Learning Objectives

Guide to
Operating By the end of this module, you should be able to:
Systems, 6th • Explain basic operating system concepts
Edition • Describe the categories of operating systems
• Discuss the primary roles of an operating system
Module 1: Operating Systems
Fundamentals • Describe the five major operating system components
• Discuss the history of operating systems
• List several current general-purpose operating systems

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An Introduction to Operating Systems (1 of 3) An Introduction to Operating Systems (2 of 3)

• A computer’s functions and features can be broken down into three basic tasks • An OS is a specialized computer program that provides the following features:
all computers perform: − User interface – the user interface provides a method for users to interact
− Input with the computer
− Processing − Storage management – the file system is a method by which an OS stores
and organizes files and manages access to files
− Output
− Process and service management – a process is a program that’s loaded
• The functions above involve some type of computer hardware into memory and run by the CPU; a service is a type of process that runs in
− But the hardware is controlled and coordinated by the operating system (OS) the background

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 An Introduction to Operating Systems (3 of 3) Operating System Categories

• An OS is a specialized computer program that provides the following features • There are three broad categories of operating systems:
(continued): − Single-tasking versus multitasking
− Memory and I/O management – the OS must determine if sufficient memory
− Single-user versus multiuser
exists to load an application and where in memory it should be loaded
− General-purpose versus real-time
§ The OS also ensures that I/O devices such as USB ports and video cards
are accessed by only one process at a time
− Security and resource protection – OSs used on business systems provide
methods for securing access to resources
− Kernel – the kernel is the heart of the OS and runs with the highest priority

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Single-Tasking Versus Multitasking Operating Single-Tasking Versus Multitasking Operating

Systems (1 of 4) Systems (2 of 4)
• A single-tasking operating system can execute only a single process at a time • There are two general types of multitasking:
− Apple’s iOS 3 (and earlier versions) are examples − Cooperative multitasking – the OS gives CPU control to a process and
waits for it to terminate or enter a waiting state
− An embedded system is a computing device designed for a specific task
and uses a single-tasking OS § If the program does not give control back to the OS, it may hog the CPU
until its operations are complete
• A multitasking operating system quickly switches between all the processes that
are loaded into memory and scheduled to run § No other program can run until control is given back to the OS
§ Found in early Windows versions

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 Single-Tasking Versus Multitasking Operating Single-Tasking Versus Multitasking Operating
Systems (3 of 4) Systems (4 of 4)
• There are two general types of multitasking (continued):
− Preemptive multitasking – the OS is in control of the computer at all times
§ The running process can be replaced with another process at any time
based on a system interrupt, a higher-priority task requiring the CPU, or
the time-slice timer expiring
§ The OS has control over how much of the computer’s resources are
allocated to each program
§ Computers must use more of their CPU and memory to support the OS,
but the behavior of the computer is more predictable
§ The user can play music while working in documents and Web browsers
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Single-User Versus Multiuser Operating General-Purpose Versus Real-Time Operating

Systems Systems
• A single-user operating system allows only one user at a time to interact with • A general-purpose operating system is designed to provide a convenient user
the OS user interface, start processes, make system configuration changes, and interface and run applications in a home or business environment with
interact directly with the file system reasonable performance
− Windows 10 and earlier Windows client versions are arguably single-user • A real-time operating system (RTOS) is designed to process inputs and
systems produce outputs in a very specific and repeatable amount of time
• A multiuser operating system allows multiple users to sign in to it, start and − Real-time systems perform tasks like controlling assembly-line robotic
stop processes, interact with the user interface, and access the local file system systems, controlling FedEx sorting facilities, managing the electrical grid, etc.
− Linux/UNIX OSs have always supported multiple users, and Windows − Components of real-time systems are called deterministic because it is
Server versions also allow multiple users through Remote Desktop Protocol possible to determine the worst-case response times under a given set of
(RDP) conditions
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 Knowledge Check 1 Knowledge Check 1: Answer

• In which of the following methods does the OS give CPU control to a process • In which of the following methods does the OS give CPU control to a process
and wait for it to terminate or enter a waiting state? and wait for it to terminate or enter a waiting state?
− A) single-tasking
− B) preemptive multitasking
− C) multiuser tasking
− D) cooperative multitasking • D) cooperative multitasking

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Operating System Roles Client Operating Systems

• OSs can be defined by the role they play from the perspective of the user • The primary purpose of a client operating system is to run applications
requested by a user and request data from network servers as necessary
• Most OSs can be classified as one of the following:
− Client OSs are usually installed on desktop or laptop computers and mobile
− Client
devices and use a graphical user interface (GUI)
− Server − Client OSs usually include client versions of many network applications
− Standalone § For example, Windows 10 comes with Client for Microsoft Networks for
accessing shared files and printers
− Most client OSs are performance-tuned for running foreground applications
(user applications) instead of background services

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 Server Operating Systems (1 of 2) Server Operating Systems (2 of 2)

