distortions in certain sectors of the economy, for
In the U.K., the National Shortage Occupations List, instance agriculture, that often depend on a foreign
modified in July 2008, indicates shortages for certain workforce, and make funds available to restructure
categories such as engineers, doctors, social workers, these sectors to make them less dependent on
veterinary surgeons and teachers for compulsory migrants (Martin et al., 2006).21 However, the
schooling posts in England and Scotland.18 No labour effective implementation of such policies depends
market test is required to fill these posts under the on the extent to which governments of destination
ordinary U.K. work permit scheme. countries are prepared to recognize the merits of
setting fees when weighed against the additional
In Australia, a Migration Occupations in Demand List costs generated through increased government
(MODL) has been drawn up containing, as at 17 May intervention and the introduction of adequate
2008, 53 professional occupations/specializations enforcement mechanisms to ensure that fees are not
and 49 trades persons’ categories in which shortages deducted from the wages of migrant workers (Ruhs,
have been identified nationally. The list is reviewed 2006; Ruhs, 2005).
twice a year. Points are assigned to each category
which can then be used by migrants applying for 5. Designing Foreign Labour Admission Policies:
skilled migration visas (Australia, 2007; Abella, Permanent or Temporary Labour Migration?
2006) (see also Section 5.1(a) below).19
Once there is a policy consensus on the need to
(d) Employer fees admit foreign workers, policymakers need to decide
whether to opt for employment-based immigration
Levying fees on employers for every foreign worker
hired may be used to ensure that migrant workers
20
Moreover, the levy for these categories of foreign workers in Singapore
is combined with a Dependency Ceiling, which means the employer will
have to pay higher fees in sectors such as manufacturing or services
18
However, there is currently no longer a need for nurses generally in if the percentage of foreigners to nationals in the workplace is higher
the U.K., with the exception of certain categories of registered nurses. (Singapore Ministry of Manpower, 2008). A foreign workers’ levy is also
The National Shortage Occupation List is available at http://www. applied in Malaysia and Taiwan Province of China (Abella, 2006).
ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/applicationforms/workpermits/ 21
Ruhs (2005) adds that such fees can also be used for a variety of other
businessandcommercial/occupationshortagelist.pdf. purposes: to generate funds for enforcement activities and integration
19
The MODL is available at http://www.migration.gov.au/skilled/general- assistance; to reduce the opposition of local workers to temporary labour
skilled-migration/skilled-occupations/occupations-in-demand.htm. The migration programmes by compensating any losses suffered by such
May 2008 list also included two occupations in an Associate Professionals workers in terms of wages and/or working conditions; or to mitigate any
category (Chef and Dental Technician) and two occupations under the adverse impact on local workers by funding their retraining and skills
general heading Managers and Administrators. development.

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or temporary labour migration, or a combination 5.1 Employment-based Immigration

of both. As a general rule, employment-based
immigration channels have usually been available (a) Established countries of immigration
to more skilled migrants, while temporary labour
migration programmes are normally aimed at low- Today’s established countries of immigration (e.g.
skilled workers (Chapter 3), largely because of a Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States)
profound reluctance of local or resident workers have long implemented immigration programmes to
to take up these jobs even in times of high admit foreigners for the purpose of employment on
unemployment.22 a permanent basis from the moment of their entry
with a view to promoting economic growth and
In principle, there is nothing to stop destination ensuring a stable population and labour force. In
countries from opening up employment-based the period 2005-2007, over 400,000 immigrants in
immigration to low-skilled workers, and a few total in this category were admitted annually for
examples of such opportunities exist, particularly permanent residence in the four countries concerned
in Canada and the United States (see Section 5.1(a) (Table 11.1). Both Australia and Canada registered
below). Skilled workers continue to be preferred for an increase in this type of migration. Indeed, the
permanent settlement because they are considered Australian Government enlarged the Skilled Stream
more likely to be able to adapt their skills in the visa category by 20,000 in 2005-2006 (DIAC, 2006).
event of an economic downturn. However, low-
skilled temporary migration programmes are seen The figures for skilled immigration to the four
increasingly as affording a number of advantages countries are somewhat misleading because the
to all stakeholders in the labour migration process number of persons admitted for employment is
(see Chapter 3), and some of these are also discussed actually much higher when taking into account
below. dependants in both the economic and family classes
(see also Chapter 6), as well as refugees admitted
The issue of circular migration, relevant to both for permanent residence who are all permitted to
employment-based immigration and temporary take up work. In Canada, in 2006, a total of 251,649
labour migration as well as to the question of return persons were admitted for permanent residence,
to the country of origin, is discussed in a separate and Canada’s Immigration Plan for 2008 is to admit
section from the standpoint of policy formulation in between 240,000 and 265,000 permanent residents
destination countries. (CIC Canada, 2007a). The United States foresees a
fixed annual employment-based immigration quota
of 140,000, defined in the Immigration Act 1990,
although this can be adjusted by means of a complex
formula. Moreover, the majority of persons (59%)
granted permanent residence in 2007 were already
living in the United States, with women accounting
22
for 55 per cent of all new permanent residents (U.S.
“One of the most significant factors generating labour market mismatches
is the unwillingness of resident workers to do certain low-skilled, Office of Immigration Statistics, DHS, 2008).
low-status and low-paid work. … Many professions have now become
associated with immigrant or ethnic minority workers, often implying
a social stigma for native, or non-minority workers. Occupational
preferences may generate serious mismatches in situations of high
unemployment, especially where social benefit systems provide limited
incentives to take up low-paid or seasonal work” (Boswell et al., 2004:
15).

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Table 11.1:
Employment-based Immigration to Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States as
compared with Family and Humanitarian Admissions, 2004-2007
Skilled stream/class Family Refugees/Protected persons
Australia
2004-05 77,8801 41,740 13,178
2005-06 97,340 45,290 14,144
2006-07 97,920 50,079 13,017

Canada
2004 133,7452 62,260 32,686
2005 156,310 63,354 35,768
2006 138,257 70.506 32,492
2007 (January to June) 59,248 31,860 12,774

New Zealand
2004-05 34,6493 15,560 5,316
2005-06 34,801 16,684 4,982
2006-07 30,902 16,579 5,284
2007-08 (1 July to 8 March) 19,820 10,689 3,195

United States*
2005 246,8774 649,085 142,962
2006 159,0815 802,577 216,454
2007 162,176 689,829 136,125
Notes:
1
Includes the following categories: Employer Sponsored, Skilled Independent, State/Territory Sponsored, Skilled Australian Sponsored, Distinguished
Talent, Business Skills.
2
Includes the following categories: Skilled Workers, Business Immigrants, Provincial/Territorial Nominees, Live-in Caregivers (and their dependants).
3
Includes the following categories: Employee of Business, Entrepreneur, General Skill, Investor, Skilled Migrant, Work to Residence.
4
This is the employment-based preferences category which encompasses: priority workers; professionals with advanced degrees; skilled workers,
professionals without advanced degrees, and needed low-skilled workers; special immigrants; investors (and their spouses and children).
5
The large number of persons admitted for permanent residence in this category in 2005 is explained by the American Competitiveness in the 21st Century
Act 2000, which recaptured approximately 130,000 unused employment-based visas from 1999 and 2000 (U.S. Office of Immigration Statistics, DHS,
2008).
*
Another significant category of permanent residents in the United States comprises diversity immigrants who are nationals of countries with low rates
of regular immigration to the U.S. Since 1999, this category has been limited to 50,000. In 2005, 2006 and 2007, 46,234, 44,471 and 42,127 diversity
immigrants, respectively, were admitted to the U.S.

Sources: (Australia DIAC, 2006; DIAC 2007), (CIC Canada, 2006, 2007b), (Immigration New Zealand, 2008a), (U.S. Office of Immigration Statistics, DHS,
2008).

The established countries of destination provide criteria.23 For example, in Canada, the successful
for employment-based immigration in two ways. applicant must demonstrate (i) possession of
The first involves the use of a supply-based points minimum work experience in the chosen profession
system (Australia, Canada, New Zealand), grounded
on the assumption that “an increased supply of 23
According to Abella (2006: 31), “the [points] system takes much of the
skilled workers will have a generally positive impact discretion out of the selection process by specifying … objective criteria,
assigning points for each criterion, and requiring candidates to reach a
on innovation, productivity and growth” (Boswell et certain minimum score. … The points system today only applies to the
al., 2004: 41). Under points systems, applicants are process of screening potential entrants under skilled migrant schemes,
especially professionals whose academic degrees and years of experience
selected in accordance with a number of objective lend themselves to some kind of ordinal or cardinal ordering. … The
system aims at expanding the general supply of skilled workers, not at
meeting the specific job offers of employers”.

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or a related field; (ii) proof of adequate funds for admission (German Federal Ministry of the Interior,
settlement; and (iii) earn a sufficient number of points 2008). However, there are certain admission
in six selection criteria to meet the “pass mark” of 67 criteria to be met by the person concerned, such
points. These selection criteria comprise: education, as a minimum annual income of EUR 85,000.25 In
knowledge of English and French (Canada’s official 2005, only 900 persons benefited from this scheme
languages), experience, age, arranged employment (Migration News Sheet, September 2006), which
in Canada, and adaptability (including previous work contrasts sharply with the figures for employment-
or study in Canada) (CIC Canada, 2008).24 The second based immigration in the established countries of
way is through a demand-based system as applied immigration. In European destination countries,
in the U.S., whereby the individual employer has to most foreign workers are admitted on a time-limited
demonstrate that no national or resident foreigner basis, although some categories of workers can
is available for the job in question, which, broadly obtain a more secure residence status. In a number of
speaking, is usually satisfied by a labour market or countries, highly-skilled migrants are put on a “fast
resident worker test, discussed in Section 4.3(b) above, track” to permanent residence (e.g. Czech Republic,
although recently these rules were relaxed in respect Norway, U.K.) (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007).
of H1-B visa workers. In the U.S., an employment-
based preferences system is also in place for the Points systems are also increasingly adopted in certain
admission of various categories of skilled workers, European countries as the most efficient means of
and no labour market test is required for the first regulating skilled migration. For example, the new
category, Priority Workers, which comprises persons of points tier system introduced in the U.K., which
extraordinary ability in the sciences, arts, education, is being phased in as of the beginning of 2008, is
business and athletics; outstanding professors and intended to regulate all forms of employment-based
researchers seeking to enter in senior positions; and migration, permanent and temporary, high-skilled
executives and managers of transnational companies and low-skilled, as well as admissions for the purpose
with one year of prior service with the firm (OSCE/ of study. The first two tiers, however, are reserved for
IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007). In countries applying mainly highly skilled and skilled migrants, who are viewed
supply-based points systems (e.g. Australia, Canada, as candidates for permanent settlement (U.K. Home
New Zealand), a demand-based component can also Office, 2006; 2007b). In the Czech Republic, a Pilot
be discerned as additional points are awarded for the Project for Permanent Labour Migration (2003-2008),
possession of a job offer from an employer in the administered by the Ministry of Labour and Social
country in question. Affairs with the assistance of IOM, aims to facilitate
the permanent residence of skilled persons from
(b) European countries specific countries on the basis of a points system
(Czech Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, 2008;
Employment-based immigration to Europe also see also Portrait 2.1). In Germany, the provisions
occurs, but in a less explicit manner. Under the proposed in the previous immigration law envisaged
revised German Immigration Law, which came into the admission of skilled migrants based on a points
force on 1 January 2005, it is possible for a select system (Germany, 2001), although this proposed
group of highly skilled workers (i.e. senior academics
and researchers and top-level managers in business 25
Representatives of German industry take the view that this salary
and industry) to obtain permanent residence upon threshold should be lowered to EUR 35,000 (Migration News Sheet,
September 2006), particularly given a chronic shortage of IT specialists
(i.e. 45,000 vacancies) and the fact that this threshold is nearly three
24
See specifically http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/immigrate/skilled/apply- times the salary of EUR 30,000-35,000 paid to entry-level computer
who.asp. programmers (Migration News Sheet, January 2008).

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scheme was abandoned in the new compromise migration (Ruhs, 2005). For countries of origin, such
legislation that came into force on 1 January 2005. programmes provide authorized access to the labour
markets of richer destination countries, particularly
5.2 Temporary Labour Migration for their low-skilled workers, and the positive
development impact on their economies (i.e. transfer
Given the prevalence of more “flexible labour market” of remittances and know-how and creation of
practices in today’s globalizing world, temporary business and trade networks) is arguably optimized
migrant worker programmes have been increased in if their citizens’ stay abroad is temporary and they
many industrialized destination countries to fill the retain strong links with their home country. For
(mainly low and semi-skilled) jobs available and that destination countries,
cannot be filled by drawing on the domestic labour
force (Martin, 2003; Chapter 3). In the European [t]emporary migration … is viewed as contributing
context, the view that temporary migration of to greater flexibility in the labour market. For
low-skilled migrants should be avoided because it many countries this is of considerable importance
inevitably leads to settlement and unpredictable social given their ageing workforces, the demands of
impacts has given way to a more positive attitude as industry for new skills, and the tendency of people
not all low-skilled activities can be delocalized to to become less mobile as societies become more
developing countries, and owing to the concern over prosperous. Secondly, compared to permanent
demographic imbalances and ageing populations and immigration, liberalizing temporary admissions is
the decline in the working age population (Castles, politically easier to sell to electorates that have
2006). come to feel threatened by more immigration.
And, thirdly, some societies have experienced
This section focuses in more detail on the policy increasing difficulties with integrating long-
challenges in making temporary labour migration settled immigrant communities, hence they opt for
programmes work, and builds on the more general solutions that would not compound their problems
policy issues outlined in Chapter 3, which also (Abella, 2006: 1).26
provides an overview of the global and regional
trends relating to temporary labour migration with For migrant workers, such programmes provide access
particular reference to low and semi-skilled workers. to authorized, albeit temporary, work abroad and the
opportunity to earn higher wages (Ruhs, 2005).27
(a) The potentially positive impact of
temporary labour migration

26
The potentially positive impact of temporary labour With regard to the first reason, it has been observed that such persons
will be less inclined to migrate for lower skilled employment abroad
migration for all actors involved in, or affected by, because they are more likely to be attracted by better opportunities at
home. See also Nonnenmacher (2007a): “temporary labour migration is
that process (i.e. countries of destination and origin, seen as a means to meet sectoral, seasonal and peak demands for labour
and migrant workers, especially low-skilled workers, in a flexible manner. Its temporary character ensures that public
opinion is less negative towards it than towards permanent migration.
and their families) has been widely recognized by the It alleviates concerns relating to the social integration of migrants
international community in recent years (GFMD, 2008; and their reliance on public services and welfare payments” (Original
emphasis).
UN, 2006; World Bank, 2006; GCIM, 2005; IOM, 2005; 27
But also at the risk of restricting some of their rights, a “trade-off”
ILO, 2005; UN DESA, 2004) (see also Textbox 3.5), which temporary migrant workers might be willing to accept to improve
their economic situation (Ruhs, 2005). For arguments relating to the
and there is a convergence of interests by countries trade-off between migrant numbers and rights, see the discussion below
of destination and origin regarding temporary labour and Chapter 3.

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(b) Policy challenges Second, a number of policy interventions are applied

(or have been advanced) with the objective of
Despite the opportunities offered by temporary encouraging the return of migrant workers admitted
labour migration, there are a number of difficult under temporary labour migration programmes, such
policy challenges for destination countries relating as:
to the design of specific programmes (Martin, 2003;
Ruhs, 2005). The principal challenge is to ensure the • issuing temporary but longer-term work permits
feasibility, equity and efficiency of such programmes to enable workers in low-skilled occupations to
on a reasonably large scale, given past policy repay the expenses incurred in connection with
failures,28 which can be summarized as follows: (1) their migration and to save enough money with
segmentation and distortions of national labour which to return home;
markets causing certain sectors, such as agriculture, • requesting migrants to announce their return
food production, hospitality and low-skill domestic at the embassy or consulate of their former
services to depend on foreign labour; (2) the failure destination country, which also serves to facilitate
of temporary migrants to return to their countries their subsequent return to that country for a
of origin on completion of their employment, which further period of employment;
is also identified as a particular disincentive for • enabling migrants with valid work permits to
destination countries to develop new programmes; travel relatively freely between their countries
and (3) the exploitation temporary migrants, of origin and destination for family and business
especially the low-skilled among them, are prone to visits;
during the recruitment process and in the workplace, • enabling the transfer of social security payments
and the risk of social exclusion and discrimination (for pension and health benefits) to the country
and xenophobia in destination countries. of origin (see also Section 6.5 below);
• designing a sponsor system for employers whose
The policy challenges created by labour market record on return counts towards their future
distortions in certain sectors and the dependence prospects to sponsor and hire foreign workers;
on foreign workers this may generate have been • the formulation and implementation of relevant
discussed in Chapter 3. Levying realistic (monthly) procedures to ensure the return of migrant workers
fees on employers for the hiring of foreign workers in who overstay, and enforcement measures such as
the sectors concerned, as discussed in Section 4.3(d) workplace inspections and employer sanctions;
above, to ensure that they seek out local workers or • requiring workers to invest a portion of their
consider other alternatives such as mechanization of wages in special high-interest bearing savings
production processes or outsourcing (Ruhs, 2005), has accounts, the funds from which may be accessed
been advanced as one possible solution to addressing on their return to their home country; and
the segmentation of the labour market. However, • subjecting employers to financial security bonds
the problem here runs deeper and also relates to which may be retained by the authorities if the
systemic issues such as low pay or lack of decent worker does not leave after his or her permit has
work (exacerbated by intense global competition) in expired (Agunias and Newland, 2007; Ruhs, 2006;
these sectors. Ruhs, 2005; U.K. Home Office, 2005).

28 Some of these measures, especially the last two, raise

Two past temporary programmes frequently described in terms of
failures are the Bracero programme involving Mexican migrant workers labour and human rights concerns on account of
to the United States (1942-1964) and the Gastarbeiter (“guest worker”)
programme in Germany (1955-1973). See also Chapter 3 and Ruhs
(2006).

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their coercive nature.29 No temporary foreign worker standards applicable to migrant workers reveals
programmes or bilateral labour migration agreements that few distinctions between the treatment of
include all or even most of these mechanisms. It has temporary foreign workers and nationals or more
been suggested that the establishment of small pilot established foreigners employed in the country can
projects to test the impact of the various components be justified (Böhning, 2003) although, in practice,
of a temporary (and circular – see Section 5.3 below) the situation may be very different. Beyond some
labour migration programme, including the return restrictions regarding access to the labour market to
components, is the best way forward and one most safeguard the position of local workers and limits
likely to achieve optimal policy results (Agunias on family reunion, particularly in relation to short-
and Newland, 2007). Further, attempting to ensure term seasonal employment, the universal nature
the strict observance of temporariness throughout of human rights and labour standards precludes
all temporary labour migration programmes appears the imposition of unjustified limitations in respect
an unrealistic policy objective and one likely to fail of wages and working conditions. These issues are
in practice, given that some of the jobs filled by discussed further in Section 6.2 below.
temporary migrant workers are actually permanent
in nature. Therefore, and as discussed below, a better 5.3 Circular Migration
policy option may be to identify criteria that would
allow a limited number of foreign workers to transfer Temporary labour migration is often discussed by
to a more secure status in the destination country policymakers together with circular migration and
(Ruhs, 2005; Abella, 2006).30 return migration in view of the benefits to be gained
by origin and destination countries and migrants
Third, as observed in Chapter 3, the admission of themselves, in terms of transfer of skills and know-
larger numbers of temporary low-skilled foreign how and the business activities and investment that
workers to high-income destination countries may result from the regular movement of migrants
often involves a trade-off in the form of limited between the countries in question.
rights, to reduce the costs of low-skilled labour
to employers and the economy as a whole.31 While Circular migration has been broadly defined by
such a trade-off may also result in economic gains the EU Commission as “a form of migration that
for foreign workers and their families, a general is managed in a way allowing some degree of legal
survey of international human rights and labour mobility back and forth between two countries”
(European Commission, 2007: 8). The team that
prepared Roundtable 1.4 on Circular Migration for the
29
E.g. Abella (2006) argues that withholding a part of wages to use them
as savings which migrants can only release on return contravenes ILO’s
first meeting of the Global Forum on Migration and
Protection of Wages Convention No. 95 (1949), ratified by 95 countries Development (GFMD), held in July 2007 (see Textbox
and in force since 1952. Moreover, such compulsory deductions may
encourage the migrant worker to avoid them by taking up unauthorized Int. 2), proposed the following definition: “Circular
employment in the informal labour market. migration is the fluid movement of people between
30
In some countries it is possible for migrants working on a temporary
work permit to obtain permanent status (e.g. Canada, U.K.) provided
countries, including temporary or more permanent
that the conditions for admission for employment-based immigration movement which, when it occurs voluntarily and
are met. In Spain, migrant workers holding seasonal work permits (a
type “T” permit) with an initial validity of nine months, may secure a
is linked to the labor needs of countries of origin
more stable status after four years of temporary employment, whether and destination, can be beneficial to all involved”
consecutively or not (Cholewinski, 2005). Elsewhere, however, such as
in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states (e.g. Kuwait), switching (GFMD, 2007: 4). While there is as yet no widely
between temporary and permanent status is not possible. This is so accepted definition of the concept, as underlined
also in Singapore, where migrant workers on temporary permits cannot
acquire permanent residence status (Ruhs, 2006). in the definition proposed at the GFMD, circular
31
See also Ruhs and Martin (2006). migration clearly goes beyond temporary labour

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migration32 and is also used in connection with the possibility to return in the event of a temporary or
temporary or permanent return of members of the medium-length return to their country of origin;35
diaspora, many of whom are already settled in the and facilitate the portability of pensions and other
host country (Agunias and Newland, 2007).33 benefits (Agunias and Newland, 2007).36 The EU
Council Directive on the status of third-country
Consequently, in order to harness the benefits from nationals who are long-term residents, adopted in
circular migration in line with a “development- November 2003, is an important measure in this
friendly” approach (see Section 8 below), regard.37 Article 9 of the Directive provides that
policymakers in destination countries may consider third-country nationals who hold long-term resident
a number of options to facilitate circular movements, status (for which they are eligible after five years of
either in respect of temporary migrant workers, while residence in a participating EU Member State) can
they are working in the host country or to enable leave their country of residence for a period of up to
them to return to that country for successive periods 12 consecutive months without losing their status.38
of employment, or permanent foreign residents. As The European Commission has suggested that this
far as the latter are concerned, policymakers should 12-month period might be extended for a 2-3-year
be aware of disincentives that might preclude or period to promote circular migration of long-term
hinder permanent foreign residents from conducting residents.
employment, business or investment activities
beneficial to the development of their countries of With regard to temporary migrant workers, the
origin and which also have positive trade and business Commission proposes that circularity be promoted
impacts on the host countries. Thus, the adoption within the development of the evolving EU law and
of flexible laws and policies in host countries is policy framework for regular migration to the EU by
important for generating and supporting circular enabling highly skilled migrants and remunerated
movements or to promote sustainable returns. Such trainees to return to work in the EU following a
dispositions would, for instance, enable migrants period of lawful employment, training or study
to travel outside the country without prejudice to
qualifying periods in view of a more secure residence 35
“It is thought that migrants who have rights to long-term residence in
countries of destination may be more willing to try life back home if they
status or naturalization;34 assure foreigners with can be assured of being able to emigrate again. Security of residence in
long-term or permanent residence status of the countries of destination may thus promote either return or circulation.
Similarly, allowing dual citizenship may be conducive to return” (UN,
2006: 70, para. 254).
36
Cooperation between host and home countries concerning information
32
However, return for short stays is excluded from the concept. In this on jobs and business opportunities in the latter is also important to
regard, the UN Secretary-General’s 2006 Report on International Migration facilitate circulation among migrants who are permanent residents
and Development observes: “Migrants who return for a period and leave (Agunias and Newland, 2007). Other means of facilitating circular
again are said to be engaged in ‘circulation’. Circulation, however, does migration include policies relating to the recognition of qualifications
not occur when migrants return only for short visits but essentially acquired in the destination country and relaxed investment and tax
remain settled abroad” (UN, 2006: 68, para. 247). See also the section regimes.
on Migration Terminology at the end of the Report, which contains an 37
Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 concerning the
adapted version of the definition discussed at the GFMD. status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents, OJ 2003
33
In the EU context, the two main forms of circular migration that are most L 16/44. The Directive should have been transposed into the laws of EU
relevant concern third-country nationals settled in the EU, and persons Member States by 23 January 2006. Three EU Member States are not
residing in a third country who wish to come to the EU temporarily for participating in this measure, i.e. Denmark, Ireland and the U.K. because
employment, study, training or for a combination of these activities they negotiated opt-out provisions at the time the treaty amendments
(European Commission, 2007). providing the EU with competence to legislate in the asylum and
34
E.g., in the U.S., migrants applying for permanent residence cannot immigration field were adopted, although it is possible for Ireland and
travel abroad without prior special permission, which is a lengthy and the U.K. to opt into the Directive at a later date.
38
cumbersome process, and an application for naturalization can only Member States may also provide that absences exceeding this period or
be submitted at the end of a continuous five-year period of residence for specific or exceptional reasons shall not entail withdrawal or loss of
(Agunias and Newland, 2007). the status.

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there, and through the introduction of residence/ offer in terms of the transfer of skills and know-
work permits valid for several years for low-skilled how, this does not mean that the regular temporary
seasonal migrants to permit them to return to the EU migration for employment of low or semi-skilled
for a period of consecutive years for seasonal work migrants cannot, if managed properly, bring benefits
(European Commission, 2007). to all parties concerned. This is well illustrated in
the recent proposals by the European Commission
While the emphasis on the contribution circular discussed above, and the example of the temporary
migration could make to development normally and circular migration of agricultural workers from
concerns highly skilled migrants, who have most to Colombia to Spain (see Portrait 11.1).

Portrait 11.1
Circular Migration for Co-development

Amalia is a peasant woman from the municipality of Puerres (Nariño, southern Colombia) near the border with Ecuador and has
been working in the fields since she was a small girl. She heads her own household and, until three years ago, Amalia and her
four children lived on less than three U.S. dollars a day. In an effort to improve her life and future prospects for her children,
she migrated to Spain under the Temporary and Circular Labour Migration Model (MLTC), together with other peasants from
this region, to work in the vineyards and the fruit orchards around Barcelona during the harvesting season. A decision that
changed her life.

The agricultural working experience of Colombian peasants, together with their facility to adapt to different people and cultures
as they work alongside Moroccan and Romanian migrant workers, has meant that temporary migrant workers like Amalia are
increasingly in demand by Spanish employers.

The MLTC, initially implemented by a group of Spanish farmers (Unió de Pagesos, UP) and currently supported by IOM Colombia
and funded under the European Union’s AENEAS programme, benefits approximately 1,200 Colombian temporary migrant
workers.

Under this temporary labour migration scheme, Amalia has travelled to Lleida in Spain already three times for periods of less
than six months to work for different agricultural companies during the harvest season. Her wages are far higher than what
she could earn for the same kind of work in Colombia; in fact, her hourly earnings are equal to two days of work in her own
country.

During her stays in Spain, Amalia has also been able to benefit from training to identify and formulate development projects
to benefit her home community in Colombia. The community is being followed by UP and IOM throughout the entire process
to help them carry out their projects.

For that reason, Amalia and other temporary migrants from Puerres have become development agents for the community
after they returned home. With advice from Amalia and support from the Unió de Pagesos through its Fundación Agricultores
Solidarios (FAS), the temporary migrants implement their development projects, in which they also invest part of their savings
accumulated while working in Europe. This has enabled the peasants’ association to which Amalia belongs to identify and
implement projects such as growing quinua (a traditional local cereal) and breeding guinea pigs and trout, and so to contribute
to the community’s development.

The achievements of these temporary labour migration projects, as illustrated by this example from Puerres, go well beyond
the possibility of earning more money for their work so as to be able to meet recurring expenditures such as for health care,
education and housing. In fact, the possibility for migrants, such as Amalia, to migrate and work abroad temporarily is the
more important and long-lasting contribution to the local economy and community, as it clearly demonstrates the benefits of
leaving the country through regular migration channels and of actively participating in a temporary labour migration model

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for co-development that not only benefits the migrant workers themselves, but also the country of origin and the country of
destination.

Thanks to the Temporary and Circular Labour Migration Model, every time Amalia returns from Spain, besides savings and gifts
for her four children, she also brings back with her opportunities for socio-economic development and a better quality of life
for herself, her family and the entire community.

Source: IOM Bogotá.

6. Post-admission Policies: Labour Market regarding these nationals has shifted essentially
Regulation, Protection of Migrant Workers, towards recognition of their qualifications and the
Social Cohesion and Integration provision of adequate social protection, rather than
regulating their access to the labour market per se.
Post-admission policies comprise a number of Irrespective of the policy directions agreed to at the
interrelated policy elements, namely: labour market multilateral, regional and bilateral level, however,
regulation, including access to and mobility within these still have to be effectively implemented at the
the labour market, and recognition of qualifications; national level. Clearly, some policy elements, such
the protection of migrant workers in the employment as the adequate protection of workers in countries
context; facilitation of social cohesion; enhancement of destination, will also be determined to a certain
of social welfare, in particular through access to extent by the existence of appropriate unilateral
adequate healthcare, education and housing; and policies in countries of origin, which are discussed
social security provision (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, in Chapter 10, or through the adoption of bilateral
2007). In many destination countries, the content of arrangements between countries of origin and
these policy elements are determined by the extent destination (see Section 8 below and Chapter 13).
to which the governments concerned have accepted
international standards, such as international 6.1 Labour Market Regulation
human rights and labour norms. Even if conditions
in these countries are such that it is not possible to Regulating the labour market in the context of
formally comply with these standards, they may still migration for employment is largely concerned
serve as a model for the development of national with the restrictions governments may legitimately
legal frameworks. As observed in the Introduction, impose on migrant workers regarding their access to
the protection of migrant workers (particularly the labour market, particularly during the first work
those with temporary or irregular status) in a authorization, and the mobility of migrant workers
globalizing labour market is one of the most difficult within this market with a view to protecting the
and sensitive challenges facing policymakers. The local workforce.
content of post-admission policies is shaped further
by participation in regional and bilateral agreements While in many countries access to the labour market
(see Chapter 13). In the EU, for example, full access for migrants is regulated by a variety of administrative
to the labour market for most EU citizens is a reality,39 restrictions affecting both workers and employers,
which means that the focus of policy concerns reductions in and streamlining of such bureaucracy
as well as providing greater autonomy to workers over
their employment status are emerging as effective
39
With the exception of nationals from the ten central and eastern
European new EU Member States in five former EU-15 Member States,
practices, to ensure that available jobs in destination
which continue to apply transitional arrangements (see Chapter 13 and countries are filled quickly and efficiently without
Textbox 13.3).

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resorting to irregular migrant workers, and also to is not the policy in the GCC and Asian countries of
provide more safeguards for the worker. For example, destination, where employment of foreign workers
to enhance the protection of migrant workers in is perceived as strictly temporary.42 Nonetheless,
the labour market, the important recent reform as discussed in Section 5.2(b) above, provided that
introduced by the Irish Employment Permits Act the rules are transparent, a defensible argument
2006, which came into force on 1 February 2007, may be made for allowing for some transition from
provides for the work permit to be granted to the temporary labour migration to employment-based
worker rather than the employer. The permit also permanent residence, particularly where migrants
lists entitlements and the principal employment have resided and worked in a country for a number
rights of the employee (Ireland, DETE, 2007(a), of years and are successfully integrated. There are
2007(b)). For similar reasons,40 it is advisable also advantages to the employer in ensuring a readily
that migrant workers enjoy a degree of mobility, available supply of workers into sectors where there
at least within the same employment sector and is a structural demand for such labour and in not
also in the context of temporary labour migration having to train new workers.
schemes, in order to reduce the risk of exploitation
that may arise from being tied to one employer.41 Eliminating discrimination against women migrant
Such exploitation can be exacerbated by the illegal workers in respect of access to the labour market and
practice of retaining the passports of migrant the adoption of appropriate policies in this area are
workers and in those situations where employers also important considerations. First, the demand for
provide accommodation to migrants only as long as domestic workers, nurses and entertainers may appear
they continue to work for the employer (i.e. “tied neutral at first sight, but in practice recruitment to
accommodation”) (Ruhs, 2005). As noted earlier in fill the available jobs is effectively aimed at women.
connection with employment-based immigration, it Second, the majority of women migrant workers
is possible for certain groups of migrant workers who end up in low-skilled jobs and, in some countries,
initially entered on a temporary basis to be granted are also subject to intrusive questioning regarding
free access to the labour market and eventually possible pregnancy and even pregnancy tests before
permanent residence. While this practice is prevalent being permitted to take up employment, practices
in respect of the admission of skilled migrants in that amount to unlawful sex discrimination in
Canada and the U.S. and EU destination countries, international human rights law (OSCE/IOM/ILO,
where settlement is usually encouraged today, this 2006, 2007).

40
The Institute for Employment Rights in the U.K. reasons as follows: “The Putting in place appropriate mechanisms to
rules on the possibility of migrant workers to change employer are of recognize the diplomas and qualifications of migrant
fundamental importance within the labour market. The operation of
the labour market in allocating labour to where it is most useful, and workers acquired in their countries of origin or third
the individual’s right to work, each point in the direction of allowing countries would give them more opportunities to
migrant workers to change employer where they consider it advantageous
to them to do so. There are also basic issues as regards fairness. The make an optimal contribution to the destination
narrower a worker’s options as regards a change of employer, the
greater the scope for an employer to impose unfair pressure as regards
country, and to the country of origin in terms of
performance, conditions at work, or terms of employment. This is a remittances and the eventual transfer back home of
matter of legitimate concern not just to the individual in question, but
to interested third parties such as co-workers and trade unions” (Ryan,
additional skills and know-how. The phenomenon of
2005: 40). “brain waste” is particularly pronounced in the case
41
Under the new Irish work permit rules, however, the worker issued with
a first permit must stay with the same employer for a period of 12
months unless there are exceptional circumstances. With regard to the
42
U.K., it has been proposed that migrants should be able to obtain an Concerning the GCC States, this is also connected to the fact that the
unlimited right to change employer and occupation after a short period, foreign population greatly outnumbers citizens, thus giving rise to
i.e. three months (Ryan, 2005). security concerns (Ruhs, 2005).

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of unauthorized employment in which many migrants country of origin. Third, ensuring that migrant
end up because of the absence of regular migration workers may join or form a trade union in the
opportunities, and adversely affects women in the sector concerned would make it possible for them
care and domestic work sectors, where demand, to exercise their rights in the workplace (OSCE/IOM/
as noted above, frequently remains unrecognized ILO, 2006, 2007). Though the principles of freedom
(OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007). of association and collective bargaining are well
established, in some countries obstacles continue
6.2 Protection in Employment to hamper the full exercise of trade union rights
by irregular migrant workers (ILO Committee on
While equal treatment of local and migrant workers is Freedom of Association, 2001 and 2002). In addition
an accepted principle of international human rights to the important role of organizing migrant workers
and labour law, such protection has to be assured in and protecting their labour rights, trade union
practice, which can be realized only in a framework activities may also include: conducting campaigns
of partnerships between governments and social for ethical recruitment to counter the effects of the
partners. In this regard, a number of difficulties are “brain drain”; making arrangements with local banks
identified and policy solutions proposed. to reduce the cost of remittance transfers; entering
into bilateral agreements with other trade unions
One difficulty concerns the need to ensure that in origin or destination countries; participation in
national labour laws are applicable to employment government pre-departure orientation schemes in
sectors such as agriculture and domestic work or the country of origin (e.g. the Philippines); provision
household employment, which, in some countries, of assistance to migrant workers to enable them to
have been excluded, either wholly or in part, from keep in contact with their country of origin; and,
the legal protection foreseen under these laws,43 a particularly in Africa, collaboration with employers
particularly important consideration when addressing to fight the spread of HIV/AIDS (OSCE/IOM/ILO,
discrimination against women migrant workers in 2006, 2007). Finally, the protection of labour rights
the domestic service sector. Second, more careful of irregular migrant workers is especially problematic
attention deserves to be paid to the protection of a in practice and is discussed in more detail in Section
number of specific labour rights that are more likely 7.1 below.
to be neglected in the context of temporary labour
migration, such as security of employment and 6.3 Facilitating Social Cohesion
access to vocational/ language training. Protection
of the former requires that migrant workers are not In a world characterized by high labour mobility,
dismissed first during downturns in the economy the nature of the relationship between the migrant
without good reason, while provision for the latter, and the host society is changing rapidly, where
particularly language training, ensures that migrant such concepts as assimilation, integration and
workers and their family members are able to adjust multiculturalism are no longer entirely satisfactory
more quickly to their new environment and can either as explanatory or prescriptive terms. New
upgrade their skills with the resulting benefits approaches are needed to define a host society’s
this may have in terms of their employment in the core values and principles, while at the same time
destination country and eventual return to their providing scope for diversity. There is no single
formula for success: permanent resident migrants
43
For example, in the Province of Ontario, Canada, agricultural workers are may require policies quite different from those
not covered by the legal minimum standards foreseen in the Employment
Standards Act relating to maximum hours of work, daily and weekly rest
that are required by temporary migrants. In general
periods, statutory holidays and overtime pay (Brem, 2006). terms, however, the starting point is the recognition

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of the migrant as a legitimate participant in social finding suitable employment often result in highly
and economic processes, and acknowledgement and qualified men and women doing relatively menial
definition of mutual rights and responsibilities. jobs.

The need to ensure social cohesion in host countries Discrimination prevents integration. The
is a crucial determinant of policymaking. Large-scale consequences of past policies that neither
migration for employment to address labour shortages anticipated nor prevented discrimination can be
and demographic deficits is not considered feasible seen in ethnic ghettos, high unemployment, low
in many parts of the world because of the perceived school attainment, higher violence and crime rates
difficulties in integrating a significant number of in numerous countries. It is evident that the longer
foreigners into the host society and providing them migrants and their offspring live and work in a host
with adequate social services. Canada, however, society under discriminatory provisions, the more
which in 2006 admitted over 250,000 migrants on a likely it is that this prejudice and discrimination
permanent basis and more than 110,000 temporary will prevent them from reaching similar economic
migrant workers, demonstrates that larger-scale and educational attainments as the majority
admissions are possible with careful planning and population (Taran et al., 2006; OSCE/IOM/ILO,
where appropriate reception policies are in place 2006, 2007: 144).
(CIC Canada, 2007a). Moreover, in practice, the social
fabric of the host country is more likely to be at Though the principle of non-discrimination is at the
risk when migrants are subject to various forms of core of international human rights and labour law,
discrimination, both in the workplace and in the and its applicability to migrants has been reinforced
general community, and where there are no proper by regional human rights tribunals (Cholewinski,
integration mechanisms in place. 1997, 2007), effective implementation of this
principle in policy and practice is lacking in many
Discrimination against migrants is a serious barrier to countries. For example, research conducted under
the realization of social cohesion and integration: ILO auspices in western Europe and North America
revealed significant and persistent discrimination
Discrimination produces differential treat­ment against migrants concerning the hiring process (ILO,
in labour markets, preventing equal opportunity, 2006). Discrimination also has multiple impacts on
provoking conflict within the working population women migrants, many of whom work in gender-
and undermining social cohesion. Discrimination segregated and unregulated sectors of the economy
reinforces attitudes that constrain certain (e.g. domestic services and the commercial sex
identifiable groups to marginalized roles and industry) (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007). Prevention
poor conditions in the work force. The results of of discrimination against migrants, therefore,
consistent denial of employment opportunities, calls for the development of a comprehensive and
relegation to ghettos, lack of education or training multifaceted agenda for action comprising a wide
opportunities, absence of police protection, and range of legislative, administrative, educational and
multiple discriminations in community life are cooperative measures.44
exclusion and ultimately, breakdown of social
cohesion. Migrant workers face various forms of 44
Some of the key elements of this agenda identified by the ILO include:
strengthening the rule of law by adopting relevant international
discrimination in employment and occupation,
standards: outlawing racist and xenophobic behaviour; elaborating
and discrimination suffered by migrants often administrative measures and procedures to fully implement legislation;
setting up independent human rights/anti-discrimination bodies with
begins at the recruitment stage. Difficulties in powers to address discrimination against non-citizens; encouraging
the communication media to emphasize positive images of diversity
and migration; including diversity training in educational curricula;
putting in place practical measures and procedures in the workplace,
and cooperating with civil society and community groups (ILO, 2006;
OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007).

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The link between social cohesion in host societies and new arrivals understand and adhere to the core social
the integration of migrants is commonly accepted, values of the host society.
but there are different conceptions of integration
(IOM, 2006), some of which, like assimilation, do Irrespective of whether migration for employment is
not sit comfortably with modern understandings of permanent or temporary, an element of integration
social cohesion. There is growing consensus, however, is important because it contributes to the health
that integration is a two-way process entailing and safety of migrant workers and facilitates the
responsibilities and obligations on the part of both exercise of their rights in the workplace and in the
the migrant and host society. host community (i.e. social and cultural rights – see
Section 6.4 below), and prepares migrants for eventual
While the term is used and understood differently return to their home countries. Practical measures
in different countries and contexts, “integration” assisting integration include the establishment of
can be defined as the process by which migrants migrant information and resource centres, such as
become accepted into society, both as individuals the Information and Resource Centres for Migrants in
and as groups. It generally refers to a two-way Portugal and Slovakia (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007);
process of adaptation by migrants and receiving facilitating learning of the local language, including
societies, while the particular requirements for during working hours; and access to vocational
acceptance by a host society vary from country training, which, as discussed in Section 6.2 above,
to country. Integration does not necessarily imply is rarely afforded to migrant workers in a temporary
permanent settlement. It does, however, imply situation. Moreover, supporting private sector and
consideration of the rights and obligations of civil society initiatives, such as those of NGOs and
migrants and host societies, of access to different trade unions,47 which interact with migrant workers
kinds of services and the labour market, and of on a daily basis at the grass roots level, is also key to
identification and respect for a core set of values successful integration.
that bind migrants and host communities in a
common purpose (IOM, 2006: 2).45 Social cohesion and integration are also facilitated
by the provision of opportunities for migrants to be
The resort to the use of voluntary or obligatory reunited with their families in the host country. While
“integration contracts” in a number of EU Member international human rights standards proclaim the
States, such as in Denmark and France (European family as “the natural and fundamental group unit
Commission, 2006c), and settlement strategies in of society”,48 this principle has not been elaborated
the established countries of immigration46 reflects to provide for a right to family reunification for
this dual approach, and from the point of view of migrants. EU law constitutes an exception, however,
the destination country, the concern to ensure that because it affords a generous right to EU citizens who
exercise their right to free movement to be joined by
45
See also Council of the EU (2004).
members of their families, and a more limited right
46
E.g. the national Immigration Settlement Strategy of the New Zealand to third-country nationals lawfully resident in the
Immigration Service, which identifies the following six goals for EU who hold a resident permit valid for one year
migrants and refugees, namely that they are able to: (i) find employment
appropriate to their qualifications and skills; (ii) be confident in using or more and have reasonable prospects of obtaining
the English language in the local setting or access appropriate language
support to bridge the gap; (iii) access appropriate information and
responsive services available to the wider community (e.g. housing,
47
education and services for children); (iv) form supportive networks and Trade unions play a key role in assisting the integration of migrants in
establish a sustainable community identity; (v) feel safe in expressing many host societies by organizing language courses and establishing
their ethnic identity and are accepted by, and are part of, the wider host information centres (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007).
community; and (vi) participate in civic, community and social activities 48
E.g. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966, Article
(Spoonley et al., 2005). 23(1): “The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society
and is entitled to protection by society and the State”.

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the right to permanent residence.49 In general, The principal policy challenges therefore centre on
however, the established countries of immigration the appropriateness of drawing distinctions between
admitting migrants for permanent settlement and citizens and migrants in the social sphere, the extent
employment do not place any obstacles before those to which differentiated access to such rights and
migrants wishing to bring in close family members. services based on the specific category of migrant
Similarly, European countries admitting migrant is permissible, and whether the rights concerned,
workers (usually in the higher skills categories) on if afforded, should be tailored in accordance with
a long to medium-term basis also admit spouses and migrants’ specific cultural needs.51 While migrants
children. However, the position is very different who are permanent residents are normally treated
in the GCC States and Asian host countries, such on equal terms with citizens (e.g. Canada, U.K.), the
as Malaysia and Singapore, where the admission of position of migrant workers who are in a country on
foreign workers is perceived as strictly temporary.50 a temporary or time-limited basis, and of irregular
Similarly, low-skilled temporary or seasonal migrant migrants (see Section 7 below) is considerably less
workers in Europe and North America are often advantageous.
precluded from bringing their family with them (e.g.
seasonal agriculture workers in the U.K. and Canada) The challenge of according foreign workers equal
or face time restrictions (e.g. a one-year waiting treatment with nationals in the social sphere is
period in Spain). While it is legally possible to reflected well in the gap that exists between the
justify such restrictions for a limited period of time, content of international human rights standards
the longer they are in force the greater the social adopted in this field and their application in practice.
and humanitarian costs are likely to be for migrant For example, the International Convention on the
workers and their families, for their integration Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
prospects and for both host and home societies. Members of Their Families (1990) (see Textbox 13.1)
Consequently, the design of family reunion policies (which, to date, has not been ratified by a single
needs to be very carefully assessed and balanced to high-income destination country) stipulates that
ensure that these costs are kept to a minimum and emergency medical care must be available to all
to preclude human rights violations. migrant workers and their families, including those
in an irregular situation,52 and yet the more widely
6.4 Enhancing Social Welfare ratified International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (1966) guarantees the “right of
The difficulties governments in industrialized everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable
countries are increasingly experiencing in ensuring standard of physical and mental health”,53 which
social protection for their nationals in the context has been interpreted broadly by the Committee
of ageing societies, particularly in those European monitoring its application to include “preventive”
countries which have traditionally supported robust health care (UN ECOSOC, 2000). In practice, many
social welfare systems, have adversely affected the destination countries grant irregular migrants access
access migrants may have to these diminishing to emergency health care, although these policies are
resources.
51
E.g. tailoring the provision of health care and social services to the
49
See respectively Council Regulation 1612/68/EEC of 15 October 1968 specific needs of migrant women.
52
on free movement for workers within the Community, OJ 1968 L 257, Article 28 in Part IV of the Convention, which applies only to migrant
Article 10, and Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 September 2003 on workers and their families in a regular situation, is broader in scope
the right to family reunification, OJ 2003 L 251/12, Article 3(1). See because it grants lawfully resident migrants equal treatment with
also Chapter 6. nationals regarding “access to… health services” (Articles 43(1)(e) and
50
However, in Singapore, foreign professionals and executives can be 45(1)(c)).
53
accompanied or joined by spouses and dependent unmarried children International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966),
under the age of 21 (Singapore Ministry of Manpower, 2008). Article 12(1).

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often not explicit and access for irregular migrants ensure clean and sanitary accommodation (OSCE/
is difficult because of bureaucratic obstacles and IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007).
the fear of expulsion if they make themselves
known, exacerbated by the obligation on officials 6.5 Social Security
to denounce irregular migrants to immigration
authorities (Cholewinski, 2005). Similar policy Social welfare, as referred to in the preceding section,
contradictions stem from the implementation of the and social security are closely interrelated; indeed,
right to education, which too is to be enjoyed by medical care is one branch of social security, and
everyone and, at a minimum, to be provided free for certain categories of persons (e.g. the unemployed,
all at the primary or elementary level.54 In practice, families with children, the elderly) may also be
however, the children of migrants often experience eligible for social benefits to assist them with their
difficulties in gaining access to an appropriate level payments for accommodation. Regarding foreign
of education in the destination country, which are workers, three specific interests concerning social
compounded by the lack or inadequate knowledge security rights can be identified: (i) entitlement
of the host country’s language, and subsequent to social security and benefits on equal terms with
recognition of the education and the diplomas national workers (which, however, may be denied to
received there on return to their countries of origin. them on the basis of their nationality or because they
As with access to health care, these difficulties are have been unable to meet requirements of residence
exacerbated in respect of the children of irregular and/or payment of contributions): (ii) to maintain
migrants. Giving proper effect to the right to “an acquired rights on leaving the country (including
adequate standard of living”, including housing,55 the portability of benefits); and (iii) to benefit from
also to be enjoyed by everyone and defined more the cumulative rights acquired in different countries
generously than the mere provision of basic shelter (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007).
(UN ECOSOC, 1992), remains problematic in a context
of scarce and expensive accommodation in large One of the best ways to ensure appropriate social
cities in destination countries where many migrant security coverage for migrant workers is through
workers and their families tend to congregate. bilateral or multilateral agreements that are
particularly relevant with regard to the second
With regard to schemes facilitating the temporary interest (maintenance of acquired rights). Multilateral
migration of low-skilled workers, policymakers in a agreements have the advantage of setting common
number of destination countries have attempted to standards, thus avoiding the problem of different
address the problem of the availability of adequate rights available under different bilateral agreements
accommodation by imposing a legal obligation for migrant workers from different countries, and
on employers to provide this accommodation in easing bureaucratic procedures by establishing
accordance with minimum standards. For example, common administrative rules in the implementation
as observed in Chapter 3, the Low Skill Pilot Project of the agreement (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007). EU
in Canada requires employers to assist temporary rules on the portability of social security benefits are
migrant workers to find suitable and affordable instructive in this regard. While initially applicable
accommodation, and under the Seasonal Agricultural only to EU citizens moving and working within the
Workers Scheme (SAWS) in the U.K., employers must EU, they have now been extended also to third-

54
Ibid. Article 26; Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Articles 2
and 28(1)(a); Migrant Workers Convention (1990), Article 30.
55
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, above
n. 53, Article 11(1).

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country nationals moving within the EU.56 These 7. Preventing and Reducing Irregular Labour
rules are also applicable to third-country nationals Migration and Unauthorized Employment
lawfully resident in the EU who are citizens
of countries with which the EU has concluded There is a general consensus in countries of
Association Agreements (e.g. Algeria, Morocco and destination that irregular labour migration needs to
Tunisia, and Turkey). An example of a multilateral be prevented and reduced, and yet, at the same time,
agreement on social security in a different part of that perfection in this endeavour is not a realistic
the world is the Caribbean Community and Common policy objective and that it is not possible to eliminate
Market (CARICOM) Agreement on Social Security irregular flows altogether (Papademetriou, 2005).
(1996) in force since 1 April 1997, which has been Moreover, as discussed in Chapters 8 and 9, there are
ratified by 13 CARICOM members.57 The agreement still few credible estimates to verify the actual scale
safeguards entitlements to long-term benefits by of the phenomenon, which, by its very nature, is
providing for the aggregation of all periods in which statistically not quantifiable, although it is possible
contributions were paid to social security systems in to point to a number of data sources (e.g. census
member states (Nonnenmacher, 2007b). results, registers of foreigners, border and in-country
apprehensions of irregular migrants, demographic
In the absence of bilateral and multilateral statistics – births, deaths and hospitalization rates –
agreements, it is also possible to secure social security and regularization data) which can assist in arriving
coverage for migrant workers on a unilateral basis. at more reliable estimates of irregular migration
Examples of unilateral measures in host countries (Jandl, 2003). While policymakers may differ as to
include equal treatment of local and migrant workers; its impact, the fact is that irregular migration in
waiving long qualifying periods in favour of migrant most destination countries, including Europe and
workers; crediting insurance periods completed North America, remains prominent, if not foremost,
in other countries; and reimbursement of medical in policy thinking on international migration
expenses for migrant workers who, upon retirement, and, since September 11, 2001, has also been
return to their country of origin and do not qualify increasingly linked to security concerns (Castles,
for a pension and thus the statutory health scheme 2006; Papademetriou, 2005).59
(OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007).58
It is also important to make a clear distinction
56
between unauthorized employment and irregular
See, respectively, Council (of the European Union) Regulation 1408/71/
EEC of 14 June 1971 on the application of social security schemes to migration (IOM, 2008). In most countries of
employed persons, to self-employed persons and to members of their destination, resources and means to address
families moving within the Community, OJ 1971 L 149/2 (as amended)
and Council Regulation 859/2003/EC of 14 May 2003 extending the unauthorized employment have so far been limited,
provisions of Reg. (EEC) No 1408/71 to nationals of third countries who
are not already covered by these provisions solely on the ground of their
and have instead focused mainly on the traditional
nationality, OJ 2003 L 124/1. forms of dealing with irregular migration, such as
57
CARICOM has 15 full members (Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, strengthening border controls, imposing restrictions
Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat,
Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and Grenadines, on entry (e.g. visa requirements, including airport
Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago) and five associate members (Anguilla, transit visas) and applying voluntary or, more
Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos
Islands). commonly, forced return. At times, measures
58
Unilateral measures can also be adopted in countries of origin, such have been formulated with little consultation of
as the imposition of requirements (liabilities) on recruitment agencies
to pay social security contributions to the national security system countries of origin, and some of these strategies
for each worker recruited for employment abroad (e.g. Philippines,
Indonesia); voluntary coverage for nationals working abroad (e.g.
France, Jordan, Philippines); and the possibility for the payment of
59
retroactive contributions to returning migrant workers for periods spent For the irregular migration/terrorism nexus and for some words of
abroad (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007). caution about equating the two, see Papademetriou (2005).

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have inevitably given rise to human rights concerns. of the world, whereas for the purpose of underlining
Moreover, while coercive measures are generally the need for a more balanced overall approach,
deemed necessary,60 they are unlikely in themselves this section will focus on a number of constructive
to stop the movements of irregular migrants. measures to be envisaged by policymakers, such
as the introduction of specific safeguards in the
Consequently, coercive measures are best implemented employment context for male and female irregular
in tandem with more constructive measures. For migrants; the opening up of more regular labour
example, there is a need to reconcile security migration opportunities; consideration of a range of
concerns with the protection of the human rights regularization options; and recent initiatives linking
of migrants (Schoenholtz, 2007) and, in particular, readmission arrangements to labour migration and
of irregular migrants, who are most vulnerable to visa facilitation.
exploitation in the migration process as well as in
the destination country. One fundamental issue is that of minimal guarantees
for protection61 needed as part of a comprehensive
Furthermore, it is acknowledged that a preventative and preventative approach, and without which a
approach is required and that an isolationist strategy restrictive policy to prevent or reduce irregular
is bound to fail, which means that destination migration would lack credibility. Irregular migrant
countries need to collaborate and cooperate with workers require special protection from slavery-
transit and origin countries to develop coherent like practices, forced labour, and inhuman and
complementary approaches with the help of degrading treatment, as well as safeguards for
employers and civil society actors. As observed in their personal security and rights in the workplace.
Chapter 8, there is a clearly discernible trend towards Although a migrant’s immigration status should not
the development of such cooperative approaches. constitute an obstacle to accessing protection in
the employment context (IACHR, 2003), in practice
7.1 The Need for a Comprehensive Approach it is very difficult for irregular or undocumented
migrants to claim their rights before employment
The need to adopt a comprehensive approach to tribunals or courts primarily because of the fear
address irregular migration is advocated by EU of expulsion. This difficulty arises also in relation
institutions. In July 2006, the European Commission to rights pertaining to past employment, such as
issued a Communication on policy priorities payment of outstanding wages, which employers
to address irregular migration, which includes often refuse to pay to irregular migrants, and is
cooperation with countries of origin, secure borders, exacerbated if the employment contract is rendered
the fight against human trafficking, secure travel void because of the irregular immigration status
and identity documents, regularizations, tackling of the worker (Ryan, 2005). Some innovative and
unauthorized employment, an effective return practical ways of protecting irregular migrant
policy, improving information exchange, and carriers’ workers have been advanced by the Brussels-based
liability (European Commission, 2006b). A number NGO, Platform for International Cooperation on
of these policy priorities are described in Chapter 8 Undocumented Migrants (PICUM) (see Textbox 11.2).
with reference to specific examples in various parts One appropriate policy response is to separate the
protection of employment rights from immigration

60
E.g. Papademetriou (2005): “A strong “law-and-order” component to
the overall approach to illegal [irregular] immigration is nonetheless 61
European Commission (2006b: 3): “Fundamental rights must be protected
necessary because illegal [irregular] immigration subverts a society’s and promoted. Irregular migrants must be offered a humane and dignified
legal order and undermines or perverts a variety of foreign and domestic treatment particularly as they are often victims of traffickers’ networks
policy priorities.” and exploited by employers”.

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enforcement on the basis that exploitation in the victim’s circumstances.62 The position of irregular
workplace is to be avoided generally in respect of all migrants has been especially weakened in the
workers. Complementary measures relate to adequate social sphere because they are often perceived as
monitoring and inspection of the workplace, focusing “scrounging” on the state and thus not eligible to
on the detection of abuse rather than irregularity benefit from national welfare systems even though
and particularly in those sectors where workers are the vast majority of them are in employment.
most likely to be subject to exploitative conditions In contrast to such realities, and as observed in
or forced labour (i.e. agriculture, domestic work, Section 6.4 above, are the strong assertions in
garment industry, the construction sector and sex international human rights treaties affording basic
work). There is also a significant gender dimension social rights, such as health care, education and
to be considered; women migrants are particularly housing to everyone regardless of their nationality
vulnerable to becoming irregular, especially in the or immigration status (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007;
domestic services sector, which is often unregulated Cholewinski, 1997, 2005).
and not covered adequately, if at all, by national
labour laws. Further efforts are therefore needed
to regulate household employment, for instance 62
Indeed, this kind of protection is applied at the national level in some
by preventing the immediate return of victims of countries and also by the EU Council Directive 2004/81/EC of 29 April
2004 on the residence permit issued to third-country nationals who are
migrant smuggling and human trafficking and instead victims of trafficking in human beings, or who have been the subject
of an action to facilitate illegal immigration, who cooperate with the
providing for a period for recovery and reflection, competent authorities, OJ 2004 L 261/19, which had to be transposed
and possibly a residence permit, depending on the into the laws of EU Member States by 6 August 2006.

Textbox 11.2
Ten Ways to Protect Undocumented Migrant Workers

Every day millions of undocumented migrant workers labour in different sectors of the economy in Europe, the United States
and in many other countries worldwide. Undocumented migrant workers often work and live in inhumane conditions, with very
little or no pay at all and insufficient legal protection. Facing exploitation and abuse, many undocumented migrant workers
believe that they have no other option than to accept this situation. Fearing that they may be deported if they spoke out, an
overwhelming number suffer in silence.

The following is a brief overview of ten methods used by NGOs, trade unions and activists in Europe and the United States to
strengthen the position of undocumented migrant workers and to defend their rights (PICUM, 2005).

1. Engaging Public Support Through Events and Consumer Campaigns

Undocumented migrant workers are too often thought of as taking advantage of public benefits and as causing or aggravating
unemployment for nationals. Changing the poor image of undocumented migrant workers and gaining the support of the
public is of paramount importance in order to protect their rights. Without this support, undocumented migrant workers stand
little chance of fighting the exploitation and abuse many face on a daily basis. Many organizations therefore endeavour to
raise general awareness in the population of the fact that undocumented migrants have human rights and also contribute
considerably to local economies.

2. Collecting Data

Policies on migration, employment and social inclusion are often developed in the absence of concrete data about undocumented
migrants. As a result, many of these policies are ineffective. Collecting both qualitative and quantitative data on undocumented
migrants is of utmost importance.

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NGOs can play a crucial role by setting a relevant research agenda and in overcoming the many difficulties in gathering relevant
information on undocumented migrants.

3. Informing Undocumented Migrant Workers of their Rights

Undocumented migrant workers do have rights, but many are unaware of this and put up with exploitation and abuse without
challenging employers who violate their rights. Informing undocumented migrant workers about their rights is the first step
towards ending the silent suffering of millions of undocumented migrant workers.

4. Building Capacities Through Empowerment

In order to stop the exploitation of undocumented migrant workers, they must be helped to acquire the ability to effectively
exercise their rights. Empowering and building the leadership capacities of undocumented migrant workers allows them to
defend themselves and even to engage in and influence the decision-making affecting their lives. This is essential in order for
them to become agents of their own rights.

5. Unionizing Undocumented Migrant Workers

“What we’ve always said is that ‘a worker is a worker is a worker; there is no such thing as an illegal worker’.” Pauline Doyle of
the Transport and General Workers’ Union (T&G).

There are several obstacles preventing undocumented migrant workers from joining a trade union, and not all traditional union
structures and working methods are directly applicable to undocumented migrant workers. Yet many trade unions in Europe
and the U.S. have managed to overcome these difficulties, leading to a higher level of protection of undocumented migrant
workers.

6. Working with Employers to Prevent Exploitation and Advocating for Laws to Hold them to Fair Labour Standards

Another means by which many organizations prevent abuse and exploitation of undocumented migrant workers is by working
together with employers. Several successful examples exist of organizations inviting, and sometimes pressuring employers to
respect well-defined minimum standards of employment.

Yet there is also a need for legal measures to hold abusive employers accountable for the exploitation of undocumented migrant
workers. Such measures are indispensable to ensure effective protection of undocumented migrant workers’ rights.

7. Challenging Exploitation and Abuse through Mediation and Collective Actions

Other ways to raise the enforcement and the effectiveness of the protection of undocumented migrant workers include mediation
with those employers who wish to avoid going through the various administrative procedures involved in the official claims
process, and collective actions such as public protests, demonstrations, strikes and campaigns, where mediation does not reach
the desired solution and where filing a complaint in the legal system is not a solution.

“Nobody wants a bunch of angry workers on their doorstep or circling their car, making it hard for them to do their work…now,
essentially all it takes is a call from our organization to the employer, telling him that so-and-so worked for him for x number
of days, that he owes him x amount, and when can he get a check over to our office?”, said Julia Perkins of the Coalition of
Immokalee Workers.

8. Asserting Undocumented Migrant Workers’ Rights in the Legal System

When conciliatory means of protecting workers’ rights prove unproductive, undocumented migrant workers can resort to formal
legal channels. But this can be difficult and strewn with many obstacles, such as the fear of being deported, high legal fees
and having to prove the abuse.

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“As undocumented migrant workers we do have rights, the trade unions and everyone else tell us that we do, but the problem
is exercising them. It’s like having a Porsche without knowing how to drive”, said Henry Cardona of the Collectif des travailleurs
et des travailleuses sans statut légal – Genève (CTSSL).

Nonetheless, the law protects undocumented migrant workers in many countries, and undocumented migrant workers in Europe
and in the United States have won many cases.

9. Working with Government Agencies to Promote Undocumented Migrant Workers’ Rights

Undocumented migrants tend to be reluctant to approach government agencies. Nevertheless, many government agencies
and labour inspectors do not let the legal status of workers impede their main task of upholding fair working conditions and
sanctioning employers who fail to observe labour requirements.

Liaising with these agencies can therefore be helpful, since they often can and will intervene to protect undocumented migrant
workers.

10. Advocating for Legal Status of Undocumented Migrant Workers

A final means of preventing abuse and exploitation is regularizing the status of undocumented migrant workers.

There are many arguments for regularizing undocumented migrant workers: it leads to the increased visibility of this particular
social group and thus to increased protection. It is strongly arguable that it is not only the workers who benefit, but society at
a large. Regularizing undocumented migrant workers is a means to combat the informal economy and to stop the deterioration
of general working conditions, which in the end affect all workers.

Source: Michele LeVoy, PICUM – Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants.

Although there is no demonstrable evidence to authorization or overstaying their entry entitlement

sustain that the creation of more opportunities and, indeed, encourages further irregular entries.
for regular migration will necessarily result in less On the other hand, it clearly provides a solution for
irregular labour migration, the opening up of more individuals who, for legal, political, humanitarian
channels for regular migration, that are equitable or practical reasons, are unable to return to their
and sufficiently attractive in both scale and benefits country of origin. Proponents of regularization
to deter individuals from taking up irregular point out that there are also distinct economic
employment, has a place in any comprehensive and social advantages for destination countries in
approach. promoting regularization, including integration into
the labour market of those irregular migrant workers
Limited regular labour migration channels and the who are unlikely to be paying taxes and social
failure of some traditional preventive measures have security contributions. For example, in November
drawn greater attention to regularization policies 2006, the Head of the Russian Federal Migration
as a means of reducing irregular labour migration. Service was reported as stating that the presence of
While immigration rules in some destination approximately 10 million irregular migrant workers
countries contain limited regularization provisions in the territory cost the economy more than USD 9.3
applicable to individuals as apart of their overall billion in unpaid taxes, which was equivalent to the
immigration policy (e.g. U.K.) (Apap et al., 2000), Russian Federation’s total budget on education and
the implementation of more visible and large-scale healthcare (Russian News and Information Agency,
collective regularization exercises poses a dilemma. On 2007). Moreover, regularization prevents the creation
the one hand, it has been argued that regularization of a marginalized group of persons living and working
rewards irregular migrants for entering without in the midst of the host society. Consequently,

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policymakers have chosen to undertake both sporadic but are often viewed with reluctance and scepticism
and periodic regularizations: the most recent by countries of origin, in particular concerning
examples being the collective decision of the German commitments to take back irregular migrants without
Länder in November 2006 to allow the regularization papers but who are deemed to be their citizens, or
of persons holding the temporary and precarious non-citizens who transited their territory on the
“tolerated status” (Duldung) (Geyer, 2007); a pilot way to the destination country. Within the context
regularization of migrant workers in an unauthorized of international cooperation (see also Section 8
situation conducted in the Russian Federation in the below and Chapter 13), return measures, such as
last quarter of 2005 (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006, 2007); and readmission, have been increasingly connected
the large-scale regularization of irregular migrant to the opening up of further regular migration
workers in Spain in 2005, which resulted in nearly channels, such as labour market quotas for some
700,000 applications (Arango and Jachimowicz, 2005: foreign nationals (e.g. Italy) (OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2006,
see also Map 7a). Regularization and/or registration 2007). Similarly, at EU level, readmission agreements
programmes have also been implemented recently have been negotiated with the Russian Federation,
in a number of Latin American and Southeast Asian Ukraine and a number of Western Balkan countries,65
countries (see Textbox 8.3 and Maps 7a and 7b). in conjunction with visa facilitation agreements,
However, the downside is that regularizations may and the European Commission (2007) has proposed
have limited application and thus not necessarily be the development of mobility partnerships between
of lasting effect as the individual in question may interested groups of EU Member States and third
for a variety of reasons slip back into irregularity.63 countries.66
Some EU Member States, particularly in northern
Europe, are negatively inclined towards large-scale 7.2 Addressing the Informal Labour Market
regularizations as these may have adverse impacts
on other Member States in view of the abolition It is increasingly acknowledged that irregular
of internal EU border controls.64 ILO has argued in migration is essentially a labour market and not only
favour of an individual right to “earned adjustment” a legal or security issue; the fact that many irregular
for irregular migrants who cannot be removed and migrants are able to find work in the informal
have demonstrated good prospects of settling in the economy indicates that there is a clear link between
host country (ILO, 2004). irregular migration and the labour market (Awad,
2006). In EU Member States, the informal economy
Return is often regarded as the counter measure to accounts for between seven and 16 per cent of GDP
further regularization measures, and is sometimes (Mormont, 2002), although the majority of workers
seen as a means of guaranteeing the integrity who comprise it are nationals.
of regulations concerning regular migration for
employment. Return mechanisms are most effective The use of irregular migrant labour in certain
when they include and promote an option for employment sectors in countries of destination,
voluntary return (see Textbox 8.5). Readmission especially in low-skilled sectors (viz. agriculture,
agreements, referred to in Chapter 8, are considered construction, hospitality and catering, cleaning and
as a necessary deterrent by countries of destination, domestic services), creates a dependence relationship

63 65
E.g. if continued regular status is tied to employment and the migrant Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
loses his or her job. (FYROM), Montenegro and Serbia.
64 66
Indeed, this approach resulted in the adoption of the EU Council of The EU and a number of its Member States recently signed mobility
Ministers Decision referred to in n. 70 below. partnerships with Cape Verde and Moldova (see Chapter 13).

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and distortions in the labour market that is somewhat Other policy responses have targeted certain
similar to the criticism levelled at past temporary employment sectors in which significant numbers
labour migration programmes (see Chapter 3 and of irregular migrant workers are found, and involve
Section 5.2(b) above). A common policy response in partnerships between government ministries, the
destination countries involves the imposition of legal private sector and trade unions.69
sanctions against private employment agencies and
employers, although in practice such measures have 8. Cooperation and Partnerships
not yielded many successful prosecutions. Often, this
ineffective outcome is tied to the absence of adequate The formulation and successful management of
workplace monitoring and inspections, identified in foreign employment policies in destination countries
Section 7.1 as being particularly important in those cannot be envisaged without cooperation and
sectors where migrants are most prone to be subject collaboration with other countries at the bilateral,
to exploitative conditions. However, as observed regional and multilateral level, and the development
in Chapter 8, the viability of such monitoring and of a network of partnerships between relevant
inspections also gives rise to particular difficulties ministries and interested stakeholders.
in some sectors, such as domestic services, where
conducting inspections in private households leads Chapter 13 discusses international cooperation
to concerns regarding infringements of privacy, and in some detail, but, in summary, cooperation and
in agriculture, where irregular employment is not collaboration with other countries occurs at various
easily detected because the place of work covers a levels:
large area. One recent discernible policy trend has
been to focus less on legal sanctions and instead to • Bilateral – between countries of destination
encourage and reward self-regulation and incentives and origin to develop equitable, temporary and
for compliance. For example, the U.K. Gangmaster circular labour migration programmes; and to
Licensing Authority, established in 2005 for the facilitate the mobility of skilled, semi-skilled
licensing of recruitment agencies providing workers and low-skilled migrant workers under bilateral
for the agriculture and food-processing sectors,67 will labour migration and trade agreements. Bilateral
only inspect those agencies which in its view are at a arrangements are also negotiated by destination
medium to high risk of future non-compliance on the countries to secure the readmission of irregular
basis of a statistically sound risk profile mechanism migrants by their country of origin or transit.
(OSCE/IOM/ILO, 2007). In Australia, the recent law • Regional – in the framework of regional
on employer sanctions focuses largely on education cooperation processes (RCPs) where information
and the encouragement of voluntary compliance
among employers, reserving criminal prosecution for 69
E.g. in October 2002, the Belgian Ministry of Employment and Labour,
persistent offenders or more serious offences such and the Construction Confederation employers’ organization signed
as forced labour or knowingly employing trafficked a partnership agreement to combat unauthorized employment in the
Belgian construction sector. Under this agreement, the government
migrants.68 undertook to develop monitoring activities on unauthorized work in
construction; the employers committed themselves to mount a campaign
aimed at providing information to their members and raising awareness
67
with a view to promoting transparency and publicity about the situation
The Authority was established in the aftermath of a tragic incident in on construction sites, which was to include the signing of a “charter of
2003 when 20 Chinese cockle pickers, recruited through such gangmasters commitment”; and the establishment of a working group of government
(which at the time functioned essentially without regulation), drowned and employers’ representatives was proposed for the prevention of
when working in the sea off the coast of northwest England. unauthorized work and to improve standards of detection. However,
68
Migration Amendment (Employer Sanctions) Act 2007. See Commonwealth while supporting the goal of preventing unauthorized work, trade
of Australia Law at http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/ unions were aggrieved that they had been excluded from the initiative
Act1.nsf/0/8CA4BABF172D6AECCA257352002244E5/$file/0072007.pdf. (Mormont, 2002).

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 World Migration 2008

and effective practices on mobility for the friendly” policies in the absence of cooperation with
purpose of employment and preventing/reducing countries of origin on at least some aspects of policy
irregular migration, including human trafficking design and implementation.71 Such collaboration is
and smuggling (especially trafficking for forced particularly crucial in the design and implementation
labour), can be shared and discussed, as well as of temporary labour migration programmes where, as
more formal regional regimes that already provide noted above, there is a considerable convergence of
for an element of labour mobility, such as regional interest between countries of destination and origin
economic integration regimes (e.g. EU, CARICOM (Ruhs, 2005).
and the Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR))
and Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs). The involvement of other interested stakeholders
• Multilateral – in the context of global trade in policy formulation and implementation is
negotiations under the auspices of the World also important. It is difficult to contemplate the
Trade Organization (WTO), particularly the development of successful temporary migrant worker
temporary movement of service providers under programmes to fill job shortages in certain sectors
Mode 4 of the GATS (see also Chapters 1, 2, 5 and of the economy without the acquiescence of the
13) and such processes as the Global Forum on private/business sector and trade unions concerned
Migration and Development (GFMD) and the Berne with the protection of the interest of local workers
Initiative, which produced the International as well as incoming migrant workers. Civil society
Agenda for Migration Management (IAMM) (IOM/ actors, such as diaspora organizations, migrant
Swiss Federal Office for Migration, 2005); the ILO’s associations and NGOs, also play an essential role in
Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration (ILO, the implementation of integration strategies given
2006b) adopted by its tripartite membership; and that such strategies can only be put into effect
the implementation of international agreements productively at the grass roots level. Civil society can
protecting the human and labour rights of all also play a part in the establishment of cooperative
persons, including migrant workers and members mechanisms with countries of origin to promote
of their families. circular migration or brain circulation.

While the design of foreign employment policies is 9. Conclusion

usually perceived as touching closely on matters of
sovereignty in destination countries and rarely, if at The four terms or labels that probably best sum up
all, discussed externally,70 consideration should be the task of formulating and managing successful
given to the scope of such policies and their impact foreign employment policies in destination countries,
on countries of origin, particularly where there is a able to produce benefits for all countries involved in
significant presence (regular or irregular) of migrant labour mobility, as well as the migrants themselves,
workers from the country concerned (Crush, 2007). are transparency, comprehensiveness, flexibility and
Moreover, it is difficult to envisage the formulation cooperation and/or partnerships: transparency,
and application of successful “development- in the sense of drawing up a consensual statement
on labour migration defining policy objectives and
70
However, in the context of the development of an EU common law and
migration policy framework, EU Member States have agreed to inform each
71
other of any recently adopted or planned national immigration measures According to Ruhs (2005), there is a certain obligation on destination
that are likely to have a significant impact on several Member States countries to make their policies “development-friendly” largely because
or the EU as a whole. Council Decision 2006/688/EC of 5 October 2006 of the asymmetries in the regulation of international labour migration
on the establishment of a mutual information mechanism concerning (i.e. relatively fewer opportunities for countries of origin to regulate
Member States’ measures in the areas of asylum and immigration, OJ emigration – because of the human right to leave one’s own country
2006 L 283/40. – than for destination countries to regulate immigration).

