MODULE 5

TRANSDUCERS

Transducers: Introduction, Electrical Transducer, Resistive Transducer, Resistive

position Transducer, Resistance Wire Strain Gauges, Resistance Thermometer,
Thermistor, LVDT. (Text 2: 13.1-13.3, 13.5, 13.6 upto 13.6.1, 13.7, 13.8, 13.11).
Instrumentation Amplifier using Transducer Bridge, Temperature indicators using
Thermometer, Analog Weight Scale (Text 2: 14.3.3, 14.4.1, 14.4.3).

Transducers:

Introduction: A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and
transmits it to another, often in a different form.

Broadly defined, the transducer is a device capable of being actuated by an energizing input from
one or more transmission media and in turn generating a related signal to one or more transmission
systems. It provides a usable output in response to a specified input measurand, which may be a
physical or mechanical quantity, property, or conditions. The energy transmitted by these systems
may be electrical, mechanical or acoustical.

The nature of electrical output from the transducer depends on the basic principle involved in the
design. The output may be analog, digital or frequency modulated.

Basically, there are two types of transducers,

1. Electrical,
2. Mechanical.
Electrical Transducer Definition:

An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which the physical, mechanical or optical quantity
to be measured is transformed directly by a suitable mechanism into an electrical voltage/current
proportional to the input measurand.

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An electrical transducer must have the following parameters:

1. Linearity: The relationship between a physical parameter and the resulting electrical signal
must be linear.
2. Sensitivity: This is defined as the electrical output per unit change in the physical
parameter (for example V/°C for a temperature sensor). High sensitivity is generally
desirable for a transducer.
3. Dynamic Range: The operating range of the transducer should be wide, to permit its use
under a wide range of measurement conditions.
4. Repeatability: The input/output relationship for a transducer should be predictable over
a long period of time. This ensures reliability of
5. Physical Size: The Electrical Transducer Definition must have minimal weight and
volume, so that its presence in the measurement system does not disturb the existing
conditions.
Advantages of Electrical Transducer:
The main advantages of electrical transducer (conversion of physical quantity into electrical
quantities) are as follows:

1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.

2. Mass-inertia effects are minimized.
3. Effects of friction are minimized.
4. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing medium.
5. The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling
units. The signal magnitude can be related in terms of the voltage current. (The analog
signal information can be converted in to pulse or frequency information. Since output can
be modified, modulated or amplified at will, the output signal can be easily used for
recording on any suitable multichannel recording device.)
6. The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any combination with outputs of similar
transducers or control signals.
7. The electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small power level.
8. The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.

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Electrical transducer can be broadly classified into two major categories,

(i) Active, (ii) Passive.

Active Transducers:

 An active transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical

parameter and does not require an external power source for its operation.
 Active transducers are self generating devices, which operate under energy conversion
principle and generate an equivalent output signal (for example from pressure to charge
or temperature to electrical potential).
 Typical example of active transducers are piezo electric sensors (for generation of charge
corresponding to pressure) and photo voltaic cells (for generation of voltage in response
to illumination).
Passive transducer:

 Passive transducer operate under energy controlling principles, which makes it

necessary to use an external electrical source with them.
 They depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R, L and C).
 Typical example are strain gauges (for resistance change in response to pressure), and
thermistors (for resistance change corresponding to temperature variations).
Electrical transducers are used mostly to measure non-electrical quantities. For this purpose a
detector or sensing element is used, which converts the physical quantity into a displacement. This
displacement actuates an electric transducer, which acts as a secondary transducer and gives an
output that is electrical in nature. This electrical quantity is measured by the standard method used
for electrical measurement. The electrical signals may be current, voltage, or frequency; their
production is based on R, L and C effects.

A transducer which converts a non-electrical quantity into an analog electrical signal may be
considered as consisting of two parts, the sensing element, and the transduction element.

The sensing or detector element is that part of a transducer which responds to a physical
phenomenon or to a change in a physical phenomenon. The response of the sensing element must
be closely related to the physical phenomenon.