• The primary purpose of a server operating system is to share network • A server OS is usually installed on a more powerful computer that may have
resources and provide network services to clients several high-speed network interfaces and terabytes of storage
• Examples of server OSs include Windows Server, macOS Server, UNIX, and • The hardware of a server must support fault-tolerant features such as hot
many Linux distributions swapping and failover clustering
• Server OSs usually come with a DHCP server, a DNS server, a file server − Server hardware can take different forms, including traditional tower
protocol, a Web server, and perhaps a directory service such as Microsoft’s computers, rack-mounted servers, and blade servers
Active Directory

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Standalone Operating Systems Primary Operating System Components

• A standalone operating system is not designed to interact with other OSs or • This section will examine the following OS components:
access network resources − The boot procedure
• Most standalone OSs run on embedded systems − Process and service management
• OSs that run older or isolated traffic signal systems are likely to be standalone − Memory and I/O management
− As are the OSs that run automobile electronic systems and industrial − Security and resource protection
machinery
− The kernel
• This is changing as computer-controlled devices are being built with IoT in mind
− So operational and performance data from these devices can be collected
and analyzed to make processes more efficient
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 The Boot Procedure (1 of 4) The Boot Procedure (2 of 4)

• The boot procedure is a series of steps performed by every computing device • Firmware is program code that is stored on computer hardware in non-volatile
that starts with power to the CPU and other hardware components and ends memory and is responsible for performing diagnostic tests and booting the OS
with a running system ready to perform work
• Non-volatile memory is memory that maintains its contents when no power is
• The boot procedure can be broken down into six general steps: applied to the system
− 1. Power is applied to the CPU and other hardware components − It is typically flash memory in modern systems or electrically erasable programmable read-
only memory (EEPROM) in older systems
− 2. The CPU starts
− 3. The CPU executes the firmware startup routines • Firmware is called the BIOS or UEFI in newer systems
− 4. The operating system is located by the firmware • Firmware contains an initial bootstrap program that locates and then loads the
− 5. The OS is loaded into RAM bootloader program, which is responsible for loading the initial process that
− 6. OS processes and services are started
makes up the OS
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The Boot Procedure (3 of 4) The Boot Procedure (4 of 4)

• The basic input/output system (BIOS) and Unified Extensible Firmware • BIOS configuration is stored in a complementary metal oxide semiconductor
Interface (UEFI) are firmware programs that play a part in the boot process (CMOS) memory chip
• The BIOS has the following properties and performs the following tasks: • Users can make changes to the BIOS configuration by accessing the BIOS
− Resides on a chip on the computer’s motherboard setup screen before the computer boots
− Initializes I/O devices • When a PC is turned on:
− Performs tests at startup, such as memory and hardware component tests called the power- − The machine wakes up and begins executing a startup program inside the BIOS
on self-test (POST)
− This program initializes the screen and keyboard, tests hardware, and initializes the hard
− Provides a user interface to allow hardware configuration such as CPU overclocking or disk disk and other drives
configuration
− The main operating system is loaded onto the hard disk
− Locates and loads the OS that interfaces with the user

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 Process and Service Management (1 of 4) Process and Service Management (2 of 4)

• A process is a program that is loaded into memory and executed by the CPU
• A program can be a user application, an OS service, or even the kernel
• On a Windows 10 system, you can see all running processes by using Task
Manager
• Background processes listed by Task Manager are not essential for the OS to
function
• Windows processes are required for full system functionality and include the
registry service, user interface components, network services, interrupt
handlers, and logon services

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Process and Service Management (3 of 4) Process and Service Management (4 of 4)

• Kernel Mode Versus User Mode Processes • Process Creation and Termination
− Kernel mode is a CPU mode in which a process has unrestricted access to − When a process is created, it is assigned a process ID (PID), which allows
the computer hardware and has access to privileged CPU instructions other processes to communicate with it and the user to manage it
§ Privileged CPU instructions include those that switch between kernel and − A file handle is an identifier for a file that contains all the information the file
user mode and those that configure interrupts, timers, and I/O devices system needs to locate and access the file
− User mode is a CPU mode in which the process can only access memory − Processes are usually created in one of four ways:
locations allocated to it by the OS, must ask the OS to access I/O devices on § By the bootloader
its behalf, and can’t execute privileged CPU instructions
§ Through a request by the operating system

§ By another process
§ By a user
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 Memory and I/O Management (1 of 2) Memory and I/O Management (2 of 2)

• Memory is managed by a dedicated memory manager that runs in kernel mode • Access to all devices is done in an
orderly fashion, through a single
• When a process is loaded and started, the OS must allocate enough memory process called a device driver
for the process and its data
− When a process terminates, the OS must mark the memory as free so other processes can
− A device driver is usually a kernel
use it mode process that accesses
hardware devices directly on
• I/O management is required to prevent more than one process from accessing behalf of user mode processes or
an I/O device at the same time other kernel mode processes