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Chapter 11 - FORMULATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF DESTINATION

outcomes, and in developing clear and workable rules migration and long-term or permanent employment-
and regulations that can be understood by those who based immigration and, in certain instances, to
apply them, by migrants affected by them and by the provide a bridge between these; and the development
public at large; comprehensiveness, in the sense of of cooperation and/or partnerships with countries
recognizing that successful policies are not merely at a bilateral, regional and global level, as well as
concerned with the admission of foreign workers to with other interested stakeholders nationally and
fill existing labour shortages, but that they need to across borders.
relate more broadly to the economic and demographic
situation in destination countries and to the whole Admittedly, many of the policy responses advanced
migration process from departure to the treatment of in this chapter are hardly new in themselves; but,
migrant workers (and their families) in the workplace taken together, they offer a broad foundation for
and the host society, including policies for their a coherent, albeit complex, policy framework,
integration, to their return and reintegration at which, if implemented prudently, should contribute
home, as well as the possibility of further circulation considerably to the appropriate formulation and
between their country of origin and host country; management of foreign employment programmes in
flexibility, in the sense of recognizing that policies destination countries.
may need to accommodate both temporary labour

[320]
 World Migration 2008

Awad, I.
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2006 “Numbers vs. Rights: Trade-offs and Guest command-points-based-migration?view=Binary.
Worker Programmes”, The Centre on Migration
Policy and Society (COMPAS) Working Paper No. 2007 “New Points Based System To Start In The New
40, University of Oxford, http://www.compas. Year”, Press Release, 18 April, Home Office,
ox.ac.uk/publications/Working%20papers/ http://press.homeoffice.gov.uk/press-releases/
WP0640-Ruhs-Martin.pdf. migration-syytem-points.

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Chapter 11 - FORMULATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES IN COUNTRIES OF DESTINATION

United Kingdom, Home Office, Border Agency World Bank

2008 Immigration Rules (consolidated version), U.K. 2006 Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic
Border Agency, http://www.ind.homeoffice. Implications of Remittances and Migration, The
gov.uk/policyandlaw/immigrationlaw/ International Bank for Reconstruction and
immigrationrules/. Development/The World Bank, Washington,
D.C., http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTDECPROSPECTS/GEPEXT/
(UN DESA) EXTGEP2006 0,,menuPK:1026834~pagePK:641
2004 World Economic and Social Survey 2004: 67702~piPK:64167676~theSitePK:1026804,00.
International Migration, Docs. E/2004/75/ html.
Rev.1/Add.1, ST/ESA/291/Add.1, UN DESA, New
York, http://www.un.org/esa/policy/wess/
Textbox 11.2 - Ten Ways to Protect
wess2004files/part2web/part2web.pdf.
Undocumented Migrant Workers
United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
1992 General Comment 4, The Right to Adequate LeVoy, M. and N. Verbruggen
Housing (Art. 11(1) of the Covenant), 2005 Ten Ways to Protect Undocumented Migrant
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Workers, PICUM, Brussels, http://www.picum.
Rights, 6th Session, Doc. E/1992/23, http:// org.
www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(symbol)/
CESCR+General+comment+4.En?OpenDocument.

2000 General Comment No. 14 (2000), The right

to the highest attainable standard of health,
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights, 22nd Session, Geneva, 25 April – 12
May, Doc. E/C.12/2000/4, 11 August, http://
www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(symbol)/
E.C.12.2000.4.En.

United Nations General Assembly (UNGA)

2006 International Migration and Development,
Report of the Secretary-General, UNGA, 60th
Session, Doc. A/60/871, 18 May.

United States, Department of Homeland Security (DHS),

Office of Immigration Statistics
2008 “U.S. Legal Permanent Residents: 2007” (by K.
Jefferys and R. Monger), Annual Flow Report,
Office of Immigration Statistics, DHS, March,
http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/
publications/LPR_FR_2007.pdf.

Williams, V.
2007 “Immigration Act 19 of 2004: A summary and
review”, Crossings, SAMP, January, 8(1): 1, 3.

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 World Migration 2008

MANAGING
THE LABOUR MIGRATION
AND DEVELOPMENT EQUATION*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
12 among the various stakeholders. Section 2
introduces the notion of the migration cycle, viz. a
Migration has profound economic consequences for sequence of stages through which many migration
countries of origin - many of them salutary, others source countries pass. During the cycle, the relative
more worrisome. Exploring these consequences importance of the various channels through
has become a major focus in the current debate which migration affects development change.
surrounding globalization: the UN Secretary-General’s Section 3 proposes policy recommendations for the
High-Level Dialogue on International Migration and governments of destination countries, encouraging
Development addressed the labour migration and them to look at their migration policies through
development equation in September 2006 and the a development lens. This includes rethinking
Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD) policies related to the recruitment of workers
followed in 2007. at all skill levels, and to remittances. Section 4
recommends policy innovations for source country
This chapter reviews the evidence surrounding the governments; living with emigration calls upon the
labour migration and development equation, outlining latter to rethink policies related to macroeconomic
the potential benefits and risks of labour migration management, human resources, higher education,
for development, the roles and responsibilities of the infrastructure and regional cooperation. Section 5
governments of source and destination countries, suggests that mobility partnerships between source
and the prospects for more effective partnerships and destination countries offer a vehicle to make the
necessary policy changes in order to better manage
the labour migration and development equation.
* This chapter was written by Louka T. Katseli (Professor of Economics,
University of Athens) and Jeff Dayton-Johnson (Senior Economist,
OECD Development Centre, Paris). The chapter is a product of the OECD
Development Centre’s Gaining From Migration project (see Dayton-
The links between international migration and
Johnson et al., 2007) and has also benefited from Anna di Mattia’s development, which are the subject of this chapter,
(formerly of the OECD Development Centre) comments. It was written
while Professor Katseli was Director of the OECD Development Centre.
cannot exhaustively cover all aspects of the labour

“Home countries”, “source countries” and “countries of origin” are migration and development equation. Accordingly,
synonymous and used interchangeably in this chapter. it focuses on economic impacts, leaving aside

For a summary of the GFMD, see Textbox Int. 2

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Chapter 12 - MANAGING THE LABOUR MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT EQUATION

social and cultural dimensions of migration and reunification). Textbox 12.1 from the Office of the
development. Moreover, as the central focus of World United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Migration 2008 is on labour mobility, this chapter (UNHCR) provides information on the contribution
has little to say on the development impact of other of refugees’ employment to the development of host
flows (e.g. refugees and asylum seekers, family communities.

Textbox 12.1
Initiatives to Enhance the Contributions by Refugees to the Development of Host
Communities

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that there are some 15 million refugees
worldwide, a fraction of the world’s “migrants”. However, refugees are not migrants in the traditional sense of that term,
since they move out of compulsion, not choice. The refugee protection regime is premised on the international community’s
recognition of the specific rights and needs of refugees, as well as the obligation of states not to return them to countries
where their life or liberty would be at risk.

In recent years, there has been intense interest in the “migration-development nexus”, most of it focused on labour migration
and on issues such as the developmental impact of remittances, brain drain, diaspora investments in countries of origin and
circular labour migration between countries of origin and destination. Among these issues, remittances and brain drain are also
gaining importance in the refugee context.

There is growing evidence to suggest that refugees and asylum seekers, especially those in industrialized countries, remit
significant amounts of money to household and community members in countries of origin, and to refugees in other asylum
countries. Such remittances have played an important role in cushioning the impact on some refugees of reductions and
blockages in the provision of assistance, especially in Africa. Remittances may also enable family members to remain in
their country of origin or in countries of first asylum, rather than feeling compelled to move abroad to make a living. UNHCR
therefore supports the current efforts made by the Global Forum on Migration and Development, the World Bank and other
actors to reduce the transaction costs of remittances and to reinforce their impact on poverty reduction and development.

With regard to the issue of brain drain, all refugee populations include people whose talents could and should be put to good
use, both in countries of asylum and in countries of origin, if and when they choose to return. In this context, UNHCR has been
encouraging states to ensure that refugees are not excluded from, or discriminated against, in national labour markets and for
any qualifications and professional credentials they possess to be recognized in their country of asylum.

While there is growing recognition of the fact that migrants contribute to the prosperity of their host countries, this recognition
does not always extend to refugees. Indeed, refugees are increasingly portrayed as a threat to national security, a drain on
public resources and a constraint to local development. As a result, serious limitations are often imposed on their right to
engage in wage-earning employment or other economic activities. Strict encampment policies in some countries effectively
oblige refugees to become dependent on international humanitarian assistance.

UNHCR has endeavoured to counter such negative perceptions and policies, highlighting the fact that refugees have the
potential to become “agents of development” in their countries of asylum by boosting production, filling gaps in the labour
market and creating new trading and business opportunities. This will also enable them to contribute to rebuilding the economy
upon their eventual return back home.

UNHCR and partners actively promote self-reliance and livelihood creation for refugees. This provides a chance for a meaningful
and dignified life during exile, and prepares them for a better future once a durable solution is achieved. The promotion of
self-reliance and livelihoods also helps to reduce any risks to the protection of refugees, in particular for certain groups such
as women and youth as they will be less dependent on others for their living and therefore less vulnerable to exploitation and
abuse.

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The most effective initiatives aimed at promoting self-reliance and livelihoods have entailed full government ownership and
strong partnerships with the development community, including agencies of the United Nations system, international financial
institutions, NGOs and civil society groups, as well as donors. These partnerships are vital to ensure the integration of such
initiatives into local development plans and, hence, their sustainability.

Under the broad heading of “Development Assistance to Refugees” (DAR), such initiatives have been coupled with community-
based assistance, for example to improve local physical and social infrastructure, (e.g. building schools, clinics, roads and
bridges, building wells and similar activities). This has contributed to the socio-economic development of often isolated and
marginalized host communities, some examples of which are listed below.

Case 1: Benefits from apiculture in Uganda

The national agency promoting an increase in the local honey production in Uganda also developed markets in Europe; however,
as the volume of honey produced was insufficient to meet demand, the agency sought to both increase national production and
improve the quality to bring it into line with international standards. Together with UNHCR, the agency was able to involve
a refugee-hosting area and include both refugees and the local population in this endeavour. These efforts led to improved
bee-keeping skills and to the local production of beehives and of protective clothing for bee-keepers. In a few years time,
the national agency had improved honey production and found a local partner through whom to expand its market reach. The
higher production and improved quality of the honey resulted in more income being generated for both refugees and the local
host community.

Case 2: Improved vegetable production in Tanzania

Prior to the influx of refugees from Rwanda, agriculture was not well developed in western Tanzania, but the incoming
Rwandans were soon able to introduce some useful changes. As farmers who have had to make the most of small plots of land
back home, they knew how to maximize production and productivity. Although they did not have plots of their own, many
worked for local Tanzanian farmers. Within a few seasons, the volume, variety and quality of produce on the local markets had
increased dramatically. Not only did the standard of living increase among both local Tanzanians and refugees, but the local
economy also improved quite significantly. Grass-thatched roofs were increasingly replaced with iron roofing material. When
it was time for the Rwandan refugees to return home, the District Commissioner admitted that it was a big blow to the local
economy, but the improved agricultural skills they had been able to introduce remained and will help to bring about further
improvements.

Case 3: Stimulating the local economy in Zambia

From 2003 to 2004, some 120,000 refugees and members of the local population benefited from loans for food production.
This led to a significant increase in the area of cultivated land from an average of two hectares per household to 2.5 hectares.
Thanks to the loans and their own hard work, the refugees and the host population were able to produce sufficient food for
domestic consumption and a surplus to sell. Not only did the community become self-reliant, its income tripled. A total of 564
metric tons of maize was sold to the World Food Programme and the proceeds reinvested to boost maize production still further.
For the first time, the local host community and refugees were suppliers of food rather than recipients of food aid.

Source: UNHCR.

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Chapter 12 - MANAGING THE LABOUR MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT EQUATION

2. The Migration Cycle The migration cycle can be briefly described as

follows:
Will migration foster economic growth in the migrants’
home country? At the most basic macroeconomic Table 12.1:
level, the balance of the migration and development The Migration and Development Equation over
equation depends on the relative strength of three the Migration Cycle
effects: (1) the impact of labour mobility on domestic
Labour
labour supply and, in particular, the supply of Productivity Remittances Growth Poverty
Supply
specific types of labour; (2) the impact of migration Phase
on productivity in the domestic economy; and (3) Exit - - 0/- 0/- +
the impact of remittance inflows. The net effect of
Adjustment -/0 ? 0/+ 0/- +/0
labour migration on economic growth at a given
Consolidation 0 + + + -
moment in time is the sum of these effects, some of
Networking 0 + +/0 + -
which are positive, some negative.
Return + ? - ? ?

Finally, the balance of these effects for a given Source: OECD (2007: 54).
country – that is, their effect on the economic
growth rate – at a given point in time will depend on
where that country is situated within a “migration When workers initially leave an economy during
cycle”, which is summarized in Table 12.1 below. The the exit stage, there may be a decline in the supply
table sketches a kind of stylized generic history of of labour in the domestic economy and therefore
a country’s emigration experience, from the initial a drop in output. However, in many countries of
departure of workers to their eventual return. origin there are high rates of unemployment, under-
utilization of labour or internal migrants available as
Even if migration has a positive impact upon growth, replacements, so that the risk of a significant drop
this may not always be accompanied by poverty in economic output is not always a serious one. In
reduction. For example, if the benefits of migration the case of skilled emigration, productivity may be
flow to families placed in the middle of the income expected to decline, unless the skills of such workers
distribution spectrum rather than to the poorest were in fact either not or only insufficiently used in
members of society, which would be the case if the their jobs at home.
middle or upper classes have a higher propensity to
emigrate, poverty reduction may be either modest As migration continues, more information becomes
or even zero. available regarding employment opportunities in
destination countries, thus reducing the information
and transaction costs related to migration. This
encourages more households, perhaps with lower
incomes than the initial wave of migrants, to employ
emigration as a livelihood strategy. Furthermore, the
possibility of migration might also encourage those
left behind to invest in skills required to leave the
country in their turn to seek improved prospects

The migration cycle is explored in greater detail in OECD (2007);
references to the relevant research literature are provided by Katseli,
abroad (for instance, to train as a nurse). At this stage,
Lucas and Xenogiani (2006a). the home economy starts adjusting to migration.

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 World Migration 2008

This may take the form of increased labour force households can now afford to send a family member
participation, as women for example, enter the labour abroad and the remittances sent home can help to
market. Adjustment often leads to the restructuring reduce absolute poverty and inequality.
of the economy, including the mechanization of
agriculture, or increased investment in other sectors, The consolidation phase may also witness a decline
including human capital accumulation. However, in the competitiveness of local exports. This so-called
massive emigration of skilled labour may turn out to “Dutch Disease” occurs for at least two reasons.
be disastrous if it leaves the home country without a Massive infusion of foreign currency in the form of
critical mass of human capital and with no prospects migrants’ remittances could cause the local currency
to replenish the stock. to appreciate or, if exchange rates are fixed, reduce
the cost of imported goods. Second, migrants’
Although reunification of emigrants’ families in families often use their increased income to purchase
the destination country may continue during the more non-traded goods, such as many consumer
consolidation stage, international labour flows items and housing improvements. Increased demand
at some point stabilize. That is, emigration flows for such goods will lead to higher prices and further
continue to be large, but cease to grow year after depress the local currency price of the exchange rate
year. At the same time, emigrants’ improving just as remittances are increasing its local supply.
economic fortunes in destination countries increases The other consequence of a rise in the exchange
their ability to transfer money home. Economic rate of the local currency is that exports become
activity in countries of origin improves as migrants’ more expensive, which would penalize the country’s
remittances increase and the benefits of economic export industry as foreign consumers have to pay
restructuring and human capital accumulation more for the home country’s exports.
undertaken during the adjustment stage are realized.
The magnitude of remittance flows and the way they During the networking stage, migrants become
are used depend on financial market conditions better integrated in the destination country and
and the characteristics of the migrants themselves. form networks across transnational communities; the
Remittances first increase consumption, especially of process of family reunification is largely complete
food and other basic needs. They are also frequently and a second generation of migrants appear in the
used to finance improvements in housing and living destination country. The creation of hometown
conditions as well as to cover education expenses for associations in the destination country improves
children. the communication between the two countries and
enhances economic links; other means of improving
Growth tends to increase and poverty to fall during communication between destination and source
this consolidation stage. In principle, economic countries develop as well. In time, migrants are
growth is promoted through each of the channels
identified in Table 12.1. Stabilizing emigration flows 
The empirical evidence is stronger for the impact of migration on poverty
reduces pressure on the labour supply, while economic reduction than it is on growth; for the poverty reduction evidence, see
the cross-country evidence by Adams and Page (2005), or the careful
adjustments and investment of remittances in human summary of Latin American evidence in Fajnzylber and López (2007).
and physical capital favour productivity increases. Growth effects will be difficult to detect, in part because the impacts
of migration will be localized only in particular communities (where
A continuing decline in the cost (information and household-level survey data provide evidence of poverty reduction) and
administrative) of migration, meanwhile, leads to will not be large enough to affect GDP.

This is called the “Dutch Disease” because a similar phenomenon
changes in the composition and characteristics befell the Netherlands economy during the 1970s when surging prices
of households whose members migrate. Poorer of natural gas – a major Dutch export – increased the exchange rate,
depressing the competitiveness of other exports.

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able to exploit their knowledge of markets in both workers facilitate the creation of economic and social
countries and thus may become good trade and networks leading to positive externalities in trade
investment intermediaries. and investment with neighbouring countries.

As remittances continue to flow into the local The impacts of the migration cycle on economies and
economy, they will fuel consumption and investment societies in both home and host countries will differ
at home. Human capital accumulation is spurred depending on the characteristics and particular
in part by remittance flows and by the stronger local socio-economic condition, and vary among
incentives for personal advancement provided by the countries. Some stages might be skipped or never
possibility of emigration. All of these phenomena reached in a given migration experience, and the
boost productivity in countries of origin. Although duration of certain phases may differ significantly
growth may be accompanied by a reduction in within the migration cycles themselves, as well as
absolute poverty, changes in the distribution of among countries. The critical lesson is that the net
income and wealth depend in large measure on who balance from migration for a country’s development
migrates and how remittances are used. Growth alone depends upon the particular stage in its migration
does not guarantee that inequality will decline. history. Overall, the effect on growth can become
more positive over time.
In most cases, by the time of the return stage,
emigration will have contributed to skill formation 3. Managing the Labour Migration and
for the migrant and to home country development Development Equation: The Role of
and economic growth. As a result, the home country Destination Countries
may begin to experience certain labour shortages,
especially in some low-skill labour market segments, The joint consideration of migration and
which may then be filled by internal migration or development cooperation policies, in a properly
labour migration from neighbouring countries. structured institutional setting, can form the basis
The return of former emigrants may also coincide of genuine migration and development partnerships
with such low-skilled labour migration and thus between countries of origin and destination, as
contribute to the local labour supply. As the number well as of transit countries, where applicable. Such
of returnees increases, the level of remittance partnerships should exploit the full range of benefits
transfers may decline. Irrespective of their original of cooperation – and the costs of non-cooperation
place of residence, returnees often choose to settle in – to pursue more effective management of labour
cities on return, which increases pressure on urban mobility. This does not imply that migration policies
labour markets, while new arrivals from neighbouring do not need to take into consideration other major
countries are more flexible and usually settle where domestic policy concerns, including employment,
there are labour shortages, finding employment as social protection, security or social cohesion; nor
agricultural workers in rural areas or as household does it imply that domestic policy priorities need to
employees. yield to development objectives of partner countries.
Rather, the joint consideration of migration
Whether growth is boosted or dampened at this stage and development issues, including development
depends upon the degree to which migrants either assistance, could facilitate policy formulation and
complement or “crowd out” native workers, upon the make difficult trade-offs (e.g. between development
kind of skills introduced by return migrants and on assistance for capacity building and recruitment of
labour market flexibility. Where regional markets are skilled workers) easier to handle.
more integrated, flows of seasonal or contract migrant

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Development assistance can help to resolve some of the migration control. Given that very little of the
challenges posed by international labour migration, low-skilled migration to the European Union (EU),
particularly by enhancing the capacity of countries for example, originates from the least developed
of origin to successfully adjust to emigration, countries, redirecting development assistance
for instance through support for infrastructure towards the high-migration middle–income countries
development, improvement of education and health in order to influence migration patterns there, would
systems, co-development projects, or support for run counter to the objective of eradicating the most
appropriately designed fellowships and training severe poverty.
schemes. However, it should also be pointed out what
aid should not be expected to do: some observers 3.1 Looking at Migration Policies Through a
suggest, for example, that aid be used by the OECD Development Lens
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors to
stop or control immigration. This recommendation To improve migration management and to maximize
is misplaced for a number of reasons. First, the the positive impact of migration, destination
links from aid to growth are weak and, even if aid countries need to address the development impacts
spurs growth, that does not mean that migration of their recruitment and admission policies, as well
will necessarily diminish as a result. In fact, as development cooperation policies and the degree
the opposite might be true: as income rises in a of mobilization and the channelling of remittances
developing country, households initially unable to towards productive uses.
afford the cost of migration now choose to move, a
phenomenon referred to as the “migration hump”. (a) Tackling the brain drain

Second, using development assistance as a bargaining Many developed countries have programmes to
device to secure cooperation in controlling irregular facilitate the entry of highly skilled migrants.
migration, as is sometimes suggested, would be Indeed, the global competition to attract the best
fraught with difficulties — not least because low and the brightest is intensifying (see Chapter 2).
and middle-income countries with limited resources, The disruption from the loss of key personnel, such
would be at least as hard pressed to enforce as healthcare workers and educators, and the public
emigration border controls as destination countries costs incurred to train potential emigrants can be
are to enforce immigration border controls. Finally, very real. Of course, a highly educated diaspora
the principal objective of development assistance could, in principle, provide benefits to the home
is and should remain poverty eradication. Official economy – but the evidence for this remains weak
development assistance (ODA) should not be intended and pertains more to upper middle-income countries,
to serve the double aim of poverty reduction and which are better placed to take advantage of
technologies transferred from abroad and any fresh

The modern, largely pessimistic, empirical analysis of the effects of skills of returning diaspora members. Meanwhile,
aid begins with the World Bank’s report Assessing Aid (1998), which
found that aid promotes growth, but only in good policy environments.
the poorer the country, the more it is likely to feel
Even this modest conclusion was called into question by subsequent the loss of highly educated persons migrating to
research that suggested that it was not econometrically robust. The
principal authors of the World Bank’s research reviewed the criticism
industrialized countries. How can these trends be
and responded in Burnside and Dollar (2004).

On the “migration hump”, see Faini and Venturini (1993), Hatton and 
Williamson (1998, 2002), Stark and Taylor, (1991) and Vogler and Rotte, Cogneau and Gubert (2005) demonstrate that emigration rates are much
(2000), among others. The cover of the 2006-2007 Human Development higher for middle-income developing countries than they are for low-
Report for Mexico (UNDP, 2007) suggests a variation on the migration income countries. See also Dayton-Johnson and Katseli (2006b).

hump, plotting an index of migration intensity against the human For a discussion on the evidence of losses and potential gains from
development index for many hundreds of Mexican municipalities. skilled migration, see Katseli, Lucas and Xenogiani (2006a and 2006b).

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Chapter 12 - MANAGING THE LABOUR MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT EQUATION

influenced to enhance the benefits — the brain gain may be a role to play for internationally agreed upon
— while mitigating the costs? guidelines;10 these can serve as a benchmark against
which civil society organizations and the nationals
Developed countries’ efforts to attract highly skilled and governments of destination and origin countries
migrants are unlikely to abate. Policy innovations can evaluate the practice of destination countries.
can nevertheless help to mitigate some of the risks Such peer pressure can help to avoid imminent crises,
for developing countries. for example in developing countries’ healthcare
systems.
First, innovative circularity schemes – including
resort to flexible, multi-use, multi-annual work (b) Organizing recruitment of low and semi-
permits – may allow countries of origin to manage skilled migrants
migration flows more effectively and avoid critical
shortages in the provision of public services, such Developed countries are less likely to target low
as healthcare or education, in particular. They could and semi-skilled migrants, despite the mutual
be expanded to include multi-annual fixed-term benefits that can be derived from their mobility (see
contracts for professionals to train or work for a Chapter 3), and the significant advantages for many
certain period in developed destination countries. destination countries as they fill labour shortages in
Such schemes could furthermore be aimed at students specific sectors such as agriculture, construction and
and/or postgraduates from developing countries. domestic services, where natives are more reluctant
Under the terms of such agreements, the country of to work. For countries of origin, low and semi-skilled
origin could commit itself to upgrade and modernize migration has typically a greater impact on poverty
its social service delivery system, such as education reduction than the emigration of professionals.11
or health, supported, if need be, by the destination There are three reasons for this. First, such workers
country. Measures to ensure appropriate training of come from lower-income families and communities,
personnel, and the deployment and replenishment of who therefore stand to benefit more directly from
staff to maintain social service delivery at the desired migration. Second, their withdrawal from the home
level, could also be included. Moreover, the circular labour market opens opportunities for other low or
migration of the highly skilled also means that semi-skilled replacement workers. Finally, low and
their skills will be made more widely accessible at semi-skilled migrants tend to remit a larger proportion
home during the process and enhance local capacity of their income than highly skilled professionals,
through the transfer of technology and knowledge especially if they have left their families behind.
acquired by such migrants during their professional
activities abroad. Most countries of destination address low and semi-
skilled migration through temporary/circular labour
Other steps might also be considered to limit negative migration programmes. However, when workers
impacts on the countries of origin. Countries of do integrate into the host societies of destination
destination should continue to develop guidelines countries, there are often sound reasons to offer
for the recruitment of highly skilled workers from them the opportunity to stay in the country (see also
developing countries. In that context, it should be Chapter 11). Temporary workers, who demonstrate
borne in mind that self-imposed recruiting restraints
by public-sector employers have not been effective 10
See e.g. Commonwealth Code of Practice for the International
in limiting the migration of healthcare workers. Recruitment of Health Workers, http://www.thecommonwealth.
org/shared_asp_files/uploadedfiles/%7B7BDD970B-53AE-441D-81DB-
Exhorting private-sector employers to recruit ethically 1B64C37E992A%7D_CommonwealthCodeofPractice.pdf.
is likely to prove equally ineffective. However, there 11
See Katseli, Lucas and Xenogiani (2006a) for a review of the evidence.

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 World Migration 2008

their ability and willingness to remain in the labour Bilateral schemes between countries of origin and
market, to play by the rules, to learn the local destination to promote circular migration of low
language and to meet other reasonable requirements, and semi-skilled workers can enhance the impact
may welcome the opportunity to “graduate” to of migration on development in the countries of
“permanent” status. In this “gradual incentive origin (see Textbox 12.2).12 Effective recruitment
scheme”, temporary worker visas would formally of temporary or circular migrants in the context
become what they often already are in practice of such partnerships might also prove effective in
today for those who choose to treat them as such - tackling irregular migration. Seasonal or temporary
“transitional” or provisional permanent immigration work arrangements under multi-annual contracts for
visas. While such graduation is generally more specific work (e.g. in agriculture) or service provision,
feasible today for highly skilled workers than for and the establishment of clear criteria for return and
migrants in general, such gradual incentive schemes subsequent re-entry, could significantly enhance the
could, in principle, be introduced for migrants of all incentives of migrants to prefer regular admission
skill levels. channels and honour fixed-term contracts.

12
See also Chapters 11 and 13.
Textbox 12.2
Mauritius: Heading Towards a Migration Miracle?

The economic success experienced by Mauritius since the 1970s has meant that it has not been known as a source country of
organized labour migration. Instead, especially since the 1990s, Mauritius has been a country of destination for thousands of
foreign workers employed in various sectors of the economy, including in the Export Processing Zones (EPZs). However, with
the end of the Multi-Fibre Agreement, an agreement relying on a framework of bilateral agreements or unilateral actions that
established a quota system designed to protect clothing and textile manufacturing in developed countries, while facilitating
access for developing countries, Mauritius has recently witnessed the retrenchment of thousands of textile workers. In addition,
in September 2009, the EU sugar protocol will come to an end and Mauritius will no longer enjoy preferential prices for sugar
above the global market price and, in consequence, will have to reform its sugar industry leading, in turn, to massive job cuts.
These two measures are estimated to lead to the loss of some 12,000, mainly low-skilled, jobs over the next three years.

Hence, the local authorities have been looking at alternatives to revive the economy and to reintegrate laid-off workers into the
labour market, whether locally or abroad. In doing so, the government has to address a number of challenges: an unemployment
rate which currently stands at 9.1 per cent; high female unemployment (currently 16.5%, three times the rate for men) and
the fact that women, who constitute the bulk of the unemployed, are mainly low-skilled; as well as a mismatch of available
skills.

A two-pronged approach to migration management is being pursued. Firstly, the government wishes to develop circular
migration opportunities for the locally unemployed. In order to best match the profile and supply of local workers with demand,
the Mauritian authorities are targeting a number of key economic sectors, in particular: carers and nurses (in response to the
growing demand in relation to an ageing population in many destination countries); seasonal agricultural work, in particular
in France, Greece, Portugal and Spain; and agro-processing and manufacturing for those retrenched from the textile sector.
Secondly, the authorities are looking to mobilize the Mauritian diaspora through creative solutions to harness their intellectual
and financial resources with a view to enabling them to return home to assist in the development of the country. One approach
is to encourage the diaspora to contribute to the new growth sectors identified, which include information communications
technology (ICT), a seafood hub and tourist villages, among a range of suggested options.

Encouraging the return of workers is no easy undertaking, especially of individuals who are already close to retirement age.
However, Mauritius has been known to overcome obstacles and adversity: in 1961, James Meade, recipient of the Nobel
Prize in Economics, reported that Mauritius faced a bleak future. Relying on a mono-crop culture of sugarcane, subject to

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weather and price shocks, facing the prospect of overpopulation, multi-ethnic and with wide income inequalities, it had, in
addition, experienced political conflict. And yet, within a decade, the country was able to turn such dire predictions around
by diversifying its economy and promoting external investment. Within Africa, this small island in the southwest Indian Ocean
became the “Mauritian miracle”.

As during the 1970s, when Mauritius turned its fate around, it again appears that it will once more be able to turn some of its
current disadvantages into distinct advantages in the international labour market. Mauritius has a vibrant and multicultural
population; speaking both French and English, and local Creole; a mix of religions including Hinduism, Christianity, Islam and
Buddhism - all factors which can potentially facilitate integration into host communities. Mauritians also pride themselves on
their adaptability, which is evident from the 200,000 members of the Mauritian diaspora.

Apart from such natural advantages, the Government of Mauritius is also keen to implement its own policy direction and has set
up an “Empowerment Programme”, which aims to rapidly reduce unemployment by identifying and supporting new employment
possibilities, retraining and investment. The Empowerment Programme has been allocated five billion Rupees (approximately
USD 180 million) for the first five years to initiate the various components of the programme.

Through an IOM 1035 facility project,1 the Government of Mauritius has been assisted in the development of an overseas
employment strategy, the outcome of which was the establishment of a subcommittee on circular migration within the
Empowerment Programme. Since May 2007, with a view to primarily addressing the unemployment problem, this subcommittee
has met to formulate the conditions necessary for short-term placement of Mauritian workers to take up temporary employment
abroad and to acquire skills and save money before coming back to start a small business or invest in other economic
activities. The pilot placement of the first migrant workers abroad began in 2008. Perhaps this is the start of a new “migration
miracle”?

Note:
1
IOM’s 1035 facility provides special support to IOM developing Member States and Member States with economies in transition for the
formulation and implementation of joint government-IOM projects addressing particular areas of migration management.
Source: Elizabeth Warn, Labour Migration Specialist, Labour and Facilitated Migration, IOM Geneva.

Regional schemes among developing countries also assessing the economic impacts of migration and
deserve attention. Policies to facilitate cross-border remittances gives rise to a number of challenges
regional market integration through improved (see Textbox 12.3). The actual amounts remitted
infrastructure and appropriate visa policies, by migrants will depend on economic and financial
including perhaps also the introduction of regional conditions in both countries of origin and destination,
passports, should be considered. This is supported on the composition of migration flows as well as the
by the evidence that a large part of the migration of conditions on which the migrants are admitted into
less-skilled workers (and even more so of refugees) is the host country, and are therefore in part determined
intra-regional, and that migration by the less-skilled by admission policies in developed countries. The
has the greatest potential to alleviate poverty. pro-poor effects associated with remittances are
much stronger in the case of low-skilled as opposed
(c) Mobilizing and channelling remittances for to highly skilled migration, especially if highly
development skilled migrants settle permanently abroad with their
families. Low-skilled migrants tend to remit a larger
Remittances sent by migrants to families and friends proportion of their income and direct their savings
in home countries constitute an important driver of to their low-income families, who often remain in
development, particularly as a country’s migration the home country.
cycle moves into the consolidation phase,13 although

13
See Katseli, Lucas and Xenogiani (2006a) for a review of the evidence on
the development impact of remittances and multiplier effects.

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Textbox 12.3
Challenges in Assessing the Economic Impacts of Migration and Remittances

The rapid growth in the transfer of remittances has increased the interest in the economic impacts of migration and
remittances on recipient developing countries.

It is frequently assumed that receiving households tend to spend all or a large part of the remittances they receive on
consumption and that, in the absence of increased spending to improve human capital, i.e. on education and training, or to
launch entrepreneurial activities, this might generate or perpetuate a cycle of dependency rather than lead to self-reliance
and economic growth.

However, to gain a more realistic and detailed picture of the impact of remittances on receiving communities, a number of
factors need to be considered:

• The fungibility of money: Remittances are an additional source of income for most households and, though they may
be spent on consumption or traditional festivals and other celebrations, they nevertheless augment available household
resources and enable the diversification of household expenditures, including on better nutrition which, in turn,
improves health and well-being. Therefore, to concentrate only on “spending on consumption” falls short of the full
picture and fails to measure the actual economic impact of remittances.

• Self-selection concerning the decision to migrate: To simply contrast the respective outcomes for households with
and without migrants, or with and without remittances, is misleading, since those who in fact migrate are not a
random sample of the population, rather they “self-select” for both observable and unobservable reasons. Many reasons
underlying a desire to work abroad are closely tied to the actual outcomes used to measure the impact of labour
mobility. For example, poor parents who value education very highly might send a migrant abroad to earn money to
pay for schooling and also encourage their children to stay in school. Then, if it is observed that children in households
receiving remittances are more likely to stay in school, this could reflect differences among households in how much
they value education, rather than just the effect of receiving remittances.

• Reverse causality: Both migration and remittances may be driven by specific interests rather than be the cause of
observed outcomes. For example, if remittances are sent in response to a household member’s ill health, it may be
observed in due course that households which receive remittances have poorer health than households which do not
receive remittances. This does not in any way mean that receiving remittances is bad for one’s health.

The consequence of these challenges is that estimation of the economic effect of migration requires comparing the situation
of a household with a migrant to the unobserved situation in which the household would have been had a member not
migrated. There are a variety of econometric methods available for approximating the latter. In a unique study, McKenzie,
Gibson and Stillman (2006) are able to assess how well these different methods perform by taking advantage of a migration
lottery used to select among Tongans applying to work in New Zealand. Comparing winners in this lottery (who migrate)
to losers (who stay in Tonga) reveals an income gain from migration of NZ$274 per week, which is only half of what the
difference in GDP per capita would suggest. Figure 12.1 below compares the performance of a number of non-experimental
estimators against this mode of calculation. Using a good instrumental variable gives results close to the experimental
estimates, whereas the other non-experimental methods overestimate the gains to migration by 20 per cent or more. This
suggests that migrants in their study have higher unobserved ability than non-migrants.

With careful use of an instrumental variable, it is possible therefore to obtain reasonably accurate measures of the overall
impact of migration on outcomes such as schooling, child health, poverty and inequality, and business ownership. However,
most of these effects cannot be interpreted as being simply due to remittances. The main difference between remittances
and other sources of household income is that the receipt of remittances is typically accompanied by the absence of a
household member, which in turn will affect development outcomes. The absence of one or both parents may have a number
of different direct impacts, on children, the single spouse left behind or grandparents (see also Textbox 6.1). Also, absent
household members may transfer ideas and knowledge, as well as money; the migration of one family member may increase

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the propensity to migrate by other family members in the future, and may, by way of anticipation, already affect their
decisions today.

Figure 12.1:
Comparison of Estimates of Income Gain from Labour Migration to New Zealand from Tonga by Different
Estimation Methods

Estimations taken from McKenzie, Gibson and Stillman (2006). Percentages give the degree of overestimation
of income gains compared to the experimental estimate.

Separating the impact of remittances from all other impacts of migration raises the double challenge of self-selection and
endogeneity referred to above. There is a need to identify the exogenous reasons to explain not only why persons in one
household migrate and others do not, but also why some migrants send more remittances than others. There are few, if
any, studies in the literature able to do this. Moreover, from a policy perspective, it is not clear whether such an exercise
is required. Remittances are a private resource that households should be free to spend as they wish. Policies aimed at
reducing the cost of remittance transfers or encouraging investments in countries of origin should not be premised on how
households choose to spend their income.

On the contrary, it is precisely in relation to some of the non-remittance effects of migration, such as the effects of absent
parents or a spouse on children or the single spouse as sole head of household, where the design of appropriate policy
interventions critically depends on the proper understanding of migration impacts and on overcoming the methodological
obstacles to the measurement of such impacts.

Source: World Bank.

The reported size of remittances (estimated in 2007 through informal channels rather than banks or
at USD 318 billion worldwide with 240 billion going to other formal institutions. The cost of transferring
developing countries – Ratha et al., 2007) is most likely money remains extremely high for migrants in many
underestimated. Remittances are often transferred developed countries, varying between five and 15

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per cent of the amount transferred, with significant times higher than that between the United States
differences across countries. For example, the cost of and the Philippines (Table 12.2).
remittances between Europe and West Africa is ten

Table 12.2:
Approximate Cost of Remitting USD 200 (Percentage of principal)
Major MTOs1 Banks Other MTOs Hawala
Belgium to Nigeria 2
12 6 9.8 ––
Belgium to Senegal2 10 –– 6.4 ––
Hong Kong SAR to the Philippines 4.5 –– –– ––
New Zealand to Tonga (USD 300) 12 3 8.8 ––
Russia to Ukraine 4 3 2.5 1-2
South Africa to Mozambique –– 1 –– ––
Saudi Arabia to Pakistan 3.6 0.4 –– ––
United Arab Emirates to India 5.5 5.2 2.3 1-2
United Kingdom to India 11 6 ­–– ––
United Kingdom to the Philippines ­–– 0.4-0.5 ­–– ––
United States to Colombia –– 17 10 ––
United States to Mexico 5 3 4.7 ––
United States to Philippines 1.2-2.0 0.4-1.8 –– ––
Notes:
Figures do not include currency-conversion charge.
1
Money transfer operators.
2
World Bank survey of African diasporas in Belgium.
–– Data not available.

Source: Adapted from World Bank (2006: Table 6.1, p. 137).

Governments and banks in countries of origin Whether the positive impacts of remittances spread
and of destination might take concerted steps to from the household level to the whole of the
lower the transfer costs through formal channels, economy depends in large part on how well domestic
and to expand financial services to poor rural markets function. If markets are well integrated,
communities. Such action would facilitate the increases in local incomes can lead to increased
channelling of remittances to poor communities. economic exchanges with other communities,
Involving migrants and migrant associations in such enhancing growth and employment creation.
schemes would increase pressure for appropriate The availability of necessary infrastructure (e.g.
services and thus increase the volume of remittances transport infrastructure) is therefore a precondition
transferred. Migrant networks play an important role for the diffusion of benefits across regions.
in facilitating remittances and promoting their use Development assistance towards capacity building
as a development tool; they serve as lobby groups to and infrastructure development in the context of
improve access to financial services for migrants in national development strategies can substantially
both their country of destination and their country enhance the positive impact of remittances on
of origin. Moreover, they contribute to the collection development.
and dissemination of information on the available
channels to transfer their savings to their families
back home.

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3.2 Coherence of Policies for More Effective interlinkages between development, migration and
Management security – links that have been sidelined in the wake
of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the
Many of the factors that affect the labour migration United States (Katseli, 2006). Such a new agenda
and development equation span two or more policy calls for a broad conception of security. “Security”
domains, including policies related to migration and certainly includes the security from terrorist attack,
development, but also agriculture, trade, environment but also the security from a broader class of negative
and security. The potential for international shocks that make poor people vulnerable. Policies
migration to contribute to economic development and programmes could explicitly aim to address
is greater if migration, trade, investment and the various sources of insecurity15 that often cause
development assistance considerations are jointly people to emigrate and also hamper development.
addressed at the national, regional and global level Strategies for risk prevention, risk mitigation and
(Dayton-Johnson and Katseli, 2006a; Katseli, Lucas coping with risk should be incorporated ex ante
and Xenogiani, 2006b). into the design of policies in countries of origin;
and, here too, development assistance can help.
The trade policies pursued by developed countries Improving access to land and water, supporting
should be crafted with due regard to their impact agricultural extension programmes and irrigation
upon labour mobility. Being able to export products infrastructure, and promoting institutional capacity
that make intensive use of low-skilled labour is a building, as well as appropriate land titling and
critical strategy for accelerated growth in countries regulatory modernization, are only a few examples
of origin and a principal rationale for opening to of policy priorities that could significantly enhance
trade. Expansion of such export industries might security in countries of origin and stem the desire
even have the effect of easing migration pressure for relocation.
as some workers may choose to work in export
industries rather than emigrate. However, such a Linking migration and development cooperation
growth strategy is complicated by the trade policies policies at the national, regional or international
of developed countries. For instance, the use of level will require substantial rethinking of existing
agricultural subsidies by many of the industrialized institutional parameters to address the current
countries that depress world prices for agricultural segmentation of policy competencies across
products14 hurt living conditions in countries that ministries and various agencies and organizations.16
are exporters of cash crops, possibly exacerbating
migration pressures. While the effects of such At the national level, inter-ministerial initiatives can
policies on potential migrants vary within and across promote coordination of development and migration
developing countries, this example illustrates that policies. Sweden’s 2003 Government Bill, committing
the impacts of trade, migration and development
policies of developed countries on specific low and 15
Four proximate sources of insecurity include inability to access strategic
assets, access to food or other inputs, large market volatility or failed
middle-income developing countries need to be institutional set-ups (Katseli, 2006).
considered alongside migration policymaking. 16
The momentum towards more coherent development policy is gaining
in the European Union. In December 2004, the EU Council called for
the further strengthening of policy coherence for development: “making
Meanwhile, a new agenda on security and development wider and more systematic use of existing mechanisms for consultation
would provide an opportunity to explore the many and impact assessment and procedures to screen all relevant policies for
their impact on developing countries” (European Commission, 2005: 18).
Particularly noteworthy is the EU’s December 2005 “European Consensus
on Development”, which explicitly calls upon the Commission and the
14
See Verdier and Suwa-Eisenmann (2006) and Xenogiani (2006) for more Member States to observe coherence among their policies that affect
discussion of these issues. development (European Commission, 2006).

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various ministries to greater policy coherence in explicit recognition in national poverty-reduction

relation to measures that affect development through strategies. First, when migrants – particularly
annual reporting to Parliament, is probably the the highly skilled among them – leave, potential
institutionally most ambitious initiative (Sweden, tax revenues decline. Consequently, alternative
2003). mechanisms of raising tax revenues so as to avoid
a budget deficit need to be adequately addressed.
4. Managing the Labour Migration and Similarly, when remittances start flowing in, real
Development Equation: The Role of Countries exchange rate appreciation needs to be avoided
of Origin through careful management of the exchange rate.
Emigration may also shift expenditure priorities.
The development impact of international labour Resources might need to be shifted towards public
mobility depends not only on the policies pursued and social service delivery systems weakened by the
by host countries or the choices migrants make, but loss of qualified staff (e.g. healthcare, education) or
also on the capacity of home countries to adjust towards services for dependent children, spouses or
successfully to emigration. This capacity will, in elderly parents not effectively supported by absent
turn, depend on the active engagement of migrants migrant family members. However, any such scheme
themselves – consultation, cooperation, coordination may have the undesired side-effect of weakening the
with migrants and their various organizations – as personal responsibility and readiness of remittance-
well as on the institutions and policies in their home sending migrants to continue to offer support for
countries, and can furthermore be strengthened with their family back home, or to reduce such support
the support of countries of destination. over time. Thus, the design of transfer programmes
(i.e. social assistance expenditures to support poor
In countries where emigration is a prominent feature, households) should be sensitive to the possibility
national development strategies (in particular that remittance receipts might level off where there
“Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers” (PRSPs)17) need are publicly funded alternatives. Some governments
to pay adequate attention to the migration dimension offer matching grants to encourage remittances.18
in their policy development processes, and include However, such matching grants tend to go to
it in their macroeconomic policies, human resource communities already relatively well endowed through
management, education policies, infrastructure remittance receipts and may divert spending from
investments and regional (including “South-South”) other needier communities that do not benefit from
initiatives. migrant remittances.

4.1 Macroeconomic Policies 4.2 Human Resource Management

The budgetary implications of large-scale emigration Human resource management (see also Chapter 10),
and remittances can be profound and therefore warrant including employment policies, should also take
into consideration current and projected effects of
migration on domestic labour markets. The design
17
The PRSP, according to the World Bank’s web site, is “a country-led, of sufficient incentives for public sector posts (or
country-written document that provides the basis for assistance from
the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, as well as debt for private sector companies hired to work for the
relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Country initiative. A Poverty public sector) is critical. Such incentives include not
Reduction Strategy Paper describes a country’s macroeconomic,
structural, and social policies and programs to promote growth. It
summarizes the country’s objectives, policies, and measures for poverty
18
reduction. A Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper should be country-driven, The Tres por uno [Three for one] programme in Zacatecas state, Mexico,
comprehensive in scope, partnership-oriented, and participatory.” is among the most celebrated examples; see Iskander (2005).

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only acceptable pay but also appropriate facilities education; a means-tested grant element might have
and working conditions. Where the concern is the to be considered. In addition, mechanisms would
loss of key personnel and the resultant lack of need to be explored for repayment of interest and
capacity to deliver basic services (such as healthcare principal while the migrant is abroad. Possibilities
or education), the effective deployment of available include bilateral arrangements with the host
personnel becomes especially critical. Conscription of countries and intermediation by the banking sectors
personnel to designated posts is rarely an effective of both countries. Policymakers need to attentive to
or feasible option. Instead, incentives should the incentives provided by the subjects of study to be
be provided to ensure labour force participation supported in public higher education and training.
among those with needed skills, employment in People trained in certain specializations (e.g.
occupations that make use of these specific skills, medicine) have relatively easy access to the global
and location in areas where the skills are most labour market; those trained in fields more closely
in demand. Examples exist of programmes that related to the needs of the poor in a developing
have been successful in placing students in rural country (e.g. agronomists) might have fewer
communities, or incorporating poverty relief efforts opportunities to visit and work abroad. Specialization
as part of their training. For example, South Africa and vocational training in areas in high demand in
introduced compulsory community service for health developing countries need to be encouraged through
workers in an attempt to address the problems of appropriate incentives, including, where appropriate,
regional access to healthcare services (Lucas, 2006). scholarships and temporary work programmes in
Programmes in Australia, Canada and the United developed countries. Temporary stays abroad for
States ease restrictions for foreign health workers additional training or work can produce important
who are willing to work in rural areas (Clemens, incentives for others to do likewise and thereby raise
2007). Mexico’s Progresa programme has tapped into the availability of experts in these specialized fields.
graduating doctors to staff their rural clinics (Levy, Through fellowships or training schemes, universities
2006). and training institutions in developed countries can
similarly support the specialization of international
4.3 Financing Higher Education students in these areas.

If a given country’s principal concern is the loss A number of developing countries have programmes
of public resources invested in the education of to encourage the return of their highly skilled
highly skilled emigrants, policymakers should diaspora and students studying abroad. Offering
consider restructuring the methods of financing salary premiums, tax breaks and attractive research
higher education rather than continue subsidizing facilities can prove very costly, generate resentment
developed countries of destination. Programmes among those who stayed at home, and increase the
offering student loans, rather than outright grants to incentive to move abroad to take advantage of such
students, offer greater potential to recoup training packages upon return. It is nonetheless important to
costs. Such loan programmes could be combined with at least remove any disincentives for return. Prime
debt forgiveness for those undertaking predefined examples of such disincentives include the lack or
tasks at home, such as healthcare work, teaching difficulty of possible advancement in public sector
in rural areas or public service more generally. It is posts based on experience acquired abroad, or the
important that the design of any such programmes inability to transfer pension and social security
does not have the effect of discouraging children benefits to the country of origin upon return. Some
from lower-income families from continuing their returning international migrants choose to enjoy

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their savings from abroad and take early retirement. specific areas. Improved infrastructure and abolition
Others choose to re-enter the labour market or of barriers to internal migration, if adequately
to become self-employed. Excessive regulatory incorporated into domestic development strategies,
requirements or poorly defined land property rights can enhance the capacity of the country of origin
can inhibit commercial activities. Providing lines to adjust to migration and benefit from ripple
of credit for start-up enterprises can lower barriers effects. Examples might include removing licensing
to self-employment opportunities for returning requirements for entry to formal sector activities,
workers. Access to information about the realities of or giving access to public works schemes in other
such business ventures and existing credit lines may regions of the country.
also be important; business failures among returned
migrants with inadequate management experience 4.5 Regional and “South-South” Initiatives
are common. Not only can the dissemination of such
information make return a more attractive option, For many developing countries, the dominant
it can also stimulate the home economy and hence destinations for their low or semi-skilled migrant
diminish the pressure to emigrate. workers are often other neighbouring developing
countries or countries within the region.19 Much
4.4 Infrastructure of this migration is irregular, offering little or no
protection of rights to foreign workers. In many
Optimal infrastructure policy might well change countries, the institutional capacity required to
when emigration occurs on a large scale. Plans for manage migratory flows and for effective policy
investment in public infrastructure need to be drawn formulation and implementation is weak, and must be
up in recognition of the demographic implications strengthened through training of officials. Another
of migration flows. From which communities and problem facing South-South migrant workers include
regions are migrants leaving? Do these migration high migration costs, in part driven by corruption.
streams include families, or are children and others
left behind? Where do returning migrants settle? At the national level, collaboration between and
The answers to these questions have implications for within government agencies dealing with migration
infrastructure development. If, for example, migrants matters, though essential, rarely exists. Bilateral and
leave rural areas on a large scale, but settle in regional arrangements among developing countries
urban locations upon return (perhaps with internal exchanging workers are to be encouraged (see also
migration of family members to join the returning Chapter 13). This might include an expansion of
migrant) the balance of desired investments in rural current efforts to introduce regional passports with
versus urban contexts may have to be adjusted. automatic entry rights. Another example is the
reciprocal extension of the right to work to nationals
Since international migrants tend to originate of all participating states, where this is not already
from quite specific regions of their home country, the case, and more systematic enforcement of these
encouraging internal replacement migration may rights where they exist but are not necessarily
have the effect of turning the negative impact of the respected in practice. Technical cooperation in
loss of workers due to emigration into an opportunity critical areas such as education and health can also
for others to gain a place in the job market and play a role. Cuba, Brazil, India and other developing
secure a living for themselves. Removing obstacles to countries carry out such programmes.
internal migration (see Chapter 7) can therefore help
to spread the indirect benefits of emigration from 19
Ratha and Shaw (2007) document the quantitative importance of South-
South remittances.

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5. Effective Partnerships for Better Migration development to encourage greater use of formal
Management channels to transfer remittances.

Countries of origin and destination can use bilateral 6. Engaging Diaspora Networks
agreements and arrangements as a vehicle for
maximizing the gains from international labour Migration management partnerships can be made
mobility by effectively linking recruitment with more effective still if they engage diaspora networks:
capacity building and development in countries such groups include migrants (whether they have
of origin. Under such arrangements, developed retained their original citizenship or adopted that
destination countries offer to rethink their labour of their new country) and they can include second,
migration policies, including, notably, measures third and subsequent generations as well.20 As a
to promote circular mobility, accompanied by country’s migration experience moves into the
development assistance to increase adaptive networking phase, the activities of diaspora groups,
capacity in countries of origin. In turn, developing which can range from informal social relationships
countries could undertake to mainstream migration to formally constituted associations, become more
and remittances into their national development visible and significant.
strategies.
In general, the contribution diaspora networks
For example, such a partnership approach could can offer stems from the information advantages
link migration policies in developed destination and social mechanisms at their disposal. The first
countries and human resource development policies information advantage has to do with the flow of
in countries of origin. In the presence of emigration, information among various parties. Network members
countries of origin need to be encouraged to develop know about business opportunities in their host
human resource development policies that take countries that might interest counterparts in their
account of current and projected effects of migration home countries, and vice versa.
on domestic labour markets as well as the potential
loss of public resources invested in highly skilled Diaspora networks are familiar with labour market
emigrants (see also Chapter 10). This implies the conditions in the host country or how to access
provision of sufficient incentives for public sector social services. that can be of help to newcomers to
posts, effective deployment of available personnel the network (that is, newly arrived migrants). For
and possible restructuring of methods of financing example, 60 per cent of Moldovan migrants claim
higher education. The retention of highly skilled to have had a job lined up before they emigrated,
professionals in developing countries, especially in based on existing networks (Borodak, 2006). These
the health and education sectors, can be substantially information flows are not limited to transmitting
improved through investments in public service labour market information. In the field of public
delivery systems, continuous training of personnel health, researchers in the U.K. show that immigrants
and better working conditions. Development have low take-up rates of preventative measures such
assistance can play an important role in such as screening and immunization, and that uncertain
partnership arrangements by providing resources to immigration status is one of the main reasons why
the economies of countries of origin to strengthen migrants do not access primary health care (Spencer
their capacity to adjust. This capacity could include
better transport and communication infrastructure
20
This broad definition of “diasporas” is also that used by the European
to link up labour markets in different regions of the Commission in recent policy statements on immigration (European
country of origin, and promotion of financial sector Commission, 2005). For a discussion of diaspora definitions, see Ionescu
(2006).

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and Cooper, 2006). Often migrants’ command of he or she does so in relation to an outsider) to social
English is insufficient to navigate among service sanctions, namely, costly actions taken by network
providers, while the foreign-language competency of members to punish rule-breakers in their midst (the
medical workers is too weak to meet them halfway. For most draconian of which is expulsion). While these
their part, medical practitioners are equally unclear social norms are powerful, in diaspora groups, as in
as to who is entitled to which service, while those many social organizations, they might not be very
outside metropolitan areas may lack the cultural democratic or fair; the negative aspects of such
competency to provide appropriate care (Spencer informal community powers must be acknowledged.
and Cooper, 2006). Could intermediaries in diaspora Too often, for example, women’s participation and
networks help to better match up care providers and voice in such organizations can be weak or non-
migrants in need of care? More generally, diaspora existent.
intermediaries can help provide better targeting of
social services, including, but not limited to, health These characteristics of diaspora networks allow
care. them, in principle, to provide services more easily to
their members that other members of society access
The second sense in which diaspora networks provide directly from the public sector (e.g. information
informational value has to do with what economists about the healthcare system) or from markets (e.g.
call an “asymmetric informational advantage” over a business loan). The promise of diasporas as a
other actors. Network members know more about policy lever is that they can bridge gaps not filled
their members than outsiders, and this information by the public sector or markets; it remains an open
would be genuinely valuable in a credit or insurance question whether a more efficient solution would be
market. Thus, diaspora networks can judge who to address market failures directly.
among them is in need of material assistance, even
if their members do not have easy access to formal The role of diaspora networks may not be as productive
insurance contracts (or publicly provided social or as positive as it appears at first glance. Experts
assistance). Similarly, networks can assess whether voice some scepticism that the observed behaviour
a given immigrant is a good credit risk, though he or attributed to networks – loans, information-sharing,
she may have no collateral of any value to a formal investment, cross-border trading, etc. – might often
bank in the host economy. Indeed, a frequently cited be more accurately ascribed to family contacts.
benefit of ethnic (social) networks is the access to Research on ethnic business networks shows that
the financial capital they provide. Rotating credit much of the putatively network-based financing
associations, for example, often perceived as divided available to ethnic entrepreneurs is, in fact, intra-
along ethnic or national lines, allow members access family lending; moreover, family-based businesses of
to capital for businesses through informal channels; this type are at a competitive disadvantage when
members pool the sums so that each can raise money family objectives compete with profit maximization
for small business operations (Rindoks et al., 2006). or other economic motives. Other observers point out
that there are risks that while such organizations can
A third asset of diaspora networks is that they effectively build social cohesion among migrants,
have access to means of contract enforcement that they can also create barriers to broader participation,
are presumably unavailable to those outside the “filtering them out of mainstream politics into
network. These may range from social norms of marginal spheres of political activity” (Spencer
cooperative behaviour within the network (i.e. a and Cooper, 2006). Indeed, this concern mirrors the
network member feels shame if he or she breaches distinction made between “bridging social capital”
a contract with another network member, but not if – institutions that create links between communities –

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and “bonding social capital” – institutions that affirm As the networking stage progresses and information
fellow-feeling within communities. Some migrants’ flows through diaspora networks, migration
associations might be far more effective at providing increasingly promotes trade. Migrants may serve as
the latter than the former. Additionally, the very trade intermediaries and facilitators because of their
fact that many migrant communities are marginalized knowledge of opportunities and potential markets,
reduces their capacity to be effective political or social their access to distribution channels, contacts and
intermediaries (Rindoks et al., 2006). language. Membership in such networks (which may
not be primarily economic in nature, as in the case
Keeping in mind these potential limitations, migrant of religious brotherhoods in North and West Africa,
networks can nevertheless help migrants find jobs and or village-based groups) may play a significant
to integrate economically. Migrant organizations can part in contract enforcement given the importance
often play a leadership role within social networks of reputation. Furthermore, access to information
by providing guidance and services to migrants. and knowledge not available outside the diaspora
While some organizations provide assistance in about market and trade opportunities among
filing documentation for family reunification their members offer immigrants an advantage for
or citizenship, others offer second-language setting up their own businesses (see Textbox 12.4).
programmes (such as English as a Second Language Thus migrants often create trading networks that
in the U.K.) and vocational training to upgrade job increase trade flows between their host countries
skills. By partnering with local schools, community and their countries of origin (Xenogiani, 2006).
colleges, hospitals and vocational training centres, This information channel implies that, for all these
migrant organizations are able to provide meaningful reasons, migration may actually have an impact both
services to their clients. on exports and imports.

Textbox 12.4
Diaspora Linkage in Development: A Bangladesh Case

International migration from Bangladesh goes back to the 18th century and early colonization (de Bruyn and Kuddus, 2004),
when sailors from the south-eastern part of Bangladesh, namely Chittagong and Noakhali, travelled from the port of Kolkata
to different parts of the world in the British Merchant Navy (Siddiqui, 2005). In the 1940s and 1950s, Bangladeshi crews,
especially Sylhetis, of British merchant ships used to land in British ports and settle in the U.K. to cater to the shortage of
labour in low-skilled industries (de Bruyn and Kuddus, 2005). Over time, these migrants brought their wives and children and
permanently settled there, creating Sylheti communities in different parts of the U.K. In the 1960s, mass migration occurred
to the United States; however, it was mostly students and professionals who migrated (de Bruyn and Kuddus, 2005). During
this period Bangladeshis also migrated to Australia, Canada, Greece and Japan (Siddiqui, 2004). In the late 1970s, educated
Bangladeshis obtained political asylum in Germany and Switzerland and then students began travelling to different European
countries in large numbers (Knights, 1996). These movements throughout Europe created small Bangladeshi communities in
many European countries and such networks have facilitated chain migration of family and friends, for example in Italy and
Spain (Zeitlyn, 2006). Although the long-term emigrant community of Bangladesh is spread throughout various countries, an
overwhelming majority still resides in the U.K and the U.S. (Siddiqui, 2004).

Over the years, the diaspora linkages have evolved through the maintenance of social capital, family ties and assistance during
natural disasters. However, the significant role of diasporas in the overall development of a country in areas such as business,
trade links, investments, remittances, skill circulation and exchange of experiences (Ionescu, 2006) has been studied only in
recent times. One such topic of study is the Nandan Group of Companies in Bangladesh.

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The Nandan Group of Companies is a progressive initiative of a group of non-resident Bangladeshis (NRBs) living in the U.K. and
the U.S. In 1999, Mr. Masrur Choudhury, now Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of the Nandan Group, encouraged 23 NRBs
from the U.K. to pool resources and invest in a project in Bangladesh named “Nandan”. This initiative led to the establishment
of the Nandan Group of Companies, which has now expanded to over 800 employees and a customer base of over half a million
(British-Bangladeshi Youth.net, 2007).

The initiative can be considered a success for two main reasons. Firstly, it delivered commercially viable and profitable projects
from the funding of NRBs and, secondly, the initiative was an “eye opener” for all NRBs about the possibilities and benefits of
investing profitably in their country of origin. The various projects undertaken by Nandan include the development of a theme
park constructed in a 60-bigha (approximately 20 acres) property on the outskirts of Dhaka in collaboration with Nicco Park
and Resorts, India (Amin, 2004). In addition, a major purpose-built supermarket chain, selling different items ranging from
groceries to electronics to clothes to fresh fruits, was constructed in different parts of Dhaka.

Over the years, the Nandan Group has expanded further to include the Nandan Water Park – the largest water park in the country
– and Nandan Tea and Fatehbagh Tea, which grows organic tea in Sylhet for export to the U.K. and the U.S. (British-Bangladeshi
Youth.net, 2007).

The Nandan Group is now in its eighth year, and though the number of investors over the years has remained stable, as Mr.
Choudhury observes, the amount invested by the diaspora group has increased substantially.

Future plans of the Nandan Group include the development of a resort behind the existing Nandan Park. In addition, as part of
an attempt to establish a bridge between NRBs in the U.K. and Bangladesh, the Nandan Group has plans to take Bangladeshi
investment to the U.K. through the creation of an amusement park in the U.K. built around an Eastern theme. Furthermore, the
Nandan Group is considering opening a supermarket in the U.K. to sell Bangladeshi products, including foodstuffs and spices,
predominantly for Indian and Bangladeshi restaurants based in the U.K.

The Nandan experience has been a revelation for many NRBs about the possibilities of having profitable links with their home
countries. Such opportunities are excellent examples of how beneficial partnerships can be developed between the country of
origin and its diaspora.

Source: IOM Dhaka.

Immigrants have a natural preference for home Finally, migrant and diaspora networks can be
products, either because of habit or homesickness. If important partners in development cooperation.
the products they used to consume at home are not Traditionally, governments in developed countries
available in the host country, then imports from the and international organizations have engaged
home country may increase to meet this demand. diaspora networks to facilitate the return of
Several studies have demonstrated a strong link migrants by means of diaspora-focused return or
between trade and migration, in part based on such circulation programmes,22 and to assist them in their
factors.21 For migrants to act as trade intermediaries, reintegration in home countries. Examples include
the intention to return home is critical: their the International Organization for Migration’s
knowledge of trade and investment opportunities at Return of Qualified Nationals programme, which
home, ability to enforce contracts through personal provided much of the inspiration for its Migration
contacts at home and specific knowledge about for Development in Africa (MIDA) capacity-building
conditions at home deteriorate the longer they are programme, or the Transfer of Knowledge Through
away. Expatriate Nationals (TOKTEN) programme of the

22
In general, however, voluntary return programmes have induced very
21
See the review of the literature in Xenogiani (2006). few migrants to go home.

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United Nations Development Programme (de Haas, most important of these resources. In addition to
2006). endorsing the idea of government matching funds
(like the example of the Tres por uno programme in
Recent initiatives have started engaging migrants’ Zacatecas state, Mexico (Iskander, 2005), in which
networks as development partners in more migrant remittances for community investment
imaginative ways. That is, the diaspora is viewed as a projects are matched by local, state and federal
reservoir not only of financial capital, but of human governments), the European Investment Bank (EIB),
and social capital as well. In place of encouraging for example, recommends that banking systems offer
voluntary return (which has had mixed success), banking services specifically targeted at migrants
diaspora networks are being increasingly mobilized — including mortgage products, remittance-tailored
to foster a kind of “virtual return”. The IOM’s MIDA bank accounts and investments funds — in order
programme is a case in point. Initiatives of this to channel remittances into productive investments
kind focus on repatriation of skills and resources, (de Haas, 2006). Such innovative initiatives promise
but not necessarily of the migrants themselves to promote both household and community
(see Portrait 12.1). Remittances are among the investment of remittances in human development.

Portrait 12.1
Entrepreneurship for Development

Thomas was born in Ghana almost 41 years ago. Arriving in Naples in 1988, he soon moved to Modena in northern Italy where,
friends had told him, it was easier to find a job. “At first, Italy was a big disappointment. In Ghana we thought that Italy was
like paradise: a sunny, friendly place where you could become rich easily. This was not the case, of course. And for us, coming
from Africa, the big shock was the fact that winter is cold, that people live indoors and are actually not as friendly as we had
been told. But you know, life is not only relationships, nice people and fun, it is also work and commitment. We all need to
survive and to carry on. In fact, even if it was not really what I expected, Italy was able to give me the chance to carry on
with my own work.”

For Thomas, commitment, seriousness and willpower are key to realizing almost everything. Within a few weeks of his arrival in
Modena, he started to work for a company specialized in waterproofing. After that, he worked for six years in a metal workshop.
In the meantime, he attended language courses and obtained his driving licence. He married in Ghana, and his wife joined him
in Modena in 1991. In the years that followed, he changed jobs, and his attitudes to Italy gradually evolved.

“There comes a moment in life when you start to feel different: one day you wake up, you look out of your window and you
feel at home. Now I can say that 80 per cent of me wants to stay in Italy and 20 per cent to return to Ghana for good. I have
two daughters, they were born here but I have already taken them several times to Ghana. They feel like Italians, but they have
not forgotten their African roots”.

In 2005 came the big change: he decided to leave his job and become president of Ghanacoop – a challenging and also risky
decision. Ghanacoop is a cooperative run by the Ghanaian migrant community in the Province of Modena, set up with the help
of the IOM Rome Office’s MIDA-Italia (Migration for Development in Africa) Pilot Project.

This initiative started by importing pineapples from small Ghanaian producers to Italy with the aim of enhancing sustainable
trading flows of typical Ghanaian produce and consumer goods between Ghanaian migrant associations in Italy and the small
producers in Ghana.

The Ghanaian community in Modena counts about 4,000 people, and the initiative of starting an entrepreneurial activity
stemmed from the will to make a concrete contribution to the development of the home country and to build the basis for the
creation of social enterprises in Ghana. So far, Ghanacoop has proven to be successful; the pineapples imported to Italy, called

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Missghananas, are sold in many regions by three leading retailers and will very soon be distributed nationwide. “I work 12 hours
a day, but I really believe that it is worthwhile: we are doing something huge for our community and for our homeland as well.
The success of Ghanacoop will be of historic importance and significance for the coming generations.”

In February 2004, Thomas obtained Italian citizenship. After 20 years, Thomas is now in the midst of a new challenge, but the
first, that of integration, has already been won.

Source: IOM Rome.

Co-development projects, pioneered by France, while The chapter advocates genuine partnerships between
still relatively modest in numbers and scale, include destination and origin countries for the latter to
projects in the home countries involving migrants gain more from migration. Destination countries
living in developed countries (i.e. business people, bring to such a partnership the commitment to look
academics, health personnel, engineers). Migrants at their migration policies through a development
are encouraged to promote commercial activities or lens: what is the impact of these policies on
implement social development projects (by building migrants’ countries of origin? This does not mean
schools or health centres), or lend their expertise subordinating migration policies to the objectives
to their home country. Moreover, the concept of co- of development cooperation, but rather taking
development also includes helping migrants to better advantage of complementarities between both
direct their savings towards productive investments policy domains. Origin countries, conversely, commit
in their countries of origin. This concerns especially themselves to take a fresh look at their development
the transfer of monies as well as strengthening the policies through a migration lens: how does the
capacities of microcredit institutions. As such, an fact of large-scale emigration change optimal policy
increasing concern to co-development is how to decisions in the macroeconomic, human resources,
catalyze and amplify the effects of social investments education, infrastructure and regional cooperation
made with remittances (OECD, 2007). spheres? This does not invite origin countries to
pursue emigration as a development strategy, but
7. Conclusion rather to adapt decision-making to the realities of
labour mobility.
Better management of labour migration promises
greater gains for migrants, countries of origin and Destination and origin countries alike must commit
countries of destination. This chapter has explored themselves to more coherent policymaking, as the
the potential costs and benefits developing countries labour migration and development equation is
should take into account as they seek to gain affected by a broad range of policies, including trade,
more from the labour migration and development agriculture, investment, labour, social security and
equation. The chapter has argued that the economic national security policies – as well as development
gains from migration depend upon three effects and immigration/emigration policies. Policy
of emigration: changes in labour supply, induced coherence will require new institutional set-ups to
changes in productivity and receipt of remittances. facilitate greater information-sharing, negotiation
At different points in a country’s migration cycle, and consensus building across ministries and
the relative contribution – positive or negative – of agencies within governments and, indeed, between
each of these effects differs; so too, the appropriate governments.
policies differ at different points in the migration
cycle.

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Finally, more effective partnerships for migration policies with both destination and origin countries.
management are not just a job for governments. The private sector, too, has a role to play. Banks and
Diaspora networks, with anchors at each end of other financial institutions can, if given appropriate
the migration corridor, can be uniquely effective incentives, reduce the costs of transferring money
partners for governments of countries of destination back home and increase access to financial services
and of origin. They can serve as intermediaries in for migrants’ families and communities in remote
integration and labour market policies in destination and rural parts of origin countries.
countries, and as partners in development cooperation

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ACHIEVING BEST OUTCOMES

FROM GLOBAL, Regional and
bilateral Cooperation*

CHAPTER
1. Introduction
13 and mutual benefits worked out. But even at these
levels, the general tendency has been to engage in
Migration is by its very nature a transnational process. informal, as opposed to legal or more formal means
No country can claim to be in a position to respond of cooperation.
to and manage these movements on its own, all the
more so since the policies of other countries influence Among the main obstacles to entering into binding
migration flows and the effectiveness of domestic legal frameworks on migration are the divergences
policies. The awareness of the ineffectiveness of of opinion on the respective merits of liberalizing
unilateral actions, increased diversity of migratory or restricting migration flows; administrative and
routes and patterns of flows (cutting across regions financial burdens of adapting national frameworks;
and continents; reacting to changes in external concerns about limiting the state’s capacity to
factors such as immigration policies, economic intervene because of the nature and extent of
situations and employment opportunities), and the rights to be granted to migrant workers and,
interlinkages with other global issues such as trade, especially, to irregular migrants; the diverging
development and human rights have increasingly views between countries of origin and destination
led states to acknowledge the need for international regarding the categories of workers to be given
cooperation in migration management. access to domestic labour markets, e.g. skilled, low-
skilled or both; and, perhaps most importantly, the
However, states have generally been reluctant to general preference for a high degree of flexibility in
translate this growing awareness into concrete determining national migration policy.
action by accepting trade-offs between sovereignty
and international regulatory mechanisms. Progress This chapter provides an overview of the formal and
has mainly occurred at the regional and bilateral less formal mechanisms in place for managing labour
levels, where common interests between countries mobility at the multilateral, regional and bilateral
of origin and destination are more easily identified levels, with a particular focus on temporary migration
for employment, and considers their respective
* This chapter has been written by Sophie Nonnenmacher, Migration advantages and disadvantages in practice.
Policy Specialist, Migration Policy, Research and Communications, IOM,
Geneva.

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2. Multilateral Approaches of liberal professions who have entered the country

on a short-term basis. In addition, Convention No.
Although a limited number of instruments cover 143 excludes students and trainees and temporary
specific aspects of cross-border mobility for economic workers sent by their employer to perform specific
purposes, there are no comprehensive global duties or assignments in the destination country
agreements or international conventions in place to from its Part II on equality of opportunity and
manage temporary labour migration. treatment.

2.1 ILO and UN Conventions In its 2004 report Towards a fair deal for migrant
workers in the global economy, the ILO recognizes
The International Labour Organization (ILO) has that international labour standards “were not drafted
adopted two conventions (Nos. 97 and 143) and two with the protection of temporary migrant workers
accompanying non-binding recommendations (Nos. in mind and the provisions applicable to other
86 and 151) applying to persons moving from one lawfully admitted migrant workers may not always
country to another for the purpose of employment. be well suited to their situation” (ILO, 2004: 89).
The first convention and its accompanying For example, while movements of temporary workers
recommendation, adopted in 1949, focus on setting who are sent by their employers to perform a specific
standards for the recruitment of migrant workers duty or assignment for a limited period of time are
and their conditions of work, while the two other increasing and are the subject of discussion under
instruments, adopted in 1975 in the wake of the Mode 4 of the World Trade Organization’s General
oil crisis, reflect a growing concern about the Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), as noted
resulting increase in unemployment, and emphasize above, such workers are excluded from the provisions
the need to prevent irregular migration and the on equality of opportunity and treatment in Part II
unauthorized employment of migrants (ILO, 2004). of Convention No. 143, together with artistes and
Both conventions cover issues related to the entire members of the liberal professions who have entered
migration process and provide for equal treatment the country on a short-term basis. In addition, these
between lawfully resident migrant workers and instruments do not adequately reflect the increasing
nationals. Convention No. 143 obliges states parties role of private actors in the world of work and
to respect the basic human rights of all migrant international mobility for employment, in particular
workers and also provides for equal treatment of private employment agencies. This trend led to
between irregular and regular workers in respect
of rights arising out of past employment, such as

See Textbox Int. 1.
remuneration, social security and other benefits. 
Part II is also concerned with, inter alia, the obligation of a state to
Both conventions exclude certain categories of facilitate family reunion (Art 13), the right to free choice of employment
and geographical mobility (Art 14(a)), as well as to recognition of
workers from their scope, such as the self-employed, qualifications (Art 14(b)).
seafarers, frontier workers, and artistes and members 
But “project-tied” (Article 2(2)(f)) and “specified-employment”
workers (Article 2(2)(g)) are covered in the 1990 UN Migrant Workers
Convention, discussed below, subject to some limitations (see Part V).
The identification of gaps in international standards related to the

See respectively: Convention No. 97 concerning Migration for Employment protection of seasonal workers, project-tied workers, special purpose
(Revised 1949); Convention No. 143 concerning Migrations in Abusive workers, cross-border service providers, students and trainees resulted
Conditions and the Promotion of Equality of Opportunity and Treatment in the adoption by the ILO of “Guidelines on special protective measures
of Migrant Workers (1975); Recommendation No. 86 concerning for migrant workers in time-bound activities” covering such issues as
Migration for Employment (Revised 1949); and Recommendation No. 151 housing, tied employment, wages and other terms of employment, family
concerning Migrant Workers (1975). These instruments can be accessed migration and reunification, freedom of association, social security and
from the ILO website at http://www.ilo.org/global/What_we_do/ return issues for regular migrants during its Tripartite Meeting of Experts
InternationalLabourStandards/lang--en/index.htm. on Future ILO Activities in the Field of Migration, 21-25 April 1997 (Doc.