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The transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to an electrical output. This,
in a way, acts as a secondary transducer.
Transducers may be further classified into different categories depending upon the principle
employed by their transduction elements to convert physical phenomena into output electrical
signals.
The different electrical phenomena employed in the transduction elements of transducers are as
follows.
1. Resistive
2. Photo-emissive
3. Inductive
4. Photo-resistive
5. Capacitive
6. Potentiometric
7. Electro magnetic
8. Thermo-electric
9. Piezo-electric
10. Frequency generating

Selecting a Transducer
The transducer or sensor has to be physically compatible with its intended application. The
following should be considered while selecting a transducer.

1. Operating range: Chosen to maintain range requirements and good

2. Sensitivity: Chosen to allow sufficient output.
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency: Flat over the entire desired range.
4. Environmental compatibility: Temperature range, corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks,
interaction, size and mounting restrictions.
5. Minimum sensitivity: To expected stimulus, other than the measurand.
6. Accuracy: Repeatability and calibration errors as well as errors expected due to
sensitivity to other stimuli.
7. Usage and ruggedness: Ruggedness, both of mechanical and electrical intensities versus
size and weight.
8. Electrical parameters: Length and type of cable required, signal to noise ratio when
combined with amplifiers, and frequency response limitations.

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Resistive Position Transducer:
 The principle of the Resistive Position Transducer is that the physical variable under
measurement causes a resistance change in the sensing element. (able to sense the position
of an object, or the distance it has moved).
 One type of displacement transducer uses a resistive element with a sliding contact or wiper
linked to the object being monitored or measured.
 Thus the resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance element depends on
the position of the object.
 Figure 13.2(a) gives the construction of this type of transducer.
 Figure 13.2(b) shows a typical method of use.
 The output voltage depends on the wiper position and is therefore a function of the shaft
position.
 This voltage may be applied to a voltmeter calibrated in cms for visual display.

 Considering Fig. 13.2(b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage Vo is a certain
fraction of Vt, depending upon the position of the wiper.
Therefore,

 When applied to resistive position sensors, this equation shows that output voltage is
proportional to R2, i.e. the position of the wiper of the potentiometer.

 If the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the length of travel of the
wiper, the resistance is perfectly linear.

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Strain Gauge:
 The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical
resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.
 It is well known that stress (force/unit area) and strain (elongation or compression/unit
length) in a member or portion of any object under pressure is directly related to the
modulus of elasticity.
 If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the
fact that both the length and diameter of the conductor changes.
 Also, there is a change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor when subjected to
strain, a property called the piezo-resistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are
also known as piezo resistive gauges.
 Many detectors and transducers, e.g. load cells, torque meters, pressure gauges,
temperature sensors, etc. employ Strain Gauge Factor Derivation as secondarytransducers.
 When a gauge is subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its area of cross-
section decreases.
 Since the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its area of cross-section, the resistance of the gauge increases with
positive strain.
 The change in resistance value of a conductor under strain is more than for an increase in
resistance due to its dimensional changes. This property is called the piezoresistive effect.
The following types of Strain Gauge are the most important.

1. Wire Strain Gauge

2. Foil Strain Gauge
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge
Resistance Wire Gauge:
Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbonded type, and the bonded type.

Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:

 An unbonded strain gauge consists of a wire streched between two points in an insulating
medium, such as air.

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  The diameter of the wire used is about 25 μm. The wires are kept under tension so that
there is no sag and no free vibration.
 Unbonded Strain Gauge Factor Derivation are usually connected in a bridge circuit.
 The bridge is balanced with no load applied as shown in Fig. 13.3.
 When an external load is applied, the resistance of the Strain Gauge Factor Derivation
changes, causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit resulting in an output voltage. This
voltage is proportional to the strain.
 A displacement of the order of 50μm can be detected with these strain gauges.

Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:

A metallic bonded Strain Gauge Derivation is shown in Fig. 13.4.

 A fine wire element about 25 μm (0.025 in.) or less in diameter is looped back and forth
on a carrier (base) or mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the member undergoing
stress. The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper,
bakelite, or teflon.