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Security and Resource Protection The Kernel

• Modern general-purpose OSs and RTOSs running on embedded systems • The kernel runs with the highest priority on the system
provide controls to prevent unauthorized access to the system and its data
• Scheduling computer processes and managing resources are key tasks of the
• Malware protection starts with protected memory space OS kernel
• Authentication and Authorization • Jobs performed by the kernel can include the following:
− Authentication verifies that an account trying to access a system is valid − Managing interactions with the CPU
and has provided valid credentials (username and password) − Managing interrupt handlers and device drivers
− Authorization verifies that an authenticated account has permission to − Handling basic computer security
perform an action on a system − Managing use of the computer’s memory
− Managing priority levels assigned to programs and computer processes

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 A Short History of Operating Systems (1 of 5) A Short History of Operating Systems (2 of 5)

• Initially, computers were used as large automated calculators for mathematical • Computers of the late 60s and early 70s were crude by today’s standards but
and statistical problems were quite capable
• Legitimate use can be traced back 100 years or more but there were no − Contributed to the development of space travel, submarine-based ballistic missiles, and the
global financial community
practical designs used by significant numbers of people until the late 1950s
• The period of growth during the 1960s and 1970s saw:
• Operating systems were rudimentary, often not able to do more than read punch
cards or tape and write output to machines resembling typewriters − The beginning of the Internet

− It did not take long before applications evolved to do something useful for a − Creation of input and output devices such as display terminals and magnetic disks
broader audience − Creation of more operating systems such as OS/8 and UNIX

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A Short History of Operating Systems (3 of 5) A Short History of Operating Systems (4 of 5)

• In the mid-1960s, a simple programming language was developed at Dartmouth • Bill Gates started a new company called Microsoft, which led to the
College development of Microsoft Disk Operating System or MS-DOS
− BASIC – Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code − IBM adopted MS-DOS, which ran on a prototype of a new microcomputer
• In 1975, Bill Gates wrote a compiler (software that turns computer code written being developed by IBM called the personal computer (PC)
by people into code that is understood by computers) for BASIC − MS-DOS was the first widely distributed operating system for
− He sold it to a company called Micro Instrumentation Telemetry Systems (MITS), which
microcomputers that had to be loaded from disk or tape
became the first company to produce a desktop computer
• In 1984, Apple Macintosh developed a GUI and mouse pointing device, which
• Other programming languages introduced around this time included Pascal, C, allowed users to interact with the OS on a graphical screen
and other versions of BASIC

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 A Short History of Operating Systems (5 of 5) Current General-Purpose Operating Systems
(1 of 4)
• In 1985, Microsoft released Windows, which provided a GUI and many of the • The most common OSs in today’s home and business computing environments
same functions as the Mac OS fall into several families:
− Windows client operating systems
− Windows server operating systems
− UNIX/Linux operating systems
− Apple Macintosh macOS

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Current General-Purpose Operating Systems Current General-Purpose Operating Systems

(2 of 4) (3 of 4)
• At the time of this writing, the most frequently used Windows client versions are • There are many flavors of UNIX, but the two main design standards are the
Windows 7 and 10 Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) standard and the System V Release 4
− As of January 2020, Windows 7 reached its “end of life,” which means Microsoft
(SVR4) standard
discontinued support for Windows 7

• The most popular Microsoft server operating systems are Windows Server • Linux OS is a UNIX look-alike system that is popular as a server OS in
2012, Windows Server 2016, and Windows Server 2019 business, education, and government
− Support for Windows Server 2008 ended in January 2020 and support for Windows Server
2012 is scheduled to end in October 2023

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 Current General-Purpose Operating Systems Summary (1 of 3)
(4 of 4)
• macOS for Apple Macintosh computers is popular in the educational and • All computers perform three basic tasks: input, processing, and output
graphics sectors
• An operating system (OS) provides the foundation upon which to run the
− Corporate users sometimes regard macOS as difficult to set up for components of a computer and execute applications
networking in medium-sized to large organizations with complex networks
• A basic task of an OS is to enable a computer to perform I/O functions so that it
− Apple has addressed many of these concerns
can use software applications and communicate with computer hardware
− macOS is popular with home users because the desktop is intuitive and
• Early OSs tended to be single-tasking, but modern systems are largely
home network setup is user friendly
multitasking

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Summary (2 of 3) Summary (3 of 3)

• Two common types of OSs are desktop (or client) and server OSs • The history of operating systems and computers represents a progression from
huge computers to large computers to desktop-sized computers that have
• The BIOS is a low-level program code that operates between the computer powerful operating systems
hardware and a higher-level operating system to initiate communication with
hardware devices • One of the most significant advances in operating systems is the refinement of
the GUI in Windows-based and Mac OS systems
• Device drivers can extend the native function of an operating system to provide
access and control over different types of devices • Current popular OSs include Windows 10/11, Server 2012/R2, Server 2016,
Server 2019, UNIX/Linux, and macOS latest version

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