Articles 1 and 9(1) respectively. MEIM/1997/d.4, Annex I).

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the adoption by the ILO in 1997 of Convention No. and V) (see Textbox 13.1), including categories of
181 concerning Private Employment Agencies. workers not covered by ILO Conventions Nos. 97 and
143 (i.e. seafarers, frontier workers and the self-
In 1990, the UN adopted the International employed). The UN Convention is more detailed and
Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All specific regarding the rights of temporary migrant
Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, workers than are the ILO Conventions. Nonetheless,
which represents an important step towards the the UN Convention underlines in explicit terms that
more effective protection of the rights of migrant it does not interfere with the sovereign competence
workers and their families by providing in a single of states to design their own rules on the admission
instrument a comprehensive set of standards for the of foreigners. Article 79 stipulates that “nothing in
protection of all migrant workers, including migrants the present convention shall affect the right of each
in an irregular situation (Part III), and more extensive state to establish the criteria governing admission of
safeguards for regular migrant workers (Parts IV migrant workers and members of their families”.


Part IV provides for additional rights to all lawfully resident migrant
workers, except as otherwise provided for in Part V (limitations can be
applied to seasonal workers (Art. 59), itinerant migrant workers (Art.
60), project-tied migrant workers (Art. 61) and specified-employment
workers (Art. 62)).

Convention No. 181 contains provisions for preventing abuses of migrant 
However, ILO offers potentially better protection to seasonal migrant
workers in the placement and recruitment processes; e.g. Article 7 states: workers, itinerant migrant workers, technically unqualified project-tied
“Private employment agencies shall not charge directly or indirectly, in migrant workers, whose rights can be limited according to Part V of the
whole or in part, any fees or costs to workers.” To date, the Convention UN Convention, and to students and trainees not covered by the latter
has received 20 ratifications. (Böhning, 2003).

Textbox 13.1
The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families*

The Convention, which came into force on 1 July 2003, establishes minimum standards for migrant workers and members of
their families. As of September 2008, 39 countries had ratified the Convention.

Article 2(1) of the Convention defines a migrant worker as “a person who is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged in
a remunerated activity in a state of which he or she is not a national”. It should be noted that the protection provided under
the Convention can be invoked not only in the country of employment, but already before departure in the country of origin,
during the travel in the country of transit and again upon return in the country of origin.

The Convention distinguishes between migrants who are either in a regular or in an irregular situation. All migrant workers
enjoy basic human rights, including irregular migrants, while additional rights are foreseen for regular or documented migrant
workers. Parties to the Convention are under an obligation not to discriminate against migrant workers on the grounds of sex,
race, colour, language, religion or conviction, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, nationality, age,
economic position, property, marital status, birth or other status (Part II, Article 7).

One of the more interesting features of the Convention is contained in Part VI, which calls for the promotion of humane
conditions of migration.1 States parties undertake to cooperate with each other and maintain appropriate services, such as
the exchange of information and assistance, recruitment of migrant workers, orderly return of migrant workers and members
of their families, prevention and elimination of illegal and clandestine movements, and employment of migrant workers in an
irregular situation.

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Concerning labour mobility, of most relevance are the rights of documented migrant workers set out in Part IV of the Convention.2
Part IV includes not only the right of migrant workers and members of their families to be fully informed by the state of origin
or of employment, as appropriate, of all conditions applicable to their admission (particularly concerning their stay and the
remunerated activities in which they may engage), but they also have the right to be fully informed of the terms on which
temporary absences from the state of employment are authorized and which the state is required to make every effort to provide
to them without this adversely affecting their right to remain or work.3 In addition, Part IV includes the obligation for the state
to take measures to avoid double taxation of migrants’ earnings and savings, as well as the right of migrant workers to equal
(national) treatment in the host country in such fields as access to vocational training and placement services, exemption from
import and export duties for household effects and professional equipment, and the transfer and repatriation of their earnings
and savings.

Part III of the Convention concerns the rights of all migrant workers and members of their families, including those in an
irregular situation, and establishes the right to equality with nationals of the country of employment regarding wages and
working conditions (Article 25). The aim of this provision, as set out in the Preamble, is not only to ensure humane and decent
working conditions for migrant workers, but also to discourage the employment of undocumented workers by removing any
inducement for employers to hire such labour.

The Convention’s monitoring body, the Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their
Families (Committee on Migrant Workers), commenced its work in 2004 and started to examine the reports submitted by states
parties to the Convention at its 4th Session in April 2006. In its first observations on the reports, the Committee emphasized
the need for cooperation to effectively combat illegal or clandestine movements of migrants, and paid special attention to the
particular vulnerability of women and children, as well as domestic and agricultural migrant workers.

On the occasion of the High-Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development, held at the General Assembly of
the United Nations in September 2006, the Committee organized a “Day of General Discussion on Protecting the Rights of all
Migrant Workers as a Tool to Enhance Development”.4 It then adopted a written statement highlighting the human-rights based
approach to migration and emphasized the shared responsibility of all states to guarantee the human rights of migrants, as
well as the importance of international consultations and cooperation in order to promote and ensure humane conditions of
migration.

Notes:
*
Adopted by UN General Assembly Resolution 45/158 of 18 December 1990. The Convention entered into force on 1 July 2003.
1
Part VI: Promotion of sound, equitable, humane and lawful conditions in connection with international migration of workers and members
of their families.
2
Part IV: Other rights of migrant workers and members of their families who are documented or in a regular situation.
3
Articles 37 and 38, respectively.
4
See http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/mwdiscussion.htm.

Source: Carla Edelenbos, Secretary, Migrant Workers Committee, Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva.

All these instruments recognize the importance of clandestine movements of migrants for employment
interstate cooperation in addressing labour migration. and to act against organizers of irregular migration
ILO Conventions Nos. 97 and 143 contain provisions and the unauthorized employment of migrant
on the exchange of information on national policies, workers.
laws and regulations. The UN Convention (in Part VI)
requests states parties to consult and cooperate with The exact form of cooperation is not prescribed and
the competent authorities of other states parties on it is for the states parties to determine. However
measures regarding the orderly return of migrants. the drafters were of the view that, while general
Both the UN Convention and ILO Convention No. 143 principles or standards can be spelled out at the
also envisage interstate cooperation to suppress multilateral level, the differences in situations and

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legal frameworks between countries call for more 2.2 General Agreement on Trade in Services
specific, complementary modes of cooperation at (GATS)
other levels of operation. The ILO Conventions
refer to bilateral agreements as an appropriate The GATS provides for the liberalization of trade in
means of putting general principles into practice, services. Under Mode 4, the GATS offers a multilateral
and Recommendation No. 86 of 1949, provides, in framework for negotiations,12 with a set of principles
an Annex, for a model bilateral agreement covering (covering domestic regulations, transparency
the different stages of the migration process which requirements and other issues) designed to facilitate
includes a model contract for employment (Article the movement of service providers. However, the
22). The model agreement also recommends the GATS does not create universal criteria for the
conclusion of separate bilateral agreements with admission of defined categories of service providers
respect to social security. The UN Convention and their access to labour markets. Indeed, it does
acknowledges, in its Preamble, the progress made not provide a definition of service providers nor does
in bilateral and multilateral regional agreements it prescribe the range, depth or sectoral coverage of
towards the protection of the rights of migrant country commitments. Inclusion of individual sectors
workers, and their importance and usefulness, and within the GATS schedules is at the discretion of WTO
also specifies in Article 81(1)(b) that nothing in Member States, which must define the commitment
the Convention shall affect more favourable rights they are prepared to make on market access and
granted to migrant workers and members of their national treatment on a sector-by-sector basis.
families by virtue of any bilateral or multilateral States can also make “horizontal commitments”, i.e.
treaty in force for the state party concerned. cross-sectoral commitments given by Member States
for market access (e.g. categories of stay, duration
However, these instruments have been ratified by a of stay, and conditions of entry and compliance by
limited number of states only10 and, in so far as the natural persons). Moreover, the GATS does not require
UN Convention is concerned, by no major developed its members to offer market access or conditions
destination country.11 that are more liberal than those in national policy
settings. Departures from market access and national
treatment are not prohibited per se under the GATS,

Migrant workers can face difficulties in benefiting from social security but must be identified in schedules as limitations.13
provision as such systems are generally based on contributions and
the period of employment or residence (see also Chapter 11). Social Therefore, each party defines in its commitments
security provides another illustration of complementarity between
multilateral and bilateral approaches. While ILO Convention No. 157 of
the category of service providers to be granted freer
1982 on the Maintenance of Social Security Rights and its accompanying access and, to date, these commitments reflect
Recommendation No. 167 provide an international framework for the
maintenance of acquired rights or rights in the course of acquisition
merely what is already permitted under existing
by workers who change their country of residence, they recommend immigration policies.14
the conclusion of bilateral and multilateral agreements and the
Recommendation contains model provisions for such agreements.
10
ILO Convention Nos. 97 and 143 have been ratified by 48 and 23 states,
including both countries of origin and destination, respectively, and the 12
See the WTO’s website at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/
UN Convention has been ratified by 39 states (as of September 2008). gatsqa_e.htm#14 (GATS: objectives, coverage and disciplines).
11
Two destination countries, which have ratified the UN Convention, are 13
Limitations to market access can take the form of quota restrictions
Argentina and Libya. Important transit countries that have ratified and economic needs or labour market tests, including wage parity
include Libya, Mexico and Morocco. For obstacles cited by governments requirements (for a fuller description of these mechanisms, see Chapter
to ratification of the ILO Conventions on migrant workers, see ILO 11).
(1999). For obstacles relevant to the UN Convention, see the country 14
Current commitments focus mainly on the highly skilled, such as
and regional reports commissioned by UNESCO on the webpage of the executive managers and professionals. These categories usually already
UNESCO Project on the International Migrants’ Rights Convention at enjoy quite liberal access in national immigration admission policies (see
http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/ev.php-URL_ID=6554&URL_DO=DO_ Chapter 2), while lower-skilled migrants have fewer or no possibilities to
TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. enter the country (see Chapter 3).

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Each party also determines its own admission criteria. as “strike-breakers” (to replace national workers)
The only limitation to a member’s competence to (Dommen, 2005). A number of recent regional and
regulate the entry and temporary stay of natural bilateral trade agreements also contain explicit
persons within its borders is the obligation to ensure references to social issues or core labour standards,
that such measures are not applied in such a way as either in the text of the agreement or, indirectly,
to nullify or impair the benefits accruing to another.15 through side agreements on labour cooperation.18
However, some members would like to see the scope of These provisions do not generally secure any
the GATS expanded with the adoption of multilateral particular labour protection for migrant workers
rules in the area of admission (such as a standard and/or service providers, but they can benefit
GATS visa) (Winters, 2005). Other commentators take from broader requirements, such as the obligation
this idea one step further and would like WTO to to enforce domestic labour standards in a non-
monitor and/or participate in the allocation of visas discriminatory manner.19 From a legal point of view,
concerning the movement of natural persons.16 The however, these provisions and/or their enforcement
proposed inclusion of migration management issues mechanisms appear to remain generally weak.
within WTO competences is highly controversial and
probably unlikely to secure the support of all WTO Would it be possible to include a social clause in the
Member States as required for an amendment of its GATS to ensure respect for core labour standards
mandate.17 (such as non-discrimination in the payment of wages)
at the multilateral level? Those in favour of such a
A further contentious aspect is that GATS Mode 4, clause argue that it will protect local workers from
as a trade agreement, focuses only on one aspect of “social dumping”, whereas those against express the
the migration process, namely the entry and access view that it will reduce the advantage for a country
of service providers, and does not refer to social and in being involved in recruiting/sending workers
labour standards, such as the quality of working abroad. However, to date, it seems that there are no
conditions for service providers. The argument strong voices to advance this issue apart from those
usually advanced in this context is that the WTO is a of trade unions and some NGOs (GURN, 2007).
trade body and therefore not the appropriate forum
to set social or labour standards for the protection While multilateral trade negotiations stalled at
of workers worldwide. However, this question is Cancun in September 2003, and no significant
present in the negotiations in an oblique fashion progress was made in Hong Kong SAR in December
through the notification of limitations to market 2006, the number of bilateral and regional trade
access in countries’ schedules. Indeed, over 50 WTO agreements and negotiations has been growing,
members stipulate in their commitments that they reigniting a debate about whether such regional
require wage parity. In addition, 22 members have
reserved the right to suspend Mode 4 commitments 18
The U.S.-CAFTA-D.R. (U.S.-Central America-Dominican Republic Free
Trade Agreement) and the U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
in the event of labour-management disputes with a include commitments to core labour standards (except for the ILO core
view to precluding employers from hiring foreigners conventions on discrimination and equal remuneration). In parallel
to the Canada–Costa Rica FTA, there is also an agreement on labour
cooperation (Canada-Costa Rica Agreement on Labour Cooperation
(CCRALC) signed in April 2001). In this agreement, the parties are
15
GATS, Annex on movement of natural persons supplying services under obliged to embody in their labour legislation the principles enshrined in
the Agreement. See http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/8- the 1998 ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work
anmvnt_e.htm. and to enforce this legislation effectively (ICFTU, 2004).
16
See e.g. Ng and Whalley (2007), who envisage this possibility for the 19
E.g. the 11th Principle of the North American Agreement on Labour
WTO or a new international body. Cooperation under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
17
However, some commentators argue that visas already fall within the provides migrant workers on a state party’s territory with the same legal
GATS Mode 4 mandate as they can be part of “measures” referred to in protection as that provided to the state party’s nationals in respect of
the Annex on the movement of natural persons. working conditions.

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and/or bilateral agreements complement multilateral broader migration agenda. Focusing on the protection
trade agreements, or undermine them (Brown et al., of the human and labour rights of migrants, in 1999
2005; ICFTU, 2004; see also Textbox 13.7 at the end the UN Commission on Human Rights (now the
of this chapter). Human Rights Council) established the mandate
of the UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights
2.3 Other International Instruments of migrants,23 who has since issued a number of
reports focusing specifically on migrant workers and
There are a number of other binding international legal conducted several country visits. In 2006, the ILO
instruments of relevance to labour migration. They Governing Body endorsed the non-binding Multilateral
can be divided into two broad categories: instruments Framework on Labour Migration (ILO, 2006), which
indirectly and directly related to migration. Under the comprises principles and guidelines promoting a
first category are human rights treaties protecting rights-based approach to labour migration, and
the fundamental rights of all migrant workers as provides guidance to governments, and employers’
human beings (the two International Covenants and workers’ organizations on the formulation and
on Civil and Political Rights, and Economic, Social implementation of national and international policies
and Cultural Rights, 1966), as women (International (see Textbox 10.6).24 IOM’s International Dialogue on
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Migration (IDM) offers a platform for its Membership
Discrimination against Women, 1979), as children to exchange information and effective practices in
(Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989) and the formulation and implementation of migration
as foreigners (Migrant Workers Convention, 1990).20 policy.25 An International Agenda for Migration
Like any other workers, migrants are also covered Management (IAMM), published in December 2005,
by ILO international labour standards.21 Under the was the outcome of the Berne Initiative, a states-
second category, it is necessary to mention the 2000 owned process sponsored by the Swiss Government
UN Convention against Transnational Organized and for which IOM provided the Secretariat (IOM/
Crime and its two protocols addressing trafficking in Swiss Federal Office for Migration, 2005a). More
human beings and smuggling of migrants.22 recently, and as discussed in the Introduction
and Chapter 12, the international community has
2.4 Non-binding Initiatives been preoccupied with the theme of international
migration and development, which includes an
In addition, a number of non-binding initiatives have important labour mobility component.26
been taken or are taking place at the multilateral
level with a view to fostering dialogue and effective
23
For more information on the Special Rapporteur’s work, see the website
practices in managing labour migration, either by of the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights at http://
focusing exclusively on this objective or as part of a www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/migration/rapporteur/index.htm.
24
The Framework focuses on areas such as inter alia decent work,
international cooperation, the effective management of migration and
the protection of migrant workers.
20
See also here the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, 1963. 25
See the IDM webpages at http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/lang/en/
21
The 1998 ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work pid/385 for the recent themes addressed. For example, in 2007 the
requires ILO Member States to respect four categories of principles overarching theme of the IDM, “Migration Management in the Evolving
and rights at work, even if they are not signatories to the relevant Global Economy”, was closely tied to the subject matter of this Report
conventions: freedom of association and rights of collective bargaining, and a workshop was convened on 8-9 October on Global Making Labour
equality of opportunity and treatment, abolition of forced labour, and Mobility a Catalyst for Development. See http://www.iom.int/jahia/
the elimination of child labour. Jahia/pid/1826.
22
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, 26
See the UN General Assembly’s High-Level Dialogue on International
Especially Women and Children, and Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migration and Development (New York, September 2006) and the Global
Migrants by Land, Sea and Air. These Protocols were adopted at Palermo Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD) (Brussels, July 2007). For
on 15 November 2000 and, as of September 2008, have been ratified by an overview of labour mobility in the context of the GFMD, see Textbox
123 and 114 states, respectively. See also Chapter 8. Int. 2.

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Other elements for the management of labour of workers eligible to move to another country to
migration are scattered throughout many legal work, the streamlining of procedures, the granting
instruments, and are at the heart of several non- of permanent migration opportunities and access
binding initiatives of various international agencies. to family reunion, nonetheless, vary tremendously.
For this reason, in order to increase efficiency, policy Some of the progress results from the drive towards
consistency and to pool available expertise, the Global economic integration, which has led to formal
Commission on International Migration (GCIM)27 labour-migration related agreements being inscribed
considered in its October 2005 final report, as a in the regulatory framework for common markets
longer-term option, the possible establishment of a and free trade agreements. While the evaluation
global agency in charge of the portfolio of “economic of regional consultative processes is difficult to
migration” (GCIM, 2005), which is a concept that conduct on account of their informal and non-
goes beyond labour migration per se and includes binding character, they have undoubtedly been
other movements for economic purposes, such as helpful in strengthening interstate cooperation in
business travel and family migration, that are also the management of international migration.
discussed in Part A of this Report. Such an agency
would have a leading role in developing linkages 3.1 Regional Economic Integration and Worker
between the migration sphere and related domains, Mobility
such as development, trade, security and human
rights. Based on current and past experiences of regional
integration, the following four preliminary
3. Regional Approaches conclusions may be drawn with respect to labour
mobility at the regional level:
Although labour migration flows are becoming
geographically more diverse, the largest share of • Labour migration policy agendas are generally
labour movement is taking place within regions. It more ambitious when drafted within the framework
is therefore not surprising that regional initiatives of the establishment or further development of
to facilitate and manage these flows are flourishing. common markets than under the auspices of free
Regional processes tend to be more efficient than trade agreement initiatives, for example, the
global ones because small groups of countries can more European Union (EU) as compared to the North
easily tackle emigration and immigration dynamics American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
and reach a common understanding for cooperation, • Positive results are more likely to be reached when
harmonization of policies and liberalization of progress on migration issues can advance projects
labour movements. On regional agendas, labour in other policy areas of interest to countries in
migration is typically dealt with in conjunction with the region.
issues such as visa policies, return and readmission, • Efforts to remove barriers to labour mobility
border management and, increasingly, migration and are more likely to succeed when the process of
development. economic integration is already well under way;
they are less likely to succeed when presented as
The achievements to date towards the liberalization a potential engine for progress towards regional
of labour markets, the increase in the categories integration. For example, compare the difficulties
in the implementation of the Common Market for
27
The GCIM was created in 2003 as an ad hoc body with the approval of the Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) Protocol on
UN Secretary-General and with the mandate to propose the framework
for the formulation of a coherent, comprehensive and global response to Free Movement of Persons, Labour, Services and
international migration. For a fuller description of its mandate, see the the Right of Establishment, and the delays in the
GCIM’s website at http://www.gcim.org/en/.

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full implementation of the Economic Community with respect to the movement of people (e.g. the
of West African States (ECOWAS) Protocol on Common Nordic Labour Market, which contains
Free Movement of Persons, Establishment and even more favourable free movement and residence
Settlement (see Textbox 13.2) with the EU example provisions than those operating in the European
where the liberalization of worker mobility was Union. However, the Common Market of the
treated as a cornerstone of economic integration. South (MERCOSUR) and the Andean Community
• Agreements between countries sharing in South America present a different experience
geographical proximity, similar levels of in that there have been limited initiatives among
development and limited (current and potential) neighbouring countries to liberalize the movement
labour migration flows are generally more liberal of persons (Santestevan, 2007).

Textbox 13.2
Prospects for Greater Labour Mobility within ECOWAS/West Africa

Historically, migrants have always regarded West Africa as an economic unit within which trade in goods and services flowed
and people moved freely. Colonial administrators recruited, attracted or coerced workers from the hinterlands to work on the
infrastructure and development projects in coastal areas. Over time, labour migration became voluntary and institutionalized.

Independence changed all that as new national governments enacted laws and regulations governing conditions of entry,
residence and employment of non-nationals. These regulations and indigenization laws restricted the participation of non-
nationals in major economic activities and distinguished between regular and irregular movements.

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Protocol on Free Movement of Persons, Establishment and Settlement
is a pacesetter in Africa. The implementation of the initial phase over the first five years abolished requirements for visas and
entry permits, enabling Community citizens in possession of valid travel documents to enter Member States without a visa for
up to 90 days. However, the second and third phases have not yet been fully implemented.

The Meeting of Heads of State and Government, in Abuja, Nigeria, in March 2000, had as its major agenda item the creation
of a borderless sub-region in a determined effort to invigorate the faltering implementation of various aspects of the Protocol.
Henceforth, immigration officials are to accord the maximum 90-day period of stay to ECOWAS citizens at the entry point.
Residence permit requirements for Community citizens were abolished. The ECOWAS travel certificate and subsequently the
ECOWAS passport should progressively replace national passports in circulation over a transitional period of ten years. Rigid
border formalities were to be eliminated and border procedures modernized through the use of passport scanning machines to
facilitate the free and easier movement of persons across borders. ECOWAS travellers’ cheques and a common currency – the
West African Unit of Account – were proposed to harmonize monetary policy. All these and other measures helped facilitate
ongoing and new patterns of labour migration, especially to Nigeria and Côte d’Ivoire, the sub-region’s demographic and
economic giants, as well as to Ghana and Senegal.

Yet, countries in West Africa have retained national laws and treaties and investment codes that are at variance with the ECOWAS
Protocol and, in effect, restrict “foreigners”, including nationals of Community states, from participating in certain kinds of
economic activity. During periods of economic and political crises, non-nationals become scapegoats and have been expelled,
as occurred in Nigeria in 1983 and 1985, and in Côte d’Ivoire in 2000, situations that shook the Community. Many citizens do
not have access to national passports, and only very few have obtained ECOWAS travel certificates and passports, owing in large
part to bureaucratic bottlenecks. Many also enter Member States, and then overstay or work without authorization.

The labour migration system in West Africa is quite complex. Countries that were once destinations for migrants have
metamorphosed into countries of origin. Since the late 1980s, traditional countries of origin and attractive destinations for
migrants have experienced endemic political and economic crises, as a consequence of which there have been outflows from
both sets of countries.

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ECOWAS Member States are searching for policies that would enhance the prospects for greater labour mobility in the sub-
region, and priorities for action include:

• The establishment of a Permanent Observatory to provide up-to-date information on labour migration patterns and facilitate
internal labour mobility within ECOWAS with limited travel documentation.
• The setting up and/or revamping of an Advisory Board on Migration as a forum for formulating and monitoring the status
of implementation of national laws and ECOWAS decisions relating to labour migration.
• Raising migration discourse to the top of the political agenda, showcasing the potential contribution of migrant workers
to development and underlining the positive outcomes of migration for migrants and countries of origin and destination.
• Harmonizing national laws and employment codes that regulate the types of economic activity that nationals of Community
Member States can practice according to the terms of the ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement of Persons, Establishment
and Settlement.
• Concretely addressing the right of residence and establishment of migrants and obligations of the host countries, and
ensuring that the rights of migrant workers in the host countries are protected.
• Enhancing capacity of immigration, customs, police and security officials to help transform their role into that of migration
managers, assisting to facilitate rather than restrict regular migration within the sub-region. Officials have to be sensitized
to the revised national laws and treaties and ECOWAS protocols.
• Mounting an intensive and sustained public education campaign to raise awareness of the ECOWAS passport and travel
certificate and its benefits to Community citizens for travel within the sub-region and also to help halt hostility against
migrant workers.
• Promoting student exchange and study programmes to help break language and colonial barriers among countries and
peoples, and promoting labour migration and more effective utilization of human resources.
• Promoting access of Community nationals to employment and settlement, and easing remitting of earned income through
formal banking channels.
• Harmonizing and implementing the policies of trade, investment, transport and movement of persons in a coherent and
integrated manner.

Source: Aderanti Adepoju, Coordinator, Network of Migration Research on Africa (NOMRA) and Chief Executive, Human Resources Development
Centre (HRDC), Lagos, Nigeria.

The European Union represents the most far- alia, that any national of a Member State is entitled
reaching form of regional economic integration, to take up and engage in gainful employment on
and its principal characteristics are discussed below. the territory of another Member State in conformity
The right of free movement of workers within the with the relevant regulations applicable to national
region was introduced by the 1957 Treaty of Rome workers. In order not to jeopardize this right through
and expanded to include the free movement of improper requirements concerning entry into and
all EU citizens in 1993.28 The EU has succeeded in residence in Member States, workers must be admitted
creating an area where all workers who are nationals to their territory simply on the production of a valid
of EU Member States are entitled to equal treatment identity card or passport and be granted the right of
regardless of their nationality with respect to residence.30 Spouses and, where applicable, registered
employment, remuneration and other working partners, as well as their children up to the age of
conditions, access to accommodation and the right 21, are authorized to reside with them.
to be joined by family members.29 This means, inter
30
For a stay of more than three months the requirement for a residence
permit has been abolished, but Member States may require EU citizens to
28
Consolidated Version of the Treaty Establishing the European Community register with the relevant authorities (see Directive 2004/38/EC of the
(EC Treaty), OJ 2006 C 321/E/37, Arts. 39 and 18, respectively. European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the right
29
Arts. 12 and 39(2) of the EC Treaty and Council Regulation 1612/68/EEC of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside
of 15 October 1968 on freedom of movement for workers within the freely within the territory of the Member States, OJ 2004 L 229/35,
Community (OJ Sp. Ed. 1968-69, 475, JO 1968 L 257/2, as amended). Article 8).

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Under the system of mutual recognition of be established there. In particular, “services” covers
qualifications, EU citizens fully qualified in one activities of an industrial and commercial character;
Member State are entitled to exercise a regulated craftspersons’ activities; and professional activities.
profession31 in another Member State. Depending on In those instances where restrictions on the provision
the activity in question and the training completed, of specific services have not yet been abolished, the
recognition will be either automatic or subject to application of such restrictions must be applied
a period of probation or an aptitude test. Self- without discrimination based on nationality.
employed persons and service providers can also
exercise free movement rights by virtue of Articles The possibility of derogating from the general rules
43-48 (Chapter 2 on the Right of Establishment) and governing the mobility of EU workers has nonetheless
49-55 (Chapter 3 on Services) of Part Three, Title III been envisaged for workers from countries joining
of the EC Treaty. Moreover, national social security the EU after the 2004 and 2007 enlargements.33
systems are coordinated at the EU level to prevent “Transitional arrangements”, as this label suggests,
discrimination against persons who are exercising permit the former EU-15 to derogate temporarily
their right to free movement.32 from the principle of free movement of workers in
respect of workers coming from the new EU Member
With regard to service providers, the EC Treaty enables States for a maximum period of seven years. These
an economic operator providing services in one arrangements only apply to workers and not service
Member State to also offer services on a temporary providers, with some limited exceptions for Austria
basis in another Member State, without having to and Germany (see Textbox 13.3).34

31
Regulated professions imply de jure professional recognition, because
either the education leading to a professional activity or the pursuit 33
Over a three-year period (2004-2007) the EU has been transformed from
of the particular professional activity are regulated by legal acts (i.e. a 15-country Union to one of 27 countries. In May 2004, 10 countries
laws, regulations, administrative provisions), and the final decision on joined the 15 EU Member States: Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia,
mandatory recognition is in the hands of professional or governmental Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. In
bodies, or both. The professions regulated vary among countries, January 2007, Bulgaria and Romania also became members.
generally motivated by consumer protection and public interest 34
The transitional arrangements in the Accession Treaties of 16 April
concerns. Many countries regulate professions which can have an impact 2003 provide that for workers from the 8+2 new EU Member States in
on health or life or result in material or moral loss, such as professions Central and Eastern Europe (the transitional arrangements do not apply
relating to medicine and pharmacy, veterinary medicine, architecture, to Cyprus and Malta), access to the labour markets of the former EU-15
law or transport. will depend on the national laws and policies of those Member States.
32
Article 42 of the EC Treaty and Council Regulation 1408/74/EEC of 14 These arrangements only apply to the taking up of employment, with
June 1971 on the application of social security schemes to employed the exception of Austria and Germany, where the movement of service
persons, to self-employed persons and to members of their families providers in a limited number of sectors, for example construction
moving within the Community (JO Sp. Ed. 1971, 416, JO 1971 L 149/2, and industrial cleaning, may also be restricted in the event of serious
as amended). disturbances in the service sectors in question.

Textbox 13.3
EU Enlargement – Free Movement of Workers

General Provisions

On 1 January 2007, Bulgaria and Romania joined the European Union, taking the total to 27 Member States. While nationals
of all 27 Member States are also EU nationals, not all enjoy from the outset equal rights of free movement. All EU nationals
are entitled to move freely among the Member States without visas or other pre-entry conditions. They are entitled to remain
on the territory of any other Member State for a period of not more than three months without further formalities and longer
if they are self-employed, service providers or recipients, or as students, retirees or economically inactive persons, provided
they produce evidence of sufficient independent means and will not have to rely on the social security/welfare system of the
respective EU host country.

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For the nationals of eight of the ten 2004 accession states (i.e. the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,
Slovakia and Slovenia, collectively referred to as “A8 states”), the right to employment and to remain in the country to work
has been limited, though not for Cyprus and Malta. Thus, “A8” nationals are subject to a gradual labour market liberalization
scheme under which pre-2004 Member States (the former EU-15) are entitled to restrict labour market access in their regard
for an initial two-year period and, subject to notification, for a further three years. In the presence of serious disturbances
in a Member State’s labour market, these restrictions may be extended for a further two years. However, A8 workers who have
completed twelve months or more of lawful employment in a Member State acquire full Treaty rights and are no longer subject
to the transitional provisions.

Among the substantial issues that arise in restricting access to the labour market for workers only, and not for the self-employed
and service providers, is the suspicion that the self-employed and service providers might be “abusing” the rules against labour
market access by falsely presenting their economic activity as self-employment. Similarly, the fact that companies have the
right to bring in workers to carry out service provision, though these workers have no right of access to the labour market, has
lead to tensions regarding the working conditions applicable to such posted workers (who tend to be from the EU Member State
of origin) and the effect on competition.

Free Movement of Workers: Current Situation of A8 Workers

At present, of the pre-2004 Member States, ten have opened their labour markets completely: Ireland, Sweden and the United
Kingdom did so as of 1 May 2004; Finland, Greece Portugal and Spain (1 May 2006); Italy (27 July 2006); the Netherlands
(1 May 2007); and France (1 July 2008). The U.K. is continuing its Worker Registration Scheme1 and Finland is developing
one.

While the remaining pre-2004 Member States (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany and Luxembourg) extended the transitional
arrangements for a further three years as of 1 May 2006, they have relaxed their labour market access rules for A8 workers,
either generally or on a sectoral basis.

Concerning the new EU Member States, Hungary proceeds on a reciprocal basis, while Poland and Slovenia first applied and
subsequently removed such reciprocity measures.

Free Movement of Workers: Bulgaria and Romania

Ten Member States (the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden)
have introduced no restrictions in regard to workers from Bulgaria and Romania, while Denmark, Hungary and Italy have relaxed
their labour market access rules in their regard. However, concerns have been raised in some Member States over the application
of general national regulations rather than EU rules to foreigners, particularly in the case of expulsions.

Note:
1
In the U.K., an A8 worker is obliged to register under the Worker Registration Scheme (WRS) within one month of starting employment.
A8 nationals who have been lawfully employed in the U.K. for a continuous 12-month period or who are self-employed or service
providers are not required to register. The registration fee is GBP 90, to be paid by the worker who is then issued a registration card and
certificate. Employers may face sanctions if they violate this obligation and a fine of up to GBP 5,000. For more information on the WRS,
see the UK Border Agency website at http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/workingintheuk/wrs/.

Source: Elspeth Guild, Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS), Brussels, Belgium.

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One of the unique EU features is a specific approach adopted,38 Member States have demonstrated a
to the management of migration flows from reluctance to engage at the EU level with the issue
regions outside the EU through the development of economic-related migration from third countries.
of a common policy on asylum and immigration.35 In order to break this impasse, in January 2005 the
However, progress on the adoption of a common European Commission (2005a) presented a Green
EU law and policy on regular or legal migration has Paper on an EU approach to managing economic
been relatively slow. Member States have found it migration, a consultative document which paved the
easier to adopt measures in the fields of visa policy; way for the adoption in December 2005 of a Policy
external border controls, including the establishment Plan on Legal Migration (European Commission,
of the European External Border Agency (FRONTEX); 2005c).39 This plan led to two legislative initiatives
prevention of irregular migration (e.g. through presented in October 2007. The first is a proposed
information exchange and measures to combat Directive on the conditions of entry and residence
smuggling and trafficking in human beings);36 and of highly skilled migrants from third countries
the establishment of an EU return policy involving (European Commission, 2007d), the so-called “Blue
the negotiation of EU-wide readmission agreements Card” proposal, and the second a proposed Directive
with third countries (agreements with Albania, Hong on a single application procedure for a single permit
Kong SAR, Macao SAR and Sri Lanka have already for third-country nationals to reside and work in the
come into force), and common measures on the territory of a Member State, as a well as a common
return of third-country nationals who are resident set of rights for lawfully resident third-country
without authorization within their territories.37 workers (European Commission, 2007e).40

While Directives on the right to family reunification A further characteristic of EU migration policy is close
(see also Chapter 6), on the status of third-country cooperation with countries of origin on managing
nationals who are long-term residents and on the migration flows, which is supported by a special
admission of students and researchers have been budget line (originally AENEAS, recently replaced
by a new programme, the Thematic Cooperation
Programme with Third Countries on the Development

35
EC Treaty, Part Three, Title IV. Key elements of this policy were
identified by the European Council in Tampere in 1999: the adoption
of a comprehensive approach to the management of migratory flows
so as to find a balance between admissions for humanitarian and those
for economic purposes; fair treatment for third-country nationals; and 38
See, respectively, Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 September
forging partnerships with countries of origin, including policies of 2003 on the right to family reunification, OJ 2003 L 251/12; Council
co-development. The Hague Programme (2004-2009) reinforced these Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 November 2003 concerning the status of
elements and identified new ones. See also n. 39 below. It should be third-country nationals who are long-term residents, OJ 2004 L 16/44;
noted that one of the ultimate objectives of the Southern African Council Directive 2004/114/EC of 13 December 2004 on the conditions
Development Community (SADC) 2005 Protocol on the Facilitation of of admission of third-country nationals for the purposes of studies,
the Movement of Persons (which has not yet come into force) is also to pupil exchange, non-remunerated training or voluntary service, OJ 2004
eliminate obstacles to the movement of persons into the Community L 375/12; and Council Directive 2005/71/EC of 12 October 2005 on a
(Williams, 2008). specific procedure for admitting third-country nationals for the purpose
36
One the most recent initiatives to address irregular migration is the of scientific research, OJ 2005 L 289/15.
proposed Directive on employer sanctions (European Commission, 39
The Policy Plan defines a roadmap for the remaining period (2006-2009)
2007c). of the European Council’s Hague Programme, a five-year programme for
37
In June 2008, the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament the development of the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice adopted in
reached agreement on a Directive on Common standards and procedures November 2004. The Policy Plan was one of the priorities identified in the
in Member States for returning illegally staying third-country nationals. Hague Programme and lists the actions and legislative initiatives that
The Directive includes common measures on the voluntary return, the Commission intends to take to pursue the consistent development of
detention and expulsion of irregular migrants, and Member States will an EU legal migration policy.
be required to transpose these measures into their domestic legal and 40
Proposed directives on seasonal workers, intra-corporate transferees
administrative systems within a period of two years from the Directive’s and remunerated trainees are in the process of formulation (European
formal adoption. Commission, 2005c).

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Aspects of Migration and Asylum).41 This cooperation and Common Market (CARICOM), COMESA, ECOWAS
now encompasses the global approach to migration SADC and MERCOSUR), which support free movement
management adopted at the end of 2005.42 It also to various extents,46 are some distance from the
builds on earlier initiatives, such as the support progress made at the level of the European Union,
of a linkage between migration and non-related although the EU experience also demonstrates that
issues as a means to secure greater cooperation on such an advanced degree of integration is the result
migration issues,43 and the inclusion of migration of a lengthy and painstaking process and requires the
concerns in EU external and development policies support of an institutional infrastructure and a strong
and agreements (European Commission, 2005b).44 resource base. It should also be underscored that each
The recent introduction of mobility partnerships to region is unique on account of its history and level
better manage migration flows between the EU and of economic and social development with the result
specific third countries is the latest development in that migration management objectives, whether they
the construction of a comprehensive cooperation are to be applied in an internal or external context,
framework.45 or both, are often also quite different. Nevertheless,
this does not mean that progress cannot be achieved
All these elements make the EU the most advanced through other less formal regional mechanisms, as
regional entity in managing external and internal discussed in the section below.
movements of persons, even though it took several
decades to reach that level. However, the framework 3.2 Regional Consultative Processes
applicable to the movement and treatment of non-
EU nationals is still incomplete and does not cover The purpose of Regional Consultative Processes
admission for employment, which remains within (RCPs) is to discuss migration-related issues in a
the competence of individual Member States. cooperative manner with a view to reaching a common
understanding of, and where possible, effective
Other regional economic integration processes solutions for regional migration management (IOM/
(e.g. Andean Community, Caribbean Community Swiss Federal Office for Migration, 2005b). A number
of factors explain their emergence and breadth:
41
See the European Commission website at http://ec.europa.eu/
europeaid/where/worldwide/migration-asylum/index_en.htm (External • RCPs offer a structure for dialogue, exchange of
cooperation programmes - Migration and Asylum).
42
In December 2005, the European Council adopted the “Global Approach information and expertise without requiring a
to Migration”, which brings together migration, external relations and
development policy to address migration in an integrated, comprehensive
government to enter into formal commitments. This
and balanced way in partnership with third countries. facilitates confidence building, the identification
43
Every cooperation and association agreement concluded by the EU
must contain a clause on joint management of migration flows and on of like-minded partners and the search for
compulsory readmission in the event of irregular migration (see the common understandings and approaches. It also
Conclusions of the European Council in Seville in June 2002).
44
See e.g. the Partnership Agreement between the Members of the allows the discussion of sensitive issues in a non-
African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European confrontational manner.
Community and its Members States, Cotonou, 23 June 2000, and the
European Neighbourhood Policy with countries to the South and East of
the EU (European Commission, 2007a).
45
In May 2007, the European Commission (2007b) presented a
Communication on Circular migration and mobility partnerships between
the European Union and third countries. The Communication proposes 46
While free movement of persons has not been advanced in the context
partnerships between the EU and third countries interested in working of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the protection
with the EU to address irregular migration, while facilitating regular of migrant workers is a particular concern, as reflected in the ASEAN
migration and circular migration. In June 2008, two joint declarations Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant
on mobility partnerships were signed between the EU and Cape Verde (in Workers, adopted by the Heads of State/Government in Cebu, the
cooperation with four EU Member States) and Moldova (in cooperation Philippines on 13 January 2007. See the ASEAN website at http://www.
with 14 EU Member States). aseansec.org/19264.htm.

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• States are more willing to join RCPs since they • They can extend participation to non-state actors,
can withdraw from them just as easily if they so such as intergovernmental organizations or
desire. NGOs, and bring together officials from different
• States interact on equal terms, which favours a ministries (IOM/Swiss Federal Office for Migration
broad sense of ownership of the process. FOM, 2005b).
• Membership can be open to states sharing
migratory routes (countries of origin, transit and RCPs’ agendas are flexible and responsive to members’
destination). Unlike more formal entities based on main concerns, hence the evolving nature of their
economically or politically motivated membership, work priorities. RCPs typically revolve around a key
RCPs may select participants according to their theme. In the past, many of them focused on issues
potential contribution to the advancement of linked to irregular migration, such as the return of
the migration agenda (e.g. the 5+5 Dialogue on irregular migrants and readmission agreements, visa
Migration in the Western Mediterranean47). policy, border management, and human smuggling
and trafficking. They are now inclined to have a
47
The 5+5 Dialogue involves Algeria, France, Italy, Libya, Malta, Mauritania, broader work programme and increasingly cover
Morocco, Portugal, Spain and Tunisia. It is an informal process in which
governments cooperate and exchange information and analyses on topics development issues, labour mobility (see Textbox
such as migration trends, irregular migration and trafficking in human
beings, migration and co-development (e.g. the role of diasporas),
13.4), remittances, protection of the human rights
human rights and duties of migrants, integration, movement of people of migrants, integration or visa facilitation.
and management of regular migration, labour migration and vocational
training, migration and health, local cooperation and gender equality
in the context of migration. For more information, see IOM’s website at
http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pid/860.

Textbox 13.4
Regional Consultative Processes and Labour Mobility

Regional Consultative Processes (RCPs) are informal, non-binding and regularly scheduled meetings attended by government
representatives – generally at senior official, but sometimes at ministerial level – to discuss issues of mutual concern related
to migration. In keeping with the non-institutional character of RCPs, their administrative structures are kept simple, often in
the form of small secretariats hosted by an international organization.

RCP membership is wide and varied. The meetings may be attended by either both home and host countries or, alternatively,
only countries of origin or destination. Some of the better known RCPs are:

• Intergovernmental Conference on Migration, Asylum and Refugees (IGC). Established in 1985, it involves destination
countries in Europe, North America and Australia and New Zealand, and examines border control, asylum, immigration
(regular and irregular) and security issues.
• Regional Conference on Migration (RCM) (Puebla Process). Established in 1996, it includes Canada, the United States,
Mexico and Central American countries, and focuses on migration policy, rights of migrants and development.
• 5 + 5 Dialogue on Migration in the Western Mediterranean. Established in 2002, it includes five southern European and five
North African countries and examines migration, trafficking in human beings, rights of migrants, health, gender equality
and public awareness.
• Migration Dialogue for Southern Africa (MIDSA). Established in 2000, it includes Botswana, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (DRC), South Africa and 12 other Southern African countries. It focuses on migration/border management, health,
development, rights of migrants, return and readmission, and trafficking in human beings.
• Intergovernmental Asia-Pacific Consultations on Refugees, Displaced Persons and Migrants (APC). Established in 1996, the
APC brings together 29 countries from the Asia-Pacific region. It focuses on return, refugees, trafficking in human beings,
remittances, public awareness, burden sharing and capacity building.

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• Bali Process. Established in 2002, it includes a wide range of countries of origin, transit and destination from many
different regions of the world. It focuses on trafficking and smuggling in human beings and related transnational criminal
activities.
• Ministerial Consultations on Overseas Employment and Contractual Labour for Countries of Origin in Asia (Colombo Process).
Established in 2003, its membership consists of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, the
Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam. In addition, certain countries of destination, viz. Bahrain, Italy, Kuwait,
Malaysia, Qatar, Republic of Korea (South Korea), Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) participated as observers
in the Ministerial Consultations in September 2005. The Colombo Process focuses on three thematic clusters: protection
of vulnerable migrants and provision of support services; optimization of the benefits of organized labour migration; and
capacity building, data collection and interstate cooperation (see also Textbox 10.5).
• Abu Dhabi Dialogue. The Abu Dhabi Dialogue was launched in January 2008. It brings together Colombo Process countries
and countries of destination in Asia for consultations focusing on the facilitation of labour mobility and the protection of
temporary contractual workers (see also Textbox 10.5).

RCP agendas have evolved considerably over the years. The initial focus on individual topics of interest (such as asylum policies
and procedures, trafficking in human beings or border control) has gradually given way to broader, comprehensive perspectives
on migration management in which labour mobility now occupies an increasingly important place. Even issues that appear less
directly related to labour mobility – trafficking and irregular migration, for instance – have implications for labour mobility, in
the sense that the effective control of borders can contribute to the development of a climate of public confidence supportive
of the facilitation of the movement of migrant workers. Two RCPs, the Colombo Process and the related Abu Dhabi Dialogue,
have chosen labour mobility as their prime focus of interest and have developed a range of capacity-building activities to equip
participating countries with the legislative and administrative tools needed to manage their labour flows effectively.

Source: Randall Hansen, Canada Research Chair in Immigration and Governance, Department of Political Science, University of Toronto, Canada.

Regional consultations often lead to the adoption of of the labour force (e.g. Colombo Process48), which
recommendations, action plans or regional strategies in turn can create the impetus for the realization
setting shared principles and goals. Financial of projects in these fields (e.g. training of labour
mechanisms are sometimes devised to sustain a attachés or the establishment of migrant resource
component of technical cooperation assistance (e.g. centres). Although APEC is not a typical RCP, its
joint training). Past experiences have proven that pro-mobility activities are a good illustration of the
the success of RCPs may result from the choice of a levels of progress that can be achieved in a regional
limited number of participants combined with the forum on the basis of consensus and voluntary
support of an ad hoc (e.g. IGC) or internationally- commitments (see Textbox 13.5).
based (IOM, UNHCR, UN Institute for Training and
Research - UNITAR) secretariat. A participating state
or a regional intergovernmental organization (e.g. 48
This is the short title for the RCP on overseas employment and contractual
Association of Southeast Asian Nations – ASEAN) labour for countries of origin in Asia. See also Textbox 13.4.
may also host the process.

RCPs dedicated to labour migration issues do not

create openings within the regional labour market.
Rather, they facilitate movements through the
adoption of recommendations or guidelines on issues
such as visa facilitation (e.g. Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation - APEC), or the protection and training

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Textbox 13.5
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

APEC,1 which gathers members bordering the Pacific Ocean and often separated by large geographical distances (e.g. Australia,
China, Peru), does not increase access to the labour markets of its members. Rather it is committed to facilitating labour
mobility for certain categories of highly skilled persons through (1) exchanging information on regulatory regimes; (2)
streamlining the processing of short-term business visitor visas and procedures for temporary residence of business people;
and (3) maintaining a dialogue on these issues with the business community. This work is coordinated by the Informal Experts’
Group on Business Mobility.

The APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) is one of the key initiatives being pursued. This card provides pre-cleared short-term
entry to the 17 APEC economies participating in the scheme. The card holders do not need to individually apply for visas or
entry permits each time they travel, as the card provides for multiple entries into participating economies during its three-year
period of validity. In addition, immigration processing on arrival is accelerated via fast-track entry and exit through special
APEC lanes at major airports. APEC has also developed an electronic APEC Business Travel Handbook providing a quick reference
guide to the visa and entry requirements of APEC participating economies.2

The introduction of the ABTC followed a pathfinder approach, allowing countries to join when ready (conditions include:
sufficient resources, necessary legislative frameworks in place and capacity to be an equal partner) and providing technical
assistance to developing economies. The principles and procedures of the programme are compiled in an ABTC Operating
Framework (including card manufacturing standards, eligibility criteria and service standards), which should be followed on a
“best endeavour basis”, and are not legally binding.

Applications for the ABTC card are made to the designated home country agency (each state determines which particular agency
accepts applications). The home country then carries out necessary vetting procedures in order to select bona fide applicants: it
was agreed that the country of origin is in the best position to implement the specific procedures to determine who is eligible
for the ABTC, and thereby maintain the integrity of the scheme. Although the basic eligibility requirements are set out in the
Operating Framework, economies may use additional criteria to ensure bona fide applicants. Applications approved by the country
of origin are sent to the participating economies and, if accepted, are given a pre-clearance permission. Member states are not
required to give reasons for refusing pre-clearance to any applicants. Finally, the home country can issue the ABTC card, which
allows entry into all economies that have given a pre-clearance permission. The ABTC pre-clearance system ensures that states
retain the control over the movement of people across their borders and over the eligibility of domestic applicants. The ABTC
members also benefit from the increased integrity of the scheme, which results from the double-screening procedure by home
and destination countries. The programme inspires a high degree of confidence in both government officials and the business
community: in the history of the ABTC, no instances of fraud have been discovered (David Watt, Department of Immigration,
Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, Australia, speaking at the OECD/World Bank/IOM Seminar on Trade and Migration, Geneva,
12-14 November 2003).

One of the keys to the success of the scheme is that it is designed and supported by a major destination country, Australia,
which has considerable experience in migration management and pre-entry clearance, thereby reassuring other destination
countries of the efficiency of the entire system. Nonetheless, despite this and the good record of the scheme, it is important
to note that Canada has not yet joined, while the U.S. only became a transitional member in September 2007 (with the aim of
full participation within three years).

Other pro-mobility initiatives include a 30-day processing standard for applications for, and extensions of, temporary residence
permits for APEC intra-company transferees, the development of standards in all major immigration areas,3 assistance to
regional economies to develop Advance Passenger Information (API) Systems (information about incoming airline passengers
supplied to the destination government) and Advance Passenger Processing (using API provided by airlines to run checks
against electronic immigration records for pre-arrival screening); as well as the creation of a Regional Movement Alert System
(RMAS – provision of real-time access to a database of lost and stolen passports).4 Since 2002, APEC has also paid more
attention to remittances with a working group established by finance ministers to examine the economic, structural and

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regulatory factors that encourage the use of remittances in the APEC economies. The APEC initiative on remittances systems
has helped launch research projects (undertaken by the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, in particular) and led to
the organization of two symposia.5

Notes:
1
APEC’s 21 member economies are: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong SAR, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea
(South Korea), Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russian Federation, Singapore, Taiwan Province of
China, Thailand, United States and Viet Nam.
2
The Business Travel Handbook is available at http://www.businessmobility.org/travel/index.asp. It lists the basic eligibility criteria and
procedures for applying for visas and the terms and conditions that apply to business travellers. This information is provided for both
short-term business visits and temporary residence for business purposes in APEC economies. The Handbook also provides contact details
for the embassies, consulates and other visa-issuing agencies of each member economy.
3
Including pre-arrival, entry, stay and departure. Standards and/or best practice guidelines have been agreed by the Business Mobility Group
covering short-term and temporary residence arrangements, transparency, API implementation, e-commerce, immigration legislation,
travel document examination, travel document security, professional immigration services and the APEC Business Travel Card scheme.
4
See http://www.businessmobility.org/key/index.html.
5
APEC Symposia on Alternative Remittances Systems, Tokyo, 3-4 June 2004 and The Role of the Private Sector in Shifting from Informal to
Formal Remittance Systems, Bangkok, 26-27 May 2005.

RCPs’ perceived success is based partly on the decided to meet their considerable labour market
common interest of participants in the topical needs through large-scale immigration programmes.49
issues considered by the group of states concerned. They have regained currency more recently as a
RCPs are well positioned to add coherence to the flexible policy instrument used by two countries in
broader regional agenda and complement formal the management of migratory flows (OECD, 2004).
regional processes by involving neighbouring or Such agreements can target specific groups of
like-minded states in special or ad hoc discussions. migrants, contain provisions enabling policies to
They are particularly useful when progress in formal adapt to labour market fluctuations in countries of
arrangements is lagging, as they allow continuation destination and equitably attribute responsibilities
of dialogue. They are similarly well placed to between countries of origin and destination for the
enhance bilateral cooperation (see Section 4 below) monitoring and overall management of the labour
by creating trust relationships between countries migration process.
and generating opportunities for interactions in a
broader setting. The number of RCPs specializing in The scope of these agreements varies. Their provisions
international labour mobility is still rather limited and generally specify the purpose of the agreement; define
their impact on the development of national labour the categories of labour concerned; and provide for
migration policies is difficult to assess owing to the admission criteria, the terms of migration, fair
non-normative approach adopted. The informality of and equitable treatment and annual quotas, where
these processes may therefore be regarded both as a applicable. However, some specific issues, such as
strength (as this fosters broader participation) and social security and double taxation, recognition
as a weakness (as the concretization of identified of qualifications and irregular migration, are often
goals is left to the discretion of each country). dealt with in separate agreements (e.g. the bilateral
social security agreements signed by the U.S. with 20
4. Facilitating and Managing Temporary Labour countries, including Chile, France and South Korea, or
Migration through Bilateral Cooperation
49
For more information on the historical context of bilateral labour
Bilateral labour migration agreements were first used migration agreements, see the textbox written by the author for IOM
(2005: Textbox 12.2: “Bilateral Labour Agreements: Effective Tools for
extensively at the end of the Second World War, when Managing Labour Flows?”), from where the material in this section is
large emerging economies in “New World” countries mainly drawn.

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the readmission agreements in force, signed or under channelling such movements into regular avenues.51
negotiation between Switzerland and 33 countries50). Second, the opening up of a regular channel is
The diversity of agreements and their provisions sometimes used as a negotiation tool to secure the
reflect the differences in the economic environment willingness of countries of origin to cooperate on
and the nature of labour market shortages, as well managing irregular migration, and especially on the
as a variety of broader economic, social and political readmission of their nationals who are in an irregular
objectives for entering into bilateral cooperative situation (e.g. rejected asylum seekers).
approaches for the management of these flows.
A third objective is the use of bilateral labour
4.1 Objectives of Countries of Destination agreements to promote and support broader economic
relations with countries of origin. The movement of
When engaging in bilateral labour agreements, workers in this case is aimed at facilitating regional
countries of destination follow mainly four broad economic integration and the development of
types of objectives that are not mutually exclusive. countries of origin. The bilateral agreements signed
The first of these is to satisfy their labour market by Germany with some central and eastern European
needs and to better manage the labour migration countries (CEECs) are good examples (OECD, 2004).
process. Through such agreements, a country They establish several forms of temporary migration
of destination can respond to its labour market for work purposes (e.g. seasonal work, contract
needs by recruiting workers from other countries. work and “guest worker” programmes). In that
Alternatively, where regular channels for migration sense, their purpose goes beyond the satisfaction of
are already in place, bilateral agreements may help German labour market needs to the strengthening of
to better match supply and demand, for instance economic relations between Germany and CEECs.
by streamlining recruitment procedures or by
stipulating the activities and responsibilities of A final specific objective is to preserve or strengthen
public authorities and private partners. The most ties between countries sharing historical (sometimes
comprehensive agreements cover all phases of the post-colonial) and cultural links. For example, the
migratory process and various issues related to United Kingdom operates a “working holidaymaker”
movement (e.g. access to health care, pre-departure scheme with participating Commonwealth countries,
information on labour laws and the cultural and allowing persons aged between 17 and 30 to come
social environment of the destination country, and
vocational and language training). 51
Some bilateral labour agreements are signed at the time of a
regularization programme and target the principal countries of origin
of irregular migrants. The idea behind this approach is to encourage
A second objective is to prevent or reduce irregular migrants to leave the destination country, return home and
benefit from regular work opportunities set out in the agreements.
irregular migration by affording regular migration Special clauses on the implementation of the regularization programme
opportunities. The motivations to offer such can figure in the agreement (with a limited period of validity), e.g.
migration agreements between Argentina and Bolivia, and Argentina
opportunities are twofold. First, the idea is to and Peru, signed in February 1998 and May 1999, respectively, and
relieve the pressure to migrate from countries of their additional Protocols. The agreement between Spain and Ecuador
concerning the regulation and control of migratory flows (Acuerdo
origin and curb the number of irregular migrants by entre España y Ecuador relative a la regulación y ordenación de los
flujos migratorios) (Madrid, 29 May 2001), stipulates in Article 14(3)
that migrants returning home to regularize their situation will have
their visa and work permit applications treated as a priority: “[T]he
authorities of the requesting contracting party undertake to facilitate
the departure and gradual and voluntary repatriation of undocumented
persons in their territory, so that those who so request are guaranteed
50
Information taken from the IGC Matrix on Countries of Origin/Transit that the respective embassy will provide fast-track treatment for their
Countries parties to IGC States’ and the EC’s Readmission Instruments (in residence and work visas, with the guarantee of a job in the requesting
force, signed or under negotiation). contracting party.”

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to the United Kingdom for an extended holiday of • Preferential quota: When countries regulate the number
up to two years and to engage in part-time or casual of foreign workers to be admitted under their general
work.52 In the same vein, in 1998, Portugal concluded migration programmes through quotas, a special quota
an agreement with Cape Verde on the temporary can be attributed to countries having signed a bilateral
recruitment of workers (Fonseca et al., 2005). labour agreement (e.g. Italy has a preferential quota for
for the employment of Albanian and Tunisian nationals
4.2 Objectives of Countries of Origin in tourism and agriculture), or they can benefit from
unrestricted entry.
The objectives of countries of origin in entering
into bilateral labour migration agreements are
mainly economic and social. The first and obvious Bilateral agreements can include guarantees on
motivation is to offer their workers wider, facilitated ensuring return to home countries53 or cooperation in
access to the international labour market and, at the matters involving irregular migration, which can be
same time, to prevent criminal activities involving key for securing the support of destination countries
the smuggling and trafficking of human beings, and in opening their labour markets, in particular to
the exploitation, suffering and sometimes deaths more “sensitive” categories of workers, such as low-
of migrants, frequently associated with attempts to skilled workers (see Textbox 13.6).
migrate in an irregular manner.
In addition to relieving the strain on domestic
Nationals of countries of origin are provided preferential labour markets, by providing opportunities abroad
entry by destination countries under bilateral arrangements for unemployed or underemployed persons and
in three different ways: broadening the tax base (mainly through family
members’ consumption and indirect taxes), bilateral
• Special categories: Employment of certain categories of agreements are also seen as a means to support the
workers (especially the low or semi-skilled or for certain link between labour migration and development
types of jobs not covered under the general immigration by (i) regulating outflows, including the reduction
admission system is authorized for nationals of countries
having signed bilateral arrangements (e.g. in Germany,
seasonal employment in agriculture and other sectors
can only be accessed through bilateral agreements). This
provision is sometimes capped.
• Preferential admission or employment: When the
categories covered by bilateral agreements are not
53
E.g. the employment agreement for Caribbean workers in Canadian
different from those covered by the general migrant entry agriculture stipulates a 25 per cent mandatory remittance from the
provisions, workers covered by these agreements can worker’s wages under a “Compulsory Savings Scheme”. This deduction
is remitted to the country of origin liaison officer and is handed back
benefit from preferential admission or employment over to the worker upon return. Another feature of this agreement is that it
other foreigners (e.g. in Spain nationals from countries authorizes workers to re-enter the scheme year after year and thus acts
as an incentive to return. In the agreement between Spain and Ecuador,
with which Spain has signed bilateral agreements are above n. 51, a specific provision concerning return has been included.
given preference). According to Article 12 of the agreement, prior to recruitment, temporary
workers must sign a commitment to return to Ecuador when their permit
expires, and within a month of their return they are obliged to present
to the Spanish consular office from where they obtained their visa for
temporary work in Spain their passport with the stamp of the original
visa. The failure to do so will disqualify them from obtaining future
52
The details of the scheme are described in more detail on the U.K. Border contracts in Spain and will be taken into account when considering any
Agency’s website at http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/workingintheuk/ future applications for work and residence permits they may lodge with
tier5/workingholidaymakers/. See also Chapter 5. Spanish authorities.

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of brain drain;54 (ii) setting up mechanisms to and the worker).55 Bilateral labour agreements can
facilitate remittances and the transfer of know- provide for social security arrangements or refer to
how and technology; and, more generally, (iii) parallel bilateral social security agreements already
building confidence between communities of origin concluded or to be signed (e.g. Article 5 of the
and destination, which in turn fosters forms of Protocol for temporary migration from Cape Verde to
cooperation beyond labour migration management. Portugal) and may also cover issues such as health
insurance or job safety measures (e.g. provision of
Bilateral agreements are also seen as a tool to promote training and adequate equipment). Some specific
and protect the welfare and rights of migrant workers. clauses for the protection of migrants regarding
Some agreements are used to state the general freedom of religion and trade union rights can be
working and wage conditions applicable to migrant built into the agreement as well.
workers, and may provide a standard employment
contract (e.g. the Canada-Mexico Memorandum In many cases, clauses pertaining to working
of Understanding (MoU) states that employment conditions and wages are simply a reminder that
conditions should be equivalent to those of Canadian foreign workers are subject to the same laws and
workers, and Annex 2 includes the employment regulations applicable to nationals. However, they
contract which should be signed by the employer can also address gaps in sectors that are often not
covered in national labour codes (which is mainly
the case for agricultural and domestic workers56) and
in countries where there is no minimum wage.

55
Another example concerns the Bilateral Labour Service Cooperation
Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Mauritius and
the Government of the People’s Republic of China, signed in January
54
With regard to highly skilled workers, bilateral agreements can 2005. The Agreement provides, inter alia, for (i) the establishment of
provide safeguards to respond to the concerns of some countries of a working group within the framework of the Sino-Mauritian Economic
origin over potential brain drain effects. These may include specific and Trade Joint Committee for the exchange of views on a regular
measures relating to, e.g. the return of workers, joint training or basis and the review of the employment situation of Chinese workers
the exchange of expertise. The United Kingdom developed a code of in Mauritius; and (ii) the recruitment of workers from China through
practice for the international recruitment of healthcare professionals Chinese recruitment agencies approved by the Chinese Government.
that encourages the use of bilateral agreements in the prevention of 56
However, these types of instruments are limited in number. To address
adverse consequences on developing countries. The use of bilateral the problem of the rights of domestic workers, in 2001, Jordan instituted
agreements to prevent brain drain is also part of the recommendations an MoU between the Ministry of Labour and the UN Development Fund
of the 2003 Commonwealth Code of Practice for the international for Women (UNIFEM) that also involves the following countries of
recruitment of health workers and its companion document (http:// origin: India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. In 2003, a
www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/34040/34042/human_resources_ standardized contract for foreign domestic workers in Jordan stipulated
for_health/), and the 2004 Teacher Recruitment Protocol (http://www. a set salary and provided for medical care. New laws followed to regulate
thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/uploadedfiles/%7B90CCBAE1- and license recruitment agencies. A steering committee involving
D475-47EC-BD52-02BE05EA0D27%7D_PROTOCOL.pdf). relevant ministries, embassies and NGOs has also been established.

Textbox 13.6
Exploring the Role of Reformed Bilateral Labour Agreements: The Caribbean Community
and the Temporary Movement of Less-skilled Labour

Composed largely of small island states with limited economies of scale and per capita income differentials of up to 35:1, the
Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) relies in good part on intra-regional labour mobility for the realization
of a Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME). The objective of the free movement of persons (covering the movement of
skills, the movement of services and the right to establishment) is tied to a 2008 target; however, for this deadline to be met
the more developed states will have to acquire confidence in their ability to manage influxes of migrants, especially when they
are less-skilled.

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Until this issue is fully addressed, the growth of those sectors of the economy that rely on intensive, less-skilled labour
– tourism, for instance – will be constrained and least developed countries (LDCs) with a surplus of less-skilled labour will
struggle to overcome intra-regional disparities (Caldentey and Schmid, 2006). In the meantime, as unmet labour demands
persist and important countries of origin (e.g. Haiti) and destination (e.g. the Bahamas) remain outside the CSME, one may
expect an increase in irregular intra-regional migration.

The regulation and facilitation of less skilled labour flows is also of critical significance for the management of extra-CARICOM
migration, whether to the nearby Dominican Republic or farther afield to the U.S., Canada, the United Kingdom, France and
the Netherlands, all the more so because of the role played by remittances in the regional economy (IADB, 2007; World Bank,
2005) and because of the current and/or projected demographic and economic profiles and associated demands for migrant
workers among various countries of destination.

In the light of such unresolved concerns over how best and to what extent to integrate labour markets at the lower end
of the skills spectrum, bilateral labour agreements (BLAs) may constitute promising instruments for the flexible matching
of labour supply and demand, both seasonal and structural and according to national requirements and capacities, while
mitigating irregular migration pressures. Several BLAs already exist, including those under the Commonwealth Caribbean
Seasonal Agriculture Workers Program (SAWP) with Canada1, and others concluded by CARICOM Member States with the U.S. for
the temporary employment of farmers and hospitality workers.

If the coverage of destination countries and worker categories of such agreements is to be expanded successfully (World Bank,
2005), public education and awareness of their benefits, and significant improvements in their design to ensure feasibility,
will be critical.

The benefits of well-designed BLAs for countries of origin include, among others, expanded access to the international labour
market and “brain circulation”. Destination countries meanwhile can gain from cooperation in ensuring that access to their
territory generally remains temporary and responds more efficiently to verifiable labour shortages and sectoral shifts in demand.
Effectively meeting these objectives requires that these agreements and/or accompanying unilateral initiatives incorporate
incentives for temporary and circular migration; adequate quotas; and relatively low transaction costs for employers and
migrants alike (Mansoor and Quillin, 2007; Ruhs, 2005).

BLAs could also potentially serve as development policy instruments by offering less-skilled nationals of LDCs preferential
access to employment quotas, the impact of which may support the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
(Pritchett, 2006). By targeting the less-skilled, these agreements could partly address the reservation that skill-biased
admission policies may exacerbate income disparities within countries of origin by raising the local skill premium (Pritchett,
2006; Caldentey and Schmid, 2006) and skewing remittance flows towards the presumably better-off. However, at the moment,
Haiti, for instance, has a fairly even distribution of remittance recipients among the lowest and highest income quintiles,
according to the Haiti Remittance Survey 2006 of the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB, 2007), although this could
change. Nevertheless, further research is required to determine whether any such effects are offset by the human capital and/or
employment generated through higher returns to education and the local investment of remittances from highly skilled workers
(World Bank, 2005).2 Such development objectives may be most realistic where the agreements address labour shortages that
are of a temporary nature.

BLAs may furthermore reduce the vulnerability of migrant workers to exploitation during recruitment and employment. Beyond
obliging countries of origin to better regulate recruitment agencies, the agreements could assist them in negotiating limited
freedom of movement for their nationals within assigned occupational sectors, thereby also potentially raising labour market
efficiency in the destination country (Ruhs, 2005).

More rigorous research on the effectiveness of such agreements in terms of their implementation and impact and, possibly, the
formation of a regional consultative process (RCP) on migration to complement the CSME, where good practices and experiences
can be shared, would likely assist the Member States of the Caribbean Community to develop expanded and more effective
BLAs.

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To conclude, well-designed BLAs can assist countries of origin and destination to cultivate the multi-stakeholder cooperation
and public support necessary to address politically sensitive issues in migration management and help to bring migration
policies more into line with those on trade and foreign investment (Ruhs, 2005). In so doing, BLAs may assist in securing the
interests of all parties and facilitate a more equitable integration of less-developed countries of origin into the regional and
global economies.

Notes:
1
Implementation of the SAWP commenced in 1966 based on negotiations between Canada and Jamaica, and the programme was subsequently
extended to Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados in 1967, Mexico in 1974, and the Organization of East Caribbean States in 1976.
2
Other remittance issues under discussion include the direction of causality in the association between remittance inflows and relatively
high unemployment among migrant-sending households in some countries such as the Dominican Republic, and the potential for
remittances to result in exchange rate appreciation and reduced competitiveness of exports among small economies.
Source: Jennifer Zimmermann, Darfur Coordinator, IOM Sudan (formerly Project Development Officer, IOM Haiti).

4.3 Different Forms of Bilateral Arrangements the countries concerned, although their method of
and their Scope adoption and publication will normally depend on
the administrative and constitutional rules of those
As discussed above, bilateral cooperation on countries.
temporary labour migration may aim to fulfil various
economic, social and political purposes and take A country may, however, prefer to conclude MoUs
a number of different approaches. But how does or Cooperation Arrangements (CA),57 which have a
this cooperation take shape? Bilateral cooperation status similar to that of administrative or private
arrangements can be distinguished according to their “arrangements”, and which are not legally binding
legal status, the comprehensiveness or specificity of on the state. While MoUs/CAs may also contain
the migratory issues addressed and the categories of mechanisms for resolving disputes, these are
workers covered. usually in the form of further political dialogue or
consultations between representatives of the parties
(a) Legal status concerned.

Bilateral arrangements can cover a wide variety Memoranda of Understanding can be of the
of devices, from legally binding agreements (i.e. “government to government” type (e.g. MoU between
formal treaties) to less formal Memoranda of Canada and Mexico or the Caribbean states on the
Understanding (MoUs) and very informal practical Seasonal Agriculture Worker Program (SAWP) – see
arrangements, such as those involving primarily the Textbox 13.6), of the “government to private sector”
national employment agencies of the two countries type (e.g. Guatemalan Ministry of Labour with
concerned. FERME, an employer association in the Canadian
Province of Québec on the recruitment of seasonal
Bilateral arrangements can take the form of a treaty, agriculture workers - see Textbox 10.2) or between
i.e. a legally binding instrument between the two national administrations (e.g. between Germany’s and
governments concerned governed by international Slovenia’s employment services for “guest workers”).
law. Such agreements may or may not include a formal While under a MoU, the actions or decisions taken
mechanism (e.g. arbitration) for the settlement
of disputes, but where they do, the parties to the 57
MoUs and CAs are two out of a large variety of informal arrangements
agreement are required to follow the decisions of used. For example, the U.K. operates a youth exchange scheme with
Japan, “Japan yes”, on the basis of a Note verbale agreed with Japan,
any such body. Furthermore, bilateral agreements and the Philippines has signed a “Memorandum of Agreement” with Iraq,
are often published in the official journal of laws of Jordan and Qatar.

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are generally not subject to public international bilateral agreements, the possibility of amendment
law, they may be subject to pertinent branches of is included and, indeed, most existing agreements
national law (e.g. administrative or labour laws). have been modified several times. Emphasis on
flexibility is further expressed by the legal nature
Bilateral labour arrangements and MoUs are of these agreements, only a few are legally binding
general framework agreements: the details for their treaties, while most of them constitute less formal
implementation are to be found in operational arrangements.
guidelines often attached to the main agreement
(e.g. Canada SAWP MoU, Annex 1), or to be arranged In summary, when formal arrangements are in
through informal cooperation directly between the place, they also require informal cooperation, in
parties58 (e.g. through an exchange of letters between particular on the administrative details for their
administrative agencies), or be left for decisions to implementation. However, bilateral cooperation may
be taken at the local level, which in turn may or rely on purely informal processes in the absence of
may not be enshrined in administrative instruments written commitments, and operate through working
or similar means of regulation. BLAs and MoUs may groups, periodic discussions and annual conferences.
serve to establish a joint committee to manage issues For example, Guatemala and Mexico established a
arising from the application of the agreement by bilateral commission on migration for the exchange
countries of origin and destination (e.g. under the of information, discussions on working conditions
Spain-Ecuador agreement59 and Canada’s SAWP60). and irregular migration, together with a sectoral
working group on agriculture workers (Geronimi,
Flexibility is an important element of bilateral 2004).
arrangements. One of the potential advantages of
foreign employment schemes is their ability to adapt Because they are generally in a less advantageous
in a timely manner to labour market developments bargaining position, countries of origin usually prefer
in terms of the number and groups of persons they legally binding arrangements between governments
wish to capture. Sometimes programmes are set up and the establishment of clear procedures. Formal
for a limited period of time, for example the time agreements specify more clearly the division of
needed by a country to adapt its human resource responsibilities between the parties, and their
development strategy to meet certain needs.61 In all binding character compels compliance while offering
better guarantees regarding the protection of the
58
E.g. the Model Bilateral Agreement between the Czech Republic and interests of each party.
selected partner eastern European countries (OECD, 2004). Clause 8
stipulates that implementation mechanisms should be elaborated in
cooperation with responsible authorities. (b) Comprehensive labour agreements and
59
The Agreement, n. 51 above, establishes a Joint Coordination Committee,
which has a multifaceted role regarding follow-up, proposals for
agreements on specific issues
amendments where appropriate, timely dissemination of the contents of
the agreement and the settlement of any difficulties that may arise in
its application. The different forms of bilateral cooperation may also
60
Canada organizes a national meeting every year in alternation with be categorized according to the extent to which they
Mexico or a Caribbean country, which includes senior officials from
the source country’s Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and cover the various stages and aspects of the migratory
Ministry of Health. process. The content of formal bilateral labour
61
In 2001, Canada signed MoUs with employer representatives in the
construction and the tooling and machining trades of the manufacturing agreements is generally more detailed than in MoUs
sector. The purpose of both MoUs was to fill immediate shortages in the and other less formal arrangements. ILO identifies
sectors concerned by facilitating the temporary entry and employment of
foreign workers with a view to replacing the latter with Canadian citizens
and permanent residents in the medium to long terms. Consequently,
both MoUs had a limited life span, although they also contained express
provisions for their renewal.