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  The wire is covered on the top with a thin material, so that it is not damaged mechanically.
The spreading of the wire permits uniform distribution of stress.
 The carrier is then bonded or cemented to the member being studied. This permits a
good transfer of strain from carrier to wire.
 A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its
cross-sectional area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance, as seen from the
following equation

where
ρ = the specific resistance of the material in Ωm.
l = the length of the conductor in m
A = the area of the conductor in m2
As a result of strain, two physical parameters are of particular interest.

1. The change in gauge resistance.

2. The change in length.
The measurement of the sensitivity of a material to strain is called the gauge factor (GF). It is the
ratio of the change in resistance ΔR/R to the change in the length Δl/l

where
K= gauge factor
Δ R= the change in the initial resistance in Ω’s
R = the initial resistance in Ω (without strain)
Δ l= the change in the length in m
l = the initial length in m (without strain)
Since strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length,

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 Eq. (13.1) can be written as

where σ is the strain in the lateral direction.

The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross-section is

where
ρ= specific resistance of the conductor
l = length of conductor
d= diameter of conductor
When the conductor is stressed, due to the strain, the length of the conductor increases by Δl and
the simultaneously decreases by Δd in its diameter. Hence the resistance of the conductor can now
be written as

Since Δd is small, Δd2 can be neglected

Now, Poisson’s ratio μ is defined as the ratio of strain in the lateral direction to strain in the axial
direction, that is,

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Substituting for Δd/d from Eq. (13.6) in Eq. (13.4), we have

Rationalizing, we get

Since Δl is small, we can neglect higher powers of Δl.

Since from Eq. (13.3),

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The gauge factor will now be

Resistance Thermometer:
 The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property is
utilized for the measurement of temperature.
 The Resistance Thermometer Transducer is an instrument used to measure electrical
resistance in terms of temperature, i.e. it uses the change in the electrical resistance of the
conductor to determine the temperature.
 The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element. The characteristics of the
sensing element determine the sensitivity and operating temperature range of the
instrument.
 The sensing element may be any material that exhibits a relatively large resistancechange
with change in temperature.
 Another desirable characteristic for a sensing element is a linear change in resistance with
change in temperature.
 The speed with which a resistive element responds to changes in temperature is important
when the measured temperature is subjected to rapid variations..
 Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used to measure temperature.
The resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher temperatures than for
other metals, hence it is a commonly used material for resistance thermometers.
 Figure 13.11(a) shows an industrial platinum resistance thermometer. The changes in
resistance caused by changes in temperature are detected by a Wheatstone bridge, as shown
in Fig. 13.11(b).

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  Hence, the temperature sensing element, which may be nickel, copper or platinum
contained in a bulb or well, along with the balancing bridge, form the essential components
of a temperature measuring system based upon this principle.
 The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature coefficient, and
R1, R2, and R5 are made of resistances that are practically constant under normal
temperature changes.

 When no current flows through the galvanometer, the normal principle of Wheatstone’ s
bridge states the ratio of resistance is

 In normal practice, the sensing element is away from the indicator, and its leads have a
resistance, say R3, R4.

Therefore,

 Now it resistance Rs changes, balance cannot be maintained and the galvanometer shows
a deflection, which can be calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale.

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Advantages of Resistance Thermometer Transducer

The measurement of temperature by the electrical resistance method has the following
advantages and characteristics.

1. The measurement is very accurate.

2. It has a lot of flexibility with regard to choice of measuring equipment.
3. Indicators, recorders or controllers can also be operated.
4. The temperature sensitive resistance element can be easily installed and
5. The accuracy of the measuring circuit can be easily checked by substituting a standard
resistor for the resistive element.
6. Resistive elements can be used to measure differential temperature.
7. Resistance thermometers have a wide working range without loss of accuracy, and can be
used for temperature ranges (-200°C to + 650°C).
8. They are best suited for remote indication.
9. The size of the resistive element may be about 6 — 12 mm in diameter and 12 — 75 mm
in length.
10. Extremely accurate temperature sensing.
11. Stability of performance over long periods of time.
Limitations of Resistance Thermometer Transducer

1. High cost
2. Need for bridge circuit and power source
3. Possibility of self-heating
4. Large bulb size, compared to a thermocouple

Thermistor:
 The electrical resistance of most materials changes with temperature. By selecting
materials that are very temperature sensitive, devices that are useful in temperaturecontrol
circuits and for temperature measurements can be made.
 Thermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-metallic resistors (semiconductor
material), made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt,
copper and uranium.