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24 core elements which should appear in bilateral • Bilateral agreements covering specific groups of
labour agreements (Geronimi, 2004).62 migrant workers or other migrant categories with
a broader purpose than the management of
The categories of workers covered in these agreements labour mobility:
vary, with some referring to general employment and
others being more sector or skill specific.63 The most a. Free trade agreements (FTAs) with provisions on
common categories by type of labour recruited are: the mobility of workers, particularly skilled or
highly skilled workers, discussed in more detail
• seasonal workers (in sectors such as, for example, in Textbox 13.7 at the end of this chapter.
tourism, agriculture or construction); b. Technical cooperation and development
• contract workers and project-tied workers agreements, with emphasis on the
(foreigners employed by a foreign-based company development of the country of origin (e.g.
or a domestic firm for work abroad); return and reintegration of skilled workers,
• “guest workers” (under general temporary creation of job opportunities in areas of high
recruitment programmes or programmes targeting migration pressure, and investment tools and
skilled professionals); remittances).
• trainees (for vocational or language training);
and • Bilateral agreements covering different migrant
• working holidaymakers (access to work for young target groups and addressing border-crossing
adults while in the host country on holiday).64 issues:

Beside agreements focusing on temporary labour a. Agreements designed to prevent irregular

migration and issues related to a specific migratory migration, including readmission arrangements
process, a number of other bilateral agreements and the management of security threats (e.g.
facilitate mobility and/or the management of assistance for the manufacture of secure
migration flows generally as regards the admission identity documents, information campaigns on
and return of migrant workers, as well as the the risks associated with irregular migration
prevention of irregular migration and readmission of and cooperation on the return of irregular
irregular migrants. These can be broadly classified migrants).
as follows: b. Cross-border agreements (applicable to persons
residing in border areas and addressing
commuting, employment, taxation and other
issues of concern)
62
These core elements are: Identification of the competent government
authority; exchange of information; situation of irregular migrants;
c. Visa facilitation agreements which call for,
notification of job opportunities; list of candidates; pre-selection of on the basis of reciprocity, the issuance of
candidates; final selection; nomination of candidates by employers
(possibility to state the name of a person of interest to the employer); short-stay visas (e.g. 90 days within a period
medical examination; entry documents; residence and work permits; of 180 days) for specific categories of persons
transportation; employment contract; employment conditions; dispute
settlement; trade union and collective bargaining rights; social security; (e.g. scientists, journalists or members of
remittances; housing; family reunification; activities of social and international crews).65
religious organizations; establishment of a joint commission to monitor
the implementation of the agreement; validity and renewal of the
agreement; the applicable law and place of jurisdiction (Geronimi, 2004:
23-26).
63
Some agreements are not limited to temporary labour migration and
may also facilitate permanent employment-based immigration, as, for 65
This is, for instance, the case for the visa facilitation agreements
instance, the agreement between Spain and Ecuador (see n. 51 above). concluded between the EU and the Russian Federation, Ukraine and the
64
For a description of working holidaymaker schemes, see Chapter 5. Western Balkan countries, respectively.

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• Bilateral agreements facilitating (or addressing capacity and financial resources (especially when
the consequences of) mobility, while paying no developing countries are involved).
attention to international border-crossing issues:
The high degree of informality, the diversity of
a. Mutual recognition arrangements on the criteria objectives and the variety of actors involved make
and procedures for the recognition of diplomas, it all the more difficult to track the dynamics of
or the right to practice a profession or trade in bilateral negotiations on facilitating and regulating
another country. labour migration; to identify the trade-offs resulting
b. Social security and double taxation agreements in the opening up of new channels for migrant
(e.g. portability of pensions, prevention of workers from particular countries; and to weigh the
double taxation). importance of particular migration management
issues (e.g. addressing irregular migration) and their
The diversity of instruments available often implies success in securing regular openings for migrant
that a wide range of actors are involved in bilateral workers.
cooperation on labour migration. The leading roles
in the negotiations and discussions are typically 4.4 Impediments to Bilateral Agreements
taken by one or several ministries (for instance,
the ministry of labour and social affairs, or interior It would be mistaken to assume that the relatively
or foreign affairs, or the ministry of immigration limited number of bilateral labour arrangements that
or emigration where such specific entities exist). have been concluded and are being implemented to
Administrations and institutions under their umbrella date are a reflection of the asymmetry of relations
(e.g. public employment agencies, universities) between countries of origin and destination, where
may also initiate bilateral agreements with a local the former would be willing to enter into bilateral
or national scope. Some agreements are concluded arrangements but lack the capacity to convince the
between private entities and foreign public and/or latter to do so. It is true that many destination
private authorities. Added to this is the fact that the countries have declined offers from countries of
authorities in charge of negotiating an agreement origin to negotiate such arrangements. Spain has
are often not the same as those responsible for their declined 40 such requests (Schulman, 2003), whereas
implementation. the Philippines and Moldova have not been successful
in securing bilateral agreements with some major
Given these complexities, one of the main challenges destination countries (e.g. Saudi Arabia, in the case
consists in achieving coherence in the framing of of the Philippines; and 24 countries relying to some
bilateral labour migration policies, especially as extent on Moldovan migrant workers in the case of
they relate to both the identification of economic Moldova66). However, the reasons for this lack of
and social objectives and their realization through success are complex.
policymaking and implementation. This requires
a relatively high degree of national coordination Some of the difficulties may stem from the fact that
on the part of countries of origin and destination, a number countries adopt a position of principle not
which is typically lacking owing to the real or to resort to bilateral agreements, but to pursue a
perceived inability to reconcile conflicting objectives
pursued by diverse public and private stakeholders at 66
These include Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, the Czech
various levels (e.g. between different ministries; by Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Italy,
Kuwait, Lithuania, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM),
businesses; and representatives of employers, workers Poland, Slovakia, the then Serbia and Montenegro, and Slovenia
and civil society), and/or the lack of institutional (Sleptova, 2003).

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more universal approach regarding labour migration, country is likely to create expectations for other
i.e. one that does not distinguish on the basis of countries that their nationals should similarly
nationality.67 Other destination countries have benefit from the favourable treatment and may, in
engaged in bilateral agreements, but may be unwilling consequence, affect the quality of diplomatic relations
to expand the number of current beneficiaries for by generating resentment in case of refusal.
various reasons, such as reservations regarding
countries that do not figure prominently on their With regard to skilled and highly skilled workers, in
list of priorities, or they may entertain other a context where such competences are scarce and
concerns (e.g. domestic labour market conditions or the challenge of global competition to attract such
a source country’s standards regarding governance workers is acutely felt, restricting labour market
and human rights). Obstacles may also arise from a access to professionals from selected nationalities
divergence of opinions between countries of origin may not appear advisable.
and destination about the terms of a bilateral
agreement, or from a lack of institutional capacity to As far as opening up access to their labour
pursue the negotiation and implementation of such market is concerned, most destination countries,
agreements. when declining an offer to negotiate, point to the
situation of their employment market and their
(a) Preference for a unilateral/universal unemployment rates. Parallel reasons include the
approach general opposition expressed by public opinion to
regular migration and fears relating to overstay and
Certain destination countries do not feel the need the fuelling of irregular migration. As far as working
for bilateral agreements as foreign workers have conditions are concerned, there may be a reluctance
access to their labour markets through their general on the part of the government to take decisions
immigration policy, and the rights of migrant workers which could translate into more obligations beyond
are protected under national legislation. They those set down in national and international labour
may also have concerns that concluding bilateral standards, and higher costs for the employers of
agreements would result in conferring additional foreign workers (e.g. by regulating issues such as
rights on migrants not enjoyed by local workers. accommodation, overtime pay, rest periods and
similar concerns). Certain governments are of the
For countries that favour a universal immigration view that the determination of wages and the
policy and offer the same access and conditions to conditions surrounding the hiring of workers more
workers of all nationalities, bilateral arrangements generally is essentially a private matter between
may be regarded as discriminatory which, by employers and employees, or should be left to labour
privileging nationals from one country over others, market forces to determine.
are susceptible to create political tensions. Indeed,
entering into a bilateral labour agreement with one While an argument in favour of BLAs is the
prevention of abuse by the private sector (e.g.
67
This policy is sometimes also qualified as a unilateral approach. However, overcharging of fees, contract substitution) through
universal and unilateral approaches are not necessarily the same. Indeed, the involvement of the state in the recruitment
a unilateral approach suggests that one country has established a policy
on its own and on the basis of objectives identified by its government. process, it has also to be considered that governments
A universal policy (applying no differences in terms of migrants’ origins) or public administrations are not necessarily
may result from such a unilateral process. However, there is nothing
to preclude a country from entering into consultations with source immune to malpractices themselves and that their
countries with a view to improving its universal policy, and therefore
departing from a purely unilateral approach (see also Chapter 11 and the
involvement can be misdirected to satisfy “political
discussion regarding the adoption of “development-friendly” policies). patronage”. Furthermore, unnecessarily bureaucratic

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administrative requirements can be an obstacle to lodgings and such like); administrative inefficiency;
effective implementation of the agreement. and the presence of community networks from other
countries acting as intermediaries for job matching
The general tendency among major destination for their nationals.
countries today is still concerned with the
management of ports of entry on the basis of a universal It may also be difficult to terminate a bilateral
system and closer cooperation with countries of origin agreement, or to resist pressure for its expansion, even
on issues related to irregular migration at the bilateral if conditions in the labour market have changed or if
level. Moreover, some countries believe that their countries prefer to change their future immigration
commitments under GATS Mode 4 (see Textbox Int. 1), policy and restrict their intervention (and related
which could be invoked by non-parties on the basis of costs) to visa delivery, so as not to be involved in the
the Most Favoured Nation Clause of the GATS, preclude administration and monitoring of the entire process.
such a bilateral approach to admission. Indeed, bilateral agreements are time and resource
(financial and human) intensive, as they might imply
(b) Negotiation and implementation problems extensive public administration involvement in their
implementation and monitoring; the more countries
Destination countries usually limit their readiness involved, the higher the administrative complexity,
to enter into bilateral agreements to countries especially if, as is often the case, the terms of the
that are potential sources of migratory flows. The agreements vary.
number of BLAs they accept to enter into is limited
for several reasons, in addition to those connected Countries of destination enter into bilateral labour
with the existence of less favourable labour market agreements for two main reasons: (a) normalizing
conditions. Any additional BLA a country concludes a pre-existing situation with a source country by
will have the effect of limiting or diluting the regularizing irregular flows and reorganizing them
relative advantage of other beneficiary countries, in a satisfactory manner; or (b) encouraging/
and may create discontent. Another source of tension facilitating new recruitment channels for persons
emerges when a BLA does not generate movements; whose qualifications are in high demand on the basis
countries of origin often regard the availability of of the resources available in specific countries (e.g.
jobs in a country of destination as an entitlement agreements on nurses by the U.K. with the Philippines
rather than a mere prospect, and quotas (where they and Spain68). Consequently, countries of origin that
exist) more as targets than ceilings. Some countries are outside the scope of these interests experience
of destination experience this problem with their difficulties in building the bargaining capacity
trainee programmes for foreign nationals, which necessary to enter into bilateral cooperation.
are typically underused to the dissatisfaction of
countries of origin, especially when the programme Obstacles to negotiations and prospective
was negotiated together with a readmission implementation on the part of countries of origin
agreement (OECD, 2004). Lack of implementation or may arise from a lack of institutional capacity to
utilization can be due to inadequacies in recruitment analyse the existing labour demand in destination
mechanisms; employer preferences; mismatches countries, determine their priorities and pursue
between admission criteria and labour force profiles
in countries of origin; the balance between earning 68
However, changes in the demand for certain categories of foreign labour
can affect the functioning of these agreements. For instance, “general
possibilities (wages, duration of stay) and the costs nursing” occupations were removed from the U.K. shortage occupation
of migration (i.e. travel, medical examination, list in August 2006, which impacted on the recruitment of nurses from
the Philippines.

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a lengthy process of negotiation.69 Countries migration between host and home country to limit
of origin may also suffer from the absence of disruption to families.
adequate public or private recruitment agencies to
“market” their national workforce and facilitate the In the context of GATS Mode 4 negotiations and
implementation of labour migration programmes. development considerations, the likelihood of
Further impediments include the educational level, bilateral agreements being a complementary tool to
skills and language proficiency of their nationals, the multilateral framework by providing for further
whose attributes do not always correspond to those openings for the low and semi-skilled workforce
in demand in destination countries. should not be overestimated.70

Countries of origin may also be reluctant to accept It would nonetheless be worthwhile to explore in more
a bilateral arrangement requiring, in exchange for depth the other ways in which bilateral agreements
some limited market access, the return of nationals may assist in liberalizing the movement of workers,
in an irregular situation in the destination country. either through further research on examples of good
Indeed some countries of origin may feel that it is practices of migration management extracted from
beyond their capacity to prevent the departure of bilateral agreements, which could lead developed
irregular migrants whose job expectations cannot destination countries to adopt a more open attitude
be accommodated at home, and whose families towards them, and/or through using these examples
rely on remittances from abroad to make ends for the elaboration of a pre-commitment mechanism
meet. Furthermore, when wages are agreed under which would guarantee access to the labour markets
BLAs while other sources of foreign recruitment of WTO Members to any countries of origin meeting
exist, such types of agreement may undermine the stated criteria. Both options offer the advantage
their competitiveness. For some countries, bilateral of providing solutions for all developing countries
agreements are of limited interest as they typically because they are not discriminatory and support
offer few mechanisms for enforcement and redress, efforts in the direction of the establishment of a
and unequal power relationships between countries workable global framework.
of origin and destination make it difficult to
negotiate equitable agreements that truly protect 5. Conclusion
migrant workers.
In recent years, the international community has
Even when parties are willing to enter into BLAs, come to recognize migration as a key global issue.
the terms under discussion might put too much There are few who would dispute that migration
pressure on one party to reach an accord. It is affects virtually every country in the world in one
sometimes difficult for the parties to identify way or another, and frequently to a very significant
common goals when each is advocating its own degree. This has created previously unforeseen
agenda and is unwilling to make compromises challenges for policymakers, but it has also led
regarding its own perceived interests. Among some to the acknowledgement that no country can
of the common subjects of contention are: social and realistically hope to manage migration on its own;
medical insurance, family reunification, conditions and, in turn, provided impetus for cooperation
of readmission of irregular migrants, recognition of
qualifications, and mechanisms supporting circular 70
Another issue when exploring bilateral possibilities is the fact that an
agreement covering movements of persons only in the context of service
provision would normally be incompatible with the Most Favoured
69
And once the agreement is signed, to discuss the modalities for its Nation principle of the WTO which requires all Member States to be
implementation and monitoring. treated equally.

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towards the development of common approaches to interest in their management. The limited number
the management of international migration. of countries involved offers a more manageable
environment for consensus building, allocation of
At the global level, there are elements of a normative financial resources and technical assistance, and
framework “dispersed across a number of treaties, reduction in transaction costs through joint activities.
customary law provisions, non-binding agreements In response to the emergence or evolution of issues
and policy understandings” (GCIM, 2005: 55). There of interest to more than one region, inter-regional
are challenges for the international community processes, such as the Bali Process or the Abu Dhabi
in both articulating clearly these provisions and Dialogue (see Textbox 13.4), can be established as
ensuring that they are implemented. The GATS broader consultative or cooperative platforms.
Mode 4 negotiations are an ambitious worksite where
advances on the access and entry of service providers Finally, the bilateral level offers a wide range
is, to a large extent conditioned to progress on much of possibilities for cooperation, including very
larger portfolios of interest such as agriculture. For concrete partnerships to enable the movement of
the foreseeable future however, most of the effort at targeted contingents of migrant workers. Bilateral
the global level is likely to be applied to the Global arrangements are very diverse in form and content.
Forum on Migration and Development, where the In considering why and how they work, it should be
migration and development agenda offers a commonly noted that the principal motivations for engaging in
acceptable discussion platform for countries of origin such cooperation for the facilitation of movement may
and destination. frequently be unrelated to the improved matching of
labour demand and supply. Other social, economic
At the regional level, the most significant outcomes or political considerations come into play, and the
have been achieved when migration management specific objectives pursued by countries influence the
objectives are linked to broader economic way these agreements/arrangements are designed
integration endeavours supported by well-developed and in turn their capacity to function effectively
institutional frameworks and considerable financial as instruments fostering labour movements. Other
resources, as best exemplified within the European internal and external factors are also relevant.
Union. By providing a normative framework, such Internal conditions relate, for instance, to the
regional undertakings create predictability and a efficiency of the mechanisms in the agreement or
legal basis for safeguarding the rights of migrants. arrangements for matching demand and supply, the
However, in many regions, movements of workers criteria outlined for migrants to participate in the
are still restricted, with the exception of the highly scheme, the complexity of administrative procedures,
skilled in carefully defined situations, and the and the cost of the process to workers and employers.
prospects of fuller integration of labour markets and Among external conditions are the existence of other
freer movements of workers are clouded by economic migration routes;71 the language and vocational skills
disparities and fear of massive inflows by the strong available in the country of origin; the availability of
economies of regional groupings. For this reason, a pool of irregular migrants;72 the deterrent effect
most of the considerable activity at this level is
of an informal and non-binding nature. Regional 71
E.g. possibilities to enter under other migration/visa programmes for
frameworks are sometimes seen as relay stations for foreign workers, under family migration/reunion or even humanitarian
schemes.
the non-coercive implementation of standards and 72
Irregular migrants are attractive to employers because they are cheaper
(employers do not respect minimum wage requirements, or pay
principles adopted at the global level. Regional cross- contributions to the social security system, etc.) and allow considerable
border movements create shared concerns and elicit flexibility in hiring and firing according to the needs of enterprises.

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of policies against unauthorized employment; and possibilities for countries with a weaker voice to be
the preference of employers for workers of certain heard, and the commitments made in such circles
nationalities (e.g. for reasons of cultural affinity, tend to be measured and practicable. The global
geographical proximity). arena is a more level playing field, in theory at least,
with each country having an equal voice and weaker
The bilateral, regional and global levels of cooperation countries being in a position to develop effective
afford differing advantages and disadvantages to alliances with like-minded partners, bearing in mind
countries in terms of bargaining strategies and that in global institutions developing countries
outcomes. The bilateral approach generally allows are superior in number to developed countries.
the more powerful party a stronger say, while Countries interested in becoming more involved in
offering the ability to both parties to arrive at tailor- international cooperation on labour mobility may
made arrangements reflecting an agreed balance of explore all these available opportunities according
interests. Regional cooperation, even when dominated to their respective merits.
by the stronger economies in the group, provides

Textbox 13.7
Skilled Migration and Regional, Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements

The flow of global talent across borders is growing continuously, spurred by such diverse factors as demographic profiles,
developments in information and communication technologies, and the growing internationalization of goods and services
production and delivery. Earlier, skilled labour flows were primarily directed from developed to developing countries. Increasingly,
skilled migration also occurs within and among developing countries, reflecting the integration of developing economies in
global markets and the growth in South-South trade and investment relations.

Today, there is a distinct shift in migration patterns towards the highly skilled, and countries of destination are pursuing
various approaches to attract talent globally (see Chapter 2). In countries of origin, there has also been a shift in thinking on
skilled outflows, from viewing such flows as brain drain to seeing them as sources for brain exchange and circulation, especially
in view of the temporary and repeat nature of much of these flows in key source sectors like information technology and within
global firms. Thus, although economic and social push and pull factors in countries of origin and countries of destination,
respectively, have been and remain the primary drivers in migratory flows, changes in host country policies and shifts in source
country attitudes have also played a role in driving the growth in cross-border skilled flows.

As more and more host countries compete for global talent and as more and more source countries seek to reap benefits
from their skilled labour base and capitalize on their demographic dividend, labour mobility is becoming an important issue
in bilateral, regional, and multilateral discussions. Several trade and investment agreements today include labour mobility
provisions and commitments on movement and entry of workers among countries. Such agreements are intended to ensure an
appropriate framework for managed migration among the parties, in a manner that benefits both sides and at times also go
beyond to address issues of capacity building, education and training policies, as well as coordinating screening, monitoring
and deployment issues. In the context of skilled migration, these agreements entail shaping the sectoral and regional dynamics
of skilled labour movements so as to lower transactions costs for trade and business flows and to leverage complementarities
in labour supply and demand between partner countries.

At the multilateral level, the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), negotiated under WTO auspices, provides a
framework for the discussion of international movements of service providers at all skill levels. However, despite a few improved
offers in the Doha Round discussions that touch on certain categories of interest to developing countries and remove certain
conditions on entry and stay, there has been little progress made in the Mode 4 discussions under the GATS and no commercially
meaningful improvement in market access conditions so far (see Textbox Int. 1). Thus, the prospects for liberalizing skilled
labour flows do not seem promising under the GATS at this time.

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On the other hand, regional and bilateral approaches have been more successful in handling migration issues.1 Regional
and bilateral agreements, such as free trade agreements (FTAs), economic partnership agreements (EPAs) and comprehensive
economic cooperation agreements (CECAs), generally cover labour mobility under the separate headings of labour and
investment. These agreements tend to focus on skilled labour categories similar to those under GATS, as these raise fewer
concerns over labour displacement and cultural and social impacts. Regional and bilateral arrangements need not be viewed
separately as the approach towards liberalizing migration is not affected by the number of the participating countries or the
size of the region covered by such arrangements. Several of these agreements use the GATS model with specific schedules of
commitments for various categories of persons. Some, such as the U.S.-Jordan FTA, also go beyond GATS to include specific visa
commitments for such categories as independent traders, treaty investors and investment-related entry.

The approach adopted by regional and bilateral agreements towards skilled labour mobility can be broadly classified into three
groups.

The first concerns agreements such as those concluded under European Union (EU), European Economic Area (EEA) and
European Free Trade Association (EFTA) auspices, as well as the Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Agreement
that cover skilled movements under the broader heading of labour movements, which is a general right among member
countries. Such agreements tend to be concluded among developed countries.

The second group consists of agreements which specifically focus on movements associated with investment and business
flows, such as business visitors and investment treaty-related movements. The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
Forum, for example, excludes self-employed and low or semi-skilled labour and includes arrangements to facilitate labour
mobility through information exchange, business dialogue, harmonization of immigration procedures and standards, and the
streamlining of procedures for entry, processing and stay for business purposes. There is an in-principle agreement to reduce
the processing time for temporary entry applications for intra-corporate transferees, specialists and business visitors. An APEC
Business Travel Card valid for three years provides for multiple short-term business entries and accelerated airport processing
and entry for business travellers from within APEC (see Textbox 13.5). Likewise, the U.S.-Jordan FTA specifies visa commitments
for independent traders and persons entering in connection with investment activities. Jordanian nationals can obtain E-1
and E-2, i.e. U.S. treaty-trader and treaty-investor visas, respectively. The Japan-Singapore Economic Partnership Agreement
regulates movement for business purposes, covering business visitors, intra-corporate transferees and certain categories of
professionals and investors. However, parties to such agreements continue to retain the right to refuse entry, and national laws
on employment, entry and stay take precedence over the agreement provisions on mobility. The Trade in Services Agreement
(TIS), concluded under the Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation between China and the Association
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), similarly provides for improved market access and national treatment for select service
suppliers with the objective of facilitating greater investment in the region.

The third group of regional or bilateral agreements focuses on liberalizing market access for select business and professional
categories to address skills shortages in particular areas. These agreements also discuss associated regulatory issues such as
harmonization of standards and mutual recognition of professional and academic qualifications among the parties. For instance,
the India-Singapore CECA relaxes visa restrictions for Indian professionals in 127 categories, including information technology
(IT), medicine, engineering, nursing, accountancy and university lecturers, by introducing one-year multiple entry visas and
removing economic needs tests and labour market tests together with the social security contribution requirement for these
categories. By adopting this targeted approach, the agreement clearly builds on the complementarity in the supply of and
demand for skilled service providers between India and Singapore, respectively. It also provides for mutual recognition of
degrees issued by specified universities and technical education boards of both countries, and a framework for negotiations in
other areas where there are requests for recognition. The agreement further addresses the issue of wage parity by adding special
allowances paid in India and Singapore to the basic pay of Indian professionals to achieve salary equivalence requirements for
market entry into Singapore. Thus, under this bilateral agreement, India has been able to address and make some headway on
critical regulatory and market access issues, which the government has also raised in the context of the GATS negotiations. In
turn, India hopes to use the CECA as a benchmark in negotiations on other regional trade agreements.

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Two points should be noted concerning discussions on labour mobility in the context of bilateral and regional frameworks.

The first point is that, although more progress on skilled movements may be achieved in the regional and bilateral context
than under the GATS, discussions have not always been easy even as regards the former. Agreement on skilled movement
and labour mobility is often particularly difficult. Thus, the Japan-Philippines Economic Partnership Agreement (JPEPA) was
initially unable to progress concerning the admission of Filipino nurses onto the Japanese market. This was the first free trade
agreement to be negotiated by Japan to include provisions on the movement of labour. Japan’s new economic strategy aims
to boost the number of foreign workers in Japan and this agreement is a step in that direction. The Japanese Government has
decided to introduce a new facilitated licence for nursing caretakers, which will certify those who have completed relevant
courses at vocational schools, colleges and universities, but have not passed a national exam, as “practical” nursing caretakers.
This will enable nurses who have not passed the state exam to work at nursing care facilities. Japan will accept 400 nurses
and 600 nursing caretakers under this FTA. As a result, hundreds of Filipino nurses, caregivers and nursing care trainees are
expected to enter Japan. Some organizations have already been training Filipino nurses in anticipation of this development.
Other countries, such as Thailand and Indonesia, that are interested in free trade agreements with Japan are also likely to seek
greater market access for skilled and semi-skilled service providers to the Japanese market. However, the Japan-Philippines
FTA shows that the passage of labour mobility provisions is not a smooth one, although it could also be argued that more has
been achieved by the Philippines in the bilateral than might have been possible in a multilateral context, from a traditionally
closed host country like Japan.

Likewise, China’s request for admission of its skilled workers to New Zealand has been a matter of debate, as New Zealand
negotiators wish to protect working conditions and their local labour force in any agreement. Trade unions in New Zealand are
concerned that to admit such labour would reduce incentives to train and upgrade the skills of local workers and affect their
working conditions. However, some associations in New Zealand, such as the Engineering, Printing and Manufacturing Union,
view such provisions as a means to fill critical skills gaps in manufacturing and other areas, and thus potentially as beneficial.
New Zealand may grant access to select groups of skilled Chinese workers, such as teachers of Mandarin, specialists in Chinese
medicine and working holidaymakers from China. Therefore, labour mobility issues clearly evoke a wide range of responses and
raise host country sensitivities on such issues as wages, the displacement of local workers and the effect on working conditions,
similar to those in the multilateral context and, therefore, progress is not easily made.

A second point worth noting is that bilateral and regional agreements may involve substantial concessions by developing
countries to their partners to the agreement, particularly in sectors that are in high demand, in exchange for market access
for their skilled workers. In the discussions between China and New Zealand, New Zealand has demanded major concessions
from China in return for increased access for Chinese skilled workers. In the discussions taking place between India and the
EU, the free movement of professionals, especially in such activities as IT, medicine and engineering, and the recognition of
professional qualifications are among India’s main demands. However, such access is likely to require India’s commitments on
investment in, for example, the financial, telecom and retail distribution services sectors, and in other areas such as tariffs for
industrial products as well as competition policy and regulatory transparency. Thus, the quid pro quo, especially for countries
such as India and China, which have large pools of skilled labour but are also very attractive markets for investment, is likely
to be much more pronounced in bilateral and regional discussions and also a necessary condition for realizing any gains on
skilled movement.

The real value of bilateral and regional agreements, however, lies beyond the market access gained through any particular
agreement. Such agreements also provide developing countries with experience and the institutional and regulatory capacity to
negotiate with large trading partners on issues such as visas and standards. India is expected to use the CECA concluded with
Singapore as a benchmark for its mutual recognition and visa discussions with the EU. Likewise, China, which is seeking market
access for its skilled workers on temporary permits as part of a planned free trade deal with New Zealand, is looking to use this
agreement as a precedent in its future discussions with larger OECD economies.

Thus, bilateral and regional agreements can potentially serve as building blocks for multilateral frameworks such as the GATS
by providing countries with negotiating experience, enabling regulatory capacity building and instilling confidence among
policymakers to undertake commitments initially on a bilateral or regional scale before moving on to the multilateral level.

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This is particularly so for complex issues such as standards, mutual recognition and labour market policies where there can
be no single agreed technical formula for liberalization and where multilateral discussions are more likely to falter. Ideally,
these regional and bilateral pacts should pave the way for more liberal multilateral commitments. Whether or not this will be
so depends on the overall state of play and the confidence of member countries in the multilateral trading system and the
intersectoral trade-offs involved. There is, of course, the frequently referred to concern that some smaller countries may be
marginalized in these regional and bilateral processes. But, given the growing number of small countries that are entering into
EPAs and FTAs with developed countries, and the accelerating rate of South-South pacts, such marginalization need not occur.
Additional issues, such as the classification of occupations and occupational categories, could be addressed multilaterally
building on the experience and successful cases of regional and bilateral pacts.

Note:
1
Much of the discussion on bilateral and regional agreements and their typologies is based on Nielson (2003) and miscellaneous articles
from the bilaterals.org website.

Source: Rupa Chanda, Professor of Economics, Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore.

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2007c Proposal for a Directive of the European

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security_rta_conflict.pdf. Group (MPG), Brussels/Lisbon, http://www.
migpolgroup.com/multiattachments/3011/
Dommen, C. DocumentName/EMD_Portugal_2005.pdf.
2005 “Migrants’ Human Rights: Could GATS Help?”,
Migration Information Source, March, Migration Geronimi, E.
Policy Institute (MPI), Washington, D.C., 2004 Acuerdos bilaterales de migración de mano
http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/ de obra: Modo de empleo, International
display.cfm?id=290. Migration Paper No. 65, International Migration
Programme, International Labour Office,
European Commission Geneva, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/
2005a Green Paper on an EU approach to managing protection/migrant/download/imp/imp65s.pdf.
economic migration, COM (2004) 811, 11
January. Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM)
2005 Migration in an Interconnected World: New
2005b Migration and Development: Some concrete directions for action, Report of the GCIM,
orientations, COM (2005) 390, 1 September. October, SRO-Kundig, Geneva, http://www.
gcim.org/attachements/gcim-complete-report-
2005c Policy Plan on Legal Migration, COM (2005) 669,
2005.pdf.
21 December.
Global Union Research Network (GURN)
2007a Communication applying the Global Approach
2007 Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements, GURN
to Migration to the Eastern and South-Eastern
online discussion, http://www.gurn.info/topic/
Regions neighbouring the European Union, COM
trade/.
(2007) 247, 16 May.
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)
2007b Communication on circular migration and
2004 “The Spread of Bilateral and Regional Trade
mobility partnerships between the European
Agreements”, Draft Paper, June, ICFTU, http://
Union and third countries, COM (2007) 248, 16
www.gurn.info/topic/trade/icftu_0604.pdf.
May.

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Chapter 13 - ACHIEVING BEST OUTCOMES FROM GLOBAL, Regional and bilateral Cooperation

International Labour Organization (ILO) Piper, N. and R. Iredale

1999 General Survey on Migrant Workers, 2003 Identification of the Obstacles to the Signing
Committee on the Application of Conventions and Ratification of the UN Convention on
and Recommendations, Report III (1B), the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant
International Labour Conference, 87th Session, Workers: The Asia-Pacific Perspective, United
June, International Labour Office, Geneva, Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/ Organization (UNESCO) Series of Country
relm/ilc/ilc87/r3-1b.htm. Reports on the Ratification of the UN
Convention on Migrants, Doc. SHS/2003/MC/1
2004 Towards a fair deal for migrant workers in the REV, UNESCO, Paris, http://unesdoc.unesco.
global economy, Report VI, International Labour org/images/0013/001395/139528E.pdf.
Conference, 92nd Session, June, International
Labour Office, Geneva, http://www.ilo.org/ Santestevan, A.M.
wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/ 2007 “Free Movement Regimes in South America:
documents/meetingdocument/kd00096.pdf. The Experience of MERCOSUR and the Andean
Community” in R. Cholewinski, R. Perruchoud
2006 ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration: and E. Macdonald (Eds.), International Migration
Non-binding principles and guidelines for a Law: Developing Paradigms and Key Challenges,
rights-based approach to labour migration, T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague, 363-386.
International Labour Office, Geneva, http://
www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/ Shulman, R.
migrant/download/multilat_fwk_en.pdf. 2003 “Underage, Illegal and taking their Chances in
Spain: Moroccan Girls defy Social Convention
International Organization for Migration (IOM) to Escape Poverty, Violence and Despair”,
2005 World Migration 2005: Costs and Benefits of Washington Post, 2 November.
International Migration, IOM, Geneva, http://
www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/cache/offonce/pid/ Sleptova, E.
1674?entryId=932. 2003 “Labour Migration in Europe: Special focus on
the Republic of Moldova”, Institute for Public
IOM and Swiss Federal Office for Migration Policy (IPP), Moldova Republic, http://www.ipp.
2005a International Agenda for Migration Management, md/public/biblioteca/50/en/St~Sleptova~fin.
IOM/Swiss Federal Office for Migration, Geneva/ doc.
Berne, http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/cache/
offonce/pid/1674?entryId=8005. Williams, V.
2008 “Interstate Cooperation in Migration
2005b Interstate Cooperation and Migration, Berne Management in the Southern African
Initiative Studies, IOM/Swiss Federal Office Development Community (SADC)”, revised
for Migration, Geneva/Berne, http://www. draft paper presented at the IOM-University
iom.int/jahia/Jahia/cache/offonce/pid/ of Toronto Workshop on Migration and
1674?entryId=8008. International Cooperation: South-South
Perspectives, 7-8 August, Geneva.
Ng, E. and J. Whalley
2007 “Visas and Work Permits: Possible Global Winters, L.A.
Negotiating Initiatives”, paper prepared for 2005 “Developing Country Proposals for the
a Centre for International Governance and Liberalization of Movements of Natural Service
Innovation (CIGI) project and resubmitted Suppliers”, Working Paper T8, January,
to the Review of International Organizations, Development Research Centre on Migration,
September, http://economics.uwo.ca/grad/Ng/ Globalisation and Poverty, University of Sussex,
AdditionalPaper1~Oct2007.pdf. Brighton, http://www.migrationdrc.org/
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Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD)
2004 Migration for Employment – Bilateral Agreements
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Council on Hemispheric Affairs (COHA)

Textbox 13.1 - The International Convention 2005 Neighborly Quarrels: The Dominican Republic
on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant and the Perennial Haitian Immigrant Issue,
Workers and Members of Their Families Memorandum to the Press, 30 June, COHA,
Washington, D.C., http://www.coha.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human org/2005/06/30/neighborly-quarrels-the-
Rights (OHCHR) dominican-republic-and-the-perennial-haitian-
2008 International Convention on the Protection of immigrant-issue/.
the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members
of Their Families, General Assembly resolution Ferguson, J.
45/158 of 18 December 1990, OHCHR, http:// 2003 Migration in the Caribbean: Haiti, the Dominican
www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cmw.htm. Republic and Beyond, July, Minority Rights
Group International, London, http://www.
2005 Committee on Migrant Workers, 15 December minorityrights.org/1038/reports/migration-in-
2005: Day of General Discussion: Protecting the-caribbean-haiti-the-dominican-republic-
the rights of all migrant workers as a tool to and-beyond.html.
enhance development, OHCHR, http://www2.
ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/mwdiscussion. Fuchs, D. and T. Straubhaar
htm. 2003 Economic Integration in the Caribbean: The
development towards a common labour market,
International Migration Papers 61, May, Social
Textbox 13.6 - Exploring the Role of Reformed Protection Sector, International Migration
Bilateral Labour Agreements: The Caribbean Programme, International Labour Office,
Geneva, http://www.ilo.org/public/english/
Community and the Temporary Movement of
protection/migrant/download/imp/imp61e.pdf.
Less-skilled Labour
Hendrikx, M.
Caldentey, E.P. and K. Schmid 2006 Appropriate social security for migrant workers:
2006 “The Performance of CARICOM Economies in Implementation of agreements on social security,
the 1990s: The Current Effect on Migration and paper prepared for the International Social
Conflict Potential” in T. Lesser, B. Fernández- Security Association (ISSA) Regional Conference
Alfaro, L. Cowie and N. Bruni (Eds.), Intra- for the Americas, 28-31 May, Belize City,
Caribbean Migration and the Conflict Nexus, http://www.issa.int/pdf/belize06/2hendrikx.
Human Rights Internet (in collaboration with pdf.
the IOM, Association of Caribbean States and
The University of West Indies), Ottawa. Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)
2007 Haiti Remittance Survey 2006, presented at the
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) IADB and the Multilateral Investment Fund
2007 CARICOM Secretariat Law website, http://www. (MIF) Conference on Sending Money Home:
caricomlaw.org/doc.php?id=557. Remittances to Haiti, 6 March, Port-au-Prince,
http://www.iadb.org/news/docs/HaitiSurvey.
Cholewinski, R., J. Redpath, S. Nonnenmacher and J. Packer pps.
2006 “The International Normative Framework
with Reference to Migration in the Greater International Organization for Migration (IOM)
Caribbean” in T. Lesser, B. Fernández-Alfaro, 2005 “Bilateral Labour Agreements: Effective Tools
L. Cowie and N. Bruni (Eds.), Intra-Caribbean for Managing Labour Flows?”, Textbox 12.2
Migration and the Conflict Nexus. Human in World Migration 2005: Costs and Benefits of
Rights Internet (in collaboration with the International Migration, IOM, Geneva, 238-251.
IOM, Association of Caribbean States and The
University of West Indies), Ottawa. 2008 Website on Migration and Trade, http://www.
iom.int/jahia/page1172.html.

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Chapter 13 - ACHIEVING BEST OUTCOMES FROM GLOBAL, Regional and bilateral Cooperation

Orozco, M.
2006 “Understanding the remittance economy in
Textbox 13.7 - Skilled Migration and Regional,
Haiti”, final draft of the paper commissioned by Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements
the World Bank, Inter-American Dialogue 2006,
15 March, Research Consortium on Remittances Bilaterals.org website
in Conflict and Crises (RCRCC), Institute for http://bilaterals.org.
the Study of International Migration (ISIM),
Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., Chanda, R.
http://isim.georgetown.edu/Publications/ 2004 “Movement and Presence of Natural Persons and
RCRCCPubs/Orozco/Understanding%20the%20re Developing Countries: Issues and Proposals for
mittance%20economy%20in%20Haiti.pdf. the GATS Negotiations”, Trade-Related Agenda,
Development and Equity (T.R.A.D.E.) Working
Pritchett, L. Papers 19, May, South Centre, Geneva, http://
2006 Let Their People Come: Breaking the Gridlock www.southcentre.org/index.php?option=com_c
on Global Labor Mobility, Center for Global ontent&task=view&id=234&Itemid=67.
Development, Washington, D.C., http://www.
cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/10174. Docquier, F. and H. Rapoport
2004 Skilled migration: the perspective of developing
Ruhs, M. countries, WPS332, The World Bank,
2005 “Designing Viable and Ethical Labour Washington, D.C., http://www-wds.worldbank.
Immigration Policies” in World Migration 2005: org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/
Costs and Benefits of International Migration, IB/2004/09/22/000160016_20040922151739/
IOM, Geneva, 203-220. Rendered/PDF/WPS3382.pdf.

United Nations, Security Council Nielson, J.

2006 Report of the Secretary-General on the United 2003 “Labour Mobility in Regional Trade Agreements”
Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, Doc. in A. Mattoo and A. Carzaniga (Eds.), Moving
S/2006/592, 28 July, UN Security Council, New People to Deliver Services, The World Bank,
York. Washington, D.C.

World Bank United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

2005 A Time to Choose: Caribbean Development in (UN DESA)
the 21st Century, Report No. 31725-LAC, April 2004 World Economic and Social Survey 2004:
26, Caribbean Country Management Unit, International Migration, Docs. E/2004/75/
Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Rev.1/Add.1, ST/ESA/291/Add.1, UN DESA, New
Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region, York, http://www.un.org/esa/policy/wess/
The World Bank, http://web.worldbank.org/ wess2004files/part2web/part2web.pdf.
WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/LACEXT 0,,cont
entMDK:20468612~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830 World Trade Organization (WTO)
~theSitePK:258554,00.html. 1994 General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)
and Related Instruments, April, WTO, Geneva,
2006 Social Resilience and State Fragility in http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/
Haiti: A Country Social Analysis, Report gatsintr_e.htm.
No. 36069–HT, April 27, Caribbean Country
Management Unit, ESSD Sector Management
Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean
Region, The World Bank, http://siteresources.
worldbank.org/SOCIALANALYSIS/1104894-
1115795935771/20938696/Haiti_CSA.pdf.

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CONCLUSION*

Human mobility in its many and varied forms, within presence is the subject of persistent controversy.
and across national borders, is a major characteristic When community debates arise about the size of
and perhaps even one of the defining features of our migration quotas, about the value of permanency
contemporary world. People move in ever increasing of residence as opposed to circularity of movement,
numbers and for many different purposes related to about worker rights and social entitlements and,
work, family, social, educational, cultural, business even more generally, about the economic impact of
or personal safety concerns; sometimes within their migration, it is generally these workers who are the
own countries, at other times across the nearest focus of interest.
border or perhaps across the world.
For any analysis of contemporary mobility to be
Today, a great deal of policy attention tends to fall comprehensive and meaningful, however, other,
on highly qualified workers and their needed skills, often overlooked categories have to be taken into
drive and energy. Developed countries are conscious consideration. For instance, student populations in
of the need to offer competitive conditions of entry, countries of destination are increasingly seen as
residence and employment if they are to attract pools of talented individuals who can be and are
needed talent from abroad, as exemplified by the encouraged to stay on for work at the completion of
European Union’s current debate about the proposed their studies.
introduction of a “Blue Card” for highly qualified
individuals (European Commission, 2007). On the Tourists and business visitors account for the highest
other hand, low and semi-skilled workers remain numbers of international border crossings, and their
a much more challenging and contested category: movements have perceptible impacts on broader
while their labour continues to be indispensable in migratory patterns: tourists may combine the pursuit
many economically important areas of employment, of cultural and leisure activities with prospecting
for instance in the agriculture, construction and for employment in anticipation of subsequent
hospitality sectors, in many host countries their migration, and business visits may be a prelude to
eventual longer-term residence and employment,
* This Conclusion was written by Gervais Appave and Ryszard Cholewinski
(Editors-in-Chief), and Michele Klein Solomon, Director, Migration Policy, or the establishment of business enterprises. In
Research and Communications, IOM, Geneva.

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CONCLUSION

addition, there is a growing trend to offer carefully and a constituent part of the complex and
tailored access to domestic labour markets to young, interdependent social and economic processes that
educated tourists through the use of working-holiday are now collectively referred to as globalization; a
visas. consequence in the sense that developments towards
the facilitation of the production of goods and
Family migrations are also changing. They have, in services through global resourcing, the facilitation of
the past, often been seen as an adjunct to labour the movement of capital and the facilitation of trade
migration and consisting largely of economically create a context that encourages human mobility; a
inactive female spouses and dependent children. constituent part in the sense that human mobility
Without prejudice to the importance of the reunion in itself gives rise to ever expanding networks of
of spouses, and parents and children in migration relationships and communications that are part and
management, this perception needs to be adjusted parcel of globalization.
to acknowledge more readily the fact that women
are now migrating as heads of households, that Second, as one of the consequences of the choice
family migrants do enter and actively participate in made by the international community to facilitate
the workforce in countries of destination, and that the movement of capital, goods and services, human
family members are recruited to meet specific labour mobility or, more specifically, the movement of
market needs. human resources at all skills levels is now factored
into the equations intended to yield new economic
The number of internal migrants probably far gains. In other words, labour market dynamics are
exceeds that of international migrants and, in increasingly operating across international borders.
many countries – India and China for example, but
they are not, by any means, the only ones – they Third, while the motivations underlying human
are an established and essential part of the labour mobility are many and varied, work-related interests
force. Their contribution to the economic, social and concerns are rarely if ever entirely absent and
and cultural life of both their regions of origin and provide a strong unifying link.
destination appears to be beyond question. Internal
migration may eventually lead to international The fourth observation is that these dynamics are
migration. sustained and amplified by the large demographic
differentials and wage disparities between developing
Last, but no means least, there are the scattered but and developed countries and are also operating to
vast contingents of irregular migrants who remain some degree among developing countries.
beyond the reach of official policy and procedure, but
who, albeit to different degrees, are nonetheless very The fifth and final point that emerges is that
much part of migration and employment patterns in there are strong regional dynamics in operation.
countries of transit and destination. The report identifies six different areas of intense
or growing migratory activity: Africa, Asia, the
The broad surveys of these diverse manifestations Americas, Europe, the Middle East and Oceania, each
of human movement, as laid out in Part A of World with its own specificities worth noting and studying.
Migration 2008, invite a number of observations. Migrants from African countries move predominantly
The first is that mobility is both a consequence to other African countries, with Southern Africa,
the Maghreb and West Africa being the sub-regions

As discussed in Chapter 7, internal migrants as a class are often most affected by labour mobility on the African
indistinguishable from cross-border transients in border zones.

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 World Migration 2008

continent. Asia is the largest source of temporary hand, to train and prepare their nationals to work at
contractual migrant workers worldwide, while being destinations abroad; on the other, to identify labour
characterized also by very large intra-regional flows market needs and seek recruitment of appropriate
of migrant workers, in particular the vast internal personnel. Optimal outcomes will be achieved when
movements in China and India. Europe stands apart the two sets of policies are envisaged as complementary
because of the EU objective of creating a common elements of a coherent whole, directed towards the
migratory space within far-flung but jointly managed achievement of shared development goals while also
external borders. The Americas are characterized ensuring that benefits continue to accrue to migrant
by strong South-North migratory flows from Latin workers and their families.
America and the Caribbean to the United States and
Canada and, increasingly, Europe. The United States As a general rule, foreign employment policies in
and Canada continue to be the major receivers of countries of origin and destination are established
permanent settlers from across the world, but they unilaterally, which is unsurprising given that every
are also faced with growing demands for temporary country has its own economic, political, social
workers. The Middle East is by far the most important and cultural interests at heart. Thus, countries of
region of destination for temporary contractual origin will aim to identify and secure authorized
workers, most of who come from Asia. Finally, employment opportunities abroad for their citizens,
Oceania includes two large destination countries, while ensuring that their human rights are
Australia and New Zealand, on the one hand and, protected. Countries of destination, for their part,
on the other, many small island nations whose wish to admit various categories of foreign workers
populations are increasingly interested in labour to fill certain domestic labour shortages, while also
migration. All regions are significantly affected by ensuring the integrity of their sovereign territory
irregular migration. and frontiers, and respect for national cultural and
social core values. Nevertheless, there are signs
The policy implications of these evolving realities pointing to policy convergence in this area built
require careful exploration, but it is already apparent around the notions of human resource development
that neither avoidance of the issues nor a passive and migration management.
laissez-faire approach are likely to lead to the policy
responses needed to realize the social and economic For countries of origin, this means taking on
potential of mobility. The priority need is for planned the challenge of formulating policies and setting
and predictable ways of matching labour demand priorities able to both satisfy local labour market and
with supply in safe, legal, humane and orderly ways, economic needs, and nurture talent to compete for
with due regard to the human rights of migrants work placements abroad. This is best achieved within
and to the social implications of migration. Given a comprehensive human resource development (HRD)
the diversity of labour market needs and of available framework. Central to such a framework is a properly
skills, policies and procedures will have to display resourced education system capable of providing
commensurate flexibility and adaptability to enable the necessary formal learning opportunities and
modes of labour mobility that may be short-term, complemented, where necessary, by practical work
circular, long-term or permanent. experience and training, to be formally assessed and
certified by recognized educational and professional
Countries of origin and destination are increasingly authorities. Of necessity, however, HRD planning
engaged in the formulation of policies to meet their starts well upstream of educational processes, with
particular labour mobility objectives: on the one the identification of employment opportunities

[395]
CONCLUSION

in relation to both domestic and international Bilateral cooperation offers many possibilities.
labour market needs taking account of, inter alia, Bilateral agreements are flexible instruments that
demographic projections. Policies required for the can be used to match labour supply and demand
specific management of labour mobility then follow. in a planned, predictable and rights-based manner,
Foremost among these are measures to uphold while also contributing to the mitigation of irregular
the integrity of recruitment processes and, more migration. They enable employers in countries
generally, protect migrant workers from exploitation of destination to recruit trained and competent
and abuse. Access to authoritative, accurate and up- individuals with the needed skills, while countries of
to-date information is of great importance, but so are origin obtain assurances that employment contracts
welfare and support services for the workers while will be adhered to and workers enjoy decent and
abroad and, when needed, appropriate arrangements safe working conditions. Cooperation does not stop
to facilitate their return and reintegration in the there. Human mobility is increasingly the subject
home country. of international cooperation at the sub-regional,
regional, inter-regional and global level, although it
From the perspective of countries of destination, the is true that progress in the management of labour
starting point is also the definition of explicit mobility- migration is yet to match what has been achieved at
related objectives and desired outcomes, followed the international level in other domains of economic
by the formulation of appropriate policies. These and social affairs.
policies are not narrowly limited to the admission of
foreign workers to fill existing labour shortages, but The discretion to determine who may or may not
relate more broadly to economic and demographic enter its territory remains a prerogative of the nation
planning, and cover the entire migration cycle from state, and this may limit the state’s willingness to
departure in countries of origin, the treatment and engage in cooperative endeavours. A second issue
adequate protection of migrant workers (and their is the difficulty in achieving nationally coordinated
families) in the host society and the workplace, policy positions addressing labour mobility among
including appropriate integration strategies, to their interested domestic agencies, such as those concerned
return and reintegration, where appropriate, as with employment, foreign affairs, development, trade
well as possible continued movement between the or welfare, prior to multilateral engagement. Yet
country of origin and of destination. Such policies another obstacle is differences in priorities among
should be sufficiently flexible to be able to respond countries: while they are all affected by migratory
to changing labour market needs. They may need to flows, they are not all affected at the same time
accommodate both temporary labour migration and or in the same way, nor do they share the same
(permanent) employment-based immigration and, in circumstances or objectives. Despite these hurdles,
certain instances, to provide a bridge between the however, numerous consultative mechanisms on
two types of movement. migration policy have emerged over the last decade
or so. The Abu Dhabi Dialogue, held in early 2008, is a
Both countries of origin and destination stand good example of how consultations among countries
to benefit from securing the involvement and of origin and destination can lead to the development
cooperation of the widest range of stakeholders, of concrete projects to facilitate the movement of
including employers, private recruitment agencies, workers and improve their welfare (see Textbox
trade unions, migrant and diaspora associations, and 10.5). Such consultative processes, characterized by
international organizations. their informality and open-endedness, deserve to be
further developed as forums for confidence building

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 World Migration 2008

and information exchange and as “workplaces” where the recipients of flows of remittances that had an
governments can meet to discuss the challenges of estimated global value of USD 337 billion in 2007
managing mobility, improve their grasp of issues and (Ratha et al., 2008). Other longer-term gains accrue
identify viable policy options. from the establishment of expatriate communities.
Under the right circumstances, these diasporas have
Considerable amounts of time, resources and effort demonstrated that they can develop and sustain
have been invested in non-binding consultative extensive social and cultural networks, promote
exercises in recent years. The Berne Initiative, IOM’s and conduct trade, become providers of investment
International Dialogue on Migration, the UN General funding and business know-how, offer humanitarian
Assembly’s High-Level Dialogue on International assistance in times of crisis and even make a
Migration and Development, and the Global Forum meaningful contribution to democratic processes in
on Migration and Development have been or are, countries of origin. There are, however, downsides
in many ways, large-scale community learning to the picture. Countries of origin – especially the
exercises. The Global Commission on International smaller ones – are concerned about the impact on
Migration (GCIM) was another parallel and intensive their economies of the departure of large proportions
effort at developing a “framework for the formulation of their highly skilled workers. Developing countries
of a coherent, comprehensive and global response are therefore keenly interested in the development
to the issue of international migration” (GCIM, of legislative and policy frameworks that will provide
2005: vii). The outcomes of all these exercises are a balanced set of solutions affording opportunities
strikingly convergent. All of them take as their and rights for migrants while meeting their concerns
starting point the increasing political visibility regarding brain drain.
and importance of international migration; all of
them acknowledge that mobility is an unavoidable For all countries, progress in this continuously
economic and social reality; all of them point to evolving and complex area is first and foremost
benefits that flow from properly managed flows; all subject to a better understanding of the impact of
of them draw attention to the risks of not managing international labour mobility on domestic labour
those flows; all of them assert that it is possible to supply; the impact of migration on productivity in
arrive at common understandings and principles, the domestic economy; and the impact of remittance
and propose remarkably consistent lines of action. flows on development. It will also depend on the
They also confirm the need for clearer linkages to be establishment of genuine partnerships between
established between the domain of human mobility countries of origin and destination to attain mutually
proper and closely adjoining policy fields, especially satisfactory outcomes.
those of development and trade.
The migration and trade nexus is at least as complex
Accordingly, the migration and development equation as the migration and development equation. At
has become a foremost subject of research and the global level, tariffs and other barriers to cross-
policy debate. It has now been established beyond border investment and trade in goods have been very
any doubt that migration can and does contribute substantially reduced in recent decades with the
to poverty reduction at both the individual and consequent growth in the global exchanges of capital,
community level. Migrants can benefit directly goods and services. Facilitation of the movement of
by obtaining access to higher wages and improved people has been identified as a potential avenue to
living conditions, and there are follow-on benefits further economic gains through trade liberalization,
for the family members and communities, who are but the policy intersections between migration and

[397]
CONCLUSION

trade need to be more clearly mapped out and more negotiations to move forward. Regional and bilateral
fully explored. One specific issue to be addressed initiatives will similarly have to be nurtured and
is the fundamental tension between trade-oriented encouraged to yield the intended results. In fact,
policy objectives driven by market dynamics and regional and bilateral trade agreements that already
premised on planning and predictability, and incorporate labour mobility may turn out to be
approaches to migration management that favour learning stations where states acquire the confidence
discretion and the adaptation of policy strategies to work on broader approaches (see Textbox 13.7).
to changing circumstances. At the doctrinal level, Finally, policy coherence requires improvement in
trade theories have yet to agree whether trade two ways: first, through the integration of worker
and migration are substitutes (viz. supporting mobility in national, regional and international
local economic growth and boosting exports would employment and migration policies and strategies
have the effect of easing migration pressure) or and, second, the definition of the particular roles
complements (viz. both trade and migration can and responsibilities of all key stakeholders, including
increase, and can be mutually supportive). Trade the private sector.
theories need to be reviewed from the trade-
migration vantage point and relevant supporting The elucidation of the connections between
evidence gathered to better inform policies aimed at migration, development and trade needs to take
managing international labour mobility, all the more full account of the rights of migrant workers, in
so as current globalization trends are predominantly particular those who, for various reasons, such as
characterized by the growth in trade in services and age, gender, low-skill profile or work in unregulated
knowledge-based trading patterns, both of which sectors, are not covered by national labour laws and
rely heavily on the mobility of human resources. In find themselves in vulnerable situations. Similarly,
the context of international trade negotiations, GATS issues such as the management of change while
Mode 4 is seen as a promising means to facilitate maintaining social cohesion and adherence to core
the temporary movement of service personnel; values, environmental impacts on mobility and vice
however, so far its scope of application has been versa (see Textbox Conc. 1) and migrant health
largely limited to the international movement of should be taken into account in the development of
highly skilled personnel, and considerable creativity effective migration management strategies.
and persistence are still needed to allow these

Textbox Conc. 1
Climate Change and Labour Mobility

The importance of the reciprocal impact of climate change and migration is expected to grow incrementally over the coming
decades. Altered rainfall patterns, rising sea levels and increasingly frequent natural disasters are all likely to exceed the
absorption capacity of large areas of the world, and to critically affect problems of food and water security in marginal areas.

A number of analysts, of whom Norman Myers of Oxford University is perhaps the best known, have undertaken to estimate the
number of people who will be forced to move over the long term as a direct result of climate change. Myers predicts that, by
2050, “there could be as many as 200 million people overtaken by disruptions of monsoon systems and other rainfall regimes,
by droughts of unprecedented severity and duration, and by sea-level rise and coastal flooding” (Myers, 2005: 1).

This is a staggering number and, should it come to pass, some two per cent or one in forty-five people alive in 2050 would
have been displaced by climate change at some point in their lives, and their total number would exceed the estimated current
global migrant population of 200 million.

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 World Migration 2008

Such predictions are, of course, inherently speculative. There are so many and diverse factors at play – population growth,
urbanization and local politics, to name just three – that establishing a causal relation between climate change and migration
is difficult and fraught with uncertainties. However, it is clear that climate change will lead to large areas becoming increasingly
less able to sustain peoples’ livelihoods and lead to large-scale moves to areas still able to offer better opportunities.

Migration is, and always has been, an important response mechanism to climate stress. While pastoralists have since time
immemorial migrated to and from water sources and grazing lands as part of their normal way of life as well as in response
to climate changes, it is becoming apparent that migration as a response to environmental change is no longer limited to
nomadic societies.

In Western Sudan, for example, studies have shown that one adaptive response to drought is to send an older male family
member to the capital, Khartoum, to find paid work so as to tide the family over until the end of the drought (McLeman and
Smit, 2004). Temporary labour migration in times of climate stress can supplement a family’s income through remittances from
paid work elsewhere, and reduce the demand on local resources as there will be fewer mouths to feed.

But the picture is nuanced. Recent studies in the West African Sahel have revealed the recourse to temporary labour migration
as an adaptive mechanism to climate change. The region has suffered a prolonged drought for much of the past three decades.
One way that households have adapted has been to send their young men and women in search of wage labour after each
harvest. But how far they go depends on the success of the harvest.

A good harvest might give the family sufficient resources to send a member to Europe in search of work. While the potential
rewards in terms of remittances are high, the journey is dangerous and the migrant is unlikely to be back in time for the next
planting season. But, in a drought year, when harvests are poor, the young men and women tend to stay much closer to home
and travel instead to nearby cities for paid work with which to supplement the household income. In such years the risk of
losing the “migration gamble” is simply too great (McLeman, 2006).

In the past, the rich developed countries focused mainly on mitigating climate change by setting emissions targets for the OECD
countries and deliberating on how to gain new adherents to an emissions control agreement after the Kyoto Protocol expires in
2012. More recently, greater attention has been paid to helping developing countries to adapt to the impacts of climate change,
for instance by altering irrigation techniques, building better storm shelters and developing drought-resistant crops.

This approach to adaptation is fundamentally based on the idea of adapting “in situ”. Migration is somehow viewed as a
failure to adapt. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, for example, has supported the development of
National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) to help the Least Developed Countries to identify and rank their priorities
for adaptation to climate change. However, none of the fourteen NAPAs submitted so far mention migration or population
relocation as a possible policy response. Likewise, the developed countries are very resistant to the idea of relaxing their
immigration or asylum policies and to consider environmental strain as a legitimate reason for migration.

It may be said that the international community is, in fact, ignoring labour mobility as a coping strategy for climate stress.
Instead, there is a collective, and rather successful, attempt to ignore the scale of future climate-induced migration. However,
how the international community reacts to climate-driven labour migration will have a real effect on the larger development
impacts of climate change.

Some analysts are beginning to argue that migration is both a necessary element of global redistributive justice and an
important response to climate change; and that greenhouse gas emitters should accept an allocation of “climate migrants” in
proportion to their historical greenhouse gas emissions. Andrew Simms of the New Economics Foundation argues: “Is it right


IOM applies the term “environmental migrants” to describe persons moving primarily as a result of climate change and environmental degradation. In
its 2007 Discussion Note on “Migration and the Environment”, IOM defined environmental migrants as “persons or groups of persons who, for reasons
of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or
choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad” (IOM, 2007: 1-2, para. 6). This term is broader
than “climate migrants” and encompasses population movements that are resulting both from climate and non-climate related environmental processes
and events.

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CONCLUSION

that while some states are more responsible for creating problems like global climate change, all states should bear equal
responsibility to deal with their displaced people?”

There is a dilemma here. Relaxing immigration rules as part of a concerted policy to “release the population pressure” in areas
affected by climate change could accelerate the brain drain of talented individuals from the developing world to the developed
– and thereby worsen the “hollowing out” of affected economies, which is itself a driver of migration. On the other hand,
closing borders in both source and destination countries undermines remittance economies and denies developing countries
the benefits of access to the international labour market.

Clearly, there has to be a balance of policies that promotes the incentives for workers to stay in their home countries, whilst
not closing the door to international labour mobility. The first steps are to acknowledge, assess and plan for the role of climate
change and environmental degradation in future population movements.

Source: Oli Brown, International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Geneva.

Accurate and reliable data on migrant stocks, flows and facilitate inward and outward movements of
and trends are indispensable to develop, monitor people are weak or non-existent. What is needed
and evaluate migration policies and programmes. is a renewed focus on building the capacity of all
However, the collection, sharing and management governments, in particular those of developing
of migration data is a highly time-consuming and countries or of countries newly affected by migratory
resource-intensive process. Data are frequently flows; to formulate policy and legislation; to improve
gleaned from a multitude of sources not actually labour migration and related human resource
designed for migration-related analysis. In addition, development programmes through experimentation
since migration data are frequently considered to be and innovation; to properly administer them; and to
sensitive, the sharing of data among institutions at monitor progress and evaluate outcomes.
the national level, let alone with other governments
or non-government specialists, is often avoided. A new spirit of partnership in outlook and action
Special efforts are needed to improve the reliability is both possible and essential to realizing beneficial
and comparability of existing data sources; to outcomes for the international community as a
identify and gather new data on emerging issues; whole, including countries of origin, countries of
and to ensure the dissemination and utilization of destination and the migrants and their families. Such
data and research on labour migration. a partnership will be the key to the success or failure
of the efforts to manage the international labour
For many countries, migration is a new administrative mobility challenges of the twenty-first century.
area, and comprehensive systems to track, process

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 World Migration 2008

McLeman, R. and B. Smit

REFERENCES 2004 “Climate change, migration and security”,
Canadian Security Intelligence Service, March,
European Commission Commentary No. 86, Ottawa, http://www.csis-
2007 Proposal for a Council Directive on the conditions scrs.gc.ca/pblctns/cmmntr/cm86-eng.asp.
of entry and residence of third-country nationals
for the purposes of highly qualified employment, Myers, N.
COM (2007) 637, 23 October. 2005 “Environmental Refugees: An emergent security
issue”, 13th Economic Forum, 23-27 May, Session
Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM) III – Environment and Migration, Organization
2005 Migration in an Interconnected World: New for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE),
directions for action, October, GCIM, SRO- Prague, Doc. EF.NGO/4/05, http://www.osce.
Kundig, Geneva, http://www.gcim.org/ org/documents/eea/2005/05/14488_en.pdf.
attachements/gcim-complete-report-2005.pdf.
Pielke, R. Jr, G. Prins, S. Rayner and D. Sarewitz
International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2007 “Lifting the taboo on adaptation: renewed
2007 “Discussion Note: Migration and the attention to policies for adapting to climate
Environment”, 1 November, IOM Council, 94th change cannot come too soon”, Nature, 445 (8
Session, Doc. MC/INF/288, IOM, Geneva, http:// February): 597-598.
www.old.iom.int//DOCUMENTS/GOVERNING/
EN/913208461788198.pdf.

Ratha, D., S. Mohapatra, K.M. Vijayalakshmi and Z. Xu

2008 Revisions to Remittance Trends 2007, Migration
and Development Brief 5, 10 July, Migration
and Remittances Team, Development Prospects
Group, The World Bank, Washington,
D.C., http://siteresources.worldbank.
org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-
1110315015165/MD_Brief5.pdf.

Textbox Conc. 1 - Climate Change and

Labour Mobility

Dupont, A. and G. Pearman

2006 “Heating up the Planet: Climate Change and
Security”, Lowry Institute for International
Policy, Paper 12, Sydney, http://lowyinstitute.
richmedia-server.com/docs/AD_GP_
ClimateChange.pdf.

McLeman, R.
2006 “Global warming’s huddled masses”, The
Ottawa Citizen, 23 November, http://www.
canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/opinion/
story.html?id=f4f4a221-e39e-42ac-9d19-
5f0bd4b0ee3e.

[401]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS
 World Migration 2008

INTRODUCTION

While World Migration 2008 lays emphasis on the Based on a review of many different and not
global nature of contemporary migratory activity, it infrequently conflicting sources, each overview
is nonetheless true that each major geographic region offers information on the stocks and distribution of
displays characteristics that distinguish it from the migrants; the major types of flows encountered and
others. The following brief Regional Overviews are their magnitude and determinants; and some of the
intended to complement the information provided in topical migration management issues to which they
the rest of this Report by drawing attention to the give rise. Wherever possible, preference has been
key features typifying each region. Given the known given to graphs and illustrations over lengthy word
difficulty of obtaining up-to-date, comprehensive descriptions.
and comparable data on migratory phenomena, the
overviews are not intended to be read as statistically
accurate accounts, but rather as impressionistic
depictions of the migratory dynamics in operation
within the regions.

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 World Migration 2008

AFRICA

Figure 1:
• With an increase of just over half a million
migrants from 16.3 to 16.9 million between 2000 Stock of migrants in Africa, top ten
and 2005, Africa experienced the lowest growth destinations, 2000 and 2005
rate in international migrants of any region in the
world, and, at two per cent, the continent also Part A: Total number of migrants
registers the lowest proportion of migrants as a
share of the population. Its share of the global
migrant stock has remained stable at nine per
cent (UN DESA, 2005).
• Migrants are widely distributed across the
continent, with a disproportionate number in
sub-Saharan countries. In absolute terms, it is the
large West and Southern African countries that
are most affected by migration, but relative to the
size of their population the smallest countries or
territories receive more migrants (see Figure 1).


East Africa: Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Reunion, Rwanda,
Seychelles, Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Central
Africa: Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo,
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Equatorial Guinea, Gabon,
Sao Tome and Principe. North Africa: Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
Tunisia. Southern Africa: Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Republic of
South Africa and Swaziland. West Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape
Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia,
Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Saint Helena, Senegal, Sierra Leone,
Togo (division of countries according to UN DESA, 2005). Egypt is
considered in the Migration Overview on the Middle East.

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REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Part B: As a share of total population • Africa received USD 23.1 billion in remittances in
2007, the smallest share of global transfers (World
Bank, 2008).
• Coastal migration and environmental migration
are among the emerging features of migration in
Africa.

EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA

• The four leading East African countries of

destination for migrants from the sub-region
registered a decline in their migrant populations
between 2000 and 2005. With nearly a million
migrants, Tanzania is host to the largest
contingent of migrants; while migrants make up
%
a larger share of the populations of the smaller
Source: UN DESA, 2005. islands. Thus, the share of migrants in the total
population of La Réunion increased from 14.6 per
• Most of the recorded migration in Africa occurs cent to 18 per cent between 2000 and 2005, and
within the region; out of a total of 14.5 million the Comoros and Seychelles host, respectively, 8.4
migrants originating in sub-Saharan Africa, 10 and 6.1 migrants per 100 habitants (UN DESA,
million migrants (or 69%) move within the region 2005) (see Figure 2).
(Ratha and Shaw, 2007).
• On the other hand, data from North Africa show Figure 2:
that South-South migration represents only 19 Stock of migrants in East Africa, top ten
per cent of total migration from this sub-region destinations, 2000 and 2005
while South-North migration accounts for 80 per
cent of total migration (Ratha and Shaw, 2007). Part A: Total number of migrants
• Africa has the world’s highest concentration
of internally displaced persons (IDPs), with
12.7 million in 20 countries at the end of 2007
(IDMC, 2008), largely outnumbering the refugee
population which declined from approximately
six million to about three million in the 1995-
2005 decade (UNHCR, 1995 and 2007).
• Refugees as a percentage of total international
migrants decreased by four percentage points to
18 per cent of the current migrant population (UN
DESA, 2005).


North Africa here includes the Middle East. While the Middle East region
is analyzed in a separate overview, a reference to this region is made
here because the findings cited from the South-South remittances
analysis aggregate data for North Africa and the Middle East (Ratha and 1,000
Shaw, 2007).


Unless otherwise stated, remittance figures in these overviews refer
to officially recorded flows and do not capture amounts transmitted
through informal channels.

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 World Migration 2008

Part B: As a share of total population Part B: As a share of total population

Source: UN DESA, 2005. %

%
Source: UN DESA, 2005. The number of IDPs exceeds that of refugees in
East African countries
• Even though between 2000 and 2005 the migrant
population in the Democratic Republic of the • At the end of 1995, the number of IDPs concentrated
Congo (DRC) dropped from 717,000 to 539,000, at in the countries of the Greater Horn of Africa
the end of that period their numbers continued (GHA) amounted to less than half of the total
to be the highest in Central Africa. As a share regional refugee population of 3.2 million (Oucho,
of the population, they represented only 1.4 per 2006); however, by 2007, owing to the conflicts in
cent in 2000 and 0.9 per cent in 2005. In 2005, the ten GHA countries, their numbers relative to
migrants in Gabon represented 17.7 per cent of refugees increased dramatically (see Figure 4).
the local population, the largest share in any
Central African country (see Figure 3). Figure 4:
Greater Horn of Africa: Refugees and IDPs in
Figure 3: 2007
Stock of migrants in Central Africa, by
destination, 2000 and 2005

Part A: Total number of migrants

Note: Djibouti, Rwanda and Tanzania are not included in Figure 4 for
lack of data on IDPs.

Sources: UNHCR, 2008a, IDMC, 2008.


The “Greater Horn of Africa” (GHA) comprises ten countries: the two
Great Lakes region states of Burundi and Rwanda; the three countries
of East Africa – Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda; and the “Horn of Africa”
(HOA) states of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan.

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REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Figure 6:
East Africa includes the countries with the highest
number of asylum seekers in Europe Stock of migrants in North Africa, by
destination, 2000 and 2005
• Somalia is the leading African country of origin
for asylum seekers in Europe, with 7,588 and Part A: Total number of migrants
11,035 applications for asylum deposited in 2006
and 2007, respectively (UNHCR, 2008b). Eritrea is
the second largest African country of origin with
5,956 and 6,424 asylum applications in 2006 and
2007, respectively.

The East African diaspora is growing in Australia

• While migration from Africa to Australia continues

to be dominated by migrants of European stock,
there has been a substantial increase in the
diversity of migration from sub-Saharan Africa to
Australia over the last decade, most notably with Part B: As a share of total population
increasing numbers of migrants born in Ethiopia,
Kenya and Somalia, who were mainly admitted
under the Australian refugee and humanitarian
programmes (Hugo, 2005) (see Figure 5).

Figure 5:
Number of migrants born in East African
countries in Australia, 1991-2001

Source: UN DESA, 2005.

From transit migration to de facto migration

Source: Hugo, 2005.

• For the past few years, North Africa has been
receiving a growing number of sub-Saharan
NORTH AFRICA migrants “in transit”, predominantly from West
Africa, who want to enter Europe. For example, an
• Sudan and Libya are the two leading countries of annual average of 22,000 irregular migrants take
destination in North Africa in both absolute and the route from Libya and Tunisia to the Italian
relative terms (UN DESA, 2005) (see Figure 6). island of Lampedusa, although in 2006 this traffic
decreased by 4.5 per cent (see Chapter 8). Owing
to the gradual reinforcement of migration controls

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 World Migration 2008

Figure 7:
around the Mediterranean, transit migration has
tended to become de facto immigration. In 2005, Stock of migrants in Southern Africa, by
10,000 West African migrants, or ten per cent of destination, 2000 and 2005
the local population, were in transit in the port of
Nouadhibou in northern Mauritania, on their way Part A: Total number of migrants
to Europe. In the same year, an estimated 20,000
migrants from sub-Saharan African countries
were waiting for an opportunity to cross over
into Europe around the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta
and Melilla, as well as in the city of Oujda on the
Algerian border (OECD, 2006).

North African migrants are found widely across

Europe and North America

• In 2004, France was home to the largest population , ,

of Moroccans abroad (1.1 million), but there

were sizable communities of Moroccan migrants Part B: As a share of total population
in Spain (424,000), The Netherlands (300,000),
Italy (299,000), Belgium (293,000) and Germany
(102,000) (de Haas, 2007a).
• Since 1995, the population of Algerian descent
has increased by 18% in France, while in Spain
and Italy the numbers have increased by 547%
and 126% respectively (de Haas, 2007a).
• Of the seven million migrants born in Africa and
living in OECD countries, nearly half are from
North Africa and reside mainly in France, Belgium,
Spain and the Netherlands (OECD, 2007).
Source: UN DESA, 2005.
• Between 2003 and 2004, the total number of
Moroccan, Algerian and Tunisian citizens living
in the U.S. stood at 128,000 and at 125,000 in Mobility in general is growing rapidly in Africa, in
Canada (European Commission, 2007). particular in Southern Africa

SOUTHERN AFRICA • Temporary regular cross-border movements

from other African countries into South
• South Africa is a major destination country in this Africa (particularly from the Southern African
sub-region, hosting over one million migrants. Development Community, SADC) have increased
Namibia ranks first in terms of migrants as a share significantly; for example, between 1990 and
of the total population, although this proportion 2000:
decreased slightly between 2000 and 2005 (UN - total visits to South Africa increased from one
DESA, 2005) (see Figure 7). million to 5.1 million;


The figures reflect the number of times the border is crossed, rather
than the number of individuals crossing the border (Crush and Williams,
2005).

[411]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

- African visits to South Africa increased from … but South Africa is also a destination country
550,000 to four million; and for health professionals of all categories
- SADC visits to South Africa increased from
500,000 to 3.7 million (Crush and Williams, • By 2003, South Africa reported 32,000 vacancies
2005). for nurses and 4,000 for doctors in the public
health sector alone (IOM, 2007b).
Health worker migration is a growing • Even as South Africa is losing skilled health
phenomenon … workers, the country is also the major destination
for skilled health workers from other parts of
• Medical doctors from South Africa are emigrating at Africa, most recently from Botswana, DRC, Ghana,
an annual rate of about 1,000, and it is estimated Nigeria and Zimbabwe. In Africa, South Africa
that 30-50 per cent of all medical school graduates has the highest physician and nurse ratio to the
emigrate to the U.K. or U.S. every year. More than population: 56.3 physicians and 471.8 nurses per
75 per cent of skilled South African emigrants 100,000 inhabitants, compared to a ratio of only
relocate in only five countries: the U.K., the U.S., 6.2 and 44.2, respectively, in the DRC, another
Australia, Canada and New Zealand (IOM, 2007a). SADC country (IOM, 2007b).
Doctors from South Africa make up 9.7 per cent • South Africa has sought to address staff shortages
of total foreign-trained doctors in Australia and in the public health sector through the hiring of
seven per cent in the U.K. (IOM, 2007b). Iranian and Cuban health personnel to work in
• While Zambia had an estimated 1,600 doctors in rural areas (IOM, 2007b).
the 1980s, only 400 remained by 2002. Similarly,
of the 1,200 doctors trained in Zimbabwe in the WEST AFRICA
1990s, only 360 were practicing in the country in
2003 (IOM, 2007a). • While Côte d’Ivoire is the leading destination
• Between 2000 and 2004, nearly 40,000 foreign country for migrants in West Africa (2.4 million
nurses registered to work in the U.K. according to international migrants in 2005), at 15.3 per cent,
the government’s official statistics. Over a period Gambia has the highest proportion of migrants
of four years, 6,028 nurses left South Africa for the in its population. Guinea is the only country in
U.K., 1,561 left Zimbabwe, 1,496 left Nigeria, 660 the sub-region to register a drop in the number
left Ghana, 444 left Zambia, 386 left Kenya, 226 of international migrants in both absolute and
left Botswana and 192 left Malawi (IOM, 2007a). relative terms (from 8.7% in 2000 to 4.3% in
• Lesotho and Namibia present a physician 2005) (UN DESA, 2005) (see Figure 8).
emigration rate of over 30 per cent, while this
rate rises to over 50 per cent in Malawi, Tanzania
and Zambia and to 75 per cent in Mozambique.
South Africa, Swaziland and Botswana (11%)
are the only countries in Southern Africa with a
physician emigration rate below the average for
sub-Saharan Africa (IOM, 2007a).


The physician emigration rate is the physician emigration stock
compared to the total number of doctors originating from the source
country (residents plus emigrants).

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 World Migration 2008

Figure 8:
• Recently, West African migration to North America
Stock of migrants in West Africa, top ten has become more diversified. While in 1994, the
destinations, 2000 and 2005 inflows of citizens of ECOWAS Member States to
the U.S. stood at 9,498, they had reached 24,820
Part A: Total number of migrants in 2004. Inflows to Canada increased from 2,093
to 4,337 during that same period (see Figure 9).

Figure 9:
Diversification of West African diaspora

Source: European Commission, 2007.

Part B: As a share of total population • Currently, 56 per cent of the West African
population is under 20 years of age and 66 per
cent are under 25 years of age compared to 12 per
cent and 15 per cent, respectively, in Europe. By
the year 2020, West Africa could have about 200
million people under the age of 20 (OECD, 2006).

The outmigration of health professionals is a

major concern

• According to World Health Organization (WHO)

figures, over 900 physicians trained in Ghana are
working in an OECD country, compared with 3,240
practicing in Ghana itself (UNECA, 2006).

Environmental migration is an emerging major

Source: UN DESA, 2005. issue in West Africa

• Regular migration from ECOWAS Member States to • Yields from rain-fed agriculture, the most important
the EU-15 increased from 23,557 to 71,653 from part of sub-Saharan agriculture, are projected to
2000 to 2004 (European Commission, 2007). fall by up to 50 per cent by 2020 (IPCC, 2007),
seriously compromising agricultural production

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is a regional
and access to food. Labour migration has already
grouping of 16 countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, become an important part of the annual coping
Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger,
Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo.

The EU-15 refers to the 15 European Union Member States before the
enlargements of the EU to 25 and 27 Member States in May 2004 and
January 2007, respectively.

[413]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

strategy against the prolonged drought that has • Remittances to sub-Saharan Africa accounted for
been affecting the West African Sahel for the past around 2.5 per cent of GDP on average between
three decades (Brown, 2007). 2000 and 2005, which is considerably lower than in
• Under the worst climate change migration scenario, some other developing countries. However, there
it has been estimated by the Intergovernmental are striking exceptions such as Lesotho, where
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) that more than remittances represent almost 28 per cent of GDP,
200 million people might be displaced globally and Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau and Senegal, with
by climate change, and the Sahelian region could more than five per cent (see Figure 11). For many
become uninhabitable on a permanent basis countries, remittances are an important source of
(Brown, 2008). foreign exchange: for Lesotho, Cape Verde, Uganda
and Comoros, for instance, remittances have since
SOME TOPICAL POLICY ISSUES IN MIGRATION 2000 amounted on average to more than 25 per
MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA cent of export earnings (Gupta et al., 2007).

Remittances Figure 11:

Leading ten recipients of remittances in
Remittance flows are significant but Africa receives sub-Saharan Africa, 2005-2006
the smallest share of global transfers
Part A: Total flows (millions of USD)
• According to World Bank estimates for 2007, the
African continent received USD 23.1 billion in
remittances, with USD 11.7 billion to sub-Saharan
Africa and USD 11.4 billion to North Africa (World
Bank, 2008) (see Figure 10).

Figure 10:
Remittances received in Africa, 2007
(billions of USD)

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

Part B: Ratio to GDP (%)

Note: Egypt is not included in these calculations.

Source: World Bank, 2008.

• In 2007, Africa received 6.8 per cent of global

remittance flows of USD 337 billion (World Bank,
2008).

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 World Migration 2008

Part C: Ratio to export earnings (%) 1995 and 2005, foreign direct investment (FDI)
increased fivefold from about USD 5 billion to
USD 25 billion over the same period (World Bank,
2007) (see Figure 12).

Figure 12:
Total remittances and FDI received by Africa,
1995-2005 (billions of USD)

Note: Rankings are based on average remittance inflows for 2005-2006.

Source: Gupta et al., 2007.

Note: Egypt is not included in these calculations.

• South–South remittances in Africa can be
Source: UNCTAD, 2006 and World Bank, 2007.
significant, a good example being the flows within
the Southern Africa sub-region, where South
Africa is the major remittance-sending country to Irregular Migration
other SADC countries (Genesis Analytics, 2005).
Irregular migration, both within and from Africa,
Major remittance flows in the SADC is growing but still represents only a small
proportion of all irregular migrants in Europe

Various locations on the West African coastline

are used as staging posts for smuggling and
trafficking operations into Europe

• Although the European Union has introduced

extensive control operations in recent years,
there are still substantial numbers of irregular
migrants who attempt to cross in an irregular
manner from West Africa to Italy or Spain. Some
34,000 irregular migrants were apprehended on or
off the Canary Islands in 2006 (Migration News
Sheet, February 2007), and, in 2007, increasing
Source: Genesis Analytics, 2005.
numbers of Asians joined Africans crossing from
the West African coast to the Canary Islands (de
Contrary to other regions, in Africa foreign direct Haas, 2007b). In 2007, however, these numbers
investment flows are higher than remittance dropped due to greater vigilance by countries of
flows departure and surveillance missions conducted by
Spain alone or within the framework of the EU
• While remittances to African countries more than border agency, FRONTEX (Migration News Sheet,
doubled from USD 7 billion to 17 billion between September 2007).

[415]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Saharan routes are commonly used by Asian • According to the Government of South Africa,
migrants seeking to reach southern European 50,000 Zimbabweans were returned to their
countries country between January and March 2007
(ReliefWeb, 2007).
• In recent years, migrants from Bangladesh, China,
India and Pakistan have begun to migrate to the ... or to islands in the Indian Ocean
Maghreb overland via Saharan routes. Most of them
fly from Asia to West African capitals, sometimes Mayotte has become the pole of attraction for between
via the Gulf states. From there, they follow the 45,000 to 60,000 irregular migrants principally from
common Saharan trail via Niger and Algeria to other islands of the Comoro Archipelago with smaller
Morocco. Others enter North Africa through Egypt numbers from Madagascar (Le Monde, 15 August
to Libya and Tunisia, from where they cross to 2007).
Italy and Malta (de Haas, 2007b).

Some of the irregular migratory flows in Africa

are intra-continental, for instance those involving
migrants moving in search of life and work
opportunities, whether to South Africa …

• More than 300,000 migrants were deported from

South Africa in 2007, up from approximately
250,000 in 2006 (CoRMSA, 2008).

[416]
World Migration 2008

[417]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

[418]
 World Migration 2008

European Commission
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Adepoju, A. from Senegal to the EU”, Technical Note IPSC/
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2007 “Climate change and forced migration:
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2006 Views on Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa:
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Workshop, HSRC Press, Cape Town. Norwegian Refugee Council
2008 Internal Displacement: Global Overview of
Crush, J. and V. Williams Trends and Developments in 2007, April, IDMC,
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Dynamics and Challenges in South and org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpInfoFiles)/
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Migration and Development, United Nations 2007.pdf.
Department for Economic and Social Affairs
(UN DESA), 6-8 July, New York, Doc. UN/ International Organization for Migration (IOM)
POP/MIG/2005/05, http://www.un.org/esa/ 2005 World Migration 2005: Costs and Benefits of
population/meetings/ittmigdev2005/P05_ International Migration, IOM, Geneva, http://
Crush&Williams.pdf. www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/cache/offonce/pid/
1674?entryId=932.
de Haas, H.
2007a “North-African Migration Systems: evolution, 2007a “Health Workers Migration in South and
transformations and development linkages”, Southern Africa: Literature Review”, October,
International Migration Institute (IMI) Working IOM Regional Office for Southern Africa,
Paper 6, University of Oxford, http://www.imi. Pretoria.
ox.ac.uk/pdfs/WP6%20North%20African%20Mig
ration%20Systems.pdf. 2007b “Facilitation of the Recruitment and Placement
of Foreign Health Care Professionals to Work in
2007b “The myth of invasion – Irregular migration the Public Sector Health Care in South Africa”,
from West Africa to the Maghreb and the Assessment conducted in the Netherlands,
European Union”, IMI Research Report, October, the United Kingdom and the United States,
University of Oxford, http://www.imi.ox.ac. November, IOM Pretoria in consultation with
uk/pdfs/Irregular%20migration%20from%20Wes the National Department of Health, Republic
t%20Africa%20-%20Hein%20de%20Haas.pdf. of South Africa, Pretoria, http://www.iom.int/
Template/health_worker_assessment_report.
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[419]
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Le Monde ReliefWeb
2007 “Des Comoriens se Noient en Vue de l’Eldorado 2007 “South Africa Deports 1,800 Zimbabweans”,
Mahorai”, Le Monde, 15 August. ReliefWeb, 19 May, http://www.reliefweb.
int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/MCON-
Migration News Sheet 73E5BM?OpenDocument.
2007a “Spain expects less ‘boat migrants’ in 2007”,
Migration News Sheet, February, Migration Policy United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
Group (MPG), Brussels. (UNCTAD)
2007 Major FDI Indicators, Statistics, UNCTAD,
2007b “Spain: 55% drop in number of irregular http://stats.unctad.org/FDI/TableViewer/
migrants to the Canary Islands”, Migration News tableView.aspx?ReportId=899.
Sheet, September, MPG, Brussels.
2006 World Investment Report 2006 – FDI from
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Developing and Transition Economies:
(OECD) Implications for Development, UNCTAD, New
2006 “The socio-economic and regional context York and Geneva, http://www.unctad.org/en/
of West African migrations”, Working docs/wir2006_en.pdf.
Document 1, November, Sahel and West Africa
Club, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
dataoecd/21/40/38481393.pdf. (DESA), Population Division
2005 Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005
2007 International Migration Outlook, SOPEMI 2007 Revision, UN DESA, Population Division, New
Edition, OECD, Paris. York, http://esa.un.org/migration/index.
asp?panel=1.
Oucho, J.O.
2006 “Migration and Refugees in Eastern Africa: A United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA)
Challenge for the East African Community”, 2006 International Migration and Development:
in C. Cross, D. Gelderblom, N. Roux and J. Implications for Africa, Doc. ECA/SDD/06/01,
Mafukidze (Eds), Views on Migration in Sub- September, UNECA, Addis Ababa,
Saharan Africa: Proceedings of an African http://192.132.208.14/eca_resources/
Migration Alliance Workshop, HSRC Press, Cape Publications/MigrationReport2006.pdf.
Town, 130-147.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
Quartey, P. 1995 Populations of Concern to UNHCR: A Statistical
2006 “International Migration and Poverty Overview (1995), UNHCR, Geneva, http://www.
Reduction”, paper prepared for the Institute unhcr.org/statistics/STATISTICS/3bfa32e82.pdf.
of Statistical Social and Economic Research
(ISSER) - Merchant Bank Development Seminar 2006 2005 Global Refugee Trends - Statistical Overview
Series on Does Globalisation Hurt or Enhance of Populations of Refugees, Asylum-Seekers,
National Development? Ghana’s Experience in Internally Displaced Persons, Stateless Persons,
the Last Two Decades, July, Accra. and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR, 9 June,
UNHCR, Geneva, http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/
Ratha, D. and W. Shaw texis/vtx/events/opendoc.pdf?tbl=STATISTICS&i
2007 “South-South Migration and Remittances”, d=4486ceb12.
19 January, Development Prospects Group,
The World Bank, Washington, D.C., http:// 2007 Statistical Yearbook 2006: Trends in
siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/ Displacement, Protection and Solutions, UNHCR,
Resources/South-SouthmigrationJan192006. Geneva, http://www.unhcr.org/statistics/
pdf. STATISTICS/478cda572.html.

2008a 2007 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers,

Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless
Persons, 3 June, UNHCR, Geneva, http://www.
unhcr.org/statistics/STATISTICS/4852366f2.pdf.

[420]
 World Migration 2008

2008b Asylum Levels and Trends in Industrialized

Countries, 2007: Statistical Overview of Asylum
Applications Lodged in Europe and Selected Non-
European Countries, 18 March, UNHCR, Geneva,
http://www.unhcr.org/statistics/STATISTICS/
47daae862.pdf.

World Bank
2006a African Development Indicators 2006, The World
Bank, Washington, D.C.

2006b Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic

Implications of Remittances and Migration, The
World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://econ.
worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/
EXTDECPROSPECTS/GEPEXT/EXTGEP2006
/0,,contentMDK:20709766~menuPK:1026823~p
agePK:64167689~piPK:64167673~theSitePK:102
6804,00.html.

2007 2007 Remittances Dataset, The World Bank,

Washington, D.C.

2008 Revisions to Remittance Trends 2007, July, The

World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://econ.
worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/
EXTDECPROSPECTS 0,,contentMDK:21121930~me
nuPK:3145470~pagePK:64165401~piPK:6416502
6~theSitePK:476883,00.html.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2007 Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptations and
Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II
to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC,
April, http://www.ipcc-wg2.org/.

[421]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

[422]
 World Migration 2008

AMERICAS

• In 2005, there were 51.1 million migrants in the citizens lived outside their country of origin,
Americas, the vast majority, namely 44.5 million, accounting for nearly four per cent of the
in North America, and a further 6.6 million population of their home countries, and 74 per
in Latin America and the Caribbean. Migrants cent of whom were thought to be living in the
accounted for 13.5 per cent of the total population United States (ECLAC, 2006a).
in North America and for 1.2 per cent of the total • Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Latin
population in Latin America (UN DESA, 2005). American and Caribbean migrants increased by
• South-North migration continues to be the four million (UN DESA, 2005). Economic crises,
dominant migration trend in the Americas. social conflicts, violence, gradual economic and
According to the migration data gathered by the political change, environmental disasters and the
University of Sussex, in the United Kingdom diversification of destination countries have all
(Ratha and Shaw, 2007), South-North migration shaped new migration patterns throughout the
accounts for 87 per cent of total migration in the region.
region, representing the highest rate of South-
North migration in the world. Migration to other NORTH AMERICA
Latin American and Caribbean countries accounts
for the remaining 13 per cent, which means • The United States remains the principal country
that there is no significant migration to other of destination in North America, hosting 38.3
developing regions beyond the Americas, such as million migrants in 2005, three million more
to Africa or Asia. than in 2001 (see Figure 1). However, relative
• In 2005, 25 million Latin American and Caribbean to the size of its population, Bermuda has the

 
The University of Sussex database gathers information from individual This section covers Canada, Mexico, the United States and three
country censuses. Although available data is not up-to-date, it is the dependent territories or overseas departments (Bermuda, Greenland,
latest comparable information for the region, gathered from 2000 to and Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon). In keeping with the UN DESA Population
2002 country censuses, with the exception of Barbados (1990), Colombia Division practice, Mexico is considered under the sub-region North
(1993), Peru (1993) and Uruguay (1996). America for reasons of geographical consistency.

[423]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

highest number of migrants (29.4%), followed by UNITED STATES

Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon (22.4%) and Greenland
(21.4%). Compared to 2001, all countries and Intra-regional migration accounts for more than
territories in North America have seen an increase half of total immigration in the United States
in immigration in both absolute and relative
terms. • In absolute numbers, the United States remains
the dominant country of destination in the
Figure 1: Americas and in the world. In 2005, of the 38.3
Stock of migrants in North America, by million migrants living in the U.S., 55 per cent
destination, 2000 and 2005 were from the Americas: 10.8 million from Mexico,
4.6 million from Latin America, 3.2 million from
Part A: Total number of migrants the Caribbean and 692,000 from Canada and other
38,355 parts of North America (see Figure 2).
U.S.
Figure 2:
34,803
6,106 Stock of foreign-born population in the U.S., by
Canada
5,555 region of origin, 1995 to 2005
40,000
644
Mexico
543
30,000

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000

Thousands 20,000

Part B: As a share of total population 10,000

29.4
27.5
22.4
20.2
21.4
20.4
Note: *Includes region not known.
18.9
18.1 Source: Urban Institute tabulations from public-use files from the U.S.
12.9 Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, March Supplement,
U.S. 12.2 1995 to 2005.
0.6
0.5
• Persons of Hispanic origin are the fastest growing
%
ethnic group in the U.S., becoming the largest
minority group in 2004.
Source: UN DESA, 2005.

Changes in settlement patterns have profoundly

affected migration in the U.S.

• The impact of immigration on the United States has

also been influenced by changes in the settlement
patterns of immigrants in recent years (MPI,
2004). California and New York continue to be the

[424]
 World Migration 2008

top receiving states of migrants, hosting 27 and • Canada is not only a destination country but has
11 per cent of the total foreign-born population, a long history of emigration to the United States.
respectively. From 1990 to 2005, however, their In 2005, the foreign-born from Canada, 674,000
combined percentage of total migration fell by people, made up the ninth-largest immigrant
9.3 per cent (California losing 6% and New York group in the U.S. (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005).
3.3%). The loss of the big “gateway” states
was partially compensated by non-traditional Figure 3:
immigration states like Arizona, Georgia, Virginia, Estimated number of migrants in Canada by
North Carolina, Colorado and Nevada. In these new gender at mid-year and quintennial growth rate
immigration states, the foreign-born population
grew on average by over 200 per cent with some 6,000

states experiencing even higher growth rates 4,500

(North Carolina and Georgia led with a growth rate

3,000
of 412% and 382%, respectively – MPI, 2004).
• Finally, it is important to mention that while 1,500

in the past agriculture was the main sector

employing migrant labour, new arrivals are now
distributed more widely, notably in the food and
service industries.
Source: UN DESA, 2005.

CANADA
MEXICO
Canada is not only a country of destination but
also has a long history of emigration to the U.S. Mexico is not only a significant country of origin
but has also become an important country of
• Immigration trends in Canada from 2000 to 2005 transit
show a rise in the foreign-born population of 0.55
million. Immigration to Canada has grown at a • Mexico is characterized primarily by the mass
9.2 per cent average quintennial rate since 1960. emigration of Mexicans to the United States.
In 2005, Canada’s foreign-born population of 6.1 With 10.8 million migrants, or 90 per cent of
million represented 18.9 per cent of the total the country’s total emigration, Mexico is the top
population, a figure higher than in the U.S. (see country of origin of the foreign-born population in
Figure 3). the U.S. (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). In addition,
• Nearly one-quarter of the 235,808 new permanent one in every five immigrants who obtained U.S.
residents admitted in Canada in 2004 were permanent residence status in 2002 was from
selected through Canada’s “points system” that Mexico (Grieco, 2003).
tests them inter alia for skills and education • Immigrants do not represent a large proportion of
(see Chapter 11). Family members accompanying Mexico’s population. In 2005, the percentage of
these migrants account for a little over another the foreign-born population in Mexico was around
quarter of admissions, with subsequent family 0.6 per cent, or 644,361 (UN DESA, 2005). Of these,
reunification and humanitarian migrants making the majority (69% in 2000) were from the United
up the remainder (O’Neil et al., 2005). States (Castillo, 2006). Most are thought to be

[425]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

the U.S.-born children of Mexican migrants or of migrants (130,000) compared to 2000. Dependent
Mexican border residents; however, an increasing territories or overseas departments of larger
number of U.S.-born senior citizens are settling in countries, have the highest number of immigrants
Mexico after their retirement. In 2000, the Mexican relative to the size of their population. French
census showed 28,247 U.S.-born senior citizens in Guiana is at the top of the list with 44.9 per cent,
Mexico, representing an increase of 17.3 per cent followed by Anguilla (42.5%) and the British
over 1990 (MPI, 2006). There are also temporary Virgin Islands (38.3%) (UN DESA, 2005).
workers from Central America, for example, from
Guatemala, who tend to work in border areas Figure 4:
in sectors such as agriculture, construction and Stock of migrants in Latin America and the
domestic service. Caribbean, top ten destinations, 2000 and 2005
• Over the last two decades or so, Mexico has
become a significant country of transit, especially Part A: Total number of migrants
for Central American migrants. In 2006, over 1,500
1,544
270,000 Central Americans entered Mexico 1,010
1,015
through its southern border trying to reach the 641
685
U.S. Around 216,000 were detained and returned 441
311
to their countries of origin. A smaller number of 418
383
transit migrants originate from South America 231
177
(mainly Ecuador and Brazil), China, Cuba, other 168
175
Caribbean countries and Africa (around 3,000 for 156
136
all nationalities) (CONAPO, 2006). 123
115
116
90
LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 0 400 800 1,200 1,600

Thousands
• Argentina, hosting 1.5 million migrants in 2005,
is the top country of destination in Latin America Part B: As a share of total population
and the Caribbean, followed by Venezuela (one 44.9
million) and Brazil (641,000) (see Figure 4). These
45.1
42.5

countries remain as the top three destination 36.9

38.3
U.K.
countries of the sub-region despite a decrease in
39.9
35.8

the stock of migrants relative to 2000. Costa Rica,

37.4
32.7
U.S.
ranking fourth as country of destination in 2005, 26.4
31.4

experienced the greatest increase in the stock of 22.5

26.2

20.9
20.9
19.3
 16.3
This section covers 14 Caribbean countries (Antigua and Barbuda, 14.1
Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, 15.0
Grenadines, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint 14.2

Vincent, and Trinidad and Tobago); seven Central American countries

(Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua
and Panama); 12 South American countries (Argentina, Brazil, %
Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Source: UN DESA, 2005.
Uruguay and Venezuela), and ten dependent territories or overseas
departments (Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, French
Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Netherlands Antilles, Puerto Rico,
United States Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands).

[426]
 World Migration 2008

The U.S. continues to host the highest number of other that the U.S. Figure 5 shows the evolution
Latin American and Caribbean migrants … of Latin American and Caribbean migration as a
percentage of total immigration in some of the
• According to the Population Division of the main countries of destination.
Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean (ECLAC), the number of Latin American Figure 5:
and Caribbean migrants increased considerably Volume of Latin American and Caribbean
from an estimated total of 21 million in 2000 to migrants as a percentage of total migration, by
25 million in 2005, accounting in 2005 for four main destination, 1995-2005
per cent of the population of their home countries
(ECLAC, 2006a). Relative to the approximately
191 million international migrants in the world in
2005 (UN DESA, 2005), this sub-region accounts
for over 13 per cent of all international migrants
worldwide. In 2001, half of those migrants resided
in the Americas (70% in the U.S. and 30% within
Latin America and the Caribbean) and half in U.S.

other parts of the world.

... and yet the flow of Latin American and

Source: OECD, Stocks of foreign population by nationality and stocks of
Caribbean migrants towards Europe has increased foreign-born population by country of origin, online database.
during the last 15 years

• In geographical terms, the destinations of Latin • The changing migration patterns affecting
American and Caribbean migrants have been Latin America and the Caribbean are complex.
expanding and diversifying. Owing to push However, some of the larger trends in the sub-
factors, the demand for specialized workers and region have been shaped by natural and economic
the emergence of social networks, the flows of crises, gradual economic and political change,
migrants from Latin America and the Caribbean the feminization of migration flows and the
towards Europe (particularly Spain, Portugal and diversification of countries of destination for
Italy), as well as Japan and Canada, increased over Latin American migrants (O’Neil et al., 2005).
the period 1990-2005 (ECLAC, 2006a). According
to ECLAC estimates, approximately three million The importance of crises and economic change in
people from Latin America and the Caribbean migration trends
are living outside the sub-region in countries
• Emigration trends from Latin America and the

The 2000 and 2005 figures of the total number of Latin American and Caribbean can sometimes be traced clearly to
Caribbean migrants include the number of migrants from Mexico, which specific crises, but flows triggered by general
accounts for around half of Latin American and Caribbean citizens living
outside their country of origin. The importance of including Mexico as part economic and cultural changes are more difficult
of Latin American migration is that, in terms of migrant characteristics
(reasons for migrating, migration conditions, living conditions in the
to identify. Natural disasters and conflicts are
host countries, etc.), Mexican migrants are more similar to the rest of the most obvious causes of migration, especially
Latin American and Caribbean citizens living outside their country of
origin than to U.S. and Canadian citizens living outside their country of
in Central America where natural disasters have
origin.

[427]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

contributed to maintaining emigration flows, sub-region. After the crisis that began in 1998,
originally provoked by political violence two or 550,000 Ecuadorians left the country (O’Neil et al,
three decades earlier. This migration is often 2005). The Ecuadorian case shows two interesting
between fairly close neighbouring countries, as transformations in emigration that can be observed
in the case of Costa Rica, which hosted 296,461 in other Latin American countries as well. First,
migrants in 2000; 75 per cent of those migrants the major country of destination of Ecuadorian
came from Nicaragua. But it can also occur at migrants has changed, with Spain receiving a
the sub-regional level as in the case of Panama, yearly average inflow of 69,453 Ecuadorians from
where most migrants come from South America 2000 to 2004, compared to fewer than 1,000
(especially Colombia which contributed 26 per migrants per year before the crisis in 1998,
cent of the total migrant stock for 2000) and the replacing the U.S. as the top destination (OECD,
Caribbean (O’Neil et al., 2005). online datasets, 2007). Other countries where
• Economic crises have played a powerful role emigration patterns have shifted away from the
in migration in Latin America, shaping new U.S. as the top destination are Argentina, Bolivia,
migration trends in some countries and even Peru and Venezuela.
reversing migration patterns in some others. In • The second significant new trend observed in
Argentina, the economic crisis of 2001 caused a Ecuador, and that can be extended throughout
dramatic reversal in migration flows. Originally a Latin America, is the increased importance of
magnet for migrants during the 1990s, Argentina women in intra-regional migration. According
experienced an exodus of 255,000 people from to ECLAC estimates, on the American continent
2001 to 2003, nearly six times as many as during as a whole, there has been a shift replacing
the period 1993-2000. Argentine emigration predominantly female migration in the 1970s
slowed down as the country recovered from the and 1980s by mainly male migration thereafter
crisis (O’Neil et al., 2005). (González and Sánchez, 2002). However, if the
• Two other countries, Venezuela and Brazil, show analysis is restricted to cross-border migration
evolving migration trends due to changing between Latin American countries, there is a strong
economic circumstances. Venezuela, a net increase in the number of women relative to total
destination for migrant labour from other countries emigration. Figure 6 shows the trend in gender
in the sub-region and southern Europe since the balance among international migrants in Latin
oil boom 50 years ago, has started to experience America between 1970 and 2000. Latin America
some migration outflows, especially to the U.S. records the highest proportion of women among
and Spain. As to Brazil, the number of Brazilians international migrants in the developing parts of
in the U.S. and in Portugal has been rising to the world (ECLAC, 2006a). Female migration in
reach 356,000 in 2005 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005) Latin America and the Caribbean has also been
and 70,400 in 2005 (OECD, online datasets, 2007), characterized by the increased participation of
respectively. In addition, Brazilians numbering women in the labour market, which confirms the
302,100 in 2005 accounted for the third-largest increase in the feminization of migration in this
foreign group in Japan (OECD, online datasets, sub-region. In addition, according to the United
2007). Nations International Research and Training
• Ecuador provides another example of the Institute for the Advancement of Women (UN
importance of economic crises in shaping INSTRAW), 54 per cent of Latin American migrants
migration trends in Latin America, and also of are women, and the majority of their remittances
the emergence of new migration patterns in the (30% of their income, compared to 10% for men)

[428]
 World Migration 2008

is used for education, health care and small most irregular migrants arrived since 1990. These
businesses that benefit their families. The amount numbers concur broadly with the estimates of the
of money female migrants send home accounts for U.S. Department of Homeland Security, according
more than half of total remittances transferred to which the volume of the irregular migration
(LP, 2007). flow increased from 120,000 per year in the 1980s
to 440,000 per year during the period 1990-1994,
Figure 6: and to 650,000 per year during the period 1995-
Gender ratio of the stock of intra-regional 1999, to reach 850,000 migrants per year during
migration from Latin America and the the period 2000-2005 (Passel, 2006). Mexico is the
Caribbean, 1970-2000 major country of origin and transit for irregular
migration to the U.S. (over 450,000 a year). This
flow has become more pronounced since the
1990s, even though Mexico has strengthened its
migration control measures. According to Mexico’s
National Migration Institute (Instituto Nacional
de Migración, 2005), the number of apprehensions
and deportations of irregular migrants increased
from 215,695 in 2004 to 240,269 in 2005 but
decreased to 167,437 during the first ten months
of 2006.
• During the last ten years, South America has
Source: ECLAC, 2006a.
become characterized by intensive outmigration
towards North America and Europe, while
SOME TOPICAL ISSUES IN MIGRATION traditional intra-regional movements have
MANAGEMENT IN THE AMERICAS declined. The most important source countries
for irregular migration to Europe are Ecuador and
Irregular migration in the region is substantial Peru, but also traditional destination countries
and rising like Argentina and Brazil. In Spain, for example,
in 2003 a majority of irregular migrants came from
• In the Americas, as in many other parts of the world, Latin America (the top three source countries
irregular migration is substantial and rising (see being Ecuador – 20%, Colombia – 8% and Bolivia
also Chapter 8). In the U.S., for example, although – 7%). The same is true of Portugal, where six
the irregular migration problem has been felt for per cent of irregular migrants came from Brazil in
some considerable time, rising numbers during 2004 (Kostova Karaboytcheva, 2006).
the last decade have pushed the topic towards the
top of the national agenda. According to the OECD Remittances are increasing in the region and play
(2006), net irregular immigration to the United a central role in economic development
States is estimated to be in the vicinity of 500,000
persons per year, which amounts to around 0.15- • An important emerging migration issue in the
0.20 per cent of the total population per year. The Americas is the increasing role of remittances in
Pew Hispanic Center (Passel, 2006) estimated the economic development. According to the World
stock of irregular migrants at between 11.5 and 12 Bank (2008), in 2007 the countries of Latin
million persons in March 2006, and suggests that America and the Caribbean received USD 60.7

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REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

billion in remittances, over 16 per cent more than Brain drain is a growing concern in the region
in 2006, with this sub-region receiving 24.14
per cent of total remittances sent to developing • Brain drain in the Caribbean has become an
countries in 2007 (World Bank, 2008) (see Figure issue of particular relevance, given the rate of
7). Moreover, the Inter-American Development emigration against the size of the pool of highly
Bank (2003) estimates that the actual impact of qualified persons. While in South America and
remittances on local economies can be enhanced Mexico brain drain accounts for ten and five per
by a factor of three through their multiplier cent of the college and high-school educated
effects. At the national level, the country with population respectively, in the case of Caribbean
the highest remittance inflows in the region countries nearly one-third of college and high-
is Mexico (41% of total flows) (World Bank, school educated citizens live in the U.S. (Lowell
2008), which is estimated to have received USD and Suro, 2002). Jamaica and Haiti have some
25.1 billion in 2007, making it the third largest of the highest rates of emigration of the highly
recipient of remittances in the world, after skilled in the world, with two-thirds of their
India and China and followed by the Philippines. college graduates abroad (O’Neil et al., 2005).
In addition, in 2006, in seven countries in the Even if the emigration of highly skilled persons is
region remittances accounted for more than ten considered to yield some direct beneficial effects
per cent of GDP (World Bank, 2008): Honduras to countries of origin, Beine et al. (2002) argue
(25.6%), Guyana (24.3%), Haiti (21.6%), Jamaica that in the case of Jamaica and Haiti they are
(18.5%), El Salvador (18.2%), Nicaragua (12.2%) made unambiguously poorer.
and Guatemala (10.3%) (World Bank, 2008).
The movement of refugees and displaced persons
Figure 7: is no longer a concern on the scale of the previous
Workers’ remittances sent to developing two decades
countries, 2001-2007
• Finally, the movement of refugees and displaced
persons in Latin America and the Caribbean, while
still of significance, is no longer experienced on
the scale of the previous two decades. The number
of refugees leaving the sub-region has fallen
considerably compared to the 1980s and 1990s.
According to the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), as of the
end of 2005, there were 2.51 million “persons of
concern” from Latin America and the Caribbean,
compared to 8.86 million in Asia, 5.17 in Africa,
3.68 million in Europe, 716,806 in North America
and 82,492 in Oceania (UNHCR, 2006). However,
Note: Workers’ remittances, compensation of employees and migrant
transfers.
the estimated number of displaced people in
Source: World Bank (2008), based on the International Monetary Fund’s some Latin American countries is substantial.
Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook 2007. For instance, according to one reliable source,

[430]
 World Migration 2008

there were in 2007 between 2.39 and four million The access of migrants and mobile populations to
internally displaced persons in Colombia, the health care is an important issue
second highest IDP figure in the world after Sudan
(IDMC, 2008). In addition, more than 400,000 In the Americas, as indeed in other regions,
Colombians have refugee status within the region speedy and adequate access of migrants and mobile
and in the U.S. (O’Neil et al., 2005), and the number populations to HIV prevention, care and treatment
of asylum applications by Colombians in Ecuador is considered essential to combating the virus, and
has increased from 36 in 1999 to 11,388 in 2003 a number of interventions have been undertaken in
totalling 37,143 applications during the period the region to this effect (see Textbox Reg. 1).
2000-2005 (UNHCR, 2006). This trend represents
a significant challenge not only for Colombia, but
also for all host countries in the region.

Textbox Reg. 1
Universal Access to HIV Prevention, Care and Treatment: Targeting Migrants and Mobile
Populations in the Americas

Many socio-economic and psychosocial factors that drive migration, such as poverty, unemployment, political instability and
conflicts, are also closely associated with the proliferation of HIV infections, as their spread traces rural-urban migration
paths within countries and subsequent return migration to areas and communities of origin. At the global level, the spread
of HIV is often associated with the flow of people fleeing armed conflicts and civil unrest, but also accompanies the growth
of international tourism, business travel and commercial activities, while the rise in international criminal activities, such as
the smuggling and the trafficking in human beings, has also become an important factor in the spread of the disease. In the
destination country, migrants can be perceived as potential sources of HIV infections, while they themselves face important
obstacles in accessing health services and advice on either prevention or care and support in living with HIV, and are frequently
barred from permanent residence status if mandatory tests show them to be HIV positive.

Young, lonely and isolated adult migrant men living and working far away from home, from disadvantaged socio-economic
backgrounds, with little or no knowledge of the local language, frequently undocumented, are particularly vulnerable to
becoming infected with HIV, a situation further compounded by exploitative working conditions, lack of access to health and
social services and a high number of sexual partners, including same-sex partners and prostitutes, as well as excessive drinking,
substance abuse and risky conduct under stress (Hirsch et al., 2002; Organista and Kibo, 2005). Studies have shown that on the
Mexico-Guatemalan border, 70 per cent of truck drivers (traileros), who are either married or in a stable relationship, neglect
the use of condoms to protect themselves and their partner, even though 40 per cent would have engaged in extramarital sex,
including prostitution (Bronfman-Pertzovsky and Leyva, 2000). Female migrant workers are especially vulnerable to abuse,
including trafficking, forced labour and prostitution. An estimated 60 per cent of undocumented migrant women would have
been exposed to some kind of sexual activity during their migration experience, ranging from sexual abuse, coerced sex or new
sexual partners (Aguilar, 1996). Different cultural factors and attitudes to sexuality in the destination country contribute to a
migrant’s vulnerability, as do the different approaches to healthcare and medical practice, together with unfamiliar legal and
administrative rules.

In the Americas, a major risk factor for HIV transmission is unprotected sex between men, though the heterosexual transmission
of HIV has also become a major risk factor for the wives and female partners of returnees. In the Caribbean, the high HIV
prevalence reflects the significant level of population mobility and poses a major challenge for the control of the epidemic
(Borland et al., 2004).

Unmet health needs are common among migrant workers and their access to healthcare is often affected by a migrant’s legal
status. Some of the most frequently reported obstacles to healthcare cited by Latino migrants in the U.S. is their irregular

[431]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

status and fear of deportation (Brown et al., 2002; Cunningham, et al., 2000), insufficient economic means, lack of health
insurance and competing essential needs (e.g. housing, food, transportation) as well as language, cultural factors and stigma
(Solorio, et al., 2004). According to a 2006 New York City Department of Health report, foreign-born adults with low incomes
are less likely to have Medicaid than others born in the U.S. (29% and 42%, respectively) and foreign-born adults under the age
of 65 who speak only Spanish are nearly twice as likely to be unable to obtain medical care when needed as those who speak
English (15% and 8%, respectively). They are also less likely to use preventive measures, and low-income migrants in New York
are less likely to have tested for HIV during the past year (Kim et al., 2006).

Because of the higher vulnerability to HIV infection among migrants and other mobile populations, a number of countervailing
initiatives have been launched throughout the region. Thus, since 2001, the HIV/AIDS Mobile Population Project for Central
America, Mexico and the U.S., developed under the auspices of the National Institute of Public Health, Mexico, and the IMPSIDA
project1 of the United Nations, have been active at eleven border-crossing points throughout Mesoamerica with educational
initiatives, access to free condoms and to HIV counselling and testing services (Bronfman-Pertzovsky and Leyva, 2000). Similar
HIV-testing initiatives were launched in El Salvador at the San Cristobal border-crossing point, providing guidelines for the care
of mobile populations as well as pamphlets, posters and other tools to raise general awareness and knowledge about HIV and
AIDS among mobile populations (Bortman et al., 2006).

Another example of effective practice in the region is the 1990 AIDS Law in Argentina, which guarantees full access to
healthcare and treatment regardless of the migrant’s status (Art. 8),2 and various programmes, services and guidelines are being
offered and implemented in response to this political mandate (Vásquez et al., 2005).

Among the positive examples of prevention exercises for highly mobile populations is an innovative programme in Brazil aimed
at truck drivers. As they wait for customs clearance at the Brazil-Argentina-Paraguay border, two outreach educators hand
them educational material and invite them to a mobile trailer for health services, including testing and counselling for HIV
and syphilis, as well as the management of sexually transmitted infection (STI) syndromes. In addition, they have their blood
pressure taken, are screened for diabetes and asked to return for a follow-up visit two weeks later. Interviews were conducted
with a random sample of 1,775 male truck drivers before the screening exercise and with another 2,408 eighteen months later.
Of the truck drivers interviewed during the post-intervention period, half had participated in the programme; one-third had
participated in HIV testing and counselling; and only around 13 per cent were unaware of the project. Nearly 2,000 truck drivers
participated in pre-test counselling for HIV and syphilis. Of the 1,795 who gave blood samples, 83 per cent returned for post-
test counselling and results. Only 0.3 per cent tested positive for HIV and 4.7 per cent for Syphilis.

However, examples of successful initiatives are few and far between, and regular and large-scale services for HIV/AIDS testing,
prevention, care and treatment, and systematic and reliable information for mobile populations, in particular irregular migrants,
on how to access them are lacking or, at best, uneven throughout the Caribbean, Latin America and North America. In order to
combat and control the spread of HIV/AIDS, governments and policymakers need to devote more attention and means to the
issues at stake and strive towards universal access to prevention, care and treatment for mobile and hard-to-reach populations,
such as migrants. To be effective, such service outreach must also aim to breach the social isolation and stigma frequently
experienced by migrants, and to gain an insight and understanding of their social networks, relationships and dynamics, and
not limit itself to the mere handout of condoms and HIV/AIDS testing and education.

By the end of 2008, IOM Washington and the HIV/STI Unit of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) will publish
research on migrants’ access to health in the Caribbean, with a particular focus on HIV, as a follow-up to a Baseline Assessment
on mobile populations, conducted in 2004 (Borland et al., 2004).3

Notes:
1
Iniciativa Mesoamericana para Prevenir la expansión del VIH-SIDA [Mesoamerican Initiative for Prevention of the Spread of HIV/AIDS].
2
Argentina, Ley Nacional de SIDA [Aids Law] No. 23.798, Republic of Argentina, Buenos Aires, 16 August 1990.
3
HIV/AIDS in the Caribbean (forthcoming). On the basis of a comparison between five countries (Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Guyana,
Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago), the study covers the different facets of the relationship between HIV/AIDS and migration in the region.
It includes an analysis of vulnerability factors in the migration process, dynamics and impact of health workers’ migration, and legal and
political responses to the phenomenon.

Source: HIV/STI Unit, PAHO, Washington, D.C.

[432]
World Migration 2008

[433]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

[434]
 World Migration 2008

García, M.C.
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Hirsch, J.S., J. Higgins, M.E. Bentely and C.A. Nathanson

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Bronfman-Pertzovsky, M. and R. Leyva

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Brown, E.R., N. Ponce, T. Rice and S.A. Lavarreda

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Cunningham, W.E., D.M. Mosen, L.S. Morales, R.M. Andersen,

M.F. Shapiro and R.D. Hays
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[437]
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[438]
 World Migration 2008

ASIA

• Over the past three decades, international labour Southeast Asia (from 4.7 to 5.6 million) (UN
mobility has become an increasingly important DESA, 2005).
feature of the Asian economic landscape. • Some of the countries/areas that are most
The estimated current stock of Asian migrant affected by international migration are in Asia.
workers abroad may be around 25 million (Hugo, For instance, approximately 56 percent of the total
2005), including both within and beyond the population of Macao SAR is foreign-born, while
Asian region. Much of these movements are the proportion of foreign-born in Hong Kong SAR
undocumented and are not included in the and Singapore is nearly 43 per cent. In Brunei,
available official statistics. about one-third of the population is foreign-born
• Asian migration has become an increasingly intra- (Hugo, 2005).
regional phenomenon. In mid-2000, a quarter of • Countries/areas in Asia can be roughly classified
the 25 million international migrants worked according to their international labour migration
in East and Southeast Asia – and their number situation as “mainly emigration” (Bangladesh,
increases to 7.5 million if unauthorized workers Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar,
are included (Hugo, 2005). Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Viet
• From 2000 to 2005, the estimated number of Nam); “mainly immigration” (Brunei, Hong Kong
international migrants in South-Central Asia SAR, Japan, Macao SAR, Malaysia, Singapore,
dropped from 15 to 13 million, while it increased Republic of Korea (South Korea), Taiwan Province
in both East Asia (from 5.7 to 6.5 million) and of China) and “both significant immigration
and emigration” (Thailand) (Hugo, 2005). Some

countries, such as Cambodia, China, Indonesia,
For the purpose of this Migration Overview, Asia includes: East Asia
(China (China mainland, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region the Philippines and Thailand, are also transit
of China, Macao Special Administrative Region of China – hereafter countries.
Hong Kong SAR and Macao SAR, respectively - and Taiwan Province of
China), the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea), Japan,
Mongolia and the Republic of Korea (South Korea)); Southeast Asia EAST ASIA
(Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Viet Nam); and South-Central Asia
(Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan
and Sri Lanka). Countries in Western Asia and Central Asia are addressed
• The two Special Administrative Regions of
in the Migration Overviews on the Middle East and Europe, respectively. China, Hong Kong and Macao, have the highest

[439]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

concentration of international migrants in East Many East Asian countries/areas, together with
Asia (43% and 56% of their total population, Thailand and Singapore, show a high dependence
respectively). With about three million on foreign labour
international migrants, Hong Kong SAR is also
the major destination in the sub-region, followed • The Migrant Labour Dependency Ratio (MLDR) has
by Japan with two million international migrants significantly increased in recent years in all East
(UN DESA, 2005) (see Figure 1). Asian countries/areas with the exception of Hong
Kong SAR, which experienced a decrease from 95
Figure 1: in 1993 to 72 in 2000 but still shows the highest
Stock of migrants in East Asia, by destination, MLDR in the region (Athukorala, 2006).
2000 and 2005
Japan receives migrant workers from less-
Part A: Total number of migrants developed Asian countries …

• Japan hosts the third largest number of overseas

Filipino workers (258,977), after the U.S.
(2.7 million) and Saudi Arabia (one million),
representing nearly a third of all foreign workers in
Japan, totalling 910,000 in 2005 (POEA, 2006).
• In Japan, migrants from China make up almost
one-quarter of new arrivals (Financial Times, 9
July 2007).

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 … and also from Russia

Part B: As a share of total population • The growing presence of Russians in Japan’s

northern provinces had hardly been researched
until recently. Japanese Government statistics put
the number of Russians entering Japan at around
37,000 per year, and the number of Russians
residing in the country for 90 days or longer at a
little over 6,000. Also, several tens of thousands of
Russian seafarers and tourists visit Japanese port
cities each year on a temporary landing permit
while their ships are at anchor (Akaha, 2004).

China depends on its internal migrant workers …

and domestic remittances
Note: East Asian countries showing negligible values on the scale are not
included in this table.

Source: UN DESA, 2005.

• Labour migration in China has been characterized
by the large outflow of agricultural labourers from


The Migrant Labour Dependency Ratio is defined as the number of
migrant workers per 1,000 workers in the labour force.

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 World Migration 2008

inland villages to work in the manufacturing and ... but there are also signs that talent can be
service sectors in the coastal provinces, mostly encouraged to return home
on a temporary basis. This pattern of domestic
and temporary migration has helped to generate a • Incentives schemes have been launched to
very large inflow of money from migrant workers encourage the return of highly skilled diaspora
to their families at home that has contributed both to Taiwan Province of China and to South
to raise the income and welfare of farmers, and Korea.
to reduce poverty. On average, a migrant worker • In China, the number of returned students jumped
remits between ¥500-1,000 (EUR 50-100) three from less than 10,000 in 2000 to about 25,000
to six times a year. In 2006, domestic remittances in 2004. However, returnees, as a percentage of
averaged ¥331 billion (EUR 33 billion). persons going overseas, have not increased, as
Approximately 75 per cent of the total domestic liberalization of the policy on travelling abroad
remittance volume of ¥223 billion in 2004 was on the basis of own funds has resulted in a very
captured by formal financial institutions. The significant increase in the number of persons
remaining 25 per cent were either hand-carried going abroad (Zweig, 2006).
home or sent through other channels (Cheng and
Zhong, 2005). SOUTH–CENTRAL ASIA

Highly skilled emigration from East Asia is still • Though India is the main destination country in
an issue … South-Central Asia, the 5.7 million international
migrants living there account for only 0.5 per cent
• South Korean professionals continue to emigrate, of the total population. At the other extreme, the
with 4,600 leaving for Canada and 4,200 for the 818,582 international migrants living in Nepal
U.S. in 2003. Some 188,000 South Koreans were represent three per cent of the local population,
studying abroad in April 2004 (Migration News, the highest share in this part of the world (UN
2005), a step that often leads to permanent DESA, 2005) (see Figure 2).
settlement abroad.
• It is estimated that more than half of the graduating Figure 2:
class of Beijing University’s engineering students Stock of migrants in South-Central Asia, by
will seek opportunities overseas. Between 1979 destination, 2000 and 2005
and 1998, only about a third of all Chinese
students benefiting from government assistance Part A: Total number of migrants
to study abroad returned home. The return rate, at
around 10 per cent, is lowest for students going to
the United States (from Canada the rate is around
50%) (Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, 2000).


One China Yuan Renminbi = EUR 0.099 (exchange rate, ­August 2008).

The above estimate is based on the assumption that 75 per cent of the
126 million migrant workers in China in 2006 sent on average ¥3,500
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
home per year (Cheng and Zhong, 2005).

[441]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Part B: As a share of total population • According to research conducted in 2002 by the

Nepal Institute for Development Studies (NIDS)
for the United Nations Women’s Fund (UNIFEM),
approximately 170,000 Nepalese were in East and
Southeast Asia, nearly 36,000 in Europe and over
10,000 in North America. However, most Nepali
workers abroad were to be found in the Gulf states;
over 465,000 Nepalese were working in countries
such as Saudi Arabia (42% of all Nepali expatriate
workers) and Qatar (11%) (Seddon, 2005).

These movements continue to comprise mainly

low-skilled workers … and involve women
Source: UN DESA, 2005.

• The majority of Nepali women migrant workers

Many South-Central Asian countries are major present outside of India, mainly in the Middle East,
sources of migrant workers East Asia, and Southeast Asia, were concentrated
in two destinations – Hong Kong SAR (44%) and
• Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka are Japan (9%) – with 56.5 per cent in East and
major countries of origin of migrant workers (see Southeast Asia. The remainder were employed in
Figure 3). the U.K. (12%), the U.S. (9%), Australia (6%),
• While India is also a country of destination and Bahrain (4%) and other countries. Most of them
transit, its levels of emigration increased in 2005 were working in domestic service or in other areas
and accounted for almost eight per cent of total of the services sector (Seddon, 2005).
inflows in Australia (compared to 5% for the period
1990-2004), 11 per cent in Canada (8%) and eight South-Central Asia is also characterized by large
per cent in the United States (5%) (OECD, 2007). outflows of students

Figure 3: • Indian students in the U.S. accounted for 13.9 per

Labour migration outflows for South-Central cent of all foreign students in the period 2003-
Asia, 2001-2005 2004, the largest percentage for the third year
in a row, followed by students from China, South
Korea, Japan, Canada, and Taiwan Province of
China. In 2004-2005, India continued to be the
main country of origin for students leaving to
study in the U.S., with 80,466 students (Khadria,
2006).

Note: Figures based on official statistics for the South-Central Asian 

region and the Nepal Institute of Development Studies (NIPS). In February 2001, the Malaysian Government officially “opened” its
labour market to workers from Nepal. Within six months, over 12,000
Source: IOM, 2005. migrant workers had left for Malaysia and, a year later, Malaysia was
hosting some 85,000 Nepali migrant workers.

[442]
 World Migration 2008

During the last decade, labour migration flows countries are in semi to low-skilled employment
from South-Central Asia have become more categories (IDB, 2006).
diverse: while Asian destinations now receive
many more migrants, the Middle East continues to SOUTHEAST ASIA
be the most popular destination
• Southeast Asian countries are grouped in
• An estimated 8.7 million temporary contractual the ASEAN regional block and most of their
workers from different Asian countries live and work migrant populations originate within this system
in the Middle East (Hugo, 2005) (see Figure 4). (Battistella, 2002). In Southeast Asia, Singapore
has the highest number of international migrants
Figure 4: on its territory (1.8 million), followed by Malaysia
Estimated stock of Asian origin temporary with 1.6 million. In terms of concentration,
contractual workers in the Middle East Singapore still leads with nearly 43 migrants per
100 inhabitants, while Malaysia has a much lower
migrant share of 6.5 per cent. The country of
Brunei Darussalam ranks second in concentration
with about 33 migrants per 100 habitants (UN
DESA, 2005) (see Figure 3).

Figure 5:
Stock of migrants in Southeast Asia, by
destination, 2000 and 2005

Part A: Total number of migrants

Source: Hugo, 2005.

• Bangladesh, India and Pakistan supply workers to

realize infrastructure projects in the Gulf states,
while Indonesia and Sri Lanka have secured the
greatest part of the labour market for domestic
workers, which has also spurred the feminization
of migration in the Gulf region (Asis, 2005).
• Outflows of Pakistani workers to the Gulf countries
fluctuate from year to year. The number of Pakistani
workers who moved to Kuwait was 400 in 2001, 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000
but reached 12,087 in 2003 and then declined to
6,895 in 2005. Likewise, 18,421 Pakistani workers
went to the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 2001,
whereas in 2003 the number was 61,329, then

ASEAN is the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and comprises
47,441 in 2005. Around 90 per cent of Pakistani 10 countries: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
temporary contractual workers to the Gulf Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam.

[443]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Part B: As a share of total population exceed growth in the working age population.
Thailand’s MLDR increased from 5 in 1990 to 15 in
2003 (Athukorala, 2006). These countries/areas
are thus expected to face incremental pressure
on the demand for labour in connection with
continued economic growth. The problem is most
acute in Singapore (EIU, 2006).

… many Southeast Asian countries are major

sources of migrant labour

• A newcomer to labour migration, Viet Nam, has

expanded its overseas employment programme,
with the result that over 70,000 workers go
Source: UN DESA, 2005.
abroad per annum (Asis, 2005). Some 75,000
migrants went abroad in 2003, when there was
Although Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore show a stock of 350,000 Vietnamese migrants abroad,
a dependence on foreign labour, … including 75,000 in Malaysia and 40,000 in Taiwan
Province of China; other destinations are Japan,
• Singapore’s non-resident workforce increased 170 South Korea and the Middle East (Migration News,
per cent, from 248,000 in 1990 to 670,000 in 2004).
2006. About 580,000 foreign workers are lower- • The Philippines have the largest stock of migrant
skilled workers (Yeoh, 2007). workers in foreign countries. Official figures
• The number of regular foreign workers in Malaysia, from the Philippine Overseas Employment
as per official sources, was reported to be as high Administration (POEA, 2006) reveal that, as at the
as 2.2 million in 2008 or up to 2.5-3 million if end of 2006, the total stock of overseas Filipinos
irregular migrant workers are included. In 2006, was 8.2 million distributed as follows: 3.6 million
Indonesians made up 65 per cent of all regular permanent residents, 3.8 million temporary
migrants, followed by Nepalese (11%) and Indian residents and 875,000 irregular migrants.
nationals (7%). About 32 per cent of migrants were • Indonesia is a quintessential labour-surplus
employed in manufacturing and the remainder in country. At the end of 2006, an estimated 11 per
the services, construction and plantation sectors cent of Indonesian workers (11.6 million) were
(EIU, 2006). unemployed, and underemployment stood at
• The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU, 2006) over 20 per cent (i.e. 45 million workers) (Hugo,
forecast suggests that between 2005 and 2015 2007). Official governmental sources in July 2006
Singapore and Thailand (along with Hong Kong reported that two million Indonesians worked
SAR and Taiwan Province of China) will face a abroad, 70 per cent of whom were low-skilled
situation where the growth in labour demand will (Migration News, 2006).
• On the other hand, the number of Thai nationals

Malaysia showed the highest dependency on migrant workers in the officially in employment overseas fell steadily from
region with about 220 migrants per 1,000 workers in 2003, having
experienced an increase of 65 per cent since 1994 (Athukorala, 2006). 202,000 in 1999 to about 150,000 in 2003, owing

The discrepancy with the UN DESA estimates provided in Figure 3 and to increased competition from more populous
those reported by the Malaysian government is likely to be due to the
different reference year of the two sources.
countries and their large supply of low-wage

[444]
 World Migration 2008

labour, and to stricter labour migration regulations non-Asian destinations, such as Europe, is steadily
in Thailand and in destination countries (Huguet increasing (TOEA, 2007) (see Figure 7).
and Punpuing, 2005).
Figure 7:
These outflows are also directed to non-ASEAN Thai workers abroad, by destination, 1995-2007
destinations

• The vast majority of Filipino workers abroad is

to be found either in the Middle East or in other
Asian countries (see Figure 6).

Figure 6:
Deployment of overseas Filipino workers, by
destination, (new employees and returnees,
excluding seafarers), 1998-2006

Source: TOEA, 2007.

… but there are signs that talent can be encouraged

to return home

Source: POEA, 2006.

• Malaysia has introduced a programme under which
the estimated 10,000 Malaysian professionals
• Out of some 200,000 migrant workers in the abroad can apply to return with the government
Lebanon, about 34,000 were from the Philippines guaranteeing their previous foreign salary. In
in mid-2006, mostly in domestic service (Migration 2004, 250 out of 650 applications to return had
News, 2006). been accepted (Migration News, 2004).
• Since 2001, the Middle East has again become
the leading destination for Indonesian overseas SOME TOPICAL ISSUES IN MIGRATION
workers, with their number peaking at over MANAGEMENT IN ASIA
226,000 in 2006 (Hugo, 2007).
• Taiwan Province of China is the major destination Increasing numbers of Asian migrants are leaving
for Thais migrating for employment, followed by to work in African countries
Singapore. While Israel has been steadily attracting
Thai workers during the last decade, South Korea • The number of Filipino nationals working in
has emerged as a new top destination only during Africa has steadily increased over the last years
the last five years and is now the third largest (see Figure 8).
destination for Thai temporary migrant workers.
Brunei is also becoming another significant
destination for Thais and migration of Thais to

[445]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Figure 8:
• Women represent about 60 per cent of all migrants
Overseas Filipino workers in Africa, (new from the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Indonesia (POEA,
employees and returnees), 1998-2006 2006; Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment
2005; Soeprobo, 2005) (see Figure 9).
• Women make up just over 15 per cent of Thai
migrant workers, but the actual number may
be considerably higher given that much female
migration is undocumented (Hugo, 2005) and that
most women migrant workers from Thailand work
in the domestic sector which is not a recognized
Source: POEA, 2006.
category of employment.
• Countries with a traditionally higher proportion
• China is also rapidly becoming an important of female migrants, such as Sri Lanka and the
country of origin for migrants going to Africa, Philippines, have experienced a slower rate of
especially to South Africa where an estimated increase in the number of female migrants than
100,000 to 200,000 Chinese migrants are working countries where women have only relatively
either as regular or irregular entrants (SAMP recently joined the migration flows and where
Migration News, January 2006). their numbers are still relatively low, for instance,
• Lesotho is home to about 5,000 Chinese nationals Bangladesh (POEA, 2006; Sri Lanka Bureau of
(mainly investors in the textile industry) both Foreign Employment, 2005) (see Figures 10
from Taiwan Province of China and the mainland, and 11).
making it the largest foreign community ever to
reside there (MPI, 2004). Figure 10:
Trends in female labour migration from the
South-Central and Southeast Asian migration is Philippines and Sri Lanka
increasingly feminized

• With employment opportunities and the number

of destinations increasing worldwide, many more
women are joining the migrant flows from Asian
countries to Europe, the Middle East and North
America, and also within the Asian region itself.
Sources: POEA, 2006 (only new employees) and Sri Lanka Bureau of
Foreign Employment, 2005.
Figure 9:
Selected Asian countries of origin: proportion of Figure 11:
women in international labour migration flows Trends in female labour migrant flows from
Bangladesh
18,880

Sources: POEA, 2006 (*only new employees); Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign
Employment 2005; Chalamwong, 2005 for Thailand; Soeprobo,
2004 for Indonesia; Bangladesh Bureau of Manpower, Employment
and Training (BMET), 2006. Source: BMET, 2006.

[446]
 World Migration 2008

• Although Bangladesh did introduce a selective Asia is increasingly attracting highly trained
ban on female migration owing to cases of abuse individuals from more developed countries/areas
and sexual exploitation of women migrants within and outside Asia
abroad, according to the recently adopted
overseas employment policies by the Government • ASEAN-610 countries have been net destinations
of Bangladesh, both men and women are free to for skilled individuals in recent years: Malaysia,
migrate abroad to work and the earlier ban on Singapore and Thailand have attracted some
female migration is being reviewed on a case-by- 60,000-70,000 foreign workers, with some 10,000
case basis. to 20,000 migrants also working in Indonesia
• The evidence provided by Blanchet (2008) suggests and the Philippines in 2002-2003 (Bathnagar
that the official statistics on both male and and Manning, 2005). Professional posts requiring
female Bangladeshi migrant workers have been greater skills and experience are largely filled by
significantly underestimated. In sharp contrast to workers from Singapore, the G-8 countries and
the official figure of 18,880 for 2006, this study Australia and New Zealand (EIU, 2007).
provides an estimate of 430,000 Bangladeshi • Indonesia is also experiencing an influx of
women migrant workers abroad. On the other skilled expatriates owing to the inability of
hand, while the official statistics indicate that Indonesian training institutions to supply a
there are 3.8 million male migrant workers, the sufficient number of professionals (in particular
paper gives an estimate of 2.9 million. Given these engineers, scientists, managers and accountants)
new estimates, the proportion of female migrants commensurate with the country’s structural
as compared to their male counterparts stands at changes and economic growth. Experts have come
approximately 15 per cent. from Australia and other developed countries, as
• The majority of the ten main destinations for well as the Philippines and India (Hugo, 2007).
Bangladeshi women between mid-2004 and mid- • While India can generally meet its need for skilled
2007 are in the Middle East (BMET, 2007) (see workers from its large pool of university graduates,
Figure 12). there has been a recent trend to hire foreign
nationals already working with Indian companies
Figure 12: around the world. Foreigners are being employed
Top destinations for Bangladeshi women, in India’s information technology (IT) sector, and
mid-2004-mid-2007 this trend is likely to continue (EIU, 2007).
• Many Hong Kong SAR residents work outside their
territory, particularly in mainland China. According
to a survey conducted in Hong Kong SAR in early
2004, close to 80 per cent out of a total of 240,000
held administrative and professional positions in
mainland China. Chinese authorities offer three-
year multiple-entry visas to visiting third-country
nationals who are permanent residents in Hong
Kong SAR. Most of those working in China do so
on a temporary basis; annual departures from the
territory as a whole are relatively low at just 9,800
in 2004 (EIU, 2007).
Source: BMET, 2007.

10
ASEAN-6 refers to those countries that are long-standing members of
 the World Trade Organization (WTO): Brunei-Darussalam, Indonesia,
Information obtained via personal email contact with Shahidul Haque
(IOM). Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.

[447]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Figure 13:
Diasporas from Asia are some of the largest in
the world The five destination countries with the largest
estimated stocks of Filipinos overseas as of end
• With 30 to 40 million overseas Chinese (Chinese 2006
nationals as well as those who have acquired
citizenship of host countries), the Chinese
diaspora is the largest (2.9% of the population),
followed by the Indian diaspora with around 20
million, or 1.9% of the population. The Philippines
diaspora is some 8.2 million strong (over 10% of
the population11), and the number of Pakistanis
abroad stands at around four million or 2.8
per cent of the population (Hugo, 2005; POEA,
Sources: POEA, 2006. Data were prepared by the Commission on Filipinos
2006). Overseas from CFO, DFA, POEA and other sources covering 194
• As a general rule, the Asian diasporas maintain countries / territories.

close and active relationships with their home

countries, and this is particularly evident • According to the Ministry of Labour, there were
during crisis times, as demonstrated by the vast at least 360,000 migrants working in South Korea
relief efforts undertaken by the members of the in June 2006, some 1.5 per cent of the total
expatriate communities abroad in the wake of the workforce. Of this total, at least 189,000 were
Tsunami in 2004 (IOM, 2007a). irregular migrant workers (Amnesty International,
2006).
Irregular migration movements exist throughout • Data from the Immigration Detention Centre in
the region Bangkok for 2003 show that 58,322 migrants
from East and Southeast Asia were detained and
• The Malaysian Home Affairs Minister estimated 58,719 were deported, the majority from Myanmar
the number of unauthorized migrant workers and Cambodia. In the same year, a further 2,344
in Malaysia at around 600,000 in late 2006, from South-Central Asia were detained and 2,224
the majority from Indonesia, notwithstanding deported (Huguet and Punpuing, 2005).
periodic repatriation campaigns, deportations and • Of the two million foreigners living in Japan,
amnesties (Hugo, 2007). well over 200,000 are estimated to be irregular
• While the majority of Filipinos in the five leading residents (Financial Times, 9 July 2007).
destination countries generally hold regular
status, more than 70 per cent (125,000) of Internal displacements caused by natural disasters
Filipinos working in Malaysia are in an irregular are a major and recurring issue in South-Central
situation (Commission on Filipinos Overseas, Asia
2006) (see Figure 13). Unauthorized migration
from the Philippines to Malaysia is primarily to • Frequent floods, earthquakes, cyclones and,
Sabah province (Battistella, 2002). more recently, tsunamis have led to the massive
displacement of local populations. As of July
2005, official figures put the number of displaced
11
The total population of 76.5 million in the Philippines is taken from the
persons due to the 2004 Tsunami in the Indian
2002 census data. Ocean region at over 1.7 million. Indonesia’s

[448]
 World Migration 2008

Aceh province was particularly hard hit and, • India remained the leading recipient of global
according to the Indonesian Government’s disaster remittance flows, which reached USD 27 billion
coordinating agency, BAKORNAS, by the end of in 2007, accounting for about three per cent of
2005, a total of 532,898 people had been displaced the GDP or close to 11 per cent of all remittance
in Aceh alone (Rofi and Robinson, 2006). flows to developing countries (see Figure 15).
• Chronic flooding in Bangladesh is provoking the Remittances to India have risen steadily over the
repeated major displacements of populations, as last 15 years, and dramatically so over the last
occurred again in 2007 when over eight million decade (Muzaffar Chisti, 2007).
people were estimated to having been displaced • Bangladesh Bank statistics revealed that
due to the monsoon rains (Li, 2007). remittance inflows continue to increase and
• Cyclone Sidr in November 2007, one of the worst reached approximately 6.4 billion USD in
natural disasters in Bangladeshi history, resulted 2007-0812 surpassing the previous fiscal year’s
in an estimated 4,000 deaths and the displacement total of USD 5 billion (Bangladesh Bank, 2008).
of over three million people (U.S. Embassy, Dhaka, • World Bank estimates for 2007 show that
2007). Bangladesh, Philippines and Pakistan continue
• The 2004 Tsunami displaced large population to grow robustly in Asia underscoring the global
segments in Sri Lanka and some parts of India, growth in remittances inflows (World Bank,
with estimates of the number of people displaced 2008).
in Sri Lanka alone ranging from 500,000 to one
million persons (Haque, 2005). Figure 15:
Remittances received in Asia by main countries
Remittances of origin, 2007 (USD billions)

• Between 2000 and 2007, remittance flows to East

Asia grew at a faster rate than to Southeast and
South-Central Asia, although the latter received
the largest share overall (World Bank, 2008) (see
Figure 14).
Viet Nam
Figure 14:
Global flows of international migrant
remittances to Asia, 2000-2007 (USD billions)

Source: World Bank, 2008.

• Most remittance flows generated within Asia

remain in the region. As shown in Figure 16, more
than 90 per cent of the remittance outflows from
Malaysia, India and Singapore remain within Asia.
For India, the share of remittances generated that
Source: World Bank, 2008.

12
Data up to April of financial year 2007-08.

[449]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

remains within Asia is around 80 per cent and,

for Singapore, this share is over 70 per cent (IOM
calculations based on the World Bank bilateral
remittances dataset, 2006).

Figure 16:
Selected Asian sending and receiving countries
of remittances (%, estimates in USD millions)

Remittances sent from India

Remittances sent from Singapore

Remittances sent from Malaysia

Note: IOM calculations using figures from the “Bilateral Remittance

Flows using Migrant Stocks” dataset by Ratha and Shaw (World
Bank, 2006).
Source: IOM, 2007b.

[450]
World Migration 2008

[451]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Bathnagar, P. and C. Manning

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and Development Impact, IDB Occasional Paper
No. 12, May. Skeldon, R.
2004 “China: From Exceptional Case to Global
Khadria, B.
Participant”, Migration Information Source,
2006 “Uncharted Contours of a Changing Paradigm
April, MPI, Washington, D.C., http://www.
- Skilled Migration and Brain Drain in India”,
migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.
Harvard International Review, July 17, http://
cfm?id=219.
hir.harvard.edu/articles/1445/.

[453]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Soeprobo, T.B. Zweig, D.

2004 “Recent Trends in International Migration in 2006 “Learning to compete: China’s efforts to
Indonesia”, paper prepared for the Workshop encourage a ‘reverse brain drain’” in C. Kuptsch
on International Migration and Labour Market and P. Eng Fong (Eds.), Competing for Global
in Asia, organized by the Japan Institute for Talent, International Labour Office, Geneva,
Labour Policy and Training (JILPT), Japan 187-213.
Institute of Labour, 5-6 February, Tokyo.

Southern African Migration Project (SAMP)

2006 “South Africa”, SAMP Migration News, January,
http://www.queensu.ca/samp/migrationnews/
article.php?Mig_News_ID=2339&Mig_News_
Issue=13&Mig_News_Cat=8.

Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment

2007 http://www.slbfe.lk/.

Thailand Overseas Employment Administration (TOEA)

2007 http://www.overseas.doe.go.th:8081/overseas/
index.php?lang=en.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

(UN DESA), Population Division
2005 Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005
Revision, UN DESA, Population Division, New
York, http://esa.un.org/migration/index.
asp?panel=1.

United States Embassy, Dhaka

2007 “U.S. Response to Cyclone Sidr: Operation Sea
Angel II”, Embassy of the United States, Dhaka,
Bangladesh, http://dhaka.usembassy.gov/
cyclone_sidr.html.

World Bank
2006 “Bilateral Remittance Flows using Migrant
Stock” dataset by D. Ratha and W. Shaw,
The World Bank, Washington, D.C.,
http://www.worldbank.org/prospects/
migrationandremittances.

2008 Revisions to Remittance Trends 2007, July, The

World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://econ.
worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/
EXTDECPROSPECTS 0,,contentMDK:21121930~me
nuPK:3145470~pagePK:64165401~piPK:6416502
6~theSitePK:476883,00.html.

Yeoh, B.S.A.
2007 “Singapore: Hungry for Foreign Workers at All
Skill Levels”, Migration Information Source,
January, MPI, Washington, D.C, http://www.
migrationinformation.org/Profiles/print.
cfm?ID=570.

[454]
 World Migration 2008

EUROPE

• In 2005, western and central Europe hosted 44.1

million migrants, a significant proportion of whom WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE
came from neighbouring countries.
• In 2005, migrants accounted for 7.6 per cent of • Germany, host to 10.1 million migrants in 2005, is
the total population in the region and 23.2 per the principal country of destination, followed by
cent of international migrants worldwide (UN France (6.5 million), the U.K. (5.4 million), Spain
DESA, 2005). Furthermore, in 2005 net migration (4.8 million) and Italy (2.5 million) (see Figure 1).
contributed almost 85 per cent of Europe’s The ten countries reviewed in this Figure all show
population growth (Münz, 2006), while labour positive rates of growth in the stock of migrants
migration made up a substantial share of total from 2000 to 2005, with Spain and Italy recording
migration flows. the most important increases of 194.2 per cent, or
• In the majority of western European countries, 3.1 million migrants, and 54.1 per cent, or 884,000
the foreign-born population represents between migrants, respectively. Relative to population
seven and 15 per cent of the total population, size, Luxembourg and Liechtenstein are host to
while in most new European Union (EU) Member the highest migrant stocks (37.3% and 33.5%,
States the share of foreign-born in 2005 was still respectively), followed by Switzerland (22.9%)
below five per cent (Münz, 2006; see also Map 6). and the Baltic states of Latvia and Estonia (19.5%
• The Russian Federation, with 12 million migrants in and 15.2%, respectively) (UN DESA, 2005). In
2005, ranks as the leading country of destination three countries the immigration/population ratio
in eastern Europe (UN DESA, 2005). actually contracted between 2000 and 2005, for


This section covers the 27 EU Member States (Austria, Belgium,
Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom), the three European Economic
Area (EEA) countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway) as well as
Switzerland, and two EU candidate countries, Croatia and Turkey.

Thirty per cent of migrants living in western and central European However, the latest data available in respect of EU countries relates to
countries are originally from other western and central European the EU-25 (i.e. minus Bulgaria and Romania, which acceded to the EU on
countries (UN DESA, 2005). 1 January 2007).

[455]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

various reasons: the number of migrants dropped 50 years, nowhere have the changes been as
in Latvia and Estonia during this five-year period, pronounced as in Europe. Having been primarily
while in Liechtenstein immigration actually countries of emigration for more than two
increased, but at a lower rate than population centuries, most countries in the region became
growth. countries of immigration in the late 20th century.
Many reasons have been advanced to account
Figure 1: for this reversal, covering factors as diverse
Stock of migrants in western and central Europe, as economic disparities between Europe and
top ten destination countries, 2000 and 2005 its neighbours to the south and east, the large
humanitarian inflows of the 1980s and 1990s,
Part A: Total number of migrants and the emergence of organized trafficking and
smuggling networks. The role of growing demand
for migrant workers to fill gaps in local labour
markets is also widely acknowledged.