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 Thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC), i.e. resistance decreases as
temperature rises.

 Figure 13.12 shows a graph of resistance v/s temperature for a thermistor. The resistance
at room temperature (25°C) for typical commercial unit’s ranges from 100 Ω to 10 Ω They
are suitable for use only up to about 800°C.

 The smallest thermistors are made in the form of beads. Some are as small as 0.15 mm
(0.006 in.) in diameter.
 These may come in a glass coating or sealed in the tip of solid glass probes.
 Where greater power dissipations is required, thermistors may be obtained in disc,
washer or rod forms.
 Disc thermistors about 10 mm in diameter, either self supporting or mounted on a small
plate, are mainly used for temperature control.

 Washer thermistors are made like disc thermistors, except that a hole is formed in the centre
in order to make them suitable for mounting on a bolt.
 Rod thermistors are extruded through dies to make long cylindrical units of 1.25, 2.75, and
4.25 mm in diameter and 12.5 — 50 min long. Leads are attached to the end of the rods.
Their resistance usually varies from 1 — 50 Ω.

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  Thermistors can be connected in series/parallel combinations for applications requiring
increased power handling capability. High resistance units find application in
measurements that employ low lead wires or cables.
 Thermistors are chemically stable and can be used in nuclear environments. Their wide
range of characteristics also permits them to be used in limiting and regulation circuits, as
time delays, for integration of power pulses, and as memory units.
 Typical thermistor configurations are as shown in Fig. 13.13(a). Figure 13.13(b) shows a
bush type thermistor.
 Thermistors are non-linear devices over a temperature range, although now units with
better than 0.2% linearity over the 0-100°C temperature range are available. The typical
sensitivity of a thermistor is approximately 3 mV/°C at 200°C.
Advantages of Thermistor Circuit:

1. Small size and low cost.

2. Fast response over narrow temperature range.
3. Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
4. Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on absolute
temperature.
5. Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due to large Rth (resistance).
Limitations of Thermistor Circuit:
1. Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics.
2. Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
3. Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
4. Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance.

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Linear Variable Differential Transducer(LVDT):

The differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It is also known as a Linear

Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT). The basic construction is as shown in Fig. 13.19.

 The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary windings
S1 and S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical former. The secondary windings have an equal
number of turns and are identically placed on either side of the primary windings. The
primary winding is connected to an ac source.
 An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore affectsthe
magnetic coupling between the primary and the two secondary’s.
 The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron core. (In
practice, the core is made up of a nickel-iron alloy which is slotted longitudinally to reduce
eddy current losses.)
 When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in the two
secondary windings. The frequency of the ac applied to the primary winding ranges from
50 Hz to 20 kHz.
 The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of secondary winding
S2 is Es2.
 In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondary’s
S1 and S2 are connected in series opposition, as shown in Fig. 13.20.

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 Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages. Therefore
the differential output voltage Eo=Es1~Es2.
 When the core is at its normal position, the flux linking with both secondary windings is
equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Hence, at null position Es1 = Es2. Since
the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage
Eo is zero at null position.
 Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with winding
S1 and less with winding S2. Hence, output voltage Es1 of the secondary winding S1 is
greater than Es2 . The magnitude of the output voltage of the secondary is then Es1 — Es2,
in phase with Es1 (the output voltage of secondary winding S1).
 Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking with winding
S2 becomes greater than that linked with winding S1. This results inEs2 becoming
larger than Es1. The output voltage in this case is Eo = Es2 — Es1 and is in phase with Es2.
 The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount
of movement of the core. Hence, we have an indication of the amount of linear motion. By
noting which output is increasing or decreasing, the direction of motion can be determined.
 The output ac voltage inverts as the core passes the centre position. The farther the core
moves from the centre, the greater the difference in value between Es1 and Es2 and
consequently the greater the value of Eo. Hence, the amplitude is function of the distance