… leading to a steady growth of its migrant

Switzerland population

• As the membership of the EU grew from 12 to 25

between 1990 and 2004, the number of migrants
Sweden across the combined territories of EU Member
0 3,000 6,000 9,000 States and other countries in western and central
2000 2005
Europe likewise increased from 14.5 to 44.1 million.
Part B: As a share of total population Migration to this sub-region has grown on average
37.3
36.9
at a 14.5 per cent quintennial rate since 1990.
33.5
35.5
In 2005, the foreign-born living in western and
Switzerland
22.9
21.8 central Europe represented 7.6 per cent of its total
19.5

15.2
22.7 population, and 23.2 per cent of all international
15.1
18.3
migrants worldwide (see Figure 2).
11.4
14.5
13.7

10.1
14.1 Figure 2:
Estimated number of migrants in western and
13.9
10.2
12.4
Sweden 11.2 central Europe, by gender and as a percentage of
total population
% 48,000
Source: UN DESA, 2005.
Migrants as of % population

40,000

32,000
Western and central Europe is one of the most
important regions of destination for migratory 24,000

flows … 16,000

8,000

• While most regions of the world experienced 0

fluctuations in migratory flows over the last

Source: UN DESA, 2005.

[456]
 World Migration 2008

• The former EU-15 (except the Netherlands), Norway The majority of migrants come from within the
and Switzerland have a positive migration balance, region or adjacent countries
as do six of the 10 new EU Member States (Cyprus,
the Czech Republic, Hungary, Malta, Slovenia • One interesting but often overlooked feature of
and Slovakia). Several countries, in particular the migratory patterns in Europe is the prevalence
the Czech Republic, Italy, Greece, Slovenia and of intra-regional movements. The OECD online
Slovakia, registered population growth only in datasets on migration show that intra-regional
2005, and that because of migration. In Germany movements in Europe represented around 30
and Hungary, the population decline would have per cent of total migration in the period 1998-
been much larger without a positive migration 2004. Figure 4 shows the stock of intra-regional
balance (see Figure 3). In absolute numbers, migrants as a percentage of total migration in
the EU-25 registered a net gain of 1.8 million EU-25 countries, Switzerland and Norway. In most
people in 2005 owing to international migration, of the countries analyzed, the bulk of migrants
accounting for almost 85 per cent of Europe’s total from the EU-25 accounts for at least 25 per cent of
population growth. total migration. In some countries (e.g. Belgium,
Ireland, Luxembourg, the Slovak Republic and
Figure 3: Switzerland), migrants from within the region
Net migration in Europe equal or exceed 50 per cent of total migration.
per 1,000 population, 2005 However, in all countries reviewed besides Italy,
the contribution of intra-regional migration to
total migration has decreased over time. Yet, in
absolute terms, with the exception of Germany
and the Czech Republic, the European foreign
Switzerland
Norway population in these countries increased, but by
less than the number of migrants from outside
Europe.

U.K.

Notes: *Area under the effective control of the Government of the

Republic of Cyprus.
**Data for Turkey on net migration are from 2003.
***Accession and Candidate countries excluding the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
Source: Eurostat. Data taken from Münz, 2006.

[457]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Figure 4: Figure 5:
Stock of intra-regional migrants as a percentage Major countries of origin of migrants in OECD
of total migration in OECD European countries, European countries, 2000 and 2005 (thousands)
2000 and 2004*
Year 2000

Switzerland
Belgium

U.K.

Norway

Italy

Year 2005
Notes: *Data for Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Ireland,
the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, the Slovak Rep. and Sweden
correspond to the stock of foreign population by country of U.K.,
birth; while data for the Czech Rep., France, Germany, Italy,
Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and the U.K. are
stocks of foreign population by nationality.
**Figures for France correspond to 1999 data; Slovak Rep.
(2001); Poland (2002); and Ireland (2002).
***Figures for Italy and Belgium use 2003 data.
Source: OECD online datasets.

• Looking at the origins of the migratory flows, the

pattern is one of relative stability (see Figure 5),
although a number of differences are noticeable
Note: Data are not harmonized. Statistics from some countries may
between 2000 and 2005. Over that period, Ecuador include many short-term flows.
lost its place in the top ten countries of origin for Source: OECD, 2007.
OECD EU countries, while The Russian Federation
and Ukraine became significant providers of • A newly developing trend is the emergence of Latin
migrants. The large 2005 influxes from Poland, America as a significant source region. Migration
Romania and Bulgaria reflect Poland’s accession from Latin America to Europe has increased from
to EU membership the year before and Romania a negligible base in 1995 to between 150,000 and
and Bulgaria’s status as candidate countries at 250,000 persons annually since 2000. The main
that time. countries of destination are Spain, Portugal and
Italy. Spain, the leading country of destination
for Latin American migrants, registered a stock of
813,200 migrants in 2004, mostly from Ecuador
(357,100) and Colombia (204,300), and the
remaining migrants originated mainly from Peru,
Argentina, the Dominican Republic and Cuba (see
Figure 6).

[458]
 World Migration 2008

Figure 6: Figure 7:
Stock of foreign population in Spain, 1995, International migration by category of entry in
2000 and 2005 (thousands) selected European countries as a percentage of
total inflows, harmonized data, 2005

4.4%
6.3%
10.1% Switzerland
Foreign population by
country of origin, as 10.2%
percentage of total Latin
25.1%
American immigration in
Spain, 2005

Norway
43.9%

Source: OECD, 2007.

Source: OECD, Stock of foreign population by nationality, online database.

Work-related migration is substantial • In 2005, migrants accounted for a large and

growing proportion of the total labour force in
• Work-related migration (workers and accom­ European countries. The size of the foreign-born
panying family members) is responsible for a population has increased by over 20 per cent
substantial share of migrant inflows, accounting from 2000 to 2005 in almost all the countries
for over 40 per cent of all migrants in Belgium, reviewed, except in France and the Netherlands.
Denmark, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Switzerland In just under half of the countries, the labour
and the U.K. Elsewhere, including Switzerland and force participation rate of the foreign-born was
Italy, family reunification accounts for the highest equivalent or higher than for the native-born (see
proportion of migration (see Figure 7). However, Figure 8). Moreover, during the last decade the
Figure 7, just as the overall harmonized statistics difference in the labour force participation rate
on migrant flows, does not include irregular labour between the foreign-born and the native-born has
movements, which, according to OECD (2007), have tended to decrease in most countries, although in
been substantial in southern Europe in recent years 2004 and 2005 the unemployment rate of migrants
(see also Chapter 8). continued to be higher, except in Hungary and
Poland (OECD, 2007).

[459]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Figure 8: Figure 9:
Labour force participation rate of foreign-born Stock of migrants in eastern Europe and Central
and native-born population in selected European Asia, top ten destinations, 2000 and 2005
countries, 2005
Part A: Total number of migrants

Norway

Sweden

U.K.
Switzerland
*

Source: European Community Labour Force Survey (data provided by

Eurostat) except for Denmark (Population Register), taken from
OECD, 2007.
0 3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000

EASTERN EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA

Note: * The then Serbia and Montenegro.

• As host to 12 million migrants in 2005, the

Russian Federation is the leading country of Part B: As share of total population
destination in this region, followed by Ukraine
(6.8 million) and Kazakhstan (2.5 million) (see
Figure 9). While Russia registered a 1.6 per cent
increase in the stock of migrants from 2001 to
2005, the other nine countries reviewed saw their
stock of migrants fall over the same period. With
the exception of Ukraine and Russia, the number
of migrants as a share of their total populations
fell in all countries.
*

Note: * The then Serbia and Montenegro.

Source: UN DESA, 2005.


Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM) (granted EU candidate country status in December 2005),
Moldova, the Russian Federation, the then Serbia and Montenegro,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.

[460]
 World Migration 2008

Figure 10:
Two broad migration systems operate in this sub-
region Net migration in eastern Europe and Central
Asia as a percentage of total population,
• The nature and patterns of migratory movements 1989-1999 and 2000-2003
in this sub-region since 1990 have been shaped
by the combined effects of economic transition, 10a: In the CIS
political and social liberalization, and the break-
up of two federal countries (the former Soviet
Union, and former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia).
They also account for the difficulty of accessing
and compiling reliable migration data concerning
this sub-region. The direction and magnitude
of migration flows have changed significantly
following the lifting of political constraints
on movement, as has the emergence of 22 new
countries and the resulting diversification of
migratory flows throughout the region. Finally,
with the break-up of the former Soviet Union
a new category of migrants, the “statistical” 10b: In Eastern Europe
migrants, emerged, who may not have moved
physically, but were defined as migrants under UN *

practice (World Bank, 2006).

• According to Mansoor and Quillin (2006), two
broad migration systems have developed in the
region: the first concerns migrants from eastern
European countries who move to western Europe;
and the second involves the majority of migrants
from Central Asia who travel to the wealthier
countries of the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS), particularly the Russian Federation
and Kazakhstan. Figures 10a and 10b clearly Note: * The then Serbia and Montenegro.
show this bipolar migration system, with Russia Turkmenistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina are not included
owing to migration data difficulties.
registering by far the largest population gain Source: National statistical offices and UNICEF, TransMONEE Database,
from migration. Most of the migration to Russia is Mansoor and Quillin (2006).
shaped by migrants leaving the other countries of
the former Soviet Union.
• Yet, the two migration systems in the sub-region
are not exclusively bipolar. Indeed, there are
significant subsidiary flows from the poorer CIS
economies, particularly from Moldova, to western
European countries; and from Central Asia towards
the EU and Turkey.

[461]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

• There is a considerable migration flow from of such flows. The largest flows that do not include
Western European and Central Asian (WECA) Russia are from Ukraine and Kazakhstan to
countries to western Europe (73% of total Germany. The first can be explained by proximity
emigration from WECA countries), as well as in and large per capita income differentials, the
the opposite direction (17% of total emigration second by the fact that Kazakhstan hosted the
from western Europe), accounting for 62 per cent largest concentration of persons of German
of total immigration to WECA countries (Mansoor ancestry in the former Soviet Union (Mansoor and
and Quillin, 2006). Flows from Germany to Poland, Quillin, 2006).
the then Serbia and Montenegro and Turkey are • Since the break-up of the former Soviet Union,
among the major contributors to such migratory there have been significant flows of migrant
movements from western Europe. workers to the Russian Federation, mainly from
• Regarding flows involving the CIS countries, the neighbouring countries. Concerns about the levels
Russian Federation is both a source and destination of these movements and their irregularity has
resulted in the formulation and implementation of

In this paragraph, Western European and Central Asian (WECA) countries a new Russian migration law and policy to better
consist of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech manage these flows and the status of migrants
Republic, Estonia, FYROM, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania,
the then Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey. This is once in the country (see Textbox Reg. 2).
a specific classification used in Mansoor and Quillin (2006).

Textbox Reg. 2
The New Russian Migration Legislation

At the time the new Russian migration legislation1 came into force on 15 January 2007, the vast majority of foreign workers
had neither residence nor work permits that would have allowed them to live and work in the Russian Federation. The number
of irregular migrants, primarily originating from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) region and coming to Russia
for the purpose of temporary employment, was variously estimated at between 5.5 and 10 million, and felt to pose a threat not
only to the country’s public order and security, but also to the safety of migrant workers themselves. Legal and administrative
impediments to the acquisition of work and residence permits were generally seen to be one of the main causes for the rise in
irregular migration.

While it remains virtually impossible to fully resolve the problem of irregular migration, the new legislation is intended to
improve policy effectiveness and coherence.

The two key elements of the new legislation with a direct impact on the regulation of labour migration in Russia are: (1) the
introduction of a simplified registration procedure – covering all foreigners who come to Russia for short visits; and (2) the
simplification of the procedures for obtaining work permits – covering migrants originating from countries benefiting from
visa-free arrangements.

The new legislative provisions introduce the following significant reforms in procedure:

• Temporary migrant workers may register their stay in Russia through a simplified procedure2

Under this new procedure, all migrants, including temporary migrant workers, are required to present their personal identification
and migration card, stamped by the border guard authorities at the point of entry to Russia, to the “sponsor” (i.e. the party
who invited the migrant, which may include the whole range of natural persons and legal entities – e.g. employers, landlords,
officials, etc.); the sponsor is then responsible for notifying the authorities (either at their office/s or by post) about the arrival
of the migrant. If there is no sponsor, the migrant is responsible for notifying the authorities him/herself.

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 World Migration 2008

In addition, the legislation further simplifies registration of all migrants, including temporary migrant workers, by establishing
a notification-based procedure (in contrast to the previous system that provided considerable discretion to the authorities and
under which registration could be refused). It is now also possible for migrant workers to register at the place of employment,
thus addressing an important objective, namely that of retaining the existing pattern of predominantly circular or temporary
labour migration, which is considered by many to be the preferred type of labour migration for Russia. Finally, the legislation
intends to lay the foundations for a migration registration scheme on which to base an official system for the collection of
immigration statistics.

In view of the scope and the protection offered by the new registration procedures, the vast majority of migrants may be
expected to comply with this law and duly register as required.

• The procedures for obtaining a work permit for temporary migrants are much simplified and more time-efficient

The migrant from a country benefiting from a visa-free regime can now apply for a work permit him/herself (previously only
the employer could do so) and should be issued with a work permit within a 10-day period (the only basis for the authorities
to refuse the permit, if all the papers are in order, would be the exhaustion of quotas).

By allowing migrants to apply for the work permit themselves, this provision also has the effect of protecting migrant workers
against exploitative working conditions as it enables them to choose and change employers and encourages them to take
into consideration their rights. The legislation can therefore be seen to contribute to the ongoing efforts to combat human
trafficking and forced labour. As such, it is expected to address the shadow economy and, by the same token, increase the tax
revenue for the Russian treasury.

The progressive nature of the new legislation is also demonstrated by the granting of significant privileges to foreign workers
from countries with which the Russian Federation has concluded visa-free entry agreements, viz. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.4

Moreover, employers of temporary workers from those countries do not have to comply with the general requirement to obtain
a permit to employ foreign workers, an arrangement having the effect of promoting closer cooperation with CIS countries with
a view to the eventual creation of a common CIS-wide labour market.

This approach was supported by the huge 2007 quota of six million work permits for visa-free migrants. This quota was
considered to be more than enough to cover the entire labour migration flow from those countries and to legalize the
employment of irregular migrants already in Russia before the new legislation came into force.5

With the major legal obstacles to the legalization of foreign workers removed, it is now largely up to migrants themselves to
regularize their status in Russia. Accordingly, the new legislation foresees heavier penalties for unauthorized residence and
employment in Russia, with fines between 2,000 and 5,000 Russian roubles.6

Persons aiding and abetting migrants to live and work in Russia in violation of the law, or who exert pressure on them to do
so, face fines of up to 8,000 times the statutory minimum monthly wage (2,000-5,000 Russian roubles for physical persons,
25,000-50,000 for officials and 250,000-800,000 Russian roubles for organizations). The severity of these sanctions is intended
to make the unauthorized employment of a migrant unattractive and to discourage employers from doing so and, by the same
token, to enhance the protection of migrants’ human and labour rights. Since the legislation came into effect, many companies
employing irregular migrants have had to pay heavy fines, which, by the end of May 2007, already totalled around 60 million
Russian roubles.

At the same time, the penalty procedures for migrants have in practice worked as a de facto regularization process. Migrants
originating from countries with a visa-free regime and already present in Russia could pay a fine and then apply for a work
permit. This is especially important for the very large number of foreign workers who were in Russia without authorization prior
to the new legislation coming into force.

[463]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

However, effective implementation of this legislation has not been easy and many challenges remain to be overcome. One
shortcoming has been the lack of information dissemination about the new legal procedures.7 Another has been the absence of
sufficient administrative personnel. Finally, a network of officially certified employment agencies is yet to be established.

Such initial difficulties notwithstanding, there is evidence8 of the legislation’s positive impact as demonstrated by: (a) the rise
in the share of foreign nationals lawfully present in Russia; and (b) the increase in the percentage of migrant workers holding
work permits. If just over 700,000 work permits were issued in Russia in 2005 and a little more than one million in 2006,
that figure rose to nearly one million work permits (997,500) issued during the first five months of 2007 alone (i.e. as of 31
May 2007). Thus, based on the same estimated overall total of migrants, the percentage of migrant workers holding valid work
permits has nearly doubled.

Notes:
1
This legislation consists of five Federal laws (No. 109-FZ of 18 July 2006, No. 110-FZ of 18 July 2006, No. 121-FZ of 18 July 2006, No. 189-
FZ of 5 November 2006, No. 2-FZ of 6 January 2006) as well as various implementing decrees and orders issued by the Federal Migration
Service (FMS).
2
Federal Law No. 109-FZ and Federal Law No. 110-FZ.
3
Federal Law No. 110-FZ.
4
Ibid.
5
The 2008 quota is 1,828,245. The rationale for this lower quota is that migrants who have worked in Russia without authorization had an
opportunity to regularize their status during 2007.
6
Approximately USD 85-205 as at August 2008.
7
However, IOM, in conjunction with the FMS, has since conducted such an information campaign, which included the preparation and
printing of a large number of information materials (reference books, leaflets and posters) for distribution within Russia as well as
individual countries of origin.
8
In conjunction with the FMS, IOM Moscow recently launched a study monitoring implementation of the new migration legislation.

Source: IOM Moscow.

SOME TOPICAL ISSUES IN MIGRATION Student mobility continues to increase in response

MANAGEMENT IN EUROPE to policies in destination countries

Labour migration is now at the centre of debates • Recent years have seen a large increase in the
about migration management in EU Member numbers of international tertiary students
States studying in European countries (see Figure 11).
From 1998 to 2003, their numbers increased by
• There is growing recognition that migration is one some 38.5 per cent, with much of the increase
of the possible answers to problems of demographic occurring since 2001, resulting in a 24 per cent
ageing and welfare system sustainability. There growth rate between 2001 and 2003. According to
is therefore an ongoing search for effective UNESCO (2006), the total number of international
policy formulation and programme management tertiary students leaving their countries of origin
strategies covering, inter alia, identification of to study in western European countries stood
needs, skill recognition, selection, recruitment and at a little more than 1.5 million in 2004. The
integration arrangements (see Chapter 11). Many top destination countries in that year were the
Member States have introduced or are considering U.K. (300,100 international students), Germany
introducing schemes to attract highly qualified (260,300) and France (237,600), with 54 per cent
professionals in the face of growing international of international students concentrated in these
competition for skilled migrants (see Chapter three countries (UNESCO, 2006). The increase in
2). A bigger challenge lies in the development the number of international students seems to be
of cooperative approaches and partnerships with a response to signals sent by destination countries
countries of origin (see Chapter 13). concerning possibilities for work and residence

[464]
 World Migration 2008

following the completion of study, especially in Europe is increasingly an attractive destination

fields where there is a shortage of labour. For for young sportspersons
more detailed explanations of these trends and
a definition of student migration, see Chapter 4; • The growing migration of young football (soccer)
for a visual distribution of students by country of players from Africa and Latin America to Europe
destination, see Map 2. is giving rise to concerns regarding the welfare of
the young persons concerned and the impact on
Figure 11: countries and regions of origin. But if the football
Stock of international tertiary students in player is successful, there also appear to be clear
selected European countries, 1998, 2003 benefits to this mobility (see Textbox Reg. 3).
U.K.

Source: OECD, 2006.

Textbox Reg. 3
A Very Long Shot

All over the world, millions of boys dream of becoming football1 stars as a gateway to fame and fortune and an escape from
poverty and need. They pursue their dream in the dust, on bare feet, with footballs made out of rags. They hear stories about
the millions earned by the superstars in Europe, which further adds to their determination. But only a lucky few will ever get a
real shot at a professional career and at breaking out of the economic realities they face in their countries.

The issue of mobility and top sport has gained prominence over the past few years. It was recently the topic of scientific
debate at the International Conference “Globalised Football: Nations and Migration, The City and the Dream”, held in Lisbon
in May 2006.

The global mobility of human talent is at its most visible in the world of football, but it can equally be seen in other highly
competitive sports where a lot of money is at stake. Out of the 14 teams in the most recent Cricket World Cup, ten had foreign
coaches and training staff, something that would have been unheard of even a decade earlier (Kapur and McHale, 2005).
Professional sports in North America – baseball, basketball, American football and ice hockey – show a similar migration of
talent.

But football is by far the most important international market for elite players from developing countries. Most of the players
from developing countries in the 2006 Football World Cup play abroad, the majority of them in Europe where the sport is most
competitive and lucrative. Every player on the national team from Côte d’Ivoire, for example, plays for a club outside his country
(Pratt, 2006). Conversely, some European teams, like London’s Arsenal, may be composed entirely of foreigners (Milanovic,
2006). Another London club, Chelsea, had 17 players on 10 different national teams in the 2006 World Cup.2

[465]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

The major European teams send scouts across Africa and Latin America in search of promising, exportable new talent. Moreover,
since this is a fiercely competitive environment, such talents have to be found earlier and earlier, outmaneuvering other teams
equally interested to enroll them. While only some years ago players moved abroad in their eighteens or twenties, it is now
common for them to do so as early as twelve years of age.

There have been cases where agents lured boys into accepting contracts containing confusing provisions concerning agents’
percentages of salaries and transfer fees (Kapur and McHale, 2005). Many young players from developing countries were
promised untold riches by unscrupulous agents, only to be exploited by the very people supposed to train and look after them.
The phrase “football slavery” was even coined to describe football players who ended up living in poor conditions and with
little money far away from their homeland and unable to return (BBC News Online, 2003).

For many African and Latin American clubs, the only way to stay afloat is to produce players to send to the major football
centres in Europe.

Some national leagues in Europe have imposed quotas on the number of non-EU players for each team. In an effort to get
around such restrictions, clubs help their foreign stars to change their nationality (Migration News, March 2001). Over the past
few years, many players have been investigated for holding false passports that enable them to play as “Europeans” on football
teams (Migration News, March 2001).

Some believe that African football has benefited from the export of its skilled players and that the recent success of African
national teams is contingent on the migration of elite talent (Kapur and McHale, 2005). The drain is thought to enhance the
skills of expatriate players, encourage the transfer of know-how and better playing techniques to their home-based compatriots
and raise the overall popularity of the game on the continent (Kapur and McHale, 2005). Others contend that the “expropriation”
of Africa’s playing resources is on the contrary undermining the regional development of the game. Nevertheless, some of the
best players continue to give time and money to their national team and their country of origin even after moving overseas.

The Confederation of African Football (CAF) and the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) have tried to
improve the situation: in 1997 the African Club Champions League was established to provide top-level club competition and
to create the structures and economic incentives needed to encourage players to remain with African clubs (Kapur and McHale,
2005). But in Latin America, where football is a well-established tradition, migration abroad is stronger than ever. European
clubs pay their players so much more than any African or Latin American team can possibly afford that such measures are
unlikely even to slow down the “feet drain”.

The success stories of young football stars who succeed on the international football scene will continue to inspire young
persons in developing countries for years to come.

Notes:
1
Also called “soccer”.
2
See http://www.sportnetwork.net/main/s379/st96621.htm.
Source: United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA), The State of World Population 2006. Youth Supplement, Moving Young, http://www.unfpa.org/
swp/2006/moving_young_eng/stories/stories_Falcao.html.

Irregular migration continues to be a major issue of estimates published by the World Bank (Mansoor
of concern and Quillin, 2006) shows that until 2006 there were
more than three million undocumented migrants in
Irregular migration is by definition difficult to the EU, and between 1.3 million and 1.5 million in
measure; however, the following estimates show Russia. The last figures are considerably lower than
that irregular migration in the region accounts for
an important part of total migration. A combination 
These estimations are the result of combining estimates from the Pew
Hispanic Center, IOM, ILO, the World Bank, the U.K. Home Office, and
others (Mansoor and Quillin, 2006).

[466]
 World Migration 2008

some of the Russian Government estimates that which documented estimation methods are
placed irregular migrant workers in the country at available at between one and four per cent of the
around 10 million in 2006 (Novosti, 2006; see also total population. Thanks to these methods, the
Textbox Reg. 2). Jandl on the other hand, estimates Netherlands estimated its unauthorized migrant
the stock of irregular migrants in Europe at between population in 2005 at between 125,000 and 230,000.
2.6 million and 6.4 million (Jandl, 2003), with nearly In the same year, Switzerland estimated the number
400,000 border apprehensions annually in the EU- of irregular migrants on its territory at between
25 area (Jandl, 2004). At the national level, various 80,000 and 100,000, and Spain at 690,000, while,
techniques such as double-entry cards, the Delphi in 2002, Italy put the number of irregular migrants
method, capture/recapture, residual estimates and within its borders at around 700,000. Portugal and
regularizations allow a growing number of countries Greece estimated their irregular migrant populations
to establish more viable estimates of the irregular in 2001 at 185,000 and 370,000, respectively (OECD,
migrant population on their territory (see also 2006).
Chapters 9 and 11). OECD 2006 figures estimate
the size of irregular migration in countries for 
In Spain, the number of irregular migrants was calculated on the basis of
the regularization process that occurred in 2005. It is important to bear
in mind that these estimates of irregular migrants cover only persons
eligible to be regularized and applying for regularization; therefore, this

“Estimates are obtained locally and independently from a group of volume is likely to be lower than the total amount of irregular migrants
informed experts who must justify their figures. They are often fed back in the country. Before the regularization process in 2005, Spain also
to the entire group for confrontation and discussion before a second conducted a regularization exercise in 2001.
round. The process continues until there is convergence of views” (OECD, 
Similarly, in Italy, the number of irregular migrants was calculated on
2006: 46). the basis of the regularization process that took place in 2002. Before

See OECD (2006) for a more complete description of these methods. that, Italy had conducted a regularization programme in 1997.

[467]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

[468]
 World Migration 2008

Ratha, D. and W. Shaw

REFERENCES 2007 “South-South Migration and Remittances”,
19 January, Development Prospects Group,
Drew, C. and D. Sriskandarajah The World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://
2007 “EU Enlargement in 2007: No Warm Welcome siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/
for Labor Migrants”, Migration Information Resources/South-SouthmigrationJan192006.
Source, January, Migration Policy Institute pdf.
(MPI), Washington, D.C., http://www.
migrationinformation.org/feature/display. Russian News and Information Agency (Novosti)
cfm?ID=568. 2006 “Russia loses over $9 bln/yr from illegal
immigration – govt.”, Novosti, 3 November,
Jandl, M. http://en.rian.ru/russia/20061103/55351198.
2003 “Estimates on the Numbers of Illegal and html.
Smuggled Immigrants in Europe”, presentation
of the International Centre for Migration United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Policy Development (ICMPD) at the Eighth (UN DESA), Population Division
International Metropolis Conference, 17 2002 International Migration Report 2002, Doc. ST/
September, Vienna, http://www.mighealth. ESA/SER.A/220, UN DESA, Population Division,
net/eu/images/5/5b/Icmpd.pdf. New York, http://www.un.org/esa/population/
publications/ittmig2002/2002ITTMIGTEXT22-
2004 “The Estimation of Illegal Migration in Europe”, 11.pdf.
Studi Emigrazione/ Migration Studies, 61(153)
(March): 141–155. 2005 Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005 Revision,
Population Database, UN DESA, Population
Mansoor, A. and B. Quillin (Eds.) Division, New York, http://esa.un.org/
2006 Migration and Remittances: Eastern Europe and migration/index.asp?panel=1.
Former Soviet Union, Chapter 1: “Overview of
Migration Trends in Europe and Central Asia, United Nations Economic and Social Council (UN ECOSOC)
1990-2004”, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 2006 World population monitoring, focusing on
international migration and development, Report
Münz, R. of the Secretary-General, Doc. E/CN.9/2006/3,
2004 “Towards a Common European Migration UN ECOSOC, Commission on Population and
Regime?”, Migration Information Source, Development, 39th Session, 3-7 April, New York.
February, MPI, Washington, D.C., http://www.
migrationinformation.org/events/021804_sum. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
php. Organization (UNESCO)
2007 Global Education Digest 2006: Comparing
2006 “Europe: Population and Migration in Education Statistics Across the World, UNESCO
2005”, Migration Information Source, Institute for Statistics, Montréal, http://www.
June, MPI, Washington, D.C., http://www. uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/pdf/ged/2006/
migrationinformation.org/feature/display. GED2006.pdf.
cfm?ID=402.
World Bank
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2006 Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic
(OECD) Implications of Remittances and Migration, The
2006 International Migration Outlook, SOPEMI 2006 World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://econ.
Edition, OECD, Paris. worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/
EXTDECPROSPECTS/GEPEXT/EXTGEP2006 0,,cont
2007 International Migration Outlook, SOPEMI 2007
entMDK:20709766~menuPK:1026823~pagePK:64
Edition, OECD, Paris.
167689~piPK:64167673~theSitePK:1026804,00.
html.

[469]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Textbox Reg. 3 - A Very Long Shot

BBC News Online

2003 “Blatter condemns European clubs”, BBC News,
17 December, http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/
football/africa/3326971.stm.

Kapur, D. and J. McHale

2005 “African Soccer Goes Global”, The Globalist,
21 November, http://www.theglobalist.com/
StoryId.aspx?StoryId=4915.

Migration News
2001 “EU: Immigration, Co-Development, Soccer”,
Migration News, 7(4) (March), University of
California at Davis, http://migration.ucdavis.
edu/mn/more.php?id=2326_0_4_0.

Milanovic, B.
2006 “Learning About Globalization by Watching
A Soccer Game”, Taipei Times, 12 February,
http://www.carnegieendowment.org/
publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=18064&prog
=zgp&proj=zted.

Pratt, T.
2006 The Match of the Day Guide to the 2006 World
Cup, Interact Publishing, London.

[470]
 World Migration 2008

MIDDLE EAST

• With nearly 19 million international migrants ARAB MASHREK

in 2005, the Middle East has experienced an
increase of 3.2 million migrants since 2000 (UN • From 2000 to 2005, migrant stocks increased in
DESA, 2005). all Arab Mashrek countries, apart from Iraq, which
• Together with the Mediterranean basin, the experienced a drastic decrease of its migrant
Middle East is characterized by highly contrasting population after the outbreak of the second Gulf
labour market features, with certain countries War in 2002, which also had an important impact
experiencing surplus labour supply and other on internal migration in Iraq. Jordan is the major
exhibiting labour shortages. destination for migrants in the region, with 2.2
• Temporary workers from overseas are the most million immigrants in 2005, 80 per cent of whom
prominent migration feature in the Middle East are refugees (UN DESA, 2005) (see Figure 1).
region, especially in the Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC) States. Figure 1:
• Saudi Arabia is the largest source country of Stock of migrants in the Arab Mashrek, by
remittances, with an outflow of USD 14 billion in destination, 2000 and 2005
2005 (World Bank, 2006).
• Egypt and Lebanon, with USD 5.9 billion and Part A: Total number of migrants
USD 5.8 billion, respectively, were the two major
recipients of remittances in 2007 (World Bank,
2008).


Following the regional classification used in IOM (2005), this section
examines the Arab Mashrek (Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, the Occupied
Palestinian Territories (OPT), Syria and Yemen), the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) States (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and
the United Arab Emirates (UAE)) and Israel.

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

[471]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Part B: As a share of total population • In 2005, 1.68 million Lebanese citizens, or 29 per
cent of all annual arrivals, came to Syria, followed
by Jordanians, whose numbers increased from
609,000 to 940,000 over the 2001-2005 period
(CARIM, 2005).

Lately, the Arab Mashrek has also been characterized

by significant migration to destinations further
afield, especially from Lebanon and Egypt …

• Recent data indicate that Europe is increasingly

becoming a destination for migrants from Egypt
and Lebanon, with stocks of 127,060 and 111,691
migrants, respectively, followed by Syria with
Source: UN DESA, 2005.
70,879 migrants (Fargues, 2006) (see Figure 2).
• Italy has become a popular destination for
• The number of migrants as a proportion of the total Egyptians. In 2006, there were 46,834 Egyptians
population has remained stable in all countries regularly residing in Italy, compared to 32,381 in
except Iraq: the Occupied Palestinian Territories 2001 (ISTAT, 2006).
(OPT) are in first place with international migrants • The U.S. is another popular destination for Arab
making up 45 per cent of their population, Mashrek migrants, with Egypt and Lebanon
followed by Jordan (39%) and Lebanon (18%) (UN ranking first and second among countries of origin
DESA, 2005) (see Figure 1). (113,995 and 105,920 migrants, respectively)
• The figures for the OPT consist of Palestinian (Fargues, 2006) (see Figure 2).
refugees coming under the mandate of the United
Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Figure 2:
Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). As at 30 June Emigrants from the Arab Mashrek
2008, the total registered refugee population
in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank stood at
1.06 million and 754,263, respectively (UNRWA,
2008).

People flows from the Arab Mashrek to GCC States

are considerable, but mobility between Arab
Mashrek countries is also significant

• In 2005, 461,211 Syrian citizens left their country

to go to Saudi Arabia, the second most popular U.S.

destination for Syrians after Lebanon (in 2005, Note: * Data for countries of destination were collected from countries
2.45 million Syrian citizens entered Lebanon) providing the latest available census data on foreign residents
by country of nationality/birth. Some of the world’s major des-
(CARIM, 2005). tination countries for overseas temporary workers, such as Saudi
• In 2003, an estimated 400,000 Syrians were cross- Arabia, the UAE and other Gulf states could not be included for
lack of accurate data.
border commuters, who lived in Syria and worked Source: Fargues, 2006.
in Lebanon (Sadeldine, 2005).

i.e. all migrants who hold a residence permit.

[472]
 World Migration 2008

... leaving more room for low-skilled workers from The region is strongly affected by the presence of
Asian countries refugees and IDPs

• Lebanon, together with Jordan and Egypt, are • At mid-2005, Jordan was host to 1.8 million
destinations for increasing numbers of workers refugees (UN DESA, 2005). Most of them were
mainly from Sri Lanka and the Philippines. More Palestinians (on 30 June 2008, 1.93 million
than 55,000 work permits are issued in Lebanon Palestinians refugees were registered in Jordan
each year to East Asians, mostly to women with UNRWA) constituting 31 per cent of the
(Fargues, 2006). total population of the country (5.7 million),
the highest ratio in any of UNRWA’s operational
Arab Mashrek countries are a source of both highly regions.
skilled and low-skilled migrants • Syria also has a sizable Palestinian refugee
population, estimated at 424,650 or 2.2 per cent
• The active migrant workforce originating from the of its total population in 2005 (UNRWA, 2006; UN
Middle East Arab countries is predominantly low or DESA, 2005).
semi-skilled, but some countries, such as Lebanon, • Nearly one million people were displaced at the
Jordan and Egypt, also experience a high degree height of the Middle East conflict in the summer
of highly skilled emigration. While migrants from of 2006 – the vast majority of them in Lebanon.
Jordan, for instance, are predominantly hired Some 200,000 are estimated to remain in a
as service workers (35%), lawyers and managers situation of displacement (IDMC, 2006).
account for 33 per cent of migrants leaving the
country (Fargues, 2006) (see Figure 3). Arab Mashrek countries are important sources of
remittances …
Figure 3:
Migrants from Jordan, according to occupation • The remittances sent from the Arab Mashrek
countries were estimated at USD 3.7 billion in
2007, with USD 2.8 billion from Lebanon alone
(World Bank, 2008).

… but they are mostly significant recipients of

remittances

• The total amount of remittances sent to Arab

Mashrek countries reached USD 17.2 billion in
2007 (World Bank, 2008). Egypt and Lebanon
received almost USD 6 billion each and alone


Note: Only the following countries of residence providing the distribu- See UNRWA (2008). Under UNRWA’s operational definition, Palestinian
tion by occupation of Jordanian migrants are included in the refugees are persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine
Figure: Austria, Canada, France, Spain and the U.S. between June 1946 and May 1948, and who lost both their homes
and means of livelihoods as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict
Source: Fargues, 2006. (http://www.un.org/unrwa/refugees/whois.html). UNRWA’s definition
of a refugee also covers the descendants of persons who became refugees
in 1948 and, as a consequence, the number of registered Palestinian
refugees continues to rise due to natural population growth.

[473]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

accounted for two-thirds of remittances received • Between 2000 and 2005, the stock of non-
in the sub-region (see Figure 4). nationals in the GCC States, as a share of their
• Remittances sent to Egypt rose sharply from total populations, increased by an annual average
USD 2.9 billion in 2000 to USD 5.9 billion in 2007 of 0.4 per cent (UN DESA, 2005).
(World Bank, 2008). • Saudi Arabia has the largest absolute numbers of
non-nationals, while Qatar, the UAE and Kuwait
Figure 4: are the countries with the highest numbers of
Remittances to the Arab Mashrek, 2007 non-nationals as a share of their total populations
(billions of USD) (UN DESA, 2005; http://www.kuwaittimes.net/,
February 2007) (see Figure 5).

Figure 5:
Stock of non-nationals in individual GCC
countries, 2000 and 2005

Part A: Population of non-nationals

Note: Iraq is not included in the Figure as data are unavailable.

Source: World Bank, 2008.

• In Lebanon and Jordan, remittances represent

an important source of income. They increased,
respectively, from USD 1.58 and USD 1.84 billion in
2000 to USD 5.8 and USD 2.9 billion in 2007 and, at
22.9 per cent, Lebanon received the highest share
Bahrain
in relation to GDP in the Mediterranean region.
In Jordan, net remittances accounted for 20.4 per 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
cent of GDP, while in Egypt they accounted for
five per cent (World Bank, 2008).
• Remittances have significantly improved Lebanon’s Part B: As a share of total population
creditworthiness and access to international
capital markets. When remittances are included,
debts as a proportion of exports decrease from 732
per cent to 355 per cent (World Bank, 2006).

GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL STATES

Bahrain

• Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) States are the

third-largest region of destination in the world
after North America and Europe. They host a total
of 12.8 million non-nationals, representing over a
third (36%) of their population of 36 million (UN
DESA, 2005).
Source: UN DESA, 2005.

[474]
 World Migration 2008

GCC economies continue to rely heavily on constitute 30 per cent of the foreign labour
temporary workers from overseas force. Most female workers, however, are still
concentrated in the domestic services sector (UN
• The six GCC States experienced a sharp increase DESA, 2006; ILO, 2006).
in the inflow of overseas workers from one million
in 1970 to four million in 1980, and 9.6 million in Over the next two decades, the national labour
2000, of whom 5.1 million lived in Saudi Arabia force in the GCC and Arab Mashrek countries is
(UN DESA, 2002), and the numbers have since expected to grow dramatically
continued to rise.
• The largest groups of overseas temporary workers • Due to rapid demographic growth and rising
in GCC States in 2002 were Indian nationals, with labour market participation rates, especially of
3.2 million, followed by Pakistanis, Egyptians and women, the labour force in GCC States is expected
Yemenis (Baldwin-Edwards, 2005). to increase from 11.6 million in 2000 to 20.7
• In 2002, there were approximately 1.35 million million by 2020 (see Figure 6). Estimates for the
Egyptian temporary contractual workers in Saudi Arab Mashrek countries foresee an increase from
Arabia and, in 2005, out of 250,244 contracts 37 to 66 million over the same period. Substantial
issued to Egyptians to work in Gulf countries, labour market, economic and labour force policy
136,468 contracts were from Saudi Arabia, reforms will be needed to respond to these major
including 38,657 for highly qualified Egyptian changes (Baldwin-Edwards, 2005).
nationals (IDB, 2006).
Figure 6:
As the number of expatriates of Arab origin in Labour force growth in the GCC, 1990-2020
GCC States decreased, workers have been recruited
from more distant origins

• In all GCC States, Arabs now constitute only a

minority of the expatriate population: 38 per cent
in Saudi Arabia, 46 per cent in Kuwait, 25 per cent
in Qatar, 10 per cent in the UAE and less than five
per cent in Oman, where non-Arabs account for
95.6 per cent of the non-national labour force in
the public and private sectors combined (Fargues,
2006). On the other hand, GCC States host 7.5
million Asians (Baldwin-Edwards, 2005), who
account for 74 per cent of non-nationals residing
on their territory. An increasing part of the Asian Source: Baldwin-Edwards, 2006.
labour force is female. The global trend towards
the feminization of labour mobility, especially
of Asian overseas workers, may therefore also
be observed in the GCC States, where women

 
Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates Estimates reported here were calculated using the total fertility rate
(UAE). (TFR) and life expectancy data estimated by the UN.

[475]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

ISRAEL The largest immigration flow of the last 20 years

occurred in the wake of the dissolution of the
• From 2000 to 2005, the number of international former Soviet Union, when approximately 900,000
migrants in Israel increased by about 20 per cent Soviet Jews settled in Israel (Kruger, 2005).
from 2.3 million in 2000, or 37 per cent of the • In addition, non-Jewish and non-Palestinian
population, to 2.7 million in 2005, or 40 per temporary migrant workers have lately been
cent of the population (UN DESA, 2005) (see accepted by Israel to support its prosperous
Figure 7). economy. 2003 estimates put the number of
migrant workers at about 189,000. They come
Figure 7: mainly from Southeast Asia and eastern Europe
Stock of migrants in Israel, 2000 and 2005 and are hired as low-skilled workers. The largest
groups are from the Philippines (around 50,000)
Part A: Total number of migrants working mainly as home health carers, followed
by Thai migrant workers (some 30,000) who
work in agriculture, and Chinese (15,000) active
in construction. Another approximately 65,000
foreign workers are from eastern Europe (over half
of whom are from Romania) who work mainly in
construction. Women constitute around one-third
of all migrants and are mainly employed in the
2,000 2,100 2,200 2,300 2,400 2,500 2,600 2,700 24-hour home healthcare sector (Kruger, 2005).

Part B: As a share of total population

Source: UN DESA, 2005.

• Persons of Jewish ancestry account for a large

share of total immigration to Israel, facilitated by
the “Law of Return” of 1950 and its subsequent
amendments. Ethiopian Jews, or Falasha,
constitute another important migrant group,
estimated in 2005 by the Israel Association for
Ethiopian Jews to number around 85,000, of
whom some 20,000 were already born in Israel.

[476]
 World Migration 2008

Note 1: It should be noted that the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) States do not refer to non-nationals as “immigrants” or “migrants” because they
view these terms as being associated with permanent immigration or settlement. Most non-nationals resident in the GCC States are temporary
contractual workers.

[477]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) of the

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2006 “Lebanon: Displaced Return Amidst Growing
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attachements/RS5.pdf.
Kruger, M.
Euro-Mediterranean Consortium for Applied Research on 2005 “Israel: Balancing Demographics in the Jewish
International Migration (CARIM) State”, Migration Information Source, July,
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Nassar, H.
Fargues, P. (Ed.) 2006 “A perspective from the Arab Region on
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Centre for Advanced Studies, Florence, http:// 2005 “Syria: the Demographic and Economic
www.carim.org/publications/AR2005CARIM.pdf. Dimension of Migration” in P. Fargues (Ed.),
Mediterranean Migration: 2005 Report, CARIM,
Fargues, P. European University Institute, Robert Schuman
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of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA), ESA/SER.A/220, UN DESA, Population Division,
Population Division, 15-17 May, Beirut. New York, http://www.un.org/esa/population/
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International Labour Organization (ILO) 11.pdf.
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download/factsheets/pdf/14asrm/migration_ Division, New York, http://esa.un.org/
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International Organization for Migration (IOM) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
2005 World Migration 2005: Costs and Benefits of 2006 2005 Global Refugee Trends - Statistical Overview
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Internally Displaced Persons, Stateless Persons,
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UNHCR, Geneva, http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/
texis/vtx/events/opendoc.pdf?tbl=STATISTICS&i
d=4486ceb12.

[478]
 World Migration 2008

United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine

Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)
2008 “Total Registered Refugees per Country and
Area (as at 30 June, 2008)”, UNRWA, http://
www.un.org/unrwa/publications/pdf/rr_
countryandarea.pdf.

World Bank
2004 Unlocking the Employment Potential in the
Middle East and North Africa: Toward a New
Social Contract, The World Bank, Washington,
D.C., http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/
EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT 0,,contentMD
K:20260961~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSi
tePK:256299,00.html.

2006 Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic

Implications of Remittances and Migration, The
World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://econ.
worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/
EXTDECPROSPECTS/GEPEXT/EXTGEP2006 0,,cont
entMDK:20709766~menuPK:1026823~pagePK:64
167689~piPK:64167673~theSitePK:1026804,00.
html.

2008 Revisions to Remittance Trends 2007, July, The

World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://econ.
worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/
EXTDECPROSPECTS 0,,contentMDK:21121930~me
nuPK:3145470~pagePK:64165401~piPK:6416502
6~theSitePK:476883,00.html.

[479]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

[480]
 World Migration 2008

OCEANIA

• Oceania is host to five million international more. While in Australia the migrant population
migrants (UN DESA, 2005), representing 15.2 per has increased since 1995, in New Zealand the
cent of its population, the largest share in any number of migrants decreased from 708,000 to
region in the world, and accounting for 2.6 per 642,000 (UN DESA, 2005).
cent of the global migrant stock.
• Migration accounts for one-quarter of population Figure 1:
growth in Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Ocean Stock of migrants in Australia and New Zealand,
island countries, with the number of migrants in 2000 and 2005
the Oceania region increasing from 4.8 million
to five million over the period 1990-2005 (UN, Part A: Total number of migrants
2005).
• Women migrants in Oceania have outnumbered
men since 2000, when they constituted 50.6 per
cent of international migrants. Their share has
since risen to 51.3 per cent of total international
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
migrants (UN, 2005).

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND Part B: As a share of total population

• Migrants make up a fifth of the population of

Australia, the highest proportion for any country
in the world with a population of 20 million or

Source: UN DESA, 2005.


Oceania includes the following countries and territories: Australia, New
Zealand, Melanesia (Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu), Micronesia (Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands,

Micronesia (Federated States of), Nauru, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau) Only single countries and not sub-regions are referred to in this statistic.
and Polynesia (American Samoa, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue, Therefore, GCC countries are not included, although their total share of
Pitcairn, Samoa, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Walis and Futuna Islands). migrants is higher than in Australia.

[481]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Figure 2:
• In both Australia and New Zealand the number
of migrants as a share of the total population Australia – leading countries of origin, by
declined between 2000 and 2005 (UN DESA, 2005) country of birth, 1991-2005
(see Figure 1). Three main factors may explain
this development. First, from 2000 to 2005, the
rules concerning migration for family reunion,
which in the past had accounted for a substantial
share of immigration to both countries, have been
tightened. Second, while skilled immigration
continued to grow significantly, much of it was, U.K.
Source: MPI, 2005.
in fact, of a temporary nature of between six
months and two years, and therefore does not
show up in some statistics. Third, though of less • The stock of foreign-born workers in Australia
immediate impact, particularly in Australia, the increased steadily from 1995 to 2005, while, as
numbers of the older post-World War II immigrants a proportion of the total labour force, it declined
are declining as old age takes its toll (Connell, slightly during the period 2003-2004 (OECD, 2007)
2007). (see Figure 3).

Australia and New Zealand are among the few Figure 3:

countries in the world to have active immigration Stock of foreign workers in Australia
programmes and are the major destinations in the
region for both migrants and refugees

• The U.K. has traditionally been the leading country

of origin for immigrants in Australia. In 1996,
however, arrivals from New Zealand, outnumbered
British immigrants, reaching 25,000 in 2001. In
2003, the U.K. regained its first position until
Source: OECD, 2007.
2005, when the differential between these two
top groups of migrants decreased with 18,220 and
17,345 arrivals from the U.K. and New Zealand, Family reunification has been the traditional
respectively (MPI, 2005). cornerstone of migration policies …
• In 1996, China became the third country of
origin for migrants arriving in Australia, and has • During the period 1990-2002, family reunification
maintained this position since (MPI, 2005) (see accounted for 37 per cent of immigrant entries to
Figure 2). Australia. For New Zealand, the share of admissions
for family reasons was lower and continued to
decline over the same period (UN, 2005).

… but many more highly skilled migrants are now

admitted under the “points system” …


Email communication with Professor John Connell, University of Sydney,
• Between 2006-2007, 97,920 permanent residents
Australia. were granted permanent residence in Australia
under the skills programme, compared to 50,079

[482]
 World Migration 2008

under the family reunification programme • Temporary migration also increased in New Zealand
(DIAC, 2007). over the last ten years (see Figure 5). In line with
this general trend, a pilot programme for seasonal
... and the student population remains large workers from Vanuatu was launched in April 2007
(IMF, 2007).
• In 2006-2007, a total of 228,592 student visas were
granted, which represents a significant increase of Figure 5:
almost 20 per cent over the 2005-2006 figure of Inflows of foreign workers into New Zealand,
190,674 visas. The two leading source countries 1998-2005 (thousands)
were China and India with 28,949 and 24,915 visa
grants, respectively (DIAC, 2007).
• In 2004-2005, foreign graduates of Australian
Universities accounted for 20 per cent of Australian
immigrants under the skills programme, led by
Chinese and Indians (Migration News, January
2006).
Source: OECD, 2007.
Temporary migration for work is gaining in
importance Female migration is also gaining greater
prominence
• The number of temporary workers in Australia
has increased noticeably since 1996, when the • Recent data show that women are migrating to
government introduced a new temporary business Australia to take up managerial, professional and
entry visa that allows employers to sponsor skilled other positions that cannot be filled locally. For
workers from overseas for a stay of up to four example, Australia is projecting nursing deficits of
years (OECD, 2007) (see Figure 4). 40,000 during the next four to five years (UNFPA,
2006). According to the New Zealand nurse
Figure 4: registry figures for 2002, 23 per cent of nurses
Inflows of foreign workers to Australia, were foreign-born.
1995-2005 (thousands)
The relatively high emigration levels from
Australia and New Zealand primarily reflect the
desire of educated young citizens to seek work
experience abroad

• Australia has an overall emigration rate of 1.75 and

New Zealand 10.7. The highly skilled emigration
rate is 3.68 and 17, respectively (OECD, 2005).
Source: OECD, 2007.



Permanent settlers: Skilled workers including the following categories The emigration rate is calculated by dividing the expatriate population
of visas: employer nominations, business skills, occupational shares from that country by the total native-born population of the country
system, special talents and independent, including accompanying (native-born = expatriates + resident native-born) (OECD, Database on
dependants. Period of reference: Fiscal year (July to June). Immigrants and Expatriates, 2005).

Temporary workers: Skilled temporary resident programme, including The emigration rate of highly educated persons is calculated by dividing
accompanying dependants. Includes Long-stay Temporary Business the highly educated expatriate population from that country by the
Programme as from 1996-97. Period of reference: Fiscal year (July to total highly educated native-born population.
June).

[483]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

MELANESIA, POLYNESIA AND MICRONESIA and that more than 3,800 had a professional
or technical background (Mohanty, 2006) (see
Figure 6: Figure 7).
Stock of migrants in Melanesia, Polynesia and
Micronesia, 2000 and 2005 Figure 7:
Emigration of Fijian citizens by ethnic group
Part A: Total number of migrants and profession, 1987-2004

Average annual
emigration rate
Indo-Fijians

Others
Fijians

Total
Year
Professionals**

Annual
Total
average
1987-
3,926 57,159 3,124 64,209 4,939 6,869 528
1999
2000-
2,373 23,585 1,126 27,084 5,413 3,826 765
2004*

Part B: As a share of total population 1987-

6,299 80,744 4,250 91,293 5,070 10,695 594
2004*

Notes: * The figure for 2004 is from January to September.

** Includes professionals, technical and related workers.
Source: Mohanty, 2006.

• In addition to continuing permanent Indo-

Fijian emigration from the country, Fiji has also
witnessed new trends in temporary migration
of mostly indigenous Fijians, as members of
Source: UN DESA, 2005. peacekeeping forces, security personnel, nurses,
sportspeople and students to distant parts of the
world.
• All sub-regions of Micronesia, Melanesia and
Polynesia experienced an increase in their migrant - Fijian soldiers have been deployed to Iraq,
population between 2000 and 2005 (see Figure 6). continuing a long-standing tradition of
Micronesia leads with 134,000, or 24 per cent of Fijian soldiers working in multinational
its population (UN DESA, 2005). peace-making and peace-keeping operations.
Many Fijians are also employed in security,
Under the influence of globalization, Fiji has engineering and IT occupations in major cities
become a source of temporary skilled migrants in Iraq.
in response to specific opportunities abroad,
especially in the Middle East and in other Pacific - Estimates of the number of temporary
countries contractual workers recruited to the Middle
East from Fiji are variable but are as high as
• Between 2000 and 2004, 27,000 Fijian citizens 20,000, though such figures relate to those
emigrated. A breakdown of these figures reveals who applied and paid fees of more than
that the vast majority were of Indo-Fijian origin FJD 150 to private recruitment agencies,

[484]
 World Migration 2008

rather than those who were finally selected - Niue is currently seeking immigration from
for employment overseas, which might be Tuvalu, as its population has declined sharply
about 2,500 (Connell, 2006). after being hit by Cyclone Heta in 2004,
continuing a long-term “culture of migration”
- Nurses from Fiji have also migrated to the (Connell, 2006). Niue’s declining population
U.K. and to other Pacific countries such as the has been of concern to successive governments
Marshall Islands (Rokoduru, 2006). and currently stands at around 1,500. Over
20,000 Niueans live in New Zealand and
Overseas remittances play a crucial role in Fiji’s despite government attempts to encourage
foreign exchange earnings them to return home, migration patterns
persist (Department of Foreign Affairs and
• Fiji’s economy has relied historically on sugar Trade, Australian Government, 2007).
and gold mining and, more recently, also on - Many, but by no means all, South Pacific
tourism and garment manufacturing; but, in the economies rely heavily on remittances from
decade between 1994 and 2004, the amount of migrants abroad. Tonga is among the Pacific
remittances has increased to a level where they nations that have been identified since the
bring in more foreign exchange than all other 1980s as MIRAB economies, that is, sustained
sectors except tourism (Maclellan and Mares, principally by Migration, Remittances, Aid and
2006) (see Figure 8). Bureaucracy. In 2006, Tonga was globally the
second main recipient country (after Moldova
Figure 8: and Liberia) of remittances as a share of GDP
Increase in foreign exchange earnings in Fiji, (32.2%) (World Bank, 2008). According to
1994-2004 (millions of Fijian Dollars) Small and Dixon (2004), in the case of Tonga,
“it is migration, along with the remittances
of cash and goods from migrants who live
and work overseas, that keeps the Tongan
economy afloat”. Remittances are its major
source of foreign exchange.
- On the other hand, Vanuatu experiences almost
no emigration and receives few remittances,
in marked contrast to Samoa and Tonga (IMF,
2007).

All countries in this sub-region will experience an

oversupply of labour by 2015

Note: 1 Fiji Dollar (FJD) equals about 0.63 U.S. Dollar as of

August 2008.
• According to World Bank projections, Melanesia,
Source: Maclellan and Mares, 2006. Polynesia and Micronesia will register an excess
labour supply by 2015. This large increase (except
in Fiji, where the increase is expected to be more
• The small Pacific island states do not feature
prominently in an analysis of global migratory 
The acronym was developed originally by Bertram and Watters (1985) in
relation to Pacific states linked to New Zealand, and expanded to include
processes, but they are nonetheless confronted other Pacific nations in similar economic situations.
increasingly by migratory concerns

[485]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

moderate) is driven by the strong growth rate

of the working-age population combined with a
low increase in jobs. Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands and Vanuatu are likely to be the most
affected (World Bank, 2007) (see Figure 9).

Figure 9:
Working-age population of Papua New Guinea,
Solomon Islands and Vanuatu not employed in
the formal sector, 2004 and 2015

Source: World Bank, 2007.

[486]
World Migration 2008

[487]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

[488]
 World Migration 2008

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

REFERENCES 2007 “Vanuatu”, Staff Report for the 2006 Article IV
Consultation, IMF Country Report No. 07/92,
Australia, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade March, IMF, Washington, D.C., http://www.imf.
2007 “Niue Country Brief”, Department of Foreign org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2007/cr0792.pdf.
Affairs and Trade, http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/
niue/niue_brief.html. Maclellan, N. and P. Mares
2006 “Labour Mobility in the Pacific: Creating
Australia, Department of Immigration and Citizenship seasonal work Programs in Australia” in S.
(DIAC) Firth (Ed.), Globalisation and Governance in the
2007 Annual Report 2006-07, November, DIAC, Pacific Islands, ANU E Press, Canberra, 137-171,
http://www.immi.gov.au/about/reports/ http://epress.anu.edu.au/ssgm/global_gov/
annual/2006-07/pdf.htm. pdf_instructions.html.

Bertram, G. and R. Watters Migration News

1985 “The MIRAB Economy in Pacific Microstates”, 2006 “Australia, New Zealand: Riots, Migrants,
Pacific Viewpoint 26(3): 497-519. Students”, Migration News, 13:1 (January),
University of California at Davis, http://
Connell, J.
migration.ucdavis.edu/MN/more.php?id=3170_
2006 “Migration, Dependency and Independency
0_5_0.
in the Pacific: Old Wines in Bigger Bottles?
(Part 1)” in S. Firth (Ed.), Globalisation and Migration Policy Institute (MPI)
Governance in the Pacific Islands, Australian 2005 “Global Data Center. Australia: Top Ten sending
National University (ANU) E Press, Canberra, countries, by country of birth, 1991 to 2005”,
59-80, http://epress.anu.edu.au/ssgm/global_ Migration Information Source, MPI, Washington,
gov/pdf_instructions.html. D.C., http://www.migrationinformation.org/
DataHub/countrydata/data.cfm.
Haberkorn, G.
2004 “Current Pacific population dynamics and Mohanty, M.
recent trends”, July, Secretariat of the Pacific 2006 “Globalisation, New Labour Migration and
Community (SPC) Demography/Population Development in Fiji” in S. Firth (Ed.),
Programme, http://www.spc.int/demog/en/ Globalisation and Governance in the Pacific
stats/2004 2004%20Current%20Pacific%20popu Islands, Australian National University (ANU)
lation%20dynamics.doc. E Press, Canberra, 107-120, http://epress.anu.
edu.au/ssgm/global_gov/pdf_instructions.html.
Hugo, G.
2005 “Migration in the Asia Pacific Region”, New Zealand Statistics
paper prepared for the Policy Analysis 2007 Population Indicators, Statistics New Zealand,
and Research Programme of the Global http://www.stats.govt.nz/tables/population-
Commission on International Migration (GCIM), indicators.htm.
Geneva, http://www.gcim.org/mm/File/
Regional%20Study%202.pdf. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD)
Inglis, C. 2005 Database on immigrants and expatriates,
2004 “Australia’s Continuing Transformation”, Directorate for Employment, Labour and
Migration Information Source, August, Migration Social Affairs, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.
Policy Institute (MPI), Washington, D.C., org/document/51/0,3343,en_2649_33931_
http://migrationinformation.com/Profiles/ 34063091_1_1_1_1,00.html.
display.cfm?ID=242.
2007 International Migration Outlook, SOPEMI 2007
Edition, OECD, Paris.

[489]
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Rokoduru, A. 2007 At Home and Away: Expanding Job Opportunities

2005 “Contemporary Migration within the Pacific for Pacific Islanders through Labor Mobility, The
Islands: the Case of Fijian Skilled Workers in World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://web.
Kiribati and Marshall Islands” in S. Firth (Ed.), worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/
Globalisation and Governance in the Pacific EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/PACIFICISLANDSEXTN
Islands, ANU E Press, Canberra, 173-186, 0,,contentMDK:21020027~pagePK:141137~piPK:
http://epress.anu.edu.au/ssgm/global_gov/ 141127~theSitePK:441883,00.html.
pdf_instructions.html.
2008 Revisions to Remittance Trends 2007, July, The
Small, C.A. and D.L. Dixon World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://econ.
2004 “Tonga: Migration and the Homeland”, worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/
Migration Information Source, February, EXTDECPROSPECTS 0,,contentMDK:21121930~me
MPI, Washington, D.C., http://www. nuPK:3145470~pagePK:64165401~piPK:6416502
migrationinformation.org/Profiles/print. 6~theSitePK:476883,00.html.
cfm?ID=198.

United Nations (UN)

2005 “International Migration and Development”,
Regional Fact Sheet on Oceania, UN,
Department of Public Information, in
cooperation with the Population Division of the
UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(UN DESA), http://www.un.org/migration/
presskit/factsheet_oceania.pdf.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

(DESA), Population Division
2005 Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005 Revision,
Population Database, UN DESA, Population
Division, New York, http://esa.un.org/
migration/index.asp?panel=1.

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

2006 “Migration by Region: Oceania”, UNFPA, http://
www.unfpa.org/swp/2006/presskit/docs/
factsheet_oceania.doc.

World Bank
2006 Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic
Implications of Remittances and Migration,
The World Bank, Washington, D.C.,
http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/
default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/
IB/2005/11/14/000112742_20051114174928/
Rendered/PDF/343200GEP02006.pdf.

[490]
 World Migration 2008

MIGRATION
TERMINOLOGY*

admission: The granting of entry into a state. implementation of the rights of migrants; having a sustainable
effect, especially by involving migrants themselves; and having
alien: See non-national. potential for replication.

amnesty: A general pardon, “regularization” or “legalization” bilateral labour migration agreements: Formal mechanisms
that is extended to people who can show residence in a country concluded between states, which are essentially legally binding
for which the amnesty is granted, despite the fact that such treaty commitments concerned with inter-state cooperation on
residence was unauthorized. labour migration. The term is also used to describe less formal
arrangements regulating the movement of workers between
assimilation: Adaptation of one ethnic or social group – usually countries entered into by states as well as a range of other actors,
a minority – to another, involving the subsuming of language, including individual ministries, employer organizations, etc.
traditions, values and behaviour or even fundamental vital
interests. biometrics: The study of measurable biological characteristics.
“Biometric identifiers” (BIs) are pieces of information that encode
assisted voluntary return: Logistical, financial and reintegration a representation of a person’s unique biological make up (e.g.
support to rejected asylum seekers, victims of trafficking in human fingerprints, facial recognition photographs, retinal scans or voice
beings, stranded migrants, qualified nationals and other migrants scans).
unable or unwilling to remain in the host country, who volunteer
to return to their countries of origin. See also voluntary return. bonded labour: Service rendered by a worker under condition
of bondage arising from economic considerations, notably
asylum seeker: A person who seeks safety from persecution or indebtedness through a loan or an advance. Where debt is the
serious harm in a country other than her/his own and awaits root cause of bondage, the implication is that the worker (or
a decision on the application for refugee status under relevant dependents or heirs) is tied to a particular creditor for a specified
international and national instruments. See also refugee. or unspecified period until the loan is repaid.

best (effective) practices: Means to further the application border control: A state’s regulation of the entry of persons to its
of the existing norms and principles, both at the international territory, in the exercise of its sovereignty.
and the national levels. Best practices may be translated into
operational directives, codes of conduct or other manifestations of
soft law, but should not lead to a weakening or erosion of positive
* Many of the terms in this section are drawn or adapted from the terms
law. They are characterized by: being innovative, developing found in a similar section in World Migration 2005 and IOM’s Glossary on
creative solutions; showing a positive impact on the level of Migration, November 2004.

[491]
MIGRATION TERMINOLOGY

border management: Facilitation of authorized flows of persons consular protection: Consular functions aiming at helping
across a border and the detection and prevention of irregular nationals abroad, including assisting in the protection of their
entry of non-nationals into a given country. rights and interests before local courts. In particular, protection
extended to migrants arrested or committed to prison or custody
brain drain: Emigration of trained and talented persons from the pending trial or detained in any other manner; such migrants
country of origin to another country resulting in a depletion of must be informed without delay of the right to communicate with
skills resources in the former. consular authorities.

brain gain: Immigration of trained and talented persons into a contractual labour: Labour supplied by a contractor.
destination country. Also called “reverse brain drain”.
country of destination: The country that is a destination for
business migrant: A person who is granted entry for a limited migratory flows (regular or irregular). See also host country and
term to take up a pre-nominated position with approved national receiving country.
sponsor-employers, generally in a professional or managerial
capacity. country of origin: The country that is a source of migratory
flows (regular or irregular). See also sending country and source
business visitor: A person who is granted entry under a business country.
visa or for the purposes of conducting business.
country of transit: The country through which migratory flows
capacity building: Building capacity of governments and civil (regular or irregular) move.
society by increasing their knowledge and enhancing their skills.
Capacity building can take the form of substantive direct project cross-border migration: A process of movement of persons across
design and implementation with a partner government, training international borders.
opportunities, or in other circumstances the facilitation of a
bilateral or multilateral agenda for dialogue development put in debt bondage: The status or condition arising from a pledge by a
place by concerned authorities. In all cases, capacity building aims debtor of his/her personal service or those of a person under his/
to build towards generally accepted benchmarks of management her control as security for a debt, if the value of those services as
practices. reasonably assessed is not applied toward liquidation of the debt
or the length and nature of those services are not respectively
change/switching of status: Procedure whereby a non-national limited and defined (Art. 1(a), United Nations Supplementary
present in a state may seek a different immigration status. Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and
Abolition of Practices Similar to Slavery, 1956).
circular migration: The fluid movement of people between
countries, including temporary or long-term movement which may demography: The study of human populations, especially with
be beneficial to all involved, if occurring voluntarily and linked to reference to size and density, distribution and vital statistics.
the labour needs of countries of origin and destination.
dependant: A person who relies on another for support. In the
citizen: See national. migration context, a spouse and minor children are generally
considered “dependants”, even if the spouse is not financially
citizenship: See nationality. dependent.

clandestine migration: Secret or concealed migration in breach of deportation: The act of a state in the exercise of its sovereignty
immigration requirements. The generic term “irregular migration” in removing a non-national from its territory to his/her country of
should preferably be used. See irregular migration. origin or a third country after refusal of admission or termination
of permission to remain. See also expulsion, refoulement.
consular officers: Government officials representing the state
abroad in visa and residency issues (Art. 1(d), Vienna Convention detention: Restriction on freedom of movement, usually through
on Consular Relations, 1963). enforced confinement, of a person by government authorities.

[492]
 World Migration 2008

diaspora: Diasporas are broadly defined as individuals and environmental migrant: Environmental migrants are persons
members of networks, associations and communities who have left or groups of persons who, for reasons of sudden or progressive
their country of origin, but maintain links with their homelands. changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or
This concept covers more settled expatriate communities, migrant living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or
workers based abroad temporarily, expatriates with the citizenship choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move
of the host country, dual citizens, and second-/third-generation either within their country or abroad.
migrants.
exclusion: The formal denial of a non-national’s admission into
discrimination: A failure to treat all persons equally where no a state.
objective and reasonable distinction can be found between those
favoured and those not favoured. Discrimination is prohibited exploitation: The act of taking advantage of something or
in respect of “race, sex, language or religion” (Art. 1(3), United someone, in particular the act of taking unjust advantage of
Nations Charter, 1945) or “of any kind, such as race, colour, another for one’s own benefit (e.g. sexual exploitation, forced
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude
social origin, property, birth or other status” (Art. 2, Universal or the removal of organs). See also forced/compulsory labour,
Declaration of Human Rights, 1948). slavery, trafficking in persons.

displaced person: A person who flees his/her state or community expulsion: An act by an authority of the state with the intention
due to fear or dangers other than those which would make him/ and with the effect of securing the removal of a person or persons
her a refugee. A displaced person is often forced to flee because (non-nationals or stateless persons) against their will from the
of international or non-international armed conflicts, or natural territory of that state. See also deportation, refoulement.
or man-made disasters. See also internally displaced persons,
refugee. family reunification/reunion: Process whereby family members
separated through forced or voluntary migration regroup in a
documented migrant workers: Migrant workers or members country other than the one of their origin.
of their families authorized to enter, to stay and to engage in
a remunerated activity in the state of employment pursuant to family migration A more general concept covering family
the law of that state and to international agreements to which reunification, the migration of a family unit as a whole and family
the state is a party (Article 5(a), International Convention on the formation.
Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of
Their Families, 1990). feminization of migration: The growing participation of women
in migration (some 49 per cent of all migrants globally are
dual/multiple nationality: Simultaneous possession of the women). While the proportion of migrants who are women has
nationality of two or more countries by the same person. See also not changed greatly in recent decades, their role in migration
nationality. has changed considerably. Women are now more likely to migrate
independently, rather than as members of a household, and they
economic migrant: A person leaving his/her habitual place of are actively involved in employment.
residence to settle outside his/her country of origin in order to
improve his/her quality of life. This term is often loosely used to forced/compulsory labour: All work or service which is exacted
distinguish from refugees fleeing persecution and is also similarly from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which
used to refer to persons attempting to enter a country without the said person has not offered himself/herself voluntarily (Art.
legal permission and/or by using asylum procedures without bona 2(1), ILO Convention No. 29 on Forced Labour, 1930).
fide cause. It may equally be applied to persons leaving their
country of origin for the purpose of employment. See also frontier forced migration: A migratory movement in which an element of
worker, migrant worker, seasonal migrant worker. coercion exists, including threats to life and livelihood, whether
arising from natural or man-made causes (e.g. movements of
emigration: The act of departing or exiting from one state with a refugees and internally displaced persons as well as people
view to settling in another. displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or
nuclear disasters, famine or development projects).
entry: Any entrance of a non-national into a foreign country,
whether voluntary or involuntary, authorized or unauthorized.

[493]
MIGRATION TERMINOLOGY

forced return: The compulsory return of a person to the country host country: See country of destination, receiving country, state
of origin, transit or third country, on the basis of an administrative of employment.
or judicial act. Also referred to as mandatory return.
human rights: Those liberties, benefits and entitlements, which,
foreigner: A person belonging to, or owing an allegiance to, by accepted contemporary values, all human beings should be
another state. See also alien and non-national. able to claim “as of right” in the society in which they live; e.g.
as contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948
freedom of movement: A human right which comprises three and the International Covenants on Economic, Social and Cultural
basic elements: the freedom of movement within the territory Rights, and on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 (together frequently
of a country (Article 13(1), Universal Declaration of Human referred to as the “International Bill of Rights”), and developed by
Rights, 1948: “Everyone has the right to freedom of movement other treaties from this core.
and residence within the borders of each state”); the right to
leave any country; and, the right to return to his or her own illegal/irregular/unauthorized entry: Act of crossing borders
country (Article 13(2), Universal Declaration of Human Rights, without complying with the necessary requirements for legal entry
1948: “Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his into the receiving state (Art. 3(b), Protocol Against the Smuggling
own, and to return to his country.”). Freedom of movement is also of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations
referred to in the context of freedom of movement arrangements Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 2000).
between states at the regional level (e.g. European Union).
illegal migrant/migration: See irregular migrant/migration.
frontier worker: A migrant worker who retains his or her
habitual residence in a neighbouring state to which he or she immigration: A process by which non-nationals move into a
normally returns every day or at least once a week (International country for the purpose of settlement.
Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers
and Members of Their Families, 1990, Article 2(2)(a)). See also immigration status: Status which a migrant is accorded under
migrant worker. the immigration law of the host country.

globalization: A process of interaction and integration among integration: While the term is used and understood differently
the people, corporations, and governments of different states; a in different countries and contexts, “integration” can be defined
process driven by international trade and investment and aided as the process by which migrants become accepted into society,
by information technology. This process has effects on the both as individuals and as groups. It generally refers to a two-
environment, culture, political systems, economic development way process of adaptation by migrants and host societies, while
and prosperity, and human well-being in societies. the particular requirements for acceptance by a host society vary
from country to country. Integration does not necessarily imply
green card: An identity card issued by the U.S. Government to permanent settlement. It does, however, imply consideration
non-nationals who have been granted permanent resident status of the rights and obligations of migrants and host societies, of
in the United States. Also called a Permanent Resident Card, it access to different kinds of services and the labour market, and
is evidence of a non-national being a lawful permanent resident of identification and respect for a core set of values that bind
with a right to live and work permanently in the United States. migrants and host communities in a common purpose.

highly skilled/qualified migrant: While there is no internal migration: A movement of people from one area
internationally agreed definition, two overlapping meanings are of a country to another for the purpose or with the effect of
often intended. In very general terms a highly skilled migrant is establishing a new residence. This migration may be temporary
considered to be a person with tertiary education, typically an or permanent. Internal migrants move but remain within their
adult who has completed a formal two-year college education or country of origin (e.g. rural to urban migration). See also internally
more. In a more specific sense, a highly skilled migrant is a person displaced persons.
who has earned, either by tertiary level education or occupational
experience, the level of qualifications typically needed to practice
a profession.

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internally displaced persons (IDPs): Persons or groups of persons jus soli (Latin): The rule that a child’s nationality is determined
who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or by its place of birth (although it can also be conveyed by the
places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order parents).
to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized
violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made labour migration: Movement of persons from their home state
disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized to another state or within their own country of residence for the
state border (Para. 2, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, purpose of employment.
UN Doc. E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2).
lawful admission: Legal entry of a non-national into the country,
international law: The legal principles governing relationships including under a valid immigrant visa.
between states. The contemporary law of international relations
embraces not only states, but also such participants as international legalization: The act of making lawful; authorization or
organizations and even individuals (such as those who invoke justification by legal sanction. See also amnesty, regularization.
their human rights or commit war crimes). Also termed law of
nations, public international law, jus gentium. less/low-skilled and semi-skilled migrant worker: There is
no internationally agreed definition of a less or low-skilled and
international migration: Movement of persons who leave semi-skilled migrant worker. In broad terms, a semi-skilled worker
their country of origin, or the country of habitual residence, to is considered to be a person who requires a degree of training
establish themselves either permanently or temporarily in another or familiarization with the job before being able to operate at
country. maximum/optimal efficiency, although this training is not of
the length or intensity required for designation as a skilled (or
international migration law: Instruments of international law craft) worker, being measured in weeks or days rather than years,
applicable to migration. nor is it normally at the tertiary level. Many so-called “manual
workers” (e.g. production, construction workers) should therefore
international minimum standard: A state is required to be classified as semi-skilled. A less or low-skilled worker, on the
observe minimum standards set by international law with respect other hand, is considered to be a person who has received less
to treatment of non-nationals present on its territory (or the training than a semi-skilled worker or, having not received any
property of such persons) (e.g. denial of justice, unwarranted delay training, has still acquired his or her competence on the job.
or obstruction of access to courts are in breach of international
minimum standards required by international law). long-term migrant: A person who moves to a country other than
that of his or her usual residence for a period of at least a year, so
intra-corporate transferee: An employee of a firm who is that the country of destination effectively becomes his or her new
temporarily transferred to a foreign affiliate of that firm (branch, country of usual residence. From the perspective of the country
subsidiary, office, joint venture, etc.). of departure, the person will be a long-term emigrant and from
that of the country of arrival, the person will be a long-term
irregular migrant: A person who, owing to unauthorized entry, immigrant. See also short-term migrant.
breach of a condition of entry, or the expiry of his or her visa,
lacks legal status in a transit or host country. The definition migrant flow: The number of migrants counted as moving, or
covers inter alia those persons who have entered a transit or being authorized to move, to or from a given location in a defined
host country lawfully but have stayed for a longer period than period of time.
authorized or subsequently taken up unauthorized employment.
See also undocumented migrant, illegal migrant, clandestine migrant/worker in an irregular situation: See irregular migrant,
migration. undocumented migrant/worker.

irregular migration: Movement that takes place outside the migrant stock: The number of migrants residing in a given
regulatory norms of the origin, transit and destination countries. location at a particular point in time.

jus sanguinis (Latin): The rule that a child’s nationality is

determined by its parents’ nationality, irrespective of the place
of its birth.