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 the core has moved, and the polarity or phase indicates the direction of motion, as shown
in Fig. 13.21.
 As the core is moved in one direction from the null position, the difference voltage, i.e. the
difference of the two secondary voltages increases, while maintaining an in-phase relation
with the voltage from the input source. In the other direction from the null position, the
difference voltage increases but is 180° out of phase with the voltage from the source.
 By comparing the magnitude and phase of the difference output voltage with that of the
source, the amount and direction of the movement of the core and hence of the
displacement may be determined.
 The amount of output voltage may be measured to determine the displacement. The output
signal may also be applied to a recorder or to a controller that can restore the moving system
to its normal position.
 The output voltage of an Linear Variable Differential Transducer is a linear function of the
core displacement within a limited range of motion (say 5 mm from the null position).

 The diagram in Figs 13.21(a), (b) and (c) shows the core of an Linear Variable Differential
Transducer at three different positions.
 In Fig. 13.21(b), the core is at 0, which is the central zero or null position. Therefore,
Es1 = Es2, and Eo = 0.

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  When the core is moved to the left, as in Fig. 13.21(a) and is at A, Es1 is more than
Es2 and Eo is positive. This movement represents a positive value and therefore the phase
angle, is Φ = 0°.
 When the core is moved to the right towards B, Es2 is greater than Es1 and hence Eo is
negative. Therefore, S2 the output voltage is 180° out of phase with the voltage which is
obtained when the core is moved to the left. The characteristics are linear from 0 — A
and 0 — B, but after that they become non-linear.
Advantages of Linear Variable Differential Transducer

1. Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for displacements
upto 5 mm (a linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial LVDTs).
2. Infinite resolution: The change in output voltage is stepless. The effective resolution
depends more on the test equipment than on the
3. High output: It gives a high output (therefore there is frequently no need for
intermediate amplification devices).
4. High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
5. Ruggedness: These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of vibration and shock.
6. Less friction: There are no sliding contacts.
7. Low hysteresis: This transducer has a low hysteresis, hence repeatability is excellent
under all conditions.
8. Low power: consumption Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of
Disadvantages of Linear Variable Differential Transducer

1. Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.

2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is possible).
3. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals, or
a demodulator network must be used if a dc output is required.
4. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by
the applied voltage.
5. Temperature also affects the transducer.

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Instrumentation System:
The measurement and control of physical conditions is very important in many industrial and
consumer applications. For example, the operator may make necessary adjustments in the
measurement of temperature or humidity inside a dairy or meat plant to maintain the product
quality, or to produce a particular type of plastic, precise temperature control of the plastic furnace
is needed.
Differential Instrumentation Amplifier Transducer Bridge:

 Figure 14.25 shows a simplified circuit of a Differential Instrumentation Amplifier

Transducer Bridge.
 In this circuit a resistive transducer is connected to one arm of the bridge.
 Let RT be the resistance of the transducer and ΔR the change in resistance of the resistive
transducer. Hence the total resistance of the transducer is (RT ± ΔR).

The condition for bridge balance is Vb = Va, i.e. the bridge is balanced when Vb = Va, or when

 The bridge is balanced at a desired reference condition, which depends on the specific value
of the physical quantity to be measured. Under this condition, resistors R A, RB and RC are
so selected that they are equal in value to the transducer resistance RT.

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  Initially the bridge is balanced at a desired reference condition. As the physical quantity
to be measured changes, the resistance of the transducer also changes, causing the bridge
to be unbalanced (Vb ≠ Va).
 Hence, the output voltage of the bridge is a function of the change in the resistance of the
transducer. The expression for the output voltage V0, in terms of the change in resistance
of the transducer is calculated as follows.
 Let the change in the resistance of the transducer be ΔR. Since RB and RC are fixed resistors,
the voltage Vb is constant, however, the voltage Va changes as a function of the change in
the transducers resistance.
Therefore, applying the voltage divider rule we have

The output voltage across the bridge terminal is Vab, given by Vab=Va-Vb
Therefore,

 The output voltage Vab of the bridge is applied to the Differential Instrumentation Amplifier
Transducer Bridge through the voltage followers to eliminate the loading effect of the
bridge circuit.
 The gain of the basic amplifier is (RF/R1) and therefore the output voltage Vo of the
circuit is given by

 It can be seen from the Eq. (14.16) that Vo is a function of the change in resistance ΔR of
the transducer. Since the change is caused by the change in a physical quantity, a meter
connected at the output can be calibrated in terms of the units of the physical quantity.