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migrant worker: A person who is to be engaged, is engaged or non-discrimination: The refusal to apply distinctions of an
has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a state of which adverse nature to human beings simply because they belong to
he or she is not a national (Art. 2(1), International Convention on a specific category. Discrimination is prohibited by international
the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of law, for example in Art. 26, International Covenant on Civil and
Their Families, 1990). Political Rights, 1966, which states: “All persons are equal before
the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal
migration: A process of moving, either across an international protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any
border, or within a state. It includes migration of refugees, discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective
displaced persons and migrants moving for other purposes. protection against discrimination on any ground such as race,
colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
migration management: A term used to encompass numerous national or social origin, property, birth, or other status”. See also
governmental functions within a national system for the orderly discrimination.
and humane management of cross-border migration, particularly
managing the entry and presence of foreigners within the borders non-national: A person who is not a national or citizen of a given
of the state and the protection of refugees and others in need of state. See also alien, foreigner.
protection. It refers to a planned approach to the development of
policy, legislative and administrative responses to key migration non-refoulement: A principle laid down in the Geneva Convention
issues. Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951, according to which “no
contracting state shall expel or return (“refouler”) a refugee in any
mixed flows: Complex population movements including refugees, manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or
asylum seekers, economic migrants and other migrants. freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social group or political
multilateral: In relation to treaties and negotiations, multilateral opinion.” (Art. 33(1), Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of
(or multipartite) connotes the involvement of more than two Refugees, 1951). Non-refoulement has also been recognized as a
states in the process. See also treaty. principle of customary international law. See also refoulement.

national: A person, who, either by birth or naturalization, orderly migration: The movement of a person from his/her usual
is a member of a political community, owing allegiance to the place of residence to a new place of residence, in keeping with the
community and being entitled to enjoy all its civil and political laws and regulations governing exit from the country of origin and
rights and protection; a member of the state, entitled to all its travel, transit and entry into the destination or host country.
privileges. A person enjoying a nationality of a given state. See
also citizen, nationality, naturalization. offshoring: The relocation of business activities of an entity to
another country. See also outsourcing.
nationality: Legal bond between a person and a state. Under Art.
1, Hague Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict outsourcing: The sub-contracting by an entity of specific business
of Nationality Laws, 1930, “it is for each state to determine under processes such as design or manufacturing to another company.
its own laws who are its nationals. This law shall be recognized Also referred to as global resourcing.
by other states in so far as it is consistent with international
conventions, international custom, and the principles of law overstay: To remain in a country beyond the period for which
generally recognized with regard to nationality”. entry was granted. Persons who overstay are referred to as
“overstayers”.
naturalization: Granting by a state of its nationality to a non-
national through a formal act on the application of the person permanent residence: The right, granted by the authorities
concerned. of the destination country to a non-national, to live and work
therein on a permanent (unlimited or indefinite) basis.
net migration: See total migration.
petition: See sponsorship.
non-admission: Refusal to permit entry to the territory of a
state. See also admission. policy: General principles by which a government is guided in its
management of public affairs.

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project-tied worker: A migrant worker admitted to a state of refoulement: The return by a state of an person to the territory of
employment for a defined period to work solely on a specific another state in which his/her life or liberty would be threatened,
project being carried out in that state by his or her employer (Art or s/he may be persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality,
2(2)(f), International Convention on the Protection of the Rights membership of a particular social group or political opinion; or
of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, 1990). See would run the risk of torture. See also non-refoulement.
also migrant worker.
refugee (mandate): A person who meets the criteria of the
protection: All activities aimed at securing respect for individual UNHCR Statute and qualifies for the protection of the United
rights in accordance with the letter and spirit of the relevant bodies Nations provided by the High Commissioner, regardless of whether
of law (namely, International Human Rights Law, International or not s/he is in a country that is a party to the Convention
Humanitarian Law, International Labour Law, International Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 or the 1967 Protocol
Migration Law and International Refugee Law). Relating to the Status of Refugees, or whether or not s/he has
been recognized by the host country as a refugee under either of
push-pull factors: Migration is often analysed in terms of the these instruments.
“push-pull model,” which looks at the push factors, which drive
people to leave their country, and the pull factors, which attract refugee: A person, who “owing to well-founded fear of
them to a new country. persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership
of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the
qualified national: Expatriate national with specific professional country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear,
skills in demand in the country or region of origin. See also highly is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country”
skilled migrant, skilled migrant. (Article 1A(2), Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951
as modified by the 1967 Protocol).
quota: In the migration context, a quantitative restriction on the
number of migrants to be admitted each year. regional consultative processes: Non-binding consultative fora,
bringing representatives of states and international organizations
ratification: Ratification refers to the “acceptance” or “approval” together at the regional level to discuss migration issues in a
of a treaty. In an international context, ratification “is the cooperative manner. Some regional consultative processes (RCPs)
international act so named whereby a state establishes on the also allow the participation of other stakeholders (e.g. NGO or
international plane its consent to be bound by a treaty” (Art. other civil society representatives).
2(1)(b), Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969).
Instruments of ratification establishing the consent of a state regular migration: Migration that occurs through recognized,
take effect when exchanged between contracting states, deposited authorized channels. See also irregular migration.
with a depositary or notified to the contracting states or to the
depositary, if so agreed (Art. 16, Vienna Convention on the Law regularization: Any process or programme by which the
of Treaties, 1969). In a domestic context, it denotes the process authorities of a country allow non-nationals in an irregular or
whereby a state puts itself in a position to indicate its acceptance undocumented situation to stay lawfully in the country. See also
of the obligations contained in a treaty. A number of states have amnesty, legalization.
in their Constitutions procedures which have to be followed before
the state considers itself bound by a treaty. See also treaty. reintegration: Re-inclusion or re-incorporation of a person into
a group or a process, e.g. of a migrant into the society of his/her
readmission: Act by a state accepting re-entry of a person (own country of origin. See also integration.
national, third-country national or stateless person).

In Africa, the term “refugee” also applies to a person who “owing to
readmission agreement: Agreement which addresses procedures, external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously
disturbing public order in either part or the whole of his [her] country
on a reciprocal basis, for one state to return non-nationals in an of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his [her] place of habitual
irregular situation to their home state or a state through which residence in order to seek refuge in another place outside his [her]
they have transited. country of origin or nationality” (Article I(2) OAU Convention Governing
the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa 1974). In Central
America, the term applies equally to persons “who have fled their
receiving country: Country of destination (host country). In the country because their lives, safety or freedom have been threatened
case of return or repatriation, also the country of origin. See also by generalized violence, foreign aggression, internal conflicts, massive
violation of human rights or other circumstances which have seriously
host country, country of destination, state of employment. disturbed public order” (Conclusion 3, Cartagena Declaration on Refugees,
22 November 1984).

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remittances: Monies earned or acquired by non-nationals that are on this right can be legitimately imposed however (Art. 12(3),
transferred back to their country of origin. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966: “The
above-mentioned [right] shall not be subject to any restrictions
removal: See deportation, expulsion. except those which are provided by law, are necessary to protect
national security, public order (ordre public), public health or
repatriation: The return of a refugee or a prisoner of war to his/ morals or the rights and freedoms of others, and are consistent
her country of nationality under specific conditions laid down in with the other rights recognized in the present Covenant”). The
various international instruments (Geneva Conventions, 1949 and right to leave is an aspect of the right to freedom of movement,
Protocols, 1977, Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of and it applies to all persons without distinction. There is however,
War on Land, Annexed to the Fourth Hague Convention, 1907, the no corollary right to enter the territory of a foreign country under
human rights instruments as well as in customary international international law. See also freedom of movement, international
law). minimum standard, repatriation, return.

replacement migration: Internal migration that occurs where seafarer: Migrant worker employed on board a vessel registered in
the vacuum created by workers departing for another country is a state of which he or she is not a national (includes fishermen)
filled by workers from other parts of the country, or international (Art. 2(2)(c), International Convention on the Protection of the
migration that a country would need to offset population decline Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, 1990).
and population ageing resulting from low fertility and mortality See also migrant worker.
rates (see Chapter 7).
seasonal migrant worker/migration: A migrant worker whose
resettlement: The relocation and integration of people (refugees, work, or migration for work that, by its character is dependent
internally displaced persons, etc.) into another geographical area on seasonal conditions and is performed only during part of the
and environment, usually in a third country. year (Art. 2(2)(b), International Convention on the Protection of
the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families,
residence: The act or fact of living in a given place for some 1990). See also migrant worker.
time; the place where one actually lives as distinguished from
a domicile. Residence usually just means bodily presence as an self-employed migrant worker: A migrant worker who is engaged
inhabitant in a given place, while domicile usually requires bodily in a remunerated activity otherwise than under a contract of
presence and an intention to make the place one’s home. A person employment and who earns his or her living through this activity
thus may have more than one residence at a time but only one normally working alone or together with members of his or her
domicile. family, and any other migrant worker recognized as self-employed
by applicable legislation of the state of employment or bilateral or
residence permit: A document issued by a state to a non- multilateral agreements. (Art. 2(2)(h), International Convention
national, confirming that s/he has the right to live in the state on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members
concerned. See also residence. of Their Families, 1990). See also migrant worker.

return migration: The movement of a person returning to his/her sending country: A country from which people leave to settle
country of origin or habitual residence usually after at least one abroad permanently or temporarily. See also country of origin.
year in another country. The return may or may not be voluntary.
See also circular migration, forced return, voluntary return. short-term migrant: A person who moves to a country other
than that of his or her usual residence for a period of at least
reverse brain drain: See brain gain. three months, but less than a year, except in cases where the
movement to that country is for purposes of recreation, holiday,
right to leave: “Everyone has the right to leave any country, visits to friends or relatives, business or medical treatment. For
including his own…” (Art. 13(2), Universal Declaration of Human the purpose of international migration statistics, the country of
Rights, 1948). This right was set down in other international law usual residence of short-term migrants is considered to be the
instruments, for example in Art. 12(2), International Covenant on country of destination during the period they spend in it. See also
Civil and Political Rights, 1966, which states: “Everyone shall be long-term migrant, temporary migrant workers.
free to leave any country, including his own.” Some restrictions

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skilled migrant: A migrant worker who, because of his/her skills to depart from the state of employment either at the expiration
or acquired professional experience, is usually granted preferential of his or her authorized period of stay, or earlier if he or she no
treatment regarding admission to a host country. See also highly longer undertakes that specific assignment or duty or engages in
skilled migrant, qualified national. that work (Art. 2(2)(g), International Convention on the Protection
of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families,
slavery: The status or condition of a person over whom any or all 1990). See also migrant worker.
the powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised (Art.
1, Slavery Convention, 1926, as amended by the 1953 Protocol). sponsorship: The act of promising support, in particular financial
support, for a non-national seeking entry to the state, generally
smuggler (of migrants): An intermediary who is moving people for a defined period of time. Some states require either sponsorship
by agreement with them, in order to transport them in an or proof of adequate income as a condition of entry for certain
unauthorized manner across an internationally recognized state categories of migrants as well as visitors.
border. See also smuggling, trafficking.
source country: See also country of origin, sending country.
smuggling: The procurement, in order to obtain, directly or
indirectly, a financial or other material benefit, of the illegal state: A political entity with legal jurisdiction and effective
[or unauthorized] entry of a person into a state party of which control over a defined territory, and the authority to make
the person is not a national or a permanent resident (Art. 3(a), collective decisions for a permanent population, a monopoly on
Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, the legitimate use of force, and an internationally recognized
supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational government that interacts, or has the capacity to interact, in
Organized Crime, 2000). formal relations with other entities.

sovereignty: As a concept of international law, sovereignty has state of employment/state of origin/state of transit: See
three principal aspects: external, internal and territorial. The country of destination, country of origin, country of transit.
external aspect of sovereignty is the right of the state freely to
determine its relations with other states or other entities without stateless person: A person who is not considered a national by
the restraint or control of another state. This aspect of sovereignty any state under the operation of its law (Art. 1, United Nations
is also known as independence. The internal aspect of sovereignty Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, 1954).
is the state’s exclusive right or competence to determine the As such, a stateless person lacks those rights attributable to
character of its own institutions, to enact laws of its own choice nationality: the diplomatic protection of a state, the inherent
and ensure their respect. The territorial aspect of sovereignty is right of sojourn in the state of residence and the right of return
the exclusive authority which a state exercises over all persons in case s/he travels.
and things found on, under or above its territory. In the context
of migration, this means the sovereign prerogative of a state to step migration: Where a person moves to one or more locations
determine which non-citizens should be admitted to its territory within the country before emigration to another country, or from
subject to the limitations of the non-refoulement principle, human one country to another before moving to his/her ultimate or final
rights and provisions in bilateral or regional agreements (e.g. free country of destination.
movement or integration agreements). See also non-refoulement,
human rights. technical cooperation: The sharing of information and expertise
on a given subject usually focused on public sector functions.
specified-employment worker: A migrant worker: (i) Who has
been sent by his or her employer for a restricted and defined temporary (labour) migration: Migration of workers who enter
period of time to a state of employment to undertake a specific a foreign country for a specified limited period of time before
assignment or duty; or (ii) Who engages for a restricted and returning to the country of origin.
defined period of time in work that requires professional,
commercial, technical or other highly-specialized skill; or (iii) temporary migrant workers: Skilled, semi-skilled or low-skilled
Who, upon the request of his or her employer in the state of workers in the destination country for definite periods, for
employment, engages for a restricted and defined period of time example under a work contract with an individual employer or a
in work whose nature is transitory or brief; and who is required service contract with an enterprise.

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terrorism: Any act intended to cause death or serious bodily injury travel documents: All documents which are acceptable proof of
to a civilian, or any other person not taking an active part in the identity for the purpose of entering another country. Passports
hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, when the purpose of and visas are the most widely used forms of travel documents.
such act is to intimidate a population, or compel a government
or an international organization to do or abstain from doing an unaccompanied minors: Persons under the age of majority who
act (Art. 2(1)(b), International Convention for the Suppression of are not accompanied by a parent, guardian, or other adult who by
Financing of Terrorism, 1999). law or custom is responsible for them.

third country: A country other than the country of origin of unauthorized/unlawful entry/admission: Act of crossing
a person. In the context of the European Union, third country borders without complying with the necessary requirements for
refers to non-EU Member States. See also country of destination, legal entry into the receiving state (Art. 3(b), Protocol against the
country of origin, country of transit. Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, supplementing the
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime,
total migration/net migration: Total migration is the sum of 2000). See also irregular migration.
the entries or arrivals of immigrants, and of exits or departures
of emigrants; net migration is the balance resulting from the undocumented migrant workers/migrant workers in an
difference between arrivals and departures. irregular situation: Migrant workers or members of their families
not authorized to enter, to stay or to engage in employment in a
trafficker, human: An intermediary who is moving people in state. See also irregular migrant/migration.
order to obtain an economic or other profit by means of deception
or coercion for the purpose of exploitation. victim of human trafficking: A person who is a victim of the
crime of trafficking in persons. See also trafficker, trafficking in
trafficking in persons: The recruitment, transportation, transfer, persons.
harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use
of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of visa: An endorsement by a consular officer in a passport or a
deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability certificate of identity that indicates that the officer, at the time
or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve of issuance, believes the holder to fall within a category of non-
the consent of a person having control over another person, nationals who can be admitted under the state’s laws.
for the purpose of exploitation (Art. 3(a), Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and violence against (migrant) women: Any act of gender-based
Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual,
Transnational Organized Crime, 2000). or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats
of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether
transit: A stopover of passage, of varying length, while travelling occurring in public or private life (Art. 1, Declaration on the
between two or more countries, either incidental to continuous Elimination of Violence against Women, 1993).
transportation, or for the purposes of changing planes or joining
an ongoing flight or other mode of transportation. See also country voluntary return: The assisted or independent return to the
of transit, state of transit. country of origin, transit or another third country based on the
free will of the returnee.
transnational identity/transnationalism: The process whereby
people establish and maintain socio-cultural connections across vulnerable group: Any group or sector of society at higher risk
geopolitical borders. of being subjected to discriminatory practices, violence, natural
or environmental disasters, or economic hardship than other
treaty: An international agreement concluded between states in groups within the state; any group or sector of society (such as
written form and governed by international law, whether embodied women, children, the elderly, persons with disabilities, indigenous
in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments peoples or migrants) that is at higher risk in periods of conflict
and whatever its particular designation. (Art.2(1)(a), Vienna and crisis.
Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969).

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work permit: A legal document giving authorization for

employment of migrant workers in the host country.

xenophobia: While no universally accepted definition of

xenophobia exists, it can be described as attitudes, prejudices
and behaviour that reject, exclude and often vilify persons based
on the perception that they are outsiders or foreigners to the
community, society or national identity.

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ALPHABETICAL INDEX

A Asia - 4, 8, 10, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 37, 38, 39, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62,
Abu Dhabi Dialogue - 8, 280, 370, 384, 396, 68, 82, 84, 85, 86, 88, 90, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 128,
ACP - African, Caribbean and Pacific - 368 129, 131, 134, 140, 144, 146, 150, 151, 154, 156, 162, 168, 174, 175, 176,
Partnership Agreement with EU and EU Member States (Cotonou 177, 180, 181, 184, 185, 188, 190, 192, 208, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220,
Agreement) (2000) - 368 222, 225, 240, 245, 251, 257, 258, 262, 263, 264, 274, 275, 277, 278, 279,
Accommodation (housing) - 87, 112, 128, 144, 145, 159, 161, 167, 187, 280, 281, 306, 310, 317, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 386, 394, 395, 415, 416,
273, 306, 311, 381 423, 430, 439, 440, 441, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449,450, 460, 461,
Adequate (suitable) - 87 462, 473, 475, 476, 490, 505, 506, 514, 515, 519, 523, 525, 527, 528, Map
Clean and sanitary - 311 7b 531, 532, Map 11 536, Map 12 537, 538, 539
Right to  Human rights (of migrants)  Feminization of migration
Tied - 306  Labour migration
Admission - 13, 16, 52, 57, 60, 68-69, 91, 285, 293, 296, 305, 333, 336,  Trafficking in human beings
359, 374, 376 Asia-Pacific - 85, 106, 108, 109, 113, 134, 140, 251, 263, 264, 369, 370,
Definition - 491 371, 386, 536
Lawful admission, definition of - 495  APC - Intergovernmental Asia-Pacific Consultations on Refugees,
Policies - 13, 16, 52, 57, 60, 68, 69, 91, 285, 293, 296, 305, 333, Displaced Persons and Migrants
336, 359, 376  APEC - Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
Preferential - 374 Asia Pacific Migration Research Network (APMRN) - 192, 251, 253
Short-term - 13  Research networks
Afghanistan - 219, 280, 370, 439 Asian Development Bank (ADB) - 20, 150
Agriculture - 3, 5, 7, 29, 31, 32, 34, 39, 80, 81, 85, 88, 91, 92, 96, 97, Assimilation - 9, 307, 309
110, 181, 205, 210, 211, 213, 286, 292, 293, 296, 301, 307, 310, 314, 317, Definition - 491
318, 329, 331, 334, 335, 340, 349, 374, 376, 377, 378, 379, 384, 393, 413,  Integration
425, 426, 476 Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR) - 224
Agricultural subsidies - 96, 97, 340 Definition - 491
Cash crops - 340  Reintegration
Africa - 4, 8, 26, 29, 31, 32, 37, 38, 55-57, 59, 62-63, 79, 82, 88-90, 106-  Voluntary return
109, 112-114, 121-123, 128-130, 136, 144-145, 173-174, 179-181, 184- Asylum - 4, 19, 20, 61, 73, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 169, 170, 203, 206,
185, 188-189, 192, 209-211, 215-216, 223-224, 249, 265, 285, 290, 307, 209, 227, 243, 244, 245, 251, 253, 286, 287, 288, 303, 319, 328, 346, 351,
328, 336, 339, 342, 346-348, 362-364, 369, 394, 407-418, 423, 426, 430, 367, 368, 369, 370, 373, 399, 410, 431, 478, 491, 493, 496, 519, Map 4
445-446, 465-466, 525-528, 533-534, 538-539 527, 531
 Development Applications - 243, 286, 287, 288, 410, 431
 Diaspora Asylum seekers - 61, 155, 157, 158, 209, 328, 373, 410, 491, 496, 531
 IDPs - Internally displaced persons Definition - 491
 MIDA - Migration for Development in Africa Rejected - 373
African Union (AU) Australia - 2, 14, 25, 38, 55- 57, 60-61, 63, 82-83, 85, 91, 106-107, 108-
Albania - 109, 145, 317, 367, 374, 460, 462 110, 113-114, 116, 119-120, 122, 127, 130-131, 133, 135-137, 138, 140-
Algeria - 89, 90, 104, 145, 161, 215, 223, 312, 369, 407, 411, 416, 502 143, 145-147, 151, 153, 155, 157, 158
Americas - 56, 108, 114, 128, 129, 394, 395, 423, 424, 427, 429, 431, Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Agreement - 386
Map 7a 530, 532 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)  Data
Amnesty - 213 DIAC - Department of Immigration and Citizenship - 131, 137-138,
Definition - 491 140
 Regularization Electronic Travel Authority (ETA) - 135, 140
Andean Community - 213, 363, 368 Immigration policies - 57, 119, 136
Angola - 109, 121, 189, 216, 407 Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Australia  Data
APC - Intergovernmental Asia-Pacific Consultations on Refugees, Displaced Migration Amendment (Employer Sanctions) Act 2007  Employer
Persons and Migrants - 369 Sanctions
APEC - Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation - 134, 140, 141, 142, 370, 371, Migration Occupations in Demand List (MODL)  Occupational
372, 386, shortage lists
Business Travel Card (ABTC) - 371  Points system(s)
Business Travel Handbook - 371, 372 Skilled migration - 82, 106, 119, 141, 157
Pre-clearance - 371 Students - 56-57, 60, 82, 91, 106-107, 108-110, 113-114, 116, 119-
Argentina - 25, 27, 39, 78, 90, 121, 178, 190, 213, 214, 359, 373, 426, 120, 122, 127, 131, 135, 137, 141
428, 429, 432, 458, 502, 532 Austria - 35, 55, 83, 88, 107, 110, 143, 157, 160, 239, 287-288, 294, 365-
Patria Grande - 214, 532 366, 455
Armenia - 107, 242, 460, 463, 502, 537 Azerbaijan - 460, 463
ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations - 134, 222, 280, 368, 370,
386, 443 B
Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Bahamas - 90-91, 213, 312, 376, 426, 432
Migrant Workers (2007) - 222, 368 Bahrain - 84, 107, 280, 370, 442, 471, 474, 475
Bali Process - 222, 370, 384

[503]
Bangladesh - 10, 25, 98, 152, 177, 181, 186-187, 192, 218-219, 222, 263, Canada-Costa Rica Agreement on Labour Cooperation (CCRALC)
278, 279, 346-347, 416, 439, 442-443, 446-447, 449, 536 - 360
Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training (BMET) - 446-447 Canada-Mexico Memorandum of Understanding - 375
Female migrant workers - 10, 152, 446-447 Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC) - 86, 192, 288-289, 297,
Nandan Group - 346-347 299, 308
Barbados - 121, 312, 377, 423, 426 Commonwealth Caribbean Seasonal Agriculture Workers Program
Belarus - 59, 88, 166-167, 245, 460, 463 (SAWP) - 376-378
Belgium - 55, 83, 107, 110-111, 132, 136-137, 241, 244, 287-288, 339, FERME - Fondation des entreprises en recrutement de main-d’œuvre
366, 411, 455, 457-459, 531-532 agricole étrangère - 269-270, 377
Belize - 109, 312, 426 Human Resources and Social Development Canada (HRSDC) - 87, 92,
Benin - 189, 215, 407, 413 269-270, 295 -
Berne Initiative - 61, 279, 319, 361, 397 Labour market opinion (LMO) - 87, 92, 295
 International Agenda for Migration Management (IAMM) Live-in caregivers - 97, 298, 387
Best (effective) practices - 279-281 Low Skill Pilot Project - 87, 92, 311
Definition - 491 National Occupational Classification (NOC) - 78
Bhutan - 135, 439  Points system(s)
Bilateral - 6, 13, 16, 40, 46, 64-65, 70, 85-86, 88-89, 91, 93-94, 116, 136, Seasonal Agricultural Workers Project: Guatemala-Canada - 269-270
141, 180, 189-190, 214, 219, 225, 244, 247, 265, 267, 269, 271, 276-277, Skilled migration - 12-13, 39, 42, 51-53, 68-70, 79, 82, 106, 114-
279, 281, 285-286, 292, 302, 305, 307, 311-312, 318, 320, 335, 342-344, 117, 119, 121, 123, 141, 157, 162-165, 167, 238, 248, 264, 296,
355, 358-362, 364, 366, 368, 370, 372-387, 396, 398, 450, 491-492, 498- 299, 333-334, 336, 385
499, 521 Students - 56, 60, 91, 106-111, 113, 115-116, 119-120, 143
Joint commission(s) (on labour) - 379 Capacity building - 5, 13, 17, 114-117, 121-122, 226, 245, 251, 332, 339-
Labour mobility scheme(s) - 6, 40, 46 340, 344, 347, 369-370, 387
Bilateral labour agreement(s)/arrangement(s) - 374, 381-382 Definition - 492
Arbitration - 377 Cape Verde - 216, 224, 265, 374-375, 414, 534
Definition - 491  Mobility partnership(s)
Exchange of letters - 378 Temporary migration Protocol (with Portugal) - 375
Memorandum (Memoranda) of Understanding (MOU) - 375, 377, 378 Capital - 2, 3, 5, 8, 24-27, 30-31, 35, 39-42, 45-46, 62-67, 117-123, 185-
Bolivia - 90, 136, 213-214, 373, 426, 428-429 186, 190-191, 247, 259-260, 331-332, 345-348, 376, 394, 397, 399
Bonded labour - 70 Capital/labour substitution - 3
Definition - 491 Investment - 31
Border(s) - 4, 31, 64, 77, 92, 134, 136, 141-142, 144-145, 162, 181-182, Movement of - 2, 17, 40, 99, 394
189, 191, 209, 211-212, 216-220, 222, 240-241, 243-247, 273, 312, 363, Social capital - 164, 345-346, 348
367, 369-370, 379-380, 393-394, 415, 425-426, 431-432, Caribbean - 29, 32, 37-40, 52
Abolition of internal borders (EU) - 136, 317, 343  ECLAC - Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Apprehensions (of irregular migrants) - 209, 241, 249, 467 Caribbean
Border guards - 249, 462, 273, 462 Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) - 40, 312, 319, 368,
Control, definition of - 491 375-376
External borders - 367 Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME) - 375
FRONTEX - 211, 249, 367, 415 Carriers’ liability - 313
Management - 243, 249, 362 Central Africa - 408-409, 503
Bosnia and Herzegovina - 4, 35, 59, 317, 380, 460-462, 537 Central America - 8, 90, 213, 215, 426-427, 432, 532, Map 14 539
Botswana - 26, 88, 109, 144, 189, 369, 407, 412 CAFTA - Central American Free Trade Agreement - 360
Brain circulation - 68, 319, 376 U.S.-CAFTA-D.R. - United States-Central America-Dominican
Brain drain - 8, 16, 43, 51, 61-62, 65-69, 99, 106, 117, 119, 121-122, 265- Republic Free Trade Agreement - 360
267, 307, 328, 333, 375, 385, 397, 400, 430 Central and eastern Europe - 88, 128, 249, 532
Definition - 492 Central and eastern European countries (CEECs) - 88, 373
Brain gain - 67, 334 Centre for Migrant Advice (CMA) - 274
Definition - 492  (Migrant) information and resource centre
Reverse brain drain - 65 Children - 3, 10, 11, 14, 36, 63, 70, 85, 98, 129, 151-167, 174-176, 184-
Brain waste - 306 187, 204, 206, 241
Brazil - 26, 56, 114, 121, 142, 178, 210, 212-214, 343, 426-429, 432, 532, Adoption - 151
535 Child health - 337
Brunei - 65, 84, 109, 140, 142, 439, 443, 445, 447 Child migration - 184
Bulgaria - 58-59, 107, 219, 365-366, 458, 529 Elimination of child labour - 361
Burkina Faso - 179-184, 407, 413 Dependant unmarried - 156, 157, 162, 310
Burundi - 121, 189, 407, 409 International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC)
Business travel - 127-128, 138, 142, 144, 146-147, 362, 371-372, 431 - 189
Business visitor - 134, 140-142, 371  Unaccompanied minors
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)  Human rights
C (of migrants)
Cambodia - 4, 129, 175, 177, 181, 185, 217-218, 439, 443, 448 Circular migration - 8, 15, 51, 177, 183, 187, 238, 246-247, 277, 297, 302-
Cameroon - 215, 407 304, 319, 334-336, 376
Canada - 2, 14, 55-56, 59-64, 80, 85-87, 91-92, 106-111, 113, 115-116, Colombia - 67, 91, 165, 214, 304, 339, 428-431, 458, 526, 532, 535
119-120, 134-136, 141-143, 151-153, 155, 157-158, 162-165, 176, 212, Temporary and Circular Labour Migration Model (MLTC) - 304-305
219, 263, 269-270, 287, 285-299, 306-311, 342, 346, 369-372, 375-380, Mauritius - 88, 109, 121, 295, 335-336
395, 411-413, 424-427, 441-442, 524, 538

[504]
 World Migration 2008

Spain - 55, 89, 91, 107, 110, 114-115, 133-134, 159, 166, 207, Host country - 7-8, 29, 66-67, 107, 111-123, 151, 163, 202, 269-
209-211, 223-225, 269, 287-288, 294-295, 304-305, 310, 317, 335, 271, 275-276, 292, 303, 308-309, 317, 320, 336, 344, 347, 358,
366, 374, 378, 380, 411, 415, 427-429, 455, 458-459, 467, 525, 365, 379, 385, 387
531-532, 538 Receiving country, definition of - 497
Chile - 67, 114, 138, 140, 178, 213, 372 Country (countries) of origin - 2-4, 7-18, 32-35, 40-45, 52, 64-70, 78, 86-
China - 3, 25-26, 30, 65, 84, 113-114, 117, 119, 121-122, 129, 132-133, 100, 107-116, 121-123, 132, 145, 152, 154, 165, 173, 181-173, 187-189,
137-138, 140-141, 144, 151, 156, 165, 174, 176, 182, 187-190, 212, 216- 192, 202-225, 237, 240, 246-250, 257-282, 285-320, 327-350, 355-359,
217, 247, 263-264, 279, 370-372, 386-387, 394-395, 416, 426, 430, 439- 363-385, 394-400, 410, 423-431, 442, 446, 449, 458-459, 464-466, 472,
447, 482, 532, 536 482, Map 4 527, 532, Map 14 539
Bilateral Labour Service Cooperation Agreement (with Mauritius) Definition - 492
(2005) - 375 Sending country, definition of - 498
Chinese diaspora - 448 Source country - 67, 327, 335, 382, 385, 471, 499
Internal migration - 14, 31, 173-174, 177-189, 332, 343, 394, 471, Country (countries) of transit - 2, 209, 226, 332, 357, 394, 425-426
494, 498 Definition - 492
Students - 109, 113, 114, 117, 119, 121, 122, 483 Croatia - 59, 455, 462
CIS - Commonwealth of Independent States - 29, 134, 271, 461 Cross-border - 13-14, 26-27, 79-80, 90, 105-106, 109-123, 144-145, 156,
Citizenship - 9, 63, 115, 131, 134, 141, 147, 160, 164, 207, 240-244, 288, 173-174, 180-181, 184, 187-189, 192, 216-217, 285, 345, 356, 379, 385,
344-346, 349, 448, 493 411, 428
Dual/multiple nationality, definition of - 493 Investment - 26-27, 31, 39, 41, 100, 121, 144-145, 302, 331-332,
 Nationality 345, 347-349, 385-387, 397, 415
Naturalization, definition of - 165, 242, 303, 496 Mergers and acquisitions (M&S) - 26
Civil society - 8, 71, 190, 192, 281, 292, 294, 309, 313, 319, 329, 380, Cross-border migration - 14, 79, 144, 173-174, 180, 184, 187-192, 428
492, 497 Definition - 492
Co-development  Development  Internal migration
Colombia - 67, 91, 165, 214, 304, 339, 428-431, 458, Map 10 535 Cuba - 107, 132, 343, 426, 458
IDPs - Internally displaced persons - 408, 431, 493-495, 498 Cyprus - 107, 108, 109, 121, 136, 365, 366, 455, 457, 529
Temporary and Circular Labour Migration Model (MLTC)  Circular Czech Republic - 58-59, 107, 110, 166, 245, 274, 287, 299, 366, 378,
Migration 380, 457, 529
Colombo Process - 8, 279-280, 370 Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (MLSA) - 59, 166, 299
COMESA - Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa - 189, 362, 368 Pilot Project on the Selection of Qualified Foreign Workers - 58-59,
Congo - 407 166-167, 299
Construction (sector) - 5, 11, 32, 34, 39, 64, 79, 81, 84-85, 88, 90-91,
133, 137, 145, 175-178, 183, 186-187, 205, 210-213, 217-219, 222, 226, D
258, 262, 274-275, 286, 293, 296, 314, 317, 334, 368, 379, 393, 426, 444, Data (statistics)
476, 495, Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) - 247, 250
Consular assistance/protection - 282 Bilateral Migration Matrix - 180, 247
Consular officers, definition of - 492 Census - 52, 180, 207, 210, 240, 242, 246, 250, 312, 426
Definition - 492 Collection mechanisms (systems) - 237, 248
Contract - 7, 10, 79-80, 84, 88, 97-99, 144, 146, 151, 160, 167, 184, 190, Comparability of - 242, 531
210, 218, 220, 266-275, 282, 313, 332, 345-346, 359, 373, 375, 379, 381, Databases - 121, 204-205, 215, 240, 246-250, 371, 423
479, 498-499 Emigration - 242-243, 246-247, 249
Substitution - 3, 178, 271, 281 EU Regulation on Community Statistics on migration and
Employment (work) - 218, 267, 271-274, 313, 375 international protection (2007) - 249
Special Unified Working Contract  Jordan  Eurostat
Standard (model) employment (labour) - 218, 274, 375 “General Model” for the Collection, Application and Sharing of
Cooperation - 13-17, 44-46, 66-67, 100, 112, 116, 122, 136, 213, 221-222, Migration-related Data - 204-205, 245
225-227, 249, 258, 266-267, 269-271, 276-281, 286, 288, 292, 303, 313,  Global Human Trafficking Database (IOM)
317-320, 327, 332-333, 340-343, 347-350, 355-386, 396, 463 Harmonization - 242-244, 251
Bilateral - 46, 355-386, 396 Household surveys - 240-242, 244, 248
Formal mechanisms of - 377 Immigration - 246
Informal mechanisms of - 378 International migration statistics - 239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 498
International - 13, 15-16, 44, 67, 112, 122, 258, 279-281, 313-318, Living Standard Measurement Surveys (LSMS) - 248
355, 385, 396 Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Australia - 250
Interstate - 46, 271, 278-279, 358, 362, 370 Management - 5, 245
Multi-stakeholder - 377 Migration - 36, 237-246, 251, 279, 400, 423, 461
Regional - 190, 318, 327, 349, 385 OECD Database on Foreign-born and Expatriates - 247, 483
 RCPs - Regional consultative processes Regularization - 249
Costa Rica - 78, 80, 90-91, 114, 213, 426, 428 Reliability - 241
Canada-Costa Rica Agreement on Labour Cooperation (CCRALC) Sharing of - 400
- 360 UN Recommendations of Statistics or International Migration - 244
Côte d’Ivoire - 89, 179-180, 363, 412  SIEMMES - Statistical Information System on Migration in
Cotonou Agreement - 368 Mesoamerica
Country (countries) in economic transition - 135, 461 Debt bondage - 187
Country (countries) of destination - 2, 9-18, 32, 34, 38, 43, 51, 52, 57, Definition - 492
65-66, 78, 93, 139, 145-146, 154, 158, 167, 202, 204, 206, 213-214, 219- Debt relief - 341
227, 237, 246-247, 250, 262, 265, 268, 271, 276-282, 285-320, 327, 332, Decent work - 33-34, 281, 301, 361
334-335, 339-342, 349-350, 370-376, 382-385, 393-396, 400, 408, 410, Decent Work Agenda (ILO) - 33-34
423-428, 442, 455-460, 465, 474, 525, 538 Delocalization - 300
Definition - 492

[505]
Democratic Republic of the Congo - 4, 26, 189, 287, 369, 407, 409, 532 Domestic work (sector) - 177, 262, 307, 314, 446
Democracy - 67  Household employment
Demography - 86 Dominica - 265, 312, 426
Definition - 492 Dominican Republic - 90-91, 165, 213, 360, 376-377, 426, 432, 458
Demographic decline - 119, 286, 291 Haitian migrant workers - 91
Demographic deficit - 35 U.S.-CAFTA-D.R. - United States-Central America-Dominican
Demographic imbalance(s) - 3, 300 Republic Free Trade Agreement - 360
Fertility (levels) - 36-37, 182, 239 “Dutch Disease” - 331
Individual’s life cycle - 239
Life expectancy - 294, 475 E
Low birth rate(s) - 237 East Africa - 179, 215, 407-409, 539, 189, 362, 368
 Population  COMESA - Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
Denmark - 55, 83, 107, 110, 116, 151, 158-162, 244, 250, 287-288, 309, East Asia - 26, 82, 84, 86, 117, 151, 176, 216, 225, 439-442, 536, 539
366, 458-460 ECLAC - Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean - 427-
Danish Immigration Service - 245 428
Ministry of Refugee, Immigration and Integration Affairs - 160-161 Economic migrant - 91
Deportation - 10, 70, 187, 219, 432 Definition - 493
Definition - 492 Economy (economies) - 4-15, 24-46, 52-56, 89-90, 115-121, 128-130, 140-
Deskilling - 166 145, 176, 181, 186-187, 211-216, 248-250, 264, 289-296, 302-308, 316-
Detention - 276, 367, 448 319, 325-336, 375-376, 463, 476, 485
Definition - 492 Advanced - 31, 69, 141
Developed countries - 3, 8, 13, 25-63, 65, 70, 79, 90, 95, 98, 100, 131, Agglomeration - 25, 69
135, 144-147, 151, 156, 181, 264-265, 333-342, 347, 349, 376, 385, 386, High-income - 25, 31
388, 393-394, 399, 447 In transition - 94, 175, 257, 281, 336
Developing countries - 1, 3, 6-11, 18, 23-35, 39-43, 54, 61-70, 78-81, Informal - 206, 226
94-95, 99-100, 115, 119, 121-122, 128-131, 135, 138, 144, 156, 223, 248, Restructuring of - 331
250-251, 257, 263-265, 281, 285, 300, 334-344, 349, 380, 383, 385, 387, ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States - 134, 189, 363-
394, 397, 400, 414, 430, 449, 465-466, 533 364, 413
Development - 1, 6-18, 23-29, 38, 43, 44-45, 52-53, 67-70, 79, 85-86, Passport - 189, 363-364
97-100, 113-121, 127-132, 144-147, 154-155, 173-178, 183-192, 212-223, Protocol on Free Movement of Persons, Establishment and
225-226, 300-308, 317-320, 395-400, 429-430 Settlement - 189, 362-364
Co-development - 304-305, 333, 349 Travellers cheques - 363
 “Development-friendly” approach (policies) West African Unit of Account - 363
 MDGs - Millennium Development Goals Ecuador - 91, 114, 136, 213-215, 223, 304, 378-379, 428-431, 458, 532
 Migration and development Agreement between Spain and Ecuador concerning the regulation
National development strategy (strategies) - 282, 339 and control of migratory flows (2001) - 373-374, 379
 PRSP - Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Education - 3, 10, 13, 16, 30, 32, 35, 38-39, 44, 52-54, 60-61, 68, 78, 81-
 Remittances 82, 90-92, 105-123, 146, 156, 175-178, 187-190, 240, 257-273, 290, 293,
Socio-economic - 223, 305, 329 299, 305, 308-309, 311, 314, 316, 318, 327, 331, 333-337, 341-344, 364-
Diaspora - 8, 16, 44, 52, 67, 93, 121, 246, 292, 303, 319, 333-336, 342- 365, 395, 425, 429, 432, Map 2 522, 536-537
350, 410, 413, 448 Bologna Process - 108, 116, 122
Associations - 246, 319, 396 Cross-border (higher) education - 105-106, 109, 113, 116, 119
Chinese - 448 Distance learning - 107, 113, 123
 China Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-border Higher Education
Definition - 493 - 111
Networks - 16, 344-350 Higher education - 3, 13, 16, 68, 105-123, 261-265, 327, 342-344,
Discrimination - 9-10, 34, 70, 187, 204, 227, 266, 292, 301, 306-308, 360- Map 2 522
361, 365 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) - 107,
Definition - 493 110-111
Fight against - 9 Medicine - 110, 261, 342, 365, 386-387
 Inequality  Mutual recognition of professional degrees (diplomas)
Multiple forms of - 10 Numerus clauses - 112
 Non-discrimination Right to  Human rights (of migrants)
Prejudice - 303, 308, 394 Scholarship(s) - 275, 342
Displacement - 4, 174, 386-387, 448-449, 473, 526 Socrates-Erasmus programme - 115-116
Displaced person(s) - 369, 408, 430-431, 448 Study abroad - 105, 111, 441
Definition - 493  Teachers
 IDPs - Internally Displaced Persons Tertiary education - 52-54, 78, 116, 263-264, Map 2 524
Doctors (physicians)  Health workers Twinning (programmes) - 113, 117, 264
Doha Development Agenda (DDA) - 6 Universities - 105, 112-120, 258, 262-264, 342, 380, 386-387, 483
Domestic (migrant) worker(s) - 5, 10-12, 23, 30, 32-35, 40, 58, 60, 79-83, Education labour market (ELM) - 259-261
164, 177, 181, 183, 185, 205-206, 210-213, 218-222, 266, 268, 271, 274, Egypt - 174, 180, 182, 219, 407, 416, 471-474, 534
277, 289-291, 306-308, 317-318, 334, 339, 341, 344, 355, 358-360, 374- El Salvador - 39, 165, 212, 430, 432, 535
381, 394-397, 441-446, 475 Emigration - 16, 35, 37-39, 62-64, 67-69, 89, 105, 182, 240, 246-248
 Household service provider(s) - 10, 271, 289 Definition - 492-493, 499, 539
Live-in caregivers - 97, 298, 387 Clearance - 39, 155, 270, 278, 371, 432
 Canada Employer(s) - 35, 44, 57-60, 91-92, 96-97, 136-138, 177, 213, 220, 273-
 Women and migration 274, 294-306, 315-318, 463
Change of - 306

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 World Migration 2008

Employer fees - 294, 296 “Blue Card” Directive (proposed) - 61, 367, 393
Foreign worker levy (Singapore) - 296  Circular migration
Employer sanctions - 301, 318 CIREFI - Centre for Information, Discussion and Exchange on the
Incentives for (voluntary) compliance - 318 Crossing of Frontiers and Immigration - 208, 249
Gangmaster Licensing Authority  U.K. Common migration (law and) policy - 318, 367
Migration Amendment (Employer Sanctions) Act 2007 (Australia) Employer sanctions Directive (proposed) - 301, 318, 367
- 318 Enlargement - 54, 61, 161, 203, 211
Self-regulation - 318 EU-15 - 88, 365-366, 413, 457
Employers’ association(s)/organization(s) EU-25 - 54, 457, 467
Employers’ reports - 293 EU citizens - 32, 83, 158, 160, 166, 305, 311, 364
Employment (work) - 273 European Council - 367-368
3D jobs - 183, European Court of Justice - 132
 Contract European Parliament - 208, 243, 364, 367
Contractual labour, definition of - 8, 279, 370, 492 EUROPOL - European Police Office - 249
 Foreign employment policy Eurostat - Statistical Office of the European Communities - 242
Gender-segregated employment  Gender Family reunification Directive  Family reunification (reunion)
Minimum standards - 9, 159, 161, 271, 278, 311 FRONTEX - 211, 249, 367, 415
 Pre-employment orientation seminars (PEOS) Global approach to migration - 368
 Private employment agency (PEA) Hague Programme - 367
Opportunities - 2-6, 9, 106, 128, 137-139, 145-147, 301, 303-306 Long-term residents Directive - 291, 303, 367
Relocalization of jobs - 30  Mobility partnership(s)
Right to work - 98, 156, 343 Policy Plan on Legal Migration - 61, 367
Rights - 1, 9, 13, 32-34, 61, 71, 204, 214, 221, 463, 491  Population
Rights arising out of past employment - 356 Preference principle - 295
Security of - 307 Regulation on the application of social security schemes (1971)
 Unauthorized  Social Security
 Unemployment Researchers Directive - 136, 208
Unregulated - 10, 185, 205, 308, 314, 398  Schengen
Wage-earning - 328 Students Directive - 116, 367
Employment (working) conditions - 71, 272, 294, 375, 379 Tampere European Council - 367
Engineering - 28, 38, 53, 57-58, 65, 110-111, 120, 122-123, 258, 261, 263, Thematic Cooperation Programme with Third Countries on the
290, 293, 386-387, 441, 484 Development Aspects of Migration and Asylum - 367
Entrepreneur(s) - 298 Third-country nationals - 136, 158
Entry - 9, 13-14, 30, 35, 57, 61, 87-88, 91, 94, 99, 130, 134-135, 139, Transitional arrangements (provisions) - 365-366
140-142, 147, 151-152, 155-156, 160, 162, 164-166, 188, 202-203, 206- Treaty of Rome 1957 - 364
209, 218, 221, 224-225, 240, 243-244, 249, 257, 261 Visa list - 136
Definition - 493 Exclusion - 226, 248, 266, 301, 308, 493
Environment - 24, 33, 40, 64-66, 167, 250, 267, 307, 340, 373, 384, 466 Definition - 493
Environmental migrant - Expatriate(s) - 38, 65-67, 246, 347, 397, 442, 448, 466, 475, 493, 497
Definition - 493 Communities - 246, 397, 448
Equality (equal treatment) - 34, 61, 98, 99, 100, 307, 310, 312, 356, 358, Exploitation - 9-10, 34, 46, 70, 83, 183-185, 190-191, 204-206, 214, 272,
361, 364, 369 280, 301, 306, 313-315
 Inequality Definition - 493, 500
 Non-discrimination Export Processing Zone (EPZ) - 26, 28, 30-31, 335
Equatorial Guinea - 109, 407 Maquiladoras (Mexico) - 26, 31
Eritrea - 189, 407, 409, 410 Expulsion - 223-224, 311-313, 345, 366,
Established countries of immigration - 85, 162, 285, 290, 297, 299, 310 Definition - 493
Admission systems - 57-58, 85  Deportation
Immigration policies - 32, 57, 68, 119, 136, 153, 277, 355, 359 Fear of (irregular migrants) - 311
Estonia - 137, 239, 366, 455-456  Forced return
Ethiopia - 121, 179, 185-186, 221, 410 Removal - 203, 208, 223, 249
Europe - 2, 4, 13, 36, 29, 32, 38, 51, 54-56, 61, 208-211, 304, 308, 310,
410-413 F
 European Union Family migration - 14-15, 151-167, 171-172, 356, 362, 384
 Labour migration Breadwinner (bread earner) - 32, 153
 Population  Children
European Commission - 32, 54, 61, 209-210, 249, 287, 294, 302-304, 309, Definition - 493
317, 367 Dependant, definition of - 492
Policy Plan on Legal Migration  European Union Discretionary - 156, 157, 158, 165
European Economic Area (EEA) - 63, 119, 386, 527 Divorce (separation) - 158
European Union (EU) - 4, 14, 16, 28, 61, 87, 112, 122, 134, 151, 202, 362- DNA testing - 160
365, 415, 455 Elderly parents - 341
A8 (accession) States - 366 Family class - 297
A8 workers - 366 Family dislocation - 43
Accession Treaties - 365 Family formation - 155
AENEAS - 304 Head of household - 338
ARGO - 226 Low-income families - 336
Association agreements - 312  Marriage

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 Non-discretionary - 157, 158 GATT - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - 5, 44
Probationary or conditional period - 160-161 GCIM - Global Commission on International Migration - 61, 92, 94, 95,
Registered partners - 386 206, 300, 362, 384, 397
Right to family life - 14, 152, 158 GDP - Gross Domestic Product - 25-27, 35, 67, 92-95, 187, 207, 220, 317,
Same-sex relationships - 158, 163, 431 331, 337, 414, 430, 449, 474, 485
Single parent - 158 Gender - 10-11, 33-34, 83, 138, 152-155, 204-205, 246, 281, 308
Spouses - 58, 85, 140, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, Gender-segregated employment - 10, 308
163, 164, 166, 298, 310, 337, 338, 341, 34, 394 Gender-sensitive migration policies - 34, 281
Transnational families - 154 Traditional gender roles - 10, 82
Family reunification (reunion) - 14, 60-61, 70, 120, 151, 152, 154, 155, Georgia - 460
157-163, 165-167, 203, 302, 328, 331, 346, 356, 362, 367, 379, 383, 384, Germany - 55, 57, 60, 63, 77, 83, 86, 88, 91, 95, 106-110, 116, 119, 120,
425, 459, 482-483 132, 136, 137, 142, 156-157, 160, 166, 209, 225, 287, 288, 293, 299, 301,
Definition - 493 346, 365, 366, 373, 374, 377, 380, 411, 455, 457, 458, 459, 462, 464, 524,
EU Directive (on the right to family reunification) - 158-159, 161, 525, 529, 538
166, 310, 367 Aussiedler - 209
Right to - 157-159, 309-310, 367 Citizenship - 63, 115
Waiting period - 166, 310 Duldung - 225, 317
Feminization of migration - 9-11, 185, 281, 427, 428, 443, 475 “Guest worker” programmes - 77, 91, 301, 373
Definition - 493 Highly skilled migration - 299
Human rights abuses - 10, 34, 70-71, 83, 187, 204, 205, 266, 268, Immigration Law 2005 - 299
431, 447 GFMD - Global Forum on Migration and Development - 1, 8, 16, 34, 92, 93,
Fiji - 86, 107, 108, 121, 129, 251, 481, 484, 485 100, 223, 279, 303, 319, 327-328, 361, 384, 397
Finland - 55, 63, 110, 136, 226-227, 287, 288, 366, 455, 458 Ghana - 12, 136, 179-180, 184-185, 189, 206, 215, 224, 348-349, 363,
Food processing (sector) - 185, 205, 292, 318 407, 412, 413
Forced (compulsory) labour - 44, 83, 204-206, 290, 313, 314, 318-319, Ghanacoop - 348, 349
361, 431, 463  Migration and development
Abolition of - 361 Global care chain - 11, 70
Definition - 493 Global knowledge society - 53
Forced migration - 419 Global labour market - 12, 24, 31, 34-35, 39, 206, 342
Definition - 493 Global networking of production systems - 5
 IDPs - Internally displaced persons Global output - 25, 26
Forced return - 312 Global resourcing - 28-29, 31, 394, 496
Definition - 494  Outsourcing
 Deportation Global talent - 385
 Expulsion Globalization - 2-4, 12, 17, 23-31, 33, 35, 40-43, 45-47, 63-64, 69, 85,
Foreign direct investment (FDI) - 24, 26-29, 33, 41, 42, 415 173-174, 178, 192, 204, 286, 327, 394, 398, 484
Foreign employment policy (policies) - 15, 395 Definition - 494
Countries of origin - 257-282 Waves of - 25
Countries of destination - 285-320 GMG - Global Migration Group - 281
Foreign portfolio investments - 27, 40 Goods and services - 2, 17, 24, 26-29, 35, 43, 127, 363, 385, 394, 397
Foreigners - 9, 39, 58, 87, 89, 91, 92, 99-100, 111, 115, 118, 151, 167, Greece - 35, 55, 111, 121, 207, 210, 225, 287, 288, 335, 346, 366, 380,
206, 210, 215, 220, 239, 249, 290, 291, 296, 297, 299, 302, 303, 308, 312, 455, 457, 467
357, 360, 361, 363, 374, 379, 447 448, 462, 465 Grenada - 265, 312, 426
Definition - 494 Guatemala - 212, 254, 269-270, 378, 426, 430, 431, 437, 535
Registers of - 239, 312 Guatemala-Canada Seasonal Agricultural Workers Project - 269-270
France - 25, 55, 56, 57, 83, 86, 88, 89, 90, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, Guinea - 179, 180, 216, 224, 407, 412, 413, 414
112, 114, 115, 119, 120, 132, 136, 142, 143, 145, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, Guinea-Bissau - 109, 121, 189, 224, 407, 413, 414
161, 182, 208, 211, 216, 287, 188, 309, 312, 335, 339, 366, 369, 372, 376, Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) States - 32, 82, 84, 98, 99, 220, 225, 277,
411, 455, 458, 459, 464, 473, 524, 525 531, 532, 538 280, 285, 302, 306, 310, 471, 472, 474-475, 477, 481
Free movement (Freedom of movement) - 10, 16, 24 25, 32, 39, 40, 42,  Abu Dhabi Dialogue
64, 82, 90, 118, 131, 155, 157, 189-190. 309, 310, 362-366, 368, 375,  Colombo Process
376, 387, 492 Expatriate populations - 475
Definition - 494  Temporary contractual workers
 European Union Guyana - 121, 312, 426, 430, 432, 535
Free movement of workers (labour) - 32, 39, 40, 42, 64, 82, 90,
118, 189, 364-366 H
Frontier worker(s) - 356-357 Haiti - 90-91, 121, 165, 213, 312, 376-377, 426, 430, 535
Definition - 494 Migration to the Dominican Republic - 91
Remittance Survey (2006) - 376
G Health and migration
GATS - General Agreement on Trade in Services - 5, 6, 16, 38, 40, 42, 46, Avian flu - 11
65, 319, 356, 359-360, 382-387, 398 Care workers - 70, 333-334
Doha Round - 95, 385  Child health
GATS visa - 99, 360 Emergency medical care (treatment) - 310
Mode 4 - 6-7, 16, 40, 422, 44, 46, 65, 92, 99, 139, 319, 356, 359, Health (medical) insurance - 97, 96-97, 375, 432
360, 382-395, 398  HIV/AIDS
Service provider(s)/supplier(s) - 3, 40, 80, 99, 114, 127, 139, 281, Medical care - 10, 131-132, 310-311, 375, 432
289, 319, 345, 356, 359-360, 365-366, 384-387  Medical tourism

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 World Migration 2008

Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) - 432 Migrant Workers (2007) - 222, 368
Public health - 11, 63, 70-71, 344, 412, 432  ASEAN
Right to health  Human rights (of migrants) Definition - 494
Health and safety - 309  Discrimination
Healthcare - 10, 53, 63, 85, 100, 131, 132, 305, 316, 333, 334, 341, 342, Economic and social rights - 99-100, 314, 201, 356, 358
345, 375, 431, 432, 476  Equality (equal treatment)
Access to - 63, 342, 431, 432 Freedom of religion - 375
Preventive healthcare - 310 Human rights-based approach to (labour) migration - 280-281, 361
Primary healthcare - 344 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) - 309,
Right to  Human rights (of migrants) 496, 498
Health workers - 62, 63, 64, 70, 71, 133, 250, 277, 334, 342, 375, 412, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
432 (1966) - 310, 311
Commonwealth Code of Practice for the international recruitment International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All
of health workers (2003) 334, 375 Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (1990) - 46, 157-
Doctors (physicians) - 63, 132, 137, 259, 264, 296, 342, 412 158, 221, 281, 310, 357
Globalization  International human rights law
Ethical recruitment - 66, 71, 265, 267, 307  Labour rights (standards)
Nurses - 3, 63, 132, 137, 262, 263, 264, 265, 277, 293, 296, 306,  Non-discrimination
335, 382, 387, 412, 483, 484, 485 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) - 201,
Highly skilled (qualified) migrant (worker) - 12, 13, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 358, 361
57, 58, 61, 62, 65, 67, 78, 82, 119, 248, 299, 303, 304, 333, 334, 336, Property rights - 343
367, 482, 494, 497, 499, Map 13 536, Map 14 537  Protection
Canberra Manual - 52, 53 Right to “an adequate standard of living” - 311
Definition - 494 Right to education - 311
Qualified national, definition of - 497 Right to enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical
Highly skilled migration - 12, 51-71, 238, 248, 336 and mental health - 310
HIV/AIDS - 11, 146, 187, 188, 273, 307, 432 Right to family life  Family migration
Iniciativa Mesoamericana para Prevenir la expansión del VIH-SIDA Right to leave, definition of - 498
(IMPSIDA) 432 Social rights - 314
Irregular migration - 431-432 Trade-off(s) between human rights and numbers - 13, 98-99, 300,
PAHO  Health and migration 302
HLD - High-Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development United Nations Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants
(UN General Assembly) - 1, 8, 34, 223, 327, 358, 361, 397 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) - 493, 494, 498
Home care - 3 Humanitarian assistance - 4
Hometown associations - 331 Hungary - 55, 107, 110, 219, 365, 366, 380, 455, 457, 458, 459, 462,
Honduras - 114, 129, 212, 426, 430, 535 525, 529
Hong Kong SAR of China - 7, 26, 83-84, 109, 113, 117, 122, 133, 136,
182, 216, 264, 271, 274, 339, 360, 367, 372, 439, 440, 442, 444, 447, 524 I
Hospitality (and entertainment) sector - 3, 80, 88, 203, 393 Iceland - 109, 110, 136, 208, 455
Hotel and catering - 34 ICMPD - International Centre for Migration Policy Development - 249
Household employment - 262, 307, 314 ICT - Information and communication technology - 53-54, 69, 259, 262-
Household registration (hukou) system - 176, 189 263, 290, 293, 296, 335
Household service provider(s) - 289 Identity documents - 313, 379
 Domestic worker(s) IDPs - Internally displaced persons - 408, 431, 493, 494, 498, Map 3 526
Human capital - 8, 117, 119, 120, 121, 123, 185, 247, 259, 260, 331, 332, Definition - 495
337, 376  Forced migration
Accumulation - 331, 332 Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) - 408-409, 431,
Development - 8 473
Theory - 259 IGC - Intergovernmental Consultations on Migration, Asylum and Refugees
Human mobility  Mobility - 244, 245, 287-288, 369, 370, 373
Human resources - 17, 39, 41, 43, 45, 52, 53, 65, 68, 90, 92, 119, 129, ILO - International Labour Organization - 10, 16, 26, 33-34, 82, 93-94, 98,
259, 261, 263, 264, 265, 266, 269, 295, 327, 349, 364, 375, 394, 398, 99, 100, 177, 180, 187, 189, 190, 201, 209, 242, 243 248, 257, 267, 279,
Movement of - 17, 394 280-281, 307, 308, 317, 319, 356-357, 360, 361, 378, 466
Skilled human resources - 65, 119, 264, 265, 266 Action Plan on migrant workers - 33, 222
Human resources development (HRD) - 15, 17, 18, 45, 250, 257, 258-265, Convention No. 97 concerning Migration for Employment (Revised
277, 344, 378, 395, 400 1949) - 34, 356
Human resource(s) management - 341-342 Convention No. 143 concerning Migrations in Abusive Conditions
Planning - 257, 259, 261 and the Promotion of Equality of Opportunity and Treatment of
Human rights (of migrants) - 313, 358, 361, 369, 395 Migrant Workers (1975) - 34, 201, 356, 358
Abuses - 67, 205  Employers’ organizations
Awareness - 274 Convention No. 157 on the Maintenance of Social Security Rights
Committee on Migrant Workers - 358 (1982)  Social Security
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Convention No. 181 on Private Employment Agencies (1997) - 268,
against Women (1979) - 361 357
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) - 158, 311, 361 Decent Work Agenda - 33
Cultural rights - 309, 310, 311, 361, 494 ILOLEX - ILO database of international labour standards - 201
Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of International Labour Conference - 33, 34, 189, 201, 280
 International labour standards

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 International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) Mass information campaign(s) - 94, 272, 309
 Children  (Migrant) information and resource centre(s)
Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration - 34, 93, 280, 281, 319 Information and resource centre(s) - 272, 274
Recommendation No. 86 concerning Migration for Employment  Centre for Migrant Advice (CMA)
(Revised 1949) - 356, 359 Integration - 15, 16, 23, 32, 34, 35, 40, 64, 68, 77, 85, 86, 94, 119, 141,
Recommendation No. 151 concerning Migrant Workers (1975) - 356 152, 155, 156, 159-162, 167, 205, 206, 214, 224, 225, 227, 240, 243, 250,
Recommendation No. 167 on the Maintenance of Social Security 251, 272, 274, 276, 278, 279, 285, 286, 290, 292, 296, 300, 305, 307-310,
Rights (1982) - 359 316, 319, 320, 329, 336, 347, 349, 350, 362-364, 368, 339, 373, 377, 379,
 Social security 384, 385, 396, 464, 491, 494, 498, 499
 Social partners Adaptation - 5, 11, 141, 267, 274, 309, 398, 399
 Trade unions  Assimilation
Tripartite - 280, 281, 319, 356 Contract(s) - 309
 Workers’ organizations Core (set of) values - 9, 307, 309, 395, 398
IMF - International Monetary Fund - 24, 248, 341, 430, 533-537 Definition - 494
Immigrant - 51-54, 56, 60, 64, 68, 69, 87, 91, 99, 127, 134, 136, 151, 154, Dual (two-way) process - 309
155, 160, 162-165, 207, 213, 214, 244, 250, 288, 289, 291, 294, 297, 298, Multiculturalism - 9, 307
300, 344-347, 424-426, 471, 477, 482, 483, 495, 500, Map 1 523, 530, 538 Mutual rights and responsibilities - 308
Probationary immigrant - 91, 99 Strategies - 319, 396
Immigration - 2, 6, 14, 16, 32, 38, 51, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 61, 64, 65, 68, Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) - 313
69, 77, 78, 85-87, 97, 111, 115-117, 119, 120, 131, 134-137, 141-143, Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) - 376
151, 153, 155, 156, 159-162, 164-166, 173, 177, 183, 202, 203, 208, 209, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - 413-414
212, 213, 218, 220, 227, 241-243, 245-247, 249, 269, 270, 277, 285, 288, Intergovernmental - 38, 64, 287-288, 414
290, 291, 294-300, 302, 306, 309, 310, 311, 313, 314, 316, 320, 333, 335, Intergovermental organization(s) - 369-370
344, 349, 355, 359, 362-364, 367, 369, 370-372, 374, 380-382, 386, 396, Internal migration - 173-193, 332, 343, 394, 471, 494, 498
399, 400, 411, 424, 425, 427, 429, 439, 448, 455, 456, 459, 462, 463, 476, Definition - 494
477, 482, 485, 492, 494, 523, 524, 531  Replacement migration
Definition - 494 Reverse migration - 179
Employment-based - 16, 291, 296-299, 302, 306, 379, 396 Rural-urban migration - 39, 174, 177, 178, 188, 431
Policies - 32, 40, 57, 68, 136, 153, 277, 355, 359 International Agenda for Migration Management (IAMM) - 61, 94, 279,
Immigration status - 202, 203, 313, 314, 344, 492, 494 319, 361
Definition - 494 International community - 3-5, 11, 18, 40, 41, 80, 93, 98, 221, 223, 281,
Switching (bridging) of - 12, 302, 492 300, 328, 361, 383, 384, 394, 399, 400
Income - 3-4, 9-10, 13, 24-25, 30-31, 33-34, 39, 41-43, 63, 78, 80-81, International cooperation  Cooperation
86, 91, 95-97, 105, 114, 116, 130, 141, 144, 155, 161, 164, 175-176, 180, International human rights law  Human rights (of migrants)
184-187, 191, 212, 248, 257, 260, 285, 299, 302, 310, 329-334, 336-338, International labour mobility  Labour mobility
340, 342, 364, 375-376, 399, 428, 432, 441, 462, 474, 499, 506, 508, 517, International labour standards - 201, 356, 361, 381
535 International law - 377, 378, 495, 496, 498, 499, 500
 Wages Definition - 495
India - 25, 30, 59, 65, 66, 88, 89, 109, 113, 118, 121, 132, 136, 137, 141, International migration - 1, 8, 14, 23, 32-34, 36, 37, 40-43, 51, 60, 61,
142, 144, 165, 176, 181-183, 186, 188-192, 212, 217, 218-220, 222, 247, 81, 92-95, 152, 153, 156, 167, 173, 179, 181-183, 201, 206, 223, 237,
248, 262, 263, 268, 278, 279, 336, 339, 343, 347, 370, 386, 387, 394, 239-244, 251, 252, 281, 303, 312, 327, 340, 346, 358, 361, 362, 384, 394,
395, 416, 430, 439, 441-444, 447-450, 475, 483, 524, 535, 536 397, 439, 457, 459, 495, 497, 498, 523, 530, 538, 539
 Diaspora Definition - 495
Indian Institute(s) of Technology - 262-263 International migration law - 495, 497
Non-resident Indian (NRI) - 66, 144, Definition - 495
Students - 109, 113, 121, 442, 524 International migration statistics  Data
Indonesia - 25, 83, 113, 117, 121, 132, 140, 177, 184, 187, 188, 217, International minimum standards - 495
218, 223, 251, 263, 264, 271, 279, 280, 312, 370, 372, 375, 387, 439, Definition - 495
443-449 Intra-corporate (company) transferee - 44, 143, 367, 386, 495
Industrialized country (countries) - 2-4, 61, 69, 77, 78, 81, 82, 86, 91, 92, Definition of - 495
93, 100, 119, 158, 285, 286, 288, 328, 333 IOM - International Organization for Migration - 23, 45, 59, 61, 66, 94, 98,
Inequality - 43, 99, 100, 176, 177, 186, 204, 261, 331, 332, 337 122, 134, 153, 173, 175, 204-206, 215, 218, 224, 225, 226-227, 237, 245,
 Discrimination 248, 249, 251 257 258, 262, 269-270, 272-273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278,
 Non-discrimination 279-280, 285, 287, 299, 304-305, 336, 347, 348-349, 355, 361, 370, 371,
Informal labour market(s) - 286, 302, 317, 372, 377, 393, 399, 432, 447, 450, 464, 466
Informal sector - 10, 34, 39, 145, 177, 184 1035 Facility - 336
Information - 4, 5, 11, 15, 16, 25, 28, 32, 38, 44, 52, 53, 59, 65, 66, 67, Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR) - 224
69, 71, 82, 88, 92, 94, 97, 112, 118, 121, 127, 131, 134, 145, 147, 154, Global Human Trafficking Database  Trafficking in human beings
156, 167, 174, 181, 182, 183, 186, 187, 189, 191, 205-210, 218, 219, 224, (persons)
226, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 244, 246-252, 259, 261, 262, 264, 266,  IAMM - International Agenda for Migration Management
267, 269-274, 277, 278, 282, 287, 289, 290, 292, 293, 295, 303, 309, 313, International Dialogue on Migration (IDM) - 16, 361, 397
315, 316, 318, 319, 328, 330, 331, 335, 339, 343-346, 349, 357, 358, 361,  MIDA - Migration for Development in Africa
364, 366-369, 371-373, 378, 379, 385, 386, 396, 397, 405, 432, 447, 464,  RCPs - Regional Consultative Processes
491, 494, 499, 529, 537 Return of Qualified Nationals programme - 347
Access to - 4, 271, 272, 343, 346 Iran - 121, 221, 287, 439
Dissemination of - 32, 226, 339 Iraq - 218, 287, 377, 471, 472, 474, 484, 526
Exchange (of) - 226, 246, 252, 357, 358, 379

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 World Migration 2008

Ireland - 55, 57, 63, 87, 107, 110, 116, 121, 122, 136, 137, 158, 216, K
263, 287, 288, 292, 303, 306, 366, 455, 457, 458 Kazakhstan - 245, 272, 294, 460-463
Employment Permits Act 2006 - 306 Kenya - 121, 179, 410, 412
Irregular migrant(s) - 9, 14, 145, 146, 161, 201, 202, 203, 207-226, 243, Know-how (Knowledge) - 3, 5, 13-15, 17, 30-33, 53, 58, 67, 94, 115,
249, 291, 306, 307, 310-314, 316-318, 355, 357, 367, 369, 373, 379, 383, 145-146, 160, 215, 260, 264, 272, 280, 299-300, 306, 311, 332, 334, 337,
384, 394, 410, 415, 416, 429, 432, 444, 448, 462, 463, 467, 494, 495, 500, 346-347, 397, 431-432
530-532 Transfer of - 7, 64, 66-67, 117, 466
Apprehensions of - 312 Knowledge base - 15, 237-238, 252, 289
Definition - 495 Knowledge-based economy - 53, 115-116, 119
Protection of - 313-316 Kyrgyzstan - 107, 245, 272, 463
Irregular migration - 4, 14-16, 31, 46, 79, 135, 136, 144, 190, 201, 202-
204, 206-208, 209-213, 216-223, 225, 238, 240, 246, 249, 266, 269, 277, L
281, 289, 312, 313, 317, 319, 333, 335, 356, 358, 367-370, 372-374, 376, Labour
378-382, 395, 396, 415, 429, 448, 462, 466, 467, 492, 495, 497, 500 Code(s) - 276, 375
Abuses of human rights  Exploitation
Clandestine migration, definition of - 492  Inspectors
Comprehensive approach to - 313-317  Labour demand and supply
Definition - 495 Law(s) - 16, 34, 97, 177, 191, 205, 269, 291, 297, 307-308, 314,
 Informal labour market(s) 373, 378, 398, 517
Management of - 16 Migrant - 226, 446
Measurement of - 201 Relations - 27, 275
Migrant smuggling - 15, 314 Rights  Human rights (of migrants)
 Overstay Standards - 34, 44, 189, 201, 286, 302, 315, 356, 360, 361, 381
Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants Labour attaché(s) - 271, 275-278, 280, 370
(PICUM) - 313, 314-316 Training of - 370
Prevention (reduction) of - 136, 222, 266, 289, 367, 379 Labour demand and supply - 39, 40, 51, 280, 292-293, 384
Preventive approach - 316 Matching (of) - 39, 280, 384
 Readmission agreements Labour force - 14, 17, 29-31, 35, 42, 77, 80-82, 84, 90, 96-98, 143, 151,
 Regularization 163, 166-167, 179, 185, 207, 237, 239-243, 248, 259, 261, 288, 290-291,
Semi-compliance - 202-203 294, 297, 300, 331, 342, 370, 382, 387, 394, 440, 459, 460, 475, 482
Unauthorized employment - 222, 226, 302, 307, 312, 313, 318, Local (domestic) - 81, 291, 294, 300, 387
356, 358, 385, 463, 495 Participation - 14, 151, 167, 331, 342, 459-460
Unauthorized (unlawful) entry (admission), definition of - 494 Profile(s) - 17, 382
Undocumented migration - 68, 83, 91, 174, 180, 182, 202, 208, Survey - 143, 179, 185, 240-242, 248, 460
213, 314-316, 439, 446 Labour market - 4-6, 8-9, 12, 14-17, 23-24, 29-32, 34-35, 39-40, 43-45,
Israel - 85, 121, 268, 380, 445, 471, 473, 476 56-57, 60-61, 63, 68, 70, 78, 82, 86-87, 89, 92-94, 96-97, 115, 118-120,
Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labour - 268 136, 138, 153-154, 159, 162-164, 166-167, 174, 183-185, 191-192, 202-
IT - Information technology - 5, 25, 38, 65, 69, 156, 206, 385, 386, 447, 204, 206-207, 220, 226-227, 237, 241-242, 244, 250, 259-261, 266, 271,
494, 274, 277-278, 280, 282, 285-286, 288-297, 299-302, 305-306, 308-309,
Italy - 11, 35, 55, 83, 88, 89, 91, 107, 136, 138, 142, 145, 157-159, 201, 316-318, 328, 331-332, 334-336, 341-344, 350, 355, 359, 362-363, 365-
206, 207, 209-211, 216, 219, 224, 225, 244, 269, 280, 287, 288, 291, 294, 366, 370-374, 376, 378, 381-384, 386, 388, 394-396, 400, 428, 442-443,
317, 346, 348, 366, 369, 370, 374, 380, 411, 415, 416, 427, 455, 457-459, 456, 463, 471, 475, 494
467, 472, 525, 529, 531, 532 Access to - 61, 120, 166, 206, 227, 266, 300, 302, 305-306, 359,
Ghanacoop  Migration and development 365-366, 371, 383
Irregular migration - 210-211, 467 Discrepancies - 4
Labour migration - 83, 88, 294, 317 Distortion(s) - 23, 41, 96, 296, 301, 318
Lampedusa - 89, 211, 215, 410 Dynamics - 17, 40, 242, 394
Readmission agreements - 224, 317, 367, 369, 373 Formal - 14
 Informal
J Integrated - 12, 23
Jamaica - 121, 165, 265, 430 Planning - 8
Japan - 29, 55-56, 82-84, 107, 109-111, 115, 122, 135, 138, 141-143, Regulation - 16, 305
151, 156-157, 188, 216, 219, 262, 264, 346, 386-387, 427-428, 439-440, Segmentation of - 301
442, 444, 448, 524-525 Shortages - 288, 290, 294, 373
Japan-Philippines Economic Partnership Agreement (JPEPA) - 262, Tightness - 293
387 Labour market test - 6, 57, 60, 68, 92, 166, 294-296, 299, 359, 386
Japan-Singapore Economic Partnership Agreement - 386 Labour migration (migration for employment) - 4-5, 7-8, 10, 12, 14-18,
Labour migration - 56 23-24, 29, 31-34, 39-40, 45, 56, 64-65, 77-80, 82, 85-89, 91-97, 99-100,
Jordan - 84, 107, 471- 474, 525, 534 133, 144-146, 153-154, 160, 162, 164-165, 167, 177, 181, 185-186, 188,
Special Unified Working Contract - 271 190, 192, 204, 206-207, 218, 223, 226, 237-242, 244-245, 250, 252, 257-
U.S.-Jordan FTA - 386 258, 260, 265-267, 269, 271-272, 275-282, 285-286, 288-294, 296-297,
jus sanguinis - 299-302, 304-307, 308-309, 311, 312-313, 314, 316, 317, 318-319, 327-
Definition - 495 328, 330, 332-336, 338, 340-341, 344, 349, 356, 358, 361-364, 369-370,
jus soli 372-375, 377, 379-381, 383, 394-396, 399-400, 413, 439-440, 442-446,
Definition - 495 455, 462-464, 491, 495, 499
Administration of - 278
Definition - 495
Female - 10, 82, 185, 446

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 Migrant Labour Dependency Ratio (MLDR) - 440, 444 Mechanization - 97
OSCE/IOM/ILO Handbook on Labour Migration - 265-267, 299, 305- of agriculture - 331
309, 311-312, 314, 317-318 of production processes - 301
Programmes - 14, 39, 77-78, 89, 91, 94, 96-97, 99-100, 226, 237, Mediterranean - 145, 210, 211, 215, 249, 411, 471 474, 513
250: 252, 258, 265, 278, 281, 286, 291, 296-297, 300-302, 318-319, 5 + 5 Dialogue on Migration in the Western Mediterranean - 369
334, 383 Dialogue on Mediterranean Transit Migration - 249
Statistics  Data MERCOSUR - Common Market of the South - 190, 213, 214, 319, 363, 368,
Temporary and Circular Labour Migration Model (MLTC)  Circular 514
migration Mexico - 25, 26, 27, 39, 55, 56, 77, 78, 86, 87, 91, 96, 108, 114, 115,
Labour mobility - 3, 5-6, 8, 12, 1-17, 23-24, 29, 31-32, 35, 39-41, 43-46, 129, 140, 142, 165, 178, 182, 212, 215, 275, 333, 339, 341, 342, 348, 359,
82, 85-86, 127, 132-133, 140, 146, 184, 188, 203, 235, 252, 257-258, 277, 369, 372, 375, 377, 378, 423, 424, 425-426, 427, 429, 430, 431-432, 505,
282, 285-286, 289, 292, 307, 319, 328, 330, 332, 337, 340-341, 344, 349, 506, 514, 517, 520, 523
355, 358, 361-364, 369-372, 375, 379, 385-387, 394-400, 439, 475 Canada-Mexico Memorandum of Understanding - 375
Climate change - 398-400, 414 Migration to the U.S. - 212, 429
Impact of globalization - 12, 23, 29-31, 33 Tres por uno programme - 348
Managing of - 15, 235, 355 Microcredit institutions - 349
Labour shortages - 41, 56, 60, 85, 87, 89, 119, 138, 164, 286, 288, 290- MIDA - Migration for Development in Africa - 347, 348
294, 308, 320, 332, 334, 376, 395-396, 471 Middle East - 4, 31, 65, 82, 84, 90, 100, 113, 117, 118, 128, 129, 151,
Labour standards - 34, 44, 189, 286, 302, 315, 360 167, 174, 180, 210, 220, 271, 274, 275, 394, 395, 408, 439, 442, 443, 444,
 International 445, 446, 447, 471-479, 484, 507, 508, 510, 515, 516
Laissez-faire (approach) - 17, 138, 395 MIDSA - Migration Dialogue for Southern Africa - 8, 88, 89, 369
Latin America and the Caribbean - 29, 32, 37-38, 54-55, 62, 295, 395, Migrant(s)
423, 426-430, 505, 520 as agent(s) of development - 328
Agreements (bilateral and multilateral) - 375-377 Business - 145, 146
Regularization - 68, 91, 213-215, 317, 373, 491, 495, 497 Documented, definition of - 493
 SIEMMES - Statistical Information System on Migration in  Economic
Mesoamerica  Environmental
Latvia - 87, 226-227, 365-366, 455-456, 462, 511  Highly skilled (qualified)
Lebanon - 84, 107, 445, 471-474, 516 Internal - 14, 176, 177, 180, 181, 330, 394, 440
Least Developed Countries (LDCs) - 26, 30, 333, 376, 399  Irregular
Liberia - 89, 121, 189, 407, 413, 485 Long-term, definition of - 495
Libya - 89-90, 182, 189, 211, 215-216, 219, 223-224, 359, 369, 407, 410,  Labour
416  Low and semi-skilled
Lithuania - 87, 239, 365-366, 380, 455, 462, 511  Seafarer(s)
Low and semi-skilled migrant(s) - 77-100, 334 Seasonal, definition of - 498
Definition - 495 Second (third)-generation - 100, 154, 160, 331, 344
Manual labourers - 79, 258  Self-employed
Luxembourg - 55, 109, 366, 455, 457-458  Short-term
Skilled - 32, 51, 54, 57, 68, 88, 99, 123, 147, 159, 160, 164, 166,
M 297, 298, 299, 306, 464, 484
Macao SAR of China - 107, 108, 182, 367, 439, 507 Definition of - 499
Macroeconomic (policies) - 16, 341  Worker
Madagascar - 107, 189, 407, 416 Migrant associations - 292, 319, 396
Maghreb - 89-90, 182, 215, 219, 394, 416, 514, 516 Diaspora associations - 292, 319, 344, 396
Malawi - 26, 109, 144, 189, 407, 412 Migrant flow(s) - 52, 64, 95, 181, 446, 459
Malaysia - 10, 78, 83, 107, 113-114, 117, 131-132, 117, 136, 140, 151, Definition - 495
188 Inflows - 3, 127, 156, 158, 181, 239, 240, 244, 247, 265, 384, 413,
Mali - 107, 179, 180, 182, 185, 189, 215, 223-224, 407, 413 428, 442, 256, 475, 483, 459
Malta - 136, 219, 365, 366, 369, 416, 455, 457 Outflows - 4, 16, 38, 43, 64, 65, 117, 209, 240, 247, 259, 293, 363,
Managed migration - 15, 93, 95, 152, 385 374, 385, 428, 440, 442, 443, 445
Manufacturing - 3, 10, 25, 28, 30, 31, 3 2, 81, 88, 89, 144, 145, 177, 185, Migrant stock(s) - 52, 180, 209, 239, 240, 400, 407, 428, 455, 471, 481,
218, 296, 335, 371, 378, 387, 441,444, 485 505
Marriage - 11, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 162, 166, 204, Definition - 495
241 Migrant support services - 15, 191, 258, 266, 267, 271, 274, 278, 282,
Arranged - 161, 162 370, 396
Forced - 159, 162, 204 Migrant welfare fund (MWF) - 274, 275, 278, 282
“Mail-order bride” - 156 Migrant (foreign) worker(s), Definition of - 496
Mixed - 156 Commodification of - 9
Sham - 161 Dependence (employers) on - 96, 97, 220, 301, 317, 440, 444
Market Research Unit (MRU) - 277, 278, 280  Domestic migrant worker
Market Situation Report (MSR) - 277  Frontier worker
Marketing - 15, 28, 57, 129, 134, 275, 277, 278 Household employee - 271, 332
Mauritania - 89, 90, 109, 179, 180, 211, 215, 224, 369, 407, 411, 413 Project-tied worker, definition of - 356, 379
Mauritius - 88, 89, 109, 121, 189, 295, 335.6, 375, 407  Seafarers
Bilateral Labour Service Cooperation Agreement (with China)  Seasonal (migrant) worker
(2005) - 375  Self-employed migrant worker
Circular migration - 335-336

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 World Migration 2008

Specified-employment worker - 356, 357 Mixed flows

Definition of - 499 Definition - 496
 Temporary contractual worker Mobility
 Temporary (migrant) worker Geographical - 292, 356
 Undocumented migrant worker  Human mobility
Welfare of - 185, 279, 280, 282, 337  Labour mobility
Migration Occupational - 292
Causes - 67, 68, 427 Mobility partnership(s) - 317, 327, 368
Chain - 66, 183, 346 Cape Verde - 317, 368
 Child migration European Commission - 317, 368
 Circular migration Moldova - 317, 368
 Data Moldova - 59, 245, 274, 317, 344, 368, 380, 460, 461, 463, 485, 519
Definition - 496  Mobility partnership(s)
 Economic migration Mongolia - 144, 146, 439
 Forced migration Montenegro - 59, 317, 380, 460, 461, 462, 519
 Health Morocco - 25, 89-90, 109, 145, 180, 182, 215-216, 219, 222, 312, 359,
 Highly skilled migration 369, 407, 416, 516
 Internal migration Most Favoured Nation (principle/status) - 382, 383
 International migration MoU - Memorandum of Understanding  Bilateral labour agreement(s)/
 Irregular migration arrangement(s)
Lottery - 337 Mozambique - 88, 121, 144, 179, 181, 189, 339, 407, 412
 Managed migration Multi-Fibre Agreement - 177, 335
 Migration management Multilateral
Multi-stage - 2, 11 Agreements - 16, 64, 65, 94, 189, 279, 311, 312, 359, 385, 498
 Networks Definition - 496
Orderly, definition of - 496 Myanmar - 132, 181, 217, 218, 219, 223, 439, 443, 448
Permanent - 2, 13, 85, 94, 134, 138, 157, 300, 362
Push-pull factors, definition of - 497 N
 Regular migration Namibia - 79, 88, 107, 109, 144, 189, 407, 411, 412
 Replacement migration National - 3,34, 52, 61, 79, 82, 88, 98, 99, 116, 151, 182, 207, 246-248,
 Return migration 265, 271, 276, 277, 285, 293, 294, 296, 299, 302, 310, 312, 314, 317, 334,
 Seasonal migration 343, 356, 358, 360, 364, 365, 366, 373, 375, 395
 Security Definition - 496
Short-term - 94, 176 Nationality - 6, 107, 161, 165, 166, 212, 214, 216, 245, 311, 312, 314,
 Social costs of 357, 364, 365, 381, 466, 493, 495, 497, 498, 499
South-North - 408, 484 Definition - 496
South-South - 180, 408 Nepal - 218, 220, 279, 370, 375, 439, 441, 442, 444, 518
 Step migration Netherlands - 55, 83, 107, 110, 114, 116, 136, 142, 143, 157, 159, 160,
 Temporary (labour) migration 162, 239, 241, 287, 288, 293, 295, 331, 366, 376, 411, 426, 455, 457, 458,
Total (net), definition of - 500 459, 467, 511
Voluntary - 174 Networks - 2, 3, 13, 16, 23, 27, 44, 46, 56, 65, 67, 97, 105, 112, 133, 145,
“Win-win-win” - 92, 93, 95 147, 154, 174, 176, 177, 181, 182, 186, 187, 192, 207, 212, 219, 221, 250,
Migration and development - 1, 7, 8, 16, 34, 92, 100, 117, 188, 223, 226, 251, 267, 300, 309, 313, 331, 332, 339, 344-348, 350, 382, 394, 397, 427,
281, 327-353, 361, 362, 374, 397 432, 456, 493
Ghanacoop - 348-349  Diaspora networks
Mainstreaming migration - 344 Global communication networks - 3
 MIDA - Migration for Development in Africa Migration networks - 221
 Migration cycle  Research networks
Partnerships - 332 Social (communication) networks - 2, 23, 174, 181, 182, 186, 207,
TOKTEN - Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals - 347 212, 267, 332, 345, 346, 427, 432
Migration and trade (trade and migration) - 5, 41, 42, 318, 397 New Zealand - 25,38, 55, 63, 82, 83, 85, 86, 106 – 108, 110, 111, 116,
Models - 41 119 – 122, 131, 133, 135, 136, 138, 140-142, 146, 151, 155, 157, 158,
Relationship between - 5, 41, 397 162, 163, 176, 251, 264, 285, 287, 288, 297 – 299, 309, 337, 338, 339,
Migration cycle - 327, 330, 332, 336, 349, 396 369, 372, 386, 387, 395, 412, 447, 481-483, 485, 507, 512, 514
Adjustment stage - 331 Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Agreement - 386
Consolidation stage - 331 Immigration policies - 85-86, 297, 298
Exit stage - 330  Points system(s)
Networking stage - 331, 346 Working Holiday Schemes (WHS) - 138
Return stage - 332 Nicaragua - 39, 90, 186, 213, 426, 428, 430, 514
Migration history - 332 Niger - 179, 180, 189, 215, 413, 416
“Migration hump” - 33, 223, 333 Nigeria - 89, 179, 180, 185, 189, 215, 216, 224, 339, 363, 407, 412, 413,
Migration management - 1, 2, 4, 14, 15, 46, 120, 285, 286, 289, 290, 291, 516
319, 335, 344, 350, 355, 360, 368, 370, 371, 377, 380, 383, 384, 394, 395, Non-admission - 496
398, 414, 429, 445, 464 Definition - 496
Definition - 496 Non-discrimination - 308, 360, 496
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) - 376 Definition - 496
 Discrimination
 Equality (equal treatment)
Principle of - 308

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Non-Governmental Organization/s (NGO/s) - 177, 184, 191, 192, 211, 220, Passport(s) - 34, 63, 135, 189, 140, 241, 273, 306, 363-364, 371, 466
274, 276, 281, 292, 309, 314, 315, 319, 329, 360, 369, 375, 497  ECOWAS
Non-national - 208, 220, 247, 363, 474, 475, 477, 492, 493, 494, 495, Regional - 336, 343
496, 497, 498, 499 Pension(s) - 301, 312, 342
Definition - 496 Portability of - 303, 380
Non-refoulement Permanent residence - 12, 44, 58-60, 66, 87, 91, 118, 120, 134, 138, 142,
Definition - 496 146, 155, 159, 166-167, 291, 297, 299, 303, 306, 310, 425, 431, 482, 531
Nordic countries - 112, 113 Definition - 496
Common Nordic Labour Market - 363 Peru - 114, 213-214, 371, 428-429, 458, 532
North Africa - 31, 90, 155, 174, 180, 209, 210, 215, 216, 219, 223, 369, Philippines - 8, 11, 25, 65, 85, 114, 132, 144, 154, 165, 178, 187-188,
407, 408, 410, 411, 414, 416, 516 212, 218, 240, 242, 259, 262- 265, 268, 271, 274-277, 279, 307, 339, 370,
North America - 32, 38, 51, 54, 55, 61, 62, 82, 106, 108, 109, 118, 133, 380, 382, 387, 430, 439, 444-449, 473, 476, 536
141, 144, 151, 154, 183, 209, 212, 213, 308, 310, 312, 360, 362, 369, 411, Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) - 242
413, 423, 424, 429, 430, 432, 443, 446, 465, 474, 505, 509, 510, 523 Department of Labour and Employment (DOLE) - 276
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) - 118, 143, 360,362 “Desk officer” system - 277
Norway - 55, 61, 83, 88, 107, 110, 119, 136, 157, 208, 287, 288, 295, Female migrants  Women and migration
299, 455, 457, 458, 459, 460, 507 Japan-Philippines Economic Partnership Agreement (JPEPA) - 387
Nurses  Health workers  Labour migration
Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act 1995 - 276
O Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) - 242, 276, 440, 446
Oceania - 32, 38, 55, 62, 108, 109, 144, 277, 394, 395, 430, 481, 505, Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA) - 275, 276
513, 514, 518 POEA - Philippine Overseas Employment Administration - 275, 276,
MIRAB - Migration, Remittances, Aid and Bureaucracy economies 290
- 485 POLO - Philippine Overseas Labour Officer - 275-276
Occupational shortage lists - 294, 296 Policy (policies) - 64-65, 68-39, 93-95, 159-160, 187-190, 221, 250-251
Migration Occupations in Demand List (MODL) (Australia) - 296 278, 288-291, 305, 414
National Shortage Occupations List (U.K.) - 296 Challenges - 5-11, 78, 258, 280, 300, 301-302, 310
Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT) - 471, 472 Coherence - 45, 265, 341, 349, 398
OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Convergence - 395
32, 34, 42, 52, 53, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63, 69, 82, 83, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, Definition - 496
110, 111, 116, 121, 127, 143, 156, 158, 159, 188, 216, 243, 244, 246–248,  “Development friendly” policy
333, 387, 399, 411, 413, 429, 457, 458, 459, 520 Evaluation - 60
Continuous reporting system - 244 Flexible - 17, 202, 319, 320, 335, 395
Database on Foreign-born and Expatriates - 246  Immigration policy
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) - 42, 333  Migration policy
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)  Human  National security policy
rights (of migrants) Options - 13, 167, 258, 285, 298, 397
Official Development Assistance (ODA) - 42, 333, 515  Post-admission policy
Offshoring - 28, 29, 31, 35, 40, 496 Pro-poor - 336
Definition - 496  Reception policy
 Outsourcing Statement(s) - 286, 289
Organized crime - 44, 203, 204, 206, 221, 361, 494, 499, 500 Unilateral - 6, 44, 305
 Security and migration Points (-based) system(s) - 60, 78, 91, 119, 289, 298, 299, 425, 482
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime Demand-based - 299
(2000) - 204, 206, 494, 499, 500 Supply-based - 298, 299
 UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Poland - 55, 87, 88, 110, 287, 366, 458, 459, 462, 529, 537
OSCE - Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe - 245, 272 Population - 2-5, 9, 11-13, 29, 35-38, 54, 61-64, 67, 69, 77, 80, 82, 86,
Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) - 245 89-90, 96, 119, 130, 133, 146, 155-156, 159, 165, 175, 177-183, 188-189,
OSCE/IOM/ILO Handbook on Labour Migration - 245 208, 212, 214, 217, 220-221, 237, 239-244, 246, 248, 250, 260, 288-291,
Outsourcing - 28, 29, 35,39, 301, 496 293-295, 297, 300, 308, 314, 328-329, 335-337, 393, 395, 398-400, 407-
Definition - 496 413, 423-427, 429-432, 439-444, 448-449, 455-461, 467, 471-476, 481-
 Global resourcing 486, Map 1 523, 523, 526, 527, 529, Map 6 529
 Offshoring Ageing - 35, 237, 293
Overstay - 86, 135, 147, 203, 208, 209, 211, 212, 216, 221, 301, 316, 363, Demographic pressure
381, 513, 514  Demography
Definition - 496 Census - 52-53, 180, 192, 207, 210, 240-242, 244, 246, 250, 312,
P 426
Pakistan - 144, 219, 263, 268, 275, 279, 339, 370, 416, 439, 443, 449 Registers - 239, 241
Overseas Pakistani Foundation (OPF) - 275 Working-age - 36-38, 188, 242, 486
Panama - 114, 428 Portugal - 55, 56, 63, 107, 110, 133, 151, 157, 207, 209, 210, 216, 225,
Papua New Guinea - 129, 140, 372, 481, 486 335, 366, 374, 427, 428, 429, 458, 459, 467, 525, 531, 532, 538
Paraguay - 90, 213-214, 432 Information and Resource Centre for Migrants - 309
Partnerships - 15, 71, 1 15, 117, 158, 282, 285-286, 292, 307, 317, 318- Temporary migration Protocol (with Cape Verde) - 375
320, 327, 329, 332, 344, 347, 349-350, 368, 384, 397, 464 Post-admission policy (policies) - 16, 58, 286, 305

[514]
 World Migration 2008

Poverty - 23, 29, 67, 86, 93, 95, 100, 129, 164, 173, 184-188, 191, 223, Refugee(s) - 4, 61, 155-157, 160-161, 181, 244, 297, 298, 328-329, 336,
261, 270, 272, 328, 330-334, 336-337, 341-342, 397, 431, 441, 465 369, 408-410, 430-431, 471-473, 482, Map 4 527
Absolute - 331-332 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees (1984) - 497
Alleviation (reduction) - 129 Definition(s) - 497
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) - 341 Employment - 328
Pre-departure - 258, 266 Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) and
Consultation - 273-274 Protocol (1967) - 496, 497
Information - 373  Non-refoulement
Orientation seminars - 219, 267, 274-275, 278, 307 Non-refoulement, definition of - 496
Pre-employment orientation seminar (PEOS) - 266 Palestinian Refugees - 472, 473
Private employment agency (PEA) - 267 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee
 Recruitment agency Problems in Africa (1974) - 497
Private sector - 4, 71, 86, 94, 145, 179, 257, 264, 268, 277, 281, 290, 292,  Refoulement
309, 318, 334, 341, 350, 372, 377, 381, 398, 475 Resettlement, definition of - 498
Professionals - 6-7, 38, 59, 63-67, 70, 80, 82, 91, 100, 106, 117-118, 122, UNRWA - United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine
133, 137, 139, 206, 26-263, 265, 295-296, 334, 344, 346, 379, 381, 386- Refugees in the Near East - 472, 473
387, 412-413, 441, 445, 447, 464, Refoulement -
Accountants - 28, 38, 447 Definition - 497
Architects - 6, 38  Non-refoulement
Engineers - 28, 38, 52-53, 57-58, 65, 110, 120, 122-123, 144, 258- Registration - 94, 116, 176, 178, 189, 190, 208, 218, 240-242, 267-268,
259, 261, 263-264, 290, 293, 296, 349, 386-387, 441, 447, 484 272-273, 278, 462-463
Finance - 28, 175, 261, 263, 290  Recruitment
Lawyers - 38, 473  Regularization
Protection - 2, 4, 9-10, 14-17, 28, 33-34, 41, 44, 46, 58, 67, 79, 86, 90, Regularization - 15, 68, 91, 159, 201, 207-208, 210, 213-215, 221, 225,
183, 190, 191, 203, 205, 206, 224, 257, 262, 271, 274, 286, 305-310, 313- 249, 291, 313, 316-317, 463, 467, Map 7a 528, Map 7b 529
316, 319, 328, 332, 357-361, 369-370, 375, 378, 396, 463 Collective - 316
Definition - 497 Data - 312
of workers abroad - 190, 226-227, 266-269, 275, 279, 280, 281, Definition - 497
292, 343, 356, 357 Legalization, definition of - 495
Public (state) employment agency - 268-269, 380, Registration - 225, 273
Public sector - 70, 180, 334, 341-342, 344-345, Right to “earned adjustment” - 317
Puebla Process, Regional Conference on Migration (RCM) - 8, 244, 369 Regional integration - 32, 240, 251, 279, 362
Purchasing power parity (PPP) - 80 Regional trade agreement (RTA) - 25, 41, 319, 360, 386
Regular migration - 15, 79, 204, 206, 219, 303, 317, 364, 381, 413
Q Channels - 136, 221, 267, 304, 317
Qatar - 107, 280, 370, 442, 474-475 Opportunities - 204, 307, 316, 373
Quota (immigration) - 60, 68, 88, 137, 139, 156, 162, 294-295, 297, 317, Reintegration - 94, 205-206, 224, 274, 276, 278, 347, 379, 396
335, 372, 376, 393, 463, 466 -  Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR)
Ceiling - 294, 382 Counselling - 276
Definition - 497 Definition - 497
Preferential - 374 Remittances - 2, 7-9, 14-16, 42-43, 64, 67, 86, 92-93, 95-97, 100, 121,
R 152-153, 173, 177, 182-183, 185-187, 220, 223, 226, 238, 246, 248, 257,
Ratification - 34, 221, 281 266, 274, 277, 281, 300, 306, 327-328, 331-333, 336-339, 341, 344, 346,
Definition - 497 348-349, 369, 371-372, 375-376, 383, 397, 399, 408, 414-415, 428-441,
RCPs - Regional Consultative Processes - 8, 15, 16, 222, 244, 279, 362, 449-450, 471, 473-474, 485, Map 8 533, Map 9 534, Map 10 535, Map 11
368-370 536, Map 12 537
Definition - 497 as private funds (resources)
Readmission - 313, 317-318, 362, 373, 379, 383 Cost of transfer(s) - 338
Definition - 497 Definition - 498
Readmission agreements - 224, 317, 367, 369, 373, 382 Development impact - 266, 277
Definition - 497 Government matching funds - 348
Recognition of (professional) qualifications (diplomas) - 35, 40, 44, 122- Informal channels - 42, 185, 262, 338, 345
123, 305, 365, 372, 380, 383, 387 Remittance “corridors” - 248
Recruitment - 13, 16, 34, 89, 96, 106, 115, 119, 145, 167, 190, 192, 204, Remittance flows - 4, 7, 14, 173, 185, 193, 258, 266, 331-332, 376,
207, 258, 264-272, 276, 278, 280, 282, 293, 301, 306-308, 327, 332-335, 397, 414-415, 449
344, 356-357, 373-374, 377, 379, 381-382, 395, 464 Remittance inflows - 330, 430, 449
Ethical (unethical) - 66, 71, 265, 267, 307 Remittance-tailored banking accounts - 348
Fees - 268, 278 Remittance transfers - 86, 226, 307, 332, 338
(Financial) security bond - 278, 301 South-South - 415
Joint liability - 278 Tres por uno programme (Mexico) - 348
License(s) - 268, 375 Repatriation - 15, 26, 214, 218, 221-224, 275-276, 348, 358, 448
Practices - 5, 267, 280 Definition - 498
Recruitment agency - 15, 17, 56, 63, 65, 88, 262, 268, 278, 318, 376, 383, Replacement migration - 174, 182, 343
396, 484, Definition - 498
 Private employment agency (PEA) Republic of Korea - 56, 82-84, 115, 137, 141-142, 156, 216, 263, 294,
370
 South Korea

[515]
Research - 12-15, 23, 35, 38, 41, 52-53, 60, 62, 67-70, 97, 111, 115-116, Self-employed migrant (worker) - 6, 7, 139, 159, 202, 356, 365, 366, 386
127, 145-146, 152-154, 163, 167, 173-174, 178-179, 183, 185-186, 192- Definition - 498
193, 202, 207, 219, 223, 237, 248, 250-251, 252, 258, 261, 263, 265, 267, Senegal - 107, 109, 121, 129, 145, 179, 180, 182, 189, 215, 216, 223,
277, 293, 308, 315, 342, 372, 376, 383, 397, 400, 432, 442 339, 363, 407, 413, 414
Policy-relevant research - 251 Serbia - 59, 317, 380, 460, 461, 562, 519
Research and development (R&D) - 53, 67, 69 Service providers - 3, 40, 80, 99, 114, 127, 139, 281, 289, 319, 345, 356,
Research Networks - 250-251 359, 360, 365, 366, 384, 385, 386, 387,
Asia Pacific Migration Research Network (APMRN) - 192  GATS
European Migration Network (EMN) - 251 Short-term migrant - 51, 173
Residence - 9, 11, 54-55, 58, 61-62, 107, 160-161, 179, 189, 202, 214, Definition - 498
240, 242, 247, 299, 303, 311, 332, 363-364, 367, 393, 463-464, 532 Sierra Leone - 89, 121, 189, 407, 413
Definition - 498 Singapore - 26, 84, 113, 117, 131, 132, 140, 151, 182, 218, 251, 264,
 Permanent residence 280, 289, 296, 302, 310, 372, 386, 387, 439, 440, 443, 444, 445, 447, 449,
 Residence permit 450
Temporary - 58, 141, 371, Foreign worker levy - 296
Residence permit - 59, 61, 115, 118-120, 142, 160-161, 189, 210, 243-244, Japan-Singapore Economic Partnership Agreement - 262, 386
314, 363, 371, 462, 532 Ministry of Manpower - 296, 310
Definition - 498 Skill(s)
Resident worker test  Labour market test Formation - 260, 332
Return migration - 64-65, 94, 174, 179-180, 182, 247, 302, 431 Profile(s) - 34, 398
Definition - 498 Shortages - 265, 292, 386
 Forced return Transfer of - 2, 295, 302, 304
 Circular migration Slavery - 44, 83, 204, 466, 493
Incentive to - 66, 69, 93, 100, 374 Definition - 499
Orderly return - 357-358 Slavery-like practices - 313, 493
Sustainable return - 303 Slovakia - 35, 87, 309, 365, 366, 380, 455, 457, 462
“Virtual return” - 348 Slovenia - 35, 365, 366, 377, 380, 455, 457, 462, 511
Romania - 85, 107, 145, 219, 223, 365-366, 458, 476, 525, 529, 532, 537 Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) - 30, 139
Russian Federation (Russia) - 88, 106-107, 112, 144, 146, 206, 219, Smuggling (of migrants) - 9, 15, 203, 221, 222, 272, 281, 289, 314, 319,
245, 272, 285-286, 291, 316, 317, 339, 440, 455, 458, 460-464, 466-467, 367, 369, 370, 374, 431
528 Definition - 499
Federal Migration Service (FMS) - 316 Networks - 44, 209, 267, 415, 456
Pilot regularization project - Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air
Rwanda - 4, 329 (2000) - 361
Smuggler (of migrants), definition of - 499
S  Trafficking
SADC - Southern African Development Community - 79, 88, 189, 251, 367, Social cohesion - 16, 43, 250, 286, 288, 292, 305, 308, 309, 332, 345, 398
411, 412, 415 Social costs - 43, 46
Protocol on the Facilitation of the Movement of Persons (2005) of migration - 46, 69, 70, 153
- 367, 368 Social exclusion - 226, 266
Saint Lucia - 109, 265, 312, 426 Marginalization - 174, 308, 316, 329, 346
SAMP - Southern African Migration Project - 79, 248, 251 Risk of - 301
Sao Tome and Principe - 407 Social justice - 17
Saudi Arabia - 84, 98, 107, 220, 221, 280, 339, 370, 380, 440, 442, 471, Social security (benefits) - 10, 45, 97, 190, 214, 241, 278, 305, 311-312,
472, 474, 475, 507 316, 349, 356, 359, 365, 372, 386
Savings - 63, 93, 183, 186, 226, 274, 302, 304, 305, 336, 339, 343, 349, Aggregation of - 312
358, 374 Bilateral arrangements (agreements) - 375, 379, 380
High-interest bearing savings accounts - 301 CARICOM Agreement on Social Security (1996) - 312
Scandinavia - 100, 241 Convention No. 157 on the Maintenance of Social Security Rights
Schengen - 136, 208 (1982) - 359
Science and technology (S&T) - 53, 67, 110, 261, 263, 290 Council Regulation 1408/71/EEC on the application of social
Seafarers - 262, 271, 277, 356, 357, 440, 445 security schemes (1971) - 312, 365
Definition - 498 Cumulative rights - 311
Seasonal (migrant) worker - 34, 80, 82, 83, 87, 90, 91, 97, 127, 173, 174, Maintenance of acquired rights - 311, 359
176, 177, 185, 213, 219, 269-270, 295, 302, 304, 310, 332, 335, 356, 357,  Pensions
367, 379, 483 Portability of - 311
Seasonal migration - 80, 85, 86, 86, 88, 176, 177, 178, 181, 186, 269-270, Qualifying period(s) - 312
272, 311, 373, 374, 376, 377 Recommendation No. 167 on the Maintenance of Social Security
Definition - 498 Rights (1983) - 359
Security and migration - 5, 9, 43, 46, 58, 222, 288, 306, 312, 313, 317,  Social (welfare) benefits
332, 340, 362, 369, 379 Systems - 27, 312, 365, 384
Biometrics, definition of - 491 Transfer/export of - 301, 342
National security policies - 288, 328, 349 Social services - 43, 44, 272, 308, 310, 344, 345, 431
 Organized crime Access to - 44, 344, 431
September 11, 2001 - 118, 222, 312, 340 Delivery systems - 341
 Terrorism Social (welfare) benefits - 9, 10, 112, 161, 297, 311
 Travel documents

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South America - 56, 90-91, 106, 108, 109, 165, 178, 212, 213-215, 363, Postgraduate - 115, 116, 384
426, 428, 429, 430, 507 Retention policies - 119-120
 Andean Community  Student visa
 Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR) Undergraduate - 58, 111, 115, 116
South-Central Asia (South Asia) - 108, 176-177, 181, 184, 190, 192, Study tours - 246
218-219, 439, 441-443, 448, 449, 518 Sub-Saharan Africa - 31, 63, 88, 89, 90, 108, 144, 174, 179-180, 182,
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) - 90 184, 188, 215, 216, 224, 407, 408, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 515, 516
Southeast Asia - 26, 28, 31, 82, 84-85, 128, 131, 151, 174, 176, 177, 178, Sudan - 4, 189, 215, 377, 399, 407, 409, 410, 431, 508
180, 181, 185, 190, 217-218, 222, 240, 263, 280, 317, 368, 370, 386, 439, Sunset industries - 81
442, 443-445, 446, 448, 476, 518 Sweden - 55, 61, 83, 107, 110, 120, 136, 157, 158, 244, 287, 288, 340-
South Africa - 26, 32, 59, 67, 78, 88, 106, 107, 113, 114, 122, 130, 136, 341, 366, 455, 456, 458, 460, 507
144, 179, 181, 185, 189, 192, 215, 216, 285, 289, 290, 339, 342, 369, 407, Government Bill (2003) - 340-341
411-412, 415, 416, 446, 507 Switzerland - 55, 82, 83, 107, 108, 110, 111, 114, 132, 136, 151, 157,
Cross-border traders - 145 158, 208, 211, 287, 288, 346, 373, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 467, 503,
Immigration Act 2004 - 289, 290 507, 511, 513
Labour migration - 78, 79, 88
Southern Africa - 8, 78, 79, 82, 88, 128, 144, 189, 251, 362, 367, 369, T
394, 407, 411-412, 415 Taiwan Province of China - 84, 133, 136, 137, 138, 140, 145, 151, 156,
 COMESA - Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa 216, 264, 296, 372, 439, 441, 442, 444, 445, 446, 506
 MIDSA - Migration Dialogue for Southern Africa Tajikistan - 245. 272, 273, 460, 463, 519
 SADC - Southern African Development Community Tanzania - 88, 121, 179, 185, 189, 329, 407, 408, 409, 412
 SAMP - Southern African Migration Project Tax (Taxation) - 35, 41, 44, 77, 96, 97, 226, 303, 316, 341, 463
South Korea - 55, 56, 82, 83, 84, 109, 110, 136, 137, 141, 156, 212, 216, Double - 358, 372, 380
219, 263, 264, 280, 294, 370, 372, 439, 441, 442, 444, 445, 448, 506 Indirect - 374
Employment Permit System (EPS) - 216 Reduction(s) - 38, 342
Sovereignty - 319, 355, 491, 492 Registration - 241, 267
Definition - 499 Revenues - 341
State sovereignty - 9, 46, 281, 285, 286, 357 Teacher(s) - 15, 53, 105, 117, 137, 167, 259, 293, 296, 375, 387
Spain - 55, 89, 91, 107, 110, 114, 133, 134, 159, 166, 207, 208, 209, 210, (Commonwealth) Teacher Recruitment Protocol (2004) - 375
211, 223, 224, 225, 269, 287, 288, 294, 295, 302, 304-305, 310, 317, 335, Technical cooperation - 269, 270, 281, 343, 370, 379
346, 366, 369, 374, 411, 415, 427, 428, 429, 455, 458, 459, 467, 573, 507, Definition - 499
514, 520 Technology - 5, 25, 34, 38, 39, 41, 42, 53, 62, 65, 66, 67, 69, 94, 97, 110,
Agreement between Spain and Ecuador concerning the regulation 134, 156, 206, 222, 259, 261, 263, 264, 290, 335, 385, 386, 447, 494
and control of migratory flows (2001) - 373, 374, 378, 379, 380, Transfer of - 2, 334, 375
382 Temporary contractual worker(s) - 280, 370, 395, 443, 475, 477, 484
Canary Islands - 210, 211, 215, 415 Temporary labour migration - 16, 32, 39, 77, 80, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91,
Plan Greco - 159 93, 94, 96, 97, 99, 100, 181, 281, 286, 291, 294, 296, 297, 300, 301, 302,
Temporary and Circular Labour Migration Model (MLTC)  Circular 304, 306, 307, 318, 319, 356, 372, 377, 379, 396, 399, 463
migration Bracero Programme - 77, 91, 96, 301
Unió de Pagesos (UP) - 304 Definition - 499
Sponsor - 56, 140, 157, 159, 160, 161, 163, 166, 301, 462 Gastarbeiter - 77, 301
Sponsorship - 58, 87, 140, 141, 151, 156, 157, 162, 163, 164, 165, 220, Guest workers - 77, 96, 377, 379
291, 298, 301. 483 Programmes (schemes) - 77, 78, 91, 94, 96, 97, 99, 100, 281, 286,
Definition - 499 291, 296, 297, 300, 301, 302, 318, 319
Sri Lanka - 25, 121, 135, 218, 219, 240, 248, 263, 274, 275, 278, 279, Temporary migrant worker(s) - 77, 82, 84, 85, 86, 88, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97,
287, 367, 370, 375, 439, 442, 443, 446, 449, 473, 518 98, 100, 213, 285, 300, 302, 303, 304, 308, 311, 319, 356, 357, 445, 462,
Overseas Workers Welfare Fund (OWWF) - 275 463, 476, 498
Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment (SLBFE) - 446 Definition - 499
Stakeholders - 16, 43, 45, 56, 60, 78, 86, 138, 226, 271, 276, 297, 318, Temporary resident - 85, 130, 131, 444, 483
327, 377, 380, 398 Terrorism - 9, 135, 312
Non-state stakeholders - 17, 226, 279, 281, 282, 286, 290, 292, Definition - 500
319, 320, 396, 497 Thailand - 32, 65, 78, 84, 121, 131, 132, 140, 177, 181, 185, 187, 217,
State(s) - 218, 222, 223, 240, 251, 263, 264, 279, 285, 340, 342, 387, 439, 440, 443,
Definition - 499 444, 445, 446, 447, 512
Interstate cooperation  Cooperation TOEA - Thailand Overseas Employment Administration - 445
Like-minded states - 372 The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) - 58, 59, 317,
 Sovereignty 380, 460, 462
Step migration - 51, 174, 181, 182 Third country - 61, 132, 135, 136, 155, 158, 159, 161, 166, 208, 215, 223,
Definition - 499 226, 227, 243, 291, 303, 309, 312, 314, 367, 447, 492, 494, 497, 498
Student(s) - 12, 13, 51, 52, 56-57, 60, 82, 91, 105-123, 127, 131, 135, Definition - 500
137, 141, 143, 156, 160, 175, 203, 216, 248, 260, 263, 264, 265, 285, 293,  European Union
334, 342, 346, 356, 357, 364, 365, 367, 393, 441, 442, 464, 465, 483, 484, Tonga - 86, 109, 337, 338, 339, 481, 482
506, 507 Tourist - 13, 14, 91, 94, 99, 112, 127, 128, 129, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136,
Female - 110 138, 142, 145, 146, 151, 185, 216, 285, 335, 393, 394, 440
Foreign (international) - 13, 51, 52, 56-57, 91, 105-123, 160, 342, Domestic - 130
442, 464, 503, 506, 507 Lower-income traveler - 130
Mobility - 13, 52, 57, 105-123, 464, 465 Regional - 130
Suitcase trader(s) - 139, 145

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 Tourist trader - 144  Capacity building
Upper-income traveler - 130 Language - 307, 373, 379
Working Holidaymakers (WHMs) - 80, 82, 83, 137, 138 On-the-job training (OJT) - 258, 264
Tourism - 13, 32, 87, 88, 91, 127, 128, 129 Retraining - 260, 296, 336
Destination (of tourism) - 127, 128 Skills - 2, 7, 8, 276, 278
Hotel(s) - 131, 132, 133 Transit - 2, 8, 15, 16, 90, 135, 143, 202, 209, 212, 215. 216, 217, 221,
International - 128, 129, 431 226, 249, 286, 312, 313, 318, 332, 357, 359, 369, 370, 373, 394, 410, 411,
Leisure travel - 13, 127, 128, 130, 393 425, 426, 429, 439, 442, 494, 495, 496, 499
Management of - 91, 129, 130  Country (countries) of transit
Medical (health treatment) - 14, 63, 130-133, 134, 135, 146, 147, Definition - 500
213, 374, 376, 431, 485  Transit visa
Recreation - 128, 448 Transnational corporations (TNCs) - 26, 139, 263
Religious travel/pilgrimage(s) - 128 Transnational identity (transnationalism/transnationality) - 9, 154
Sex - 129, 146, 177 Definition - 500
Short-term travel - 13, 14 Transnational communities - 15, 32, 238, 246, 331
South-South - 130 Transnational families  Family migration
UNWTO - United Nations World Tourist Organization - 127, 128, Transport - 3, 11, 25, 28, 32, 105, 110, 128, 130, 137, 146, 176, 190, 217,
129, 130 240, 273, 339, 344, 364, - 365, 449
Working Holiday Schemes (WHS) - 14, 85, 130, 136, 138, 147 Costs - 25, 32
Trade - 2, 5, 6, 12, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 35, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 60, 63, Infrastructure - 339
64, 65, 85, 86, 92, 95, 99, 106, 116, 118, 121, 132, 139, 140, 143, Travel document(s) - 211, 217, 219, 222, 270, 273, 274, 313, 363, 372
144, 145, - 147, 177, 180, 181, 185, 189, 190, 192, 198, 212, 251, Definition - 500
259, 276, 277, 281, 285, 286, 300, 303, 318, 319, 332, 345, 346, Security - 372
347, 349, 356, 359, 360, 361, 362, 364, 371, 375, 379, 380, 385, Treaty - 90, 136, 142, 299, 303, 359, 364, 365, 366, 367, 377, 386, 491,
386, 387, 394, 396, 397, 398, 494 497
in capital - 5, 24, 26, 27, 30, 35, 39, 42, 45, 99, 190, 191, 394, 397 Definition - 500
in goods - 5, 6, 7, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 42, 44, 45, 60, Trinidad and Tobago - 109, 312, 377, 426, 432
63, 64 Tunisia - 89, 90, 121, 219, 312, 369, 407, 410, 416
in services - 31, 35, 40, 42, 45, 65, 99, 116, 127, 132, 139, 142, Turkey - 25, 55, 67, 110, 129, 287, 312, 455, 457, 461, 462
359, 360, 363, 365, 385, 386, 398 Turkmenistan - 460, 461
International - 6, 16, 24, 30, 35, 40, 41, 60, 281, 398, 494
Liberalization - 3, 5, 6, 24, 25, 27, 30, 33, 41, 42, 64, 65, 86, 359, U
397 Uganda - 121, 179, 189, 329, 407, 409, 414
Trade and migration  Migration and trade Ukraine - 59, 88, 107, 245, 274, 317, 339, 379, 458, 460, 462-463, 514
Trade agreements - 25, 40, 41, 60, 118, 143, 285, 318, 319, 360, 361, 362, Unaccompanied minors
379, 386, 387, 398 Definition - 500
Comprehensive economic cooperation agreement (CECA) - 386 Undocumented migrant worker - 314-316, 514
Economic partnership agreement (EPA) - 262, 386, 387 Definition - 500
Free trade agreement (FTA) - 118, 143, 360, 362, 387 Unemployment - 29, 33, 86, 92, 96-97, 163, 247, 277, 292-294, 297, 308,
 Regional trade agreement (RTA) 314, 330, 335-336, 356, 377, 381, 431, 459
Trade theory - 24, 35, 45  Employment
Factor price equalization - 35 United Arab Emirates (UAE) - 84, 98, 117, 220, 280, 339, 370, 443, 471,
Trade union(s) - 17, 46, 70, 71, 237, 281, 289, 290, 292, 294, 306, 307, 475
309, 314, 315, 316, 318, 319, 360, - 375, 379, 387, 389, 396  Abu Dhabi Dialogue
Collective bargaining - 307, 361, 379 United Kingdom (U.K.) - 32, 55, 57, 60, 63, 78, 82-83, 86-88, 91, 106-
Freedom of association - 266, 307, 356, 361 114, 116, 119-122, 132, 134-138, 142-143, 146, 151, 155-161, 166, 177,
Rights - 70, 306, 375 189, 202-203, 209, 211, 216, 222, 240, 247, 263, 280, 287-289, 291, 293,
 Social partners 295-296, 299, 302, 303, 306, 310-311, 316, 318, 339, 344, 346-347, 366,
Workers’ organizations - 279, 280, 361 373-377, 382, 412, 423, 442, 455, 457-460, 464-466, 482, 485, 506-507,
Trafficking in human beings (persons) - 15, 174, 190, 218, 314, 361, 367, 520
369, 370, 431, 491 Border Agency - 222, 289, 366, 374
Global Human Trafficking Database (IOM) - 204-205, 249 Department for International Development (DFID) - 177, 180, 189,
Human trafficker, definition of - 500 191, 280
Networks - 267, 441 Employer Skills Survey (ESS) - 293
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Gangmaster Licensing Authority - 318
Especially Women and Children (2000) - 206, 207, 361 Home Office - 161, 211, 289, 466
 Smuggling Immigration policies - 88, 153, 289, 295, 296, 299
Victim of (human) trafficking, definition of - 500 National Health Service (NHS) - 132
Victims of trafficking (VoTs) - 204, 205, 249, 314, 419 National Shortage Occupations List (U.K.) - 296
Trainee(s) - 80, 82, 83, 84, 216, 303, 356, 357, 367, 379, 387  Occupational shortage lists
Remunerated trainee(s) - 303, 367  Points system(s)
Training - 5, 8, 10, 15, 68, 70, 94, 111, 113, 114, 117, 119, 122, 138, 140, Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme (SAWS) - 311
142, 156, 164, 184, 189 - 219, 220, 225, 226, 245, 246, 247, 248, 251, Skilled migration - 157, 299
257, 259, 261, 262, 263, 265, 275, 276, 278, - 280, 282, 293, 303, 304, Students - 107, 110, 114, 119, 506, 507
307, 308, 309, 333, 334, 337, 342, 343, 344, 346, 358, 365, 367, - 369, Worker Registration Scheme (WRS) - 366
370, 373, 375, 379, 385, 387, 395, 447, 465, 492, 495 Working Holidaymaker Scheme - 136, 373, 379

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UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development - 24, 26, Visitor - 12-13, 80, 85, 94, 128, 130-135, 140-146, 371, 386, 393
29  Business visitor - 134, 140-142, 371
UN DESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Vocational training - 111, 122, 219, 275, 309, 342, 346, 358, 369
Population Division - 36-38, 89, 95 Voluntary return - 224, 317, 347-348, 367
Statistics Division - 243 Definition - 500
UNDP - United Nations Development Programme - 347 Vulnerable group - 34, 45, 86, 146, 174, 184, 274, 279, 313-314, 370,
 TOKTEN Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals Definition - 500
UNESCO - United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural Organization -
106, 111, 122, 251, 359, 464 W
Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) - 105 Wage(s) - 3, 9, 23, 25, 28, 30, 32-33, 35, 39, 41-43, 70, 85, 87, 92, 95, 97,
 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 99-100, 139, 183, 185, 191, 203, 219, 221, 260-261, 263, 271, 273, 294-
UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund - 220 295, 328, 359-360, 375, 384, 386, 394, 399, 444, 463, 519
UNHCR - United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - 287, 328-329, Convergence - 35
370, 430, 497 Differentials - 23, 32, 42-43
UN-INSTRAW - United Nations International Research and Training Divergence
Institute for the Advancement of Women - 10, 428 Gap - 3, 33
United States (U.S.) - 2, 13, 14, 25, 28-31, 52-57, 60-61, 63, 65-78, Gradients - 3
83, 85-87, 90-92, 95-97, 106-111, 114-116, 118-122, 133, 135, 140-143, Higher salaries - 38-39
145, 151-152, 155-158, 161-163, 165, 179, 182, 206-208, 212-213, 222, High-wage destinations - 41
225, 242, 247, 261-264, 273, 285, 287-288, 291, 293, 295, 297-299, 301,  Income
303-304, 306, 314-316, 339-340, 342, 346-347, 360, 369, 371-372, 376, Low wage (remuneration) - 10, 183, 444
386, 395, 411-413, 423-432, 440-442, 449, 472-473, 485, 505-506, 514, Low-wage origins - 41, 263
516, 520 Minimum - 87, 271, 375, 384
Department of Homeland Security (DHS) - 212, 429 Parity - 99, 359-360, 386
Department of Labor (DOL) - 92, 247 Prevailing - 92, 295
Employer attestation(s) - 295 Work permit - 66, 78, 84, 87, 88, 156-157, 166, 218, 270, 273, 295-296,
Green card, definition of - 494 306, 463,
H-1B visa - 53, 87, 92, 291, 295 Definition - 501
Immigration Act 1990 - 297 Multi-annual work - 334
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) - 242 Workplace - 34, 70, 97, 262, 288-289, 292, 301, 307-309, 314, 318, 320,
Immigration policies - 85, 87, 91, 295, 297, 298 396,
J-1 visa - 85, 115 (Labour) inspection(s) - 34, 221, 314
Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey (JOLTS) - 293 Monitoring of - 318
Labour certification - 291 West Africa - 89, 101, 173-174, 179, 181, 184, 188, 195, 197, 199, 215,
Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS) - 142 228, 339, 346, 363, 394, 407–490, 410, 412-413, 415, 419-420, 512, 519
Priority workers - 298, 299  ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States
Secure Fence Act - 222 Western Balkans - 4, 59
U.S.-CAFTA-D.R. - United States-Central America-Dominican western Europe - 4, 13, 61, 108, 145, 211, 291, 308, 461-462
Republic Free Trade Agreement 360 “Whole of Government Approach” - 289-290
U.S. Census Bureau - 242 “Win-win-win” solutions - 92-93, 95
U.S.-Jordan FTA - 386 Women and migration - 10, 20, 29, 70, 76, 83, 102, 110, 152, 165, 168,
UNITAR – United Nations Institute for Training and Research - 370 171-172, 184, 196, 204-206, 233, 271, 284, 361, 375, 428, 442, 446, 452,
UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime - 203, 209 476, 481, 493, 500, 506, 509, 514, 518-519, 523, 530
UNWTO - United Nations World Tourist Organization  Tourism - 127, 130 Caregiver(s) - 11
Urbanization - 39, 178-180, 188, 399  Discrimination
Uruguay - 138, 190, 214, 423, 426 Empowerment - 10, 152, 185, 220, 446
Uzbekistan - 272, 460, 463  Female labour migration
 Feminization of migration
V Labour force participation - 14, 151, 167, 331
Venezuela - 129, 213, 215, 426, 428, 532 Nurses  Health workers
Viet Nam - 4, 56, 84, 114, 117, 140, 165, 175, 177-178, 185, 187, 189- Sexual abuse - 10, 187, 204, 431
190, 192, 212, 279, 370, 439, 443-444, 449, 536  United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)
Visa  UN-INSTRAW - United Nations International Research and
Airport transit visa - 312 Training Institute for the Advancement of Women
Application for - 118, 269 Violence against, definition of - 500
Definition - 500 Workers - 3, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15-17, 23, 27-35, 37-46, 51-54, 56-71,
 EU visa list 77-100, 105, 115, 127, 129-130, 132-133, 136, 138-139, 143, 146, 151,
Facilitation (agreement) - 313, 317, 36-370, 379 157, 160, 162, 164, 167, 173, 176-177, 179, 181-183, 185, 188-193, 204-
 GATS 207, 210-213, 216-221, 225-227, 238-244, 247, 250, 257-262, 264-272,
Harmonization - 139 274-277, 279-280, 281-282, 285-286, 288-320, 327, 330, 332-336, 340,
Schengen - 136 342-343, 345, 355-368, 370, 373-381, 383-385, 387, 395-398, 400, 412,
Student - 118, 202-203, 483 426-427, 431-432, 439-448, 456, 459, 462-464, 467, 471-473, 475-477,
Transit - 312 482-484, 533-534
Visa-free travel - 134, 271, 462-463 Blue-collar - 213, 258-259, 262, 264-265
Waiver - 134-135, 140, 142 Local (national) - 43, 57-58, 77, 81, 85, 96-97, 99-100, 129, 176,
Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) - 127-128, 130, 133 295-296, 301-302, 319, 335, 360, 381, 387
 Migrant workers

[519]
Working Holidaymakers (WHMs) - 130, 136-138, 379, 387
Working Holiday Schemes (WHS) - 14, 85, 130, 136, 138, 147
World Bank - 7, 44, 53, 85-86, 93, 95, 130, 184, 191, 247-248, 280, 300,
328, 371-372, 414, 429, 449-450, 466, 485, 523, 533
World Food Programme - 329
World Health Organization (WHO) - 250, 413
World Trade Organization (WTO) - 5-7, 25, 44, 99, 319, 359-360, 383, 385
X-Y-Z
Xenophobia - 9, 34, 227, 266, 292, 301
Definition - 501
Fight against - 9, 227, 292
Yemen - 221, 280, 471
Youth - 86, 115, 133, 220, 261, 328, 347, 377
Zambia - 79, 121, 144, 189, 329, 407, 412
Zimbabwe - 79, 109, 136, 144, 179, 171, 189, 216, 407, 412

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 World Migration 2008

MAPS

MAP 1 Total Immigrant and Emigrant Population by Region 523

MAP 2 Foreign Students in Higher Education in Selected Countries, 2004 524
MAP 3 Internally Displaced Persons, 2007 526
MAP 4 World’s Refugees by Region of Origin and Region of Asylum, 2006 527
MAP 5 Proportion of Women Migrants by Region, 1975, 1990, 2005 528
MAP 6 Population Change in the EU-27, EEA and Switzerland, 2005 529
MAP 7a Main Regularizations and Amnesty Programmes in the Americas and Europe 530
MAP 7b Main Regularizations and Amnesty Programmes in Asia and Oceania 531
MAP 8 Remittances and Foreign Aid by Region, 2006 533
MAP 9 Remittances to Select African and Middle East Countries, 2006 534
MAP 10 Remittances to Select Latin American and Caribbean Countries, 2006 535
MAP 11 Remittances to Select Countries in Asia and Oceania, 2006 536
MAP 12 Remittances to Countries in Transition in Europe and Central Asia, 2006 537
MAP 13 Highly Skilled Migrants by Destination Country, 2000 538
MAP 14 Highly Skilled Migrants by Region of Origin, 2000 539

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MAP 1: Total Immigrant and Emigrant Population by Region*

Sources: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005
Revision, New York, http://esa.un.org/migration; University of Sussex, U.K., Global Migrant Origin Database, Dataset 4, updated March 2007,
http://www.migrationdrc.org/research/typesofmigration/global_migrant_origin_database.html.

In 2005, Europe (including the countries from Central Regarding the number of emigrants as a percentage
Asia as explained on p. 439) hosted the largest of total population by regions in 2000, Europe
immigrant population of all world regions, over 70.5 (including the countries from Central Asia) has the
million, followed by North America with just over largest share with 7.8 per cent, followed by Oceania
45.1 million immigrants and Asia with nearly 25.3 and Latin America and the Caribbean (including
million. Among these three regions, North America Mexico**), each with 5.1 per cent.
(including Mexico) had the highest proportion of
immigrants in the population, 10.3 per cent, and Note: These global statistics on immigration for 2005
Asia the lowest with only 0.7 per cent. Among all and on emigration for 2000 show the same regional
regions, Oceania, with five million immigrants, constellations used in the Regional Migration
presented the highest share at 15.2 per cent of the Overviews. This differs from the breakdown by
total population of the region. regions used in Maps 5 and 8, which follows the
regional distributions of the sources used.

* The Global Migrant Origin Database used for the emigration stock data ** The 2005 figures of the total number of Latin American and Caribbean
presented in the map is a Bilateral Migrant stock matrix that was created migrants include the number of migrants from Mexico, which accounts
using the 2000 round of population censuses. For a detailed elaboration for around half of the citizens of Latin America and the Caribbean
of the methods and limitations of the construction of the database, living outside their country of origin. The importance of including
see: Parsons, C.R., R. Skeldon, T.L. Walmsley and L.A. Winters, 2007, Mexico as part of Latin American migration is that, in terms of migrant
“Quantifying International Migration: A Database of Bilateral Migrant characteristics (reasons for migrating, migration conditions, living
Stocks”, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4165, March, The conditions in destination countries, etc.), Mexican migrants are more
World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/ similar to Latin American and Caribbean citizens living outside their
default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2007/03/06/000016406_ country of origin than to U.S. and Canadian citizens living outside their
20070306151900/Rendered/PDF/wps4165.pdf. country of origin.

[523]
MAPS

MAP 2: Foreign Students in Higher Education in Selected Countries, 2004*

Note:
The size of each pie chart shown on this map is proportional to the total number of foreign students hosted by the relevant
country, while the size and colours of each pie slice highlight the importance of the different regions of origin in numerical
terms. The data for Canada, drawn from Citizenship and Immigration Canada statistics, did not allow a breakdown by region
although it did list the ten top places of origin, namely (in order of magnitude): China, South Korea, U.S., Japan, France,
India, Taiwan Province of China, Hong Kong SAR, Mexico, Germany, U.K.

Sources: UNESCO, Global Education Digest 2006: Comparing Education Statistics Across the World, Paris. For Canada:
Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Stocks of Foreign Students 2004, http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/
statistics/facts2006/temporary/10.asp.

Map 2 shows the global distribution of international Australia, Canada and Japan follow with totals
students in tertiary education by region of origin. ranging from about 260,300 students (Germany) to
The data in this map primarily refer to the 2004 100,000 (Japan). While the U.S. figure is more than
school year and only countries hosting more than twice that of France and Germany, and nearly twice
10,000 students have been selected in each region. that of the U.K, Europe considered as a whole is the
largest recipient of foreign students globally. Most
The U.S. and the U.K. had the largest number of of them come from within Europe as students from
foreign students in 2004, hosting 572,500 and the European Union (EU) finding it convenient and
300,100 individuals, respectively. Germany, France, cheaper to study in another EU Member State. Half,

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 World Migration 2008

or more than half, of the foreign students in Austria, students in Japan and Macao SAR are from within
Germany, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Romania, Sweden the region, while in Malaysia they account for 89 per
and Switzerland are from the EU. On the other hand, cent. In Australia and New Zealand, Asians account
nearly half of the foreign students in France and for about 77 per cent of all the overseas students.
more than half in Portugal are from Africa, and these Students from Asia also make up the majority in
two countries are globally the largest recipients of Saudi Arabia and Jordan. With a total of 12,200
African students after South Africa, while in the and 23,200 foreign students, respectively, these two
U.K. and Greece most international students come countries are the largest poles of attraction in the
from Asia. Spain is the country hosting the highest Middle East.
proportion of foreign students from South America
(37%). Finally, with a total of 51,000 international students,
South Africa is the most significant country of
Globally, Asia produces the highest number of destination for foreign students in Africa with the
students going abroad to pursue higher education. majority (43,176) coming from countries within the
Within Asia, more than 90 per cent of foreign continent.

[525]
MAPS

MAP 3: Internally Displaced Persons, 2007

Source: Global IDP Project, Norwegian Refugee Council, Geneva. Updated versions of the map can be downloaded from the following website: http://www.
internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/httpWorldMap?ReadForm&count=1000.

In recent years the estimated global figure for countries are considered, then three in particular
internally displaced persons (IDPs) has grown to 26 had the largest internally displaced populations:
million, the highest figure since the early 1990s. Colombia, Iraq and Sudan. Together, these countries
While at least 52 countries worldwide were affected accounted for nearly 50 per cent of the world’s IDPs.
by internal displacement in 2007, close to half of The region with the largest relative increase in the
the people displaced by conflict were in Africa (12.7 IDP population during 2007 was the Middle East,
million), spread across 20 countries. If individual with a rise of nearly 30 per cent.

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 World Migration 2008

MAP 4: World’s Refugees by Region of Origin and Region of Asylum, 2006

Source: UNHCR, Statistical Yearbook 2007, Geneva, http://www.unhcr.org/statistics.html. Data are provisional and subject to change.

Complementing Map 3 on IDPs, Map 4 shows that most of refugees in other continents, were also host to
of the world’s refugees stay in the same region after large refugee populations, with over 2.5 million each
having fled from their countries. Most refugees can in 2006. North America and Europe are the most
be found in the developing world. Thus, Africa and important net destinations for refugees.
Asia, while being the source of significant numbers

[527]
MAPS

MAP 5: Proportion of Women Migrants by Region, 1975, 1990, 2005

Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005
Revision, New York, http://esa.un.org/migration.

Map 5 shows the proportion of women migrants the share of female migrants declined during this
residing in different world regions in the period 1975 period from 46.2 to 44.7 and 52.1 to 50.4 per cent,
to 2005. This proportion rose globally by more than respectively.
two per cent from 47.4 to 49.6 per cent, the steepest
increases being recorded in Europe and the Russian In all regions the share of female migrants is higher
Federation, with a rise of about six per cent. Asia than 50 per cent, except for Africa and Asia (including
and North America were the only two regions where the Middle East).

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 World Migration 2008

MAP 6: Population Change in the EU-27, EEA and Switzerland, 2005

Notes:
1
NPC refers to “natural population change”; TPC refers to “total population change”
2
Figures refer to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.

Source: Münz, R. 2006, “Europe: Population and Migration in 2005”, Migration Information Source,
June, Migration Policy Institute (MPI), Washington, D.C., http://www.migrationinformation.
org/feature/display.cfm?ID=402.

Map 6 presents the demographic indicators for the the total population change was kept positive on the
EU-27 Member States, the European Economic Area strength of a positive natural population change,
(EEA) countries and Switzerland in the year 2005. despite negative net migration. For Germany and
The map shows that both the natural population Hungary, the strongly negative natural change kept
change (births minus deaths) and the net migration the total population change negative, in spite of the
were positive in 15 of the countries analyzed in 2005. clearly positive net migration. Finally, for Bulgaria,
In three of the countries examined (Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Romania,
Italy and Slovenia), the natural population change both natural population change and net migration
was either zero or negative, but the total change was were negative for that year.
positive through net migration. In The Netherlands,

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MAPS

MAP 7a: Main Regularizations and Amnesty Programmes in the Americas and Europe

Notes:
1 and 2
In 1997-98 371,000 immigrants in Greece obtained a “white card”. Of these, 220,000 obtained the “green card” in
1998. The “white card” provided a six-month residence permit and was a prerequisite for obtaining the “green card”,
which provided a one-to-five year residence permit.

Sources for both Maps 7a and 7b: OECD 2004, Trends in International Migration, SOPEMI 2003, Paris; OECD 2007,
International Migration Outlook, SOPEMI 2007, Paris; Government of New Zealand; Government of Portugal; Thailand,
Ministries of Labour and Interior; the Philippines, Ministry of Labour; Republic of Korea, Ministry of Justice; Government
of Malaysia; Levinson, A. 2005, The Regularization of Unauthorized Migrants: Literature Survey and Country Case Studies,
Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS), University of Oxford, http://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/publications/papers/
Regularisation%20Report.pdf.

Obtaining accurate estimates of the number of One useful indicator is the number of persons
irregular or undocumented migrants in a country participating in regularization or amnesty
is problematic and prone to a considerable margin programmes, which enable irregular migrants to
of error. The estimates quoted in Maps 7a and 7b acquire lawful status. Not all irregular migrants
are compiled from a variety of sources. While it is can benefit from these measures, as regularization
difficult to state estimates with confidence, it is often depends on the number of years a person
possible to at least identify the different indicators has lived in a country or whether he or she is in
used to calculate these estimates (Levinson, 2005). employment. Therefore, the figures in Maps 7a and

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 World Migration 2008

MAP 7b: Main Regularizations and Amnesty Programmes in Asia and Oceania

7b can only be indicative of the number of irregular entry or overstay to enter the immigration statistics
migrants residing in a country at a particular point and thus to provide some idea of the scale of such
in time. Other factors limiting participation in such movements (OECD, 2007).
programmes are that employers may not wish to
reveal their recourse to unauthorized labour, or Comparability of Data
may prefer to keep workers in an irregular situation
so that they can pay lower wages. Furthermore, It is important to note that the regularization
regularization frequently does not offer permanent figures published by governments can refer either
residence status. Many of these migrants fall back to the number of applications for, or the number of
into an irregular situation, owing to the insecurity persons granted, regular status. Each country has
or short duration of the status offered under certain its own individual system for collecting data. For
programmes and the burdensome administrative instance, the figures for Belgium and Switzerland
procedures involved in renewing their regular status for 2000 count the number of applications received
(OECD, 2004). Whatever the merits of regularization and the dependants named therein, and include
in the different regions of the world, the process asylum seekers. Countries on the northern shores of
itself does allow the movements due to unauthorized the Mediterranean (France, Greece, Italy, Portugal,

[531]
MAPS

Spain) have carried out successive regularization in its first phase (2005) granted residence status to
programmes, which principally target undocumented migrants who were not citizens of countries belonging
migrant workers. to the Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR)
and, in 2006, facilitated the regularization of
The majority of regularization applicants in Spain are migrants from MERCOSUR and associated countries.
from Latin America; in Portugal they are from Brazil; Mexico has been implementing a large regularization
in Belgium from the Democratic Republic of the programme, which benefited 15,000 migrants in the
Congo; and in France the majority of such applicants period 2002-2006, most of whom came from countries
are from the Maghreb region. Many irregular in Central America. The “Mision Identidad” (Identity
migrants in Europe also originate from central and Mission), implemented by Venezuela, has provided
eastern Europe and China. In many countries, China documentation to migrants who had been living in
ranks among the top five countries of origin. In the the country for many years and who did not possess
last regularization programme conducted in Italy identity cards. Finally, Ecuador is in the process of
in 2002, most applicants were from Romania and carrying out a regularization programme benefitting
Ukraine (OECD, 2004). undocumented migrants from the neighbouring
countries of Colombia and Peru.
Regarding the Americas, the 1997-98 figure for the
U.S. counts the number of persons granted residence In many countries in Asia and Oceania, periods of rapid
permits, which excludes dependants, while the figure economic growth have resulted in significant intakes
for 2000 only shows the number of applications of migrant workers, not all of whom have immediately
received. The U.S. regularization programmes have been furnished with the requisite documentation for
principally targeted agricultural workers (1986), residence and work. Therefore, certain destination
Nicaraguans and Cubans (1997-98) and irregular countries in this region have repeatedly offered the
migrants generally (2000). Latin American countries possibility for undocumented migrant workers to
also implement regularization programmes (see register and obtain valid documentation. In the case
Textbox 8.3). In Argentina, the National Programme of New Zealand’s regularization programme, carried
for the Regularization of Migrants “Patria Grande” out in 2000-2003, 5,200 overstayers were identified.

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 World Migration 2008

MAP 8: Remittances and Foreign Aid by Region, 2006

Note:
1
Foreign aid includes Official Development Assistance (ODA) and official aid.

Sources: World Bank Staff Estimates based on the International Monetary Fund’s Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook 2007; World Development
Indicators 2007, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

In 2006, officially recorded remittances amounted to 2005. The Middle East and Africa were the only two
USD 281 billion. Of that amount, USD 207 billion regions where foreign aid exceeded remittances in
was sent back to developing countries. In 2005, 2005-2006. As in previous years (see World Migration
foreign aid (Official Development Assistance (ODA) 2005), sub-Saharan Africa received the smallest
and official aid) was less than half that amount (USD nominal amount of remittances, but the region
90.4 billion), which underscores the importance of received the highest percentage of foreign aid
remittances as a source of income for developing (32.6%). Total remittances accounted for only 0.4
countries. times the amount of all the foreign aid.

The economic importance of migrant remittances Note: Maps 8 to 12 have been produced on the basis
varies across the globe. Some developing countries of the World Bank 2006 remittance figures. The World
and regions receive considerably higher amounts of Bank released new figures on remittance trends in
remittances than foreign aid, while in other regions July 2008, and the Regional Migration Overviews
foreign aid plays a larger role in development. In the include such data, but the trends indicated in these
Latin American and Caribbean region, remittances maps remain essentially the same.
were 8.4 times higher than foreign aid received in

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MAPS

MAP 9: Remittances to Select African and Middle East Countries, 2006

Source: World Bank Staff Estimates based on the International Monetary Fund’s Balance of Payments
Statistics Yearbook 2007.

Total migrant remittances in 2006 to Africa (including of remittances in 2006, receiving USD 5.05 billion,
all the Maghreb countries but not Egypt) amounted representing nine per cent of the country’s GDP. Sub-
to USD 18.3 billion, while in the Middle East in 2006 Saharan Africa is still the African sub-region receiving
they reached USD 16 billion. With USD 5 billion, the lowest amount of remittances in absolute terms.
Egypt received the largest amount of remittances At USD 3.3 billion, Nigeria is the only country in this
in the Middle East, followed by Lebanon with USD sub-region where remittances exceeded one billion
4.9 billion. However, taken as a proportion of GDP, U.S. dollars. Measured against annual GDP in 2006,
remittances received by Egypt represented only 4.3 remittances were highest in the smallest countries
per cent, while in Lebanon and Jordan they were equal with Lesotho in the lead (equal to almost 19% of
to almost 21 and 19.6 per cent of GDP, respectively. GDP), followed by Cape Verde (nearly 15%) and The
In North Africa, Morocco was the foremost recipient Gambia (12%).

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 World Migration 2008

MAP 10: Remittances to Select Latin American and Caribbean Countries, 2006

Source: World Bank Staff Estimates based on the International Monetary Fund’s Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook
2007.

Total migrant remittances to the Latin American 2006. The next largest receivers in the region were
and Caribbean region in 2006 amounted to USD Colombia (USD 3.9 billion), Guatemala (USD 3.6
53.5 billion, of which more than 46 per cent were billion) and Brazil (USD 3.5 billion). Remittances
received by Mexico, the world’s second largest accounted for the highest proportion of GDP in El
receiver of migrant money transfers after India. Salvador, Honduras, Haiti and Guyana, where the
Mexico’s officially registered annual amount of USD share of remittances as a percentage of GDP ranged
24.7 billion equalled three per cent of its GDP in between 18 and 22 per cent.

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MAPS

MAP 11: Remittances to Select Countries in Asia and Oceania, 2006

Source: World Bank Staff Estimates based on the International Monetary Fund’s Balance of Payments Statistics
Yearbook 2007.

In 2006, the Asia-Pacific region received a total of percentage of GDP they account for less than one
USD 91 billion in migrant remittances, with South- per cent. The Philippines, on the other hand, was
Central Asia in the lead with a total of USD 41 billion not only one of the foremost receivers of remittances
and East Asia and Southeast Asia each receiving a (USD 14.9 billion) in absolute terms, but also as a
total of USD 25 billion. India has consistently been percentage of GDP (14.6%), which in the region was
one of the foremost receivers of remittances and, in only surpassed by Nepal (with USD 1.2 billion, the
2006, ranked first in Asia and the world as a whole equivalent of 14.9% of its GDP). Remittances account
with USD 25.7 billion (nearly 3% of its GDP). At USD for more than five per cent of GDP in Bangladesh,
22.5 billion, China was the second largest recipient Sri Lanka and Viet Nam.
of remittances in Asia in absolute terms, but as a

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 World Migration 2008

MAP 12: Remittances to Countries in Transition in Europe and Central Asia, 2006

Source: World Bank Staff Estimates based on the International Monetary Fund’s Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook 2007.

Total migrant remittances to countries in transition Moldova, with shares of GDP ranging between 19 and
in Europe and Central Asia in 2006 amounted to USD 39 per cent.
32.4 billion, an increase of 11.1 per cent from 2005.
The largest receivers in the region were Romania, Only the countries considered by the United Nations
the then Serbia and Montenegro and Poland, with all as “countries in transition from centrally planned
three recording absolute remittance figures of over to market economies”, and for which information
USD 4 billion. In terms of remittances as a share of is available, have been taken into account for the
GDP, the highest proportions were to be found in purpose of this map.
Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Tajikistan and

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MAPS

MAP 13: Highly Skilled Migrants by Destination Country, 2000

Source: Docquier, F. and A. Marfouk. 2006, “International Migration by Education Attainment, 1990-2000” in C. Özden
and M. Schiff (Eds.), International Migration, Remittances, and the Brain Drain, The World Bank and Palgrave
Macmillan, Washington D.C./New York, 151-199.

Map 13 shows the global distribution of highly skilled per cent of all the highly skilled migrants in the
migrants by country of destination. U.S., 35 per cent in both Australia and Canada,
and 33 per cent in the U.K. Latin America and the
The map clearly shows that, with more than ten Caribbean rank second, accounting for 29 per cent of
million, the U.S. is the most important recipient the highly skilled migrants to the U.S., and 35 per
of highly skilled migrants, followed by Canada and cent to Spain, while Mexico has the highest share of
Australia, with 2.7 and 1.5 million, respectively. highly skilled migrants from Latin America and the
Even though each individual OECD country in Europe, Caribbean (34%). Highly skilled migrants from Africa
with the exception of the U.K., shows figures below are mostly found in Europe, where they account
one million, when considered as an entity, Europe is for 79 per cent of all highly skilled immigrants in
the second largest destination, hosting five million Portugal and 34 per cent in France. European highly
highly skilled migrants. skilled migrants are most likely to move among
European countries, accounting for 43 per cent of all
Highly skilled Asian migrants are well represented highly skilled migrants in Germany and 39 per cent
across the regions of the world, accounting for 41 in Spain.

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 World Migration 2008

MAP 14: Highly Skilled Migrants by Region of Origin, 2000

Source: Docquier, F. and A. Marfouk. 2006, “International Migration by Education Attainment, 1990-2000” in C. Özden and M. Schiff (Eds.), International
Migration, Remittances, and the Brain Drain, The World Bank and Palgrave Macmillan, Washington, D.C./New York, 151-199.

To complement Map 13, Map 14 shows the global together with the Pacific Islands, are the most
distribution of highly skilled migrants by region of affected sub-regions with more than 15 per cent of
origin. their highly skilled nationals migrating abroad. On
the other hand, the sub-regions least affected by the
The map shows that, in relative terms, East Africa, emigration of their highly skilled nationals in 2000
Central America and Mexico, and the Caribbean, are North America, eastern Europe and East Asia.

[539]