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Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier Transducer Bridge
We shall now consider some important applications of instrumentation amplifiers using resistance
type’s transducers. In these transducers, the resistance of the transducer changes as a function of
some physical quantity. Commonly used resistance transducers are thermisistors, photoconductor
cells, and strain gauges.
Temperature Indicators Using Thermistor
 The Thermistor is a relative passive type of temperature resistance transducer. They are
basically semiconductors.
 In many respects, a thermistor resembles a conventional resistor. It is usually a two-
terminal device. It has resistance as its fundamental property. It is generally installed and
operated in the manner of an ordinary resistor. But its great difference is that it has a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) or positive temperature coefficient (PTC) type.
Most thermistors exhibit an NTC characteristic.
 An NTC type is one in which its resistance decreases with increase in temperature. The
temperature coefficient is expressed in ohms/°C.
 Since it is a THERMally sensitive resISTOR, it has a high temperature coefficient of
resistance and is therefore well suited for temperature measurement and control.
 If in the bridge circuit of Fig. 14.25 the transducer used is a thermistor, the circuit can
thus be used as a temperature indicator.
 The bridge is balanced initially at a desired reference condition. As the temperature varies,
the resistance of the thermistor also changes, unbalancing the bridge, which in turn
produces a meter deflection at the output.
 By selecting the appropriate gain for the Differential Instrumentation Amplifier Transducer
Bridge, the meter can be calibrated to read a desired temperature.
 In this circuit, the meter movement (deflection) depends on the amount of unbalance in
the bridge, which is caused by a change in the value of thermistor resistance ΔR.
 The change ΔR for the thermistor can be determined as follows.

 If the meter in this circuit is replaced by a relay, and if the output of the Differential
Instrumentation Amplifier Transducer Bridge drives the relay that controls the current in
the heat-generating circuit, a temperature controller can be formed.
 A properly designed circuit should energise a relay when the temperature of the ther- mistor
drops below a desired value, causing the heater unit to turn on.

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Analog Weight Scale
 Figure 14.25 can be converted into a simple analog weight scale by connecting strain
gauges in the bridge circuit.
 These strain gauges are connected in all the four arms of the bridge,as shown in Fig.
14.26. The strain gauge elements are mounted on a base of the specially made weight
platform, on which an external force or weight is placed.
 One pair of strain gauge elements in opposite arms elongates, (i.e. RT1 and RT3 both
increases in resistance) while the other pair compresses (RT2 and RT4 both decreases in
resistance), and vice-versa.
 The bridge is balanced when no external force or weight is applied, i.e. RTI = RT2 = RT3
= RT4 = R, and the output voltage of the weight scale is zero.

 Suppose a weight is placed on the scale platform and RT1 and RT3 increases in resistance.
Then RT2 and RT4 decrease in resistance by the same value AR and the bridge is
unbalanced, thereby giving an unbalanced output voltage.
 This unbalanced voltage Vab, is given by

where
E — excitation voltage of the bridge.
R = RT1 = RT2= RT3 = RT4 = unstrained gauge resistance
ΔR — change in gauge resistance.
 The Differential Instrumentation Amplifier Transducer Bridge then amplifies the voltage
Vab, giving a deflection on the meter movement.
 As the gain of the amplifier is (+ RF/R1), the output voltage Vo is given by

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 The gain of the amplifier is selected depending on the sensitivity of the strain gauge and on
the full scale deflection requirements of the meter. The meter can be then calibrated in
grams or kilograms.
 For better accuracy and resolution, a micro based digital weight scale may be constructed.
However, such a scale is much more complex and expensive thenthe analog scale.

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