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12 views

assignment_10

Uploaded by

Anuj Jha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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The group law on an elliptic curve

Paul Hewitt
6 November 2013

Let’s look at elliptic curves, which are smooth plane curves defined by
cubic equations. On such curves there is a beautiful group law, which we
write as addition, altho it is not like any addition you have seen before. There
are primality tests, factorization techniques, cryptosystems, key exchanges,
etc, all based on using points on an elliptic curve defined over a finite field
— for example, the integers modulo a prime p. Today we will concentrate on
elliptic curves over the more familiar real number field. The principles are
the same but we can draw pictures of real elliptic curves.
To illustrate the group law we will look at a specific example:

y 2 = x3 − x. (1)

We first want to graph this equation. To do so we start by graphing the


equation
y = x3 − x. (2)
This has 3 roots and two critical points. Plot all of these points accurately,
and then sketch the rest of the curve. Now to obtain the graph of equation
(1) we must take square roots of y on the intervals of x where y > 0 in the
graph of equation (2). What is the shape of the result?
Let E denote the elliptic curve defined by equation (1). To plot E as ac-
curately as possible we find its horizontal and vertical tangents. We can find
dy/dx from equation (1) by implicit differentiation. The horizontal tangents
are where dy/dx = 0 and the vertical tangents are where dy/dx = ∞. Find
and plot all of these.
Next we want the inflection points. To find these we need to know where
d
d y/dx2 = 0. Since d2 y/dx2 = dx
2
(dy/dx), we can compute this using quotient
rule and chain rule. Compute d2 y/dx2 , simplify the expression, and set it

1
equal to 0. Plot the inflection points you find, and sketch the graph of
equation (1).
Now choose two points on the curve, P and Q, and draw the chord P Q
— that is, the line that joins them. This line should intersect E at a third
point R. The group law on E is defined so that if O is the additive identity,
then P + Q + R = O. That is, if a line intersect E in three points then these
three points sum to O.
Let’s consider some special cases. What if P = Q? To add P to itself we
would have to determine the chord P P . What could that mean? Imagine
keeping P fixed and letting Q approach P . What happens to P Q in the
limit?
Now consider a point P along the x-axis. What is P + P in this case?
What is (P + P ) + P ? What does this tell you about O?
Now let us go back to a general P . If −P denotes the additive inverse,
then we should have P + (−P ) + O = O. Since P , −P , and O are collinear,
what does this say about −P ?
Finally, let us consider a general P and Q. If R is the third point on P Q,
then P + Q = −R. Locate P + Q on your graph of E.
We have found P + Q geometrically. How do we find it algebraically?
Suppose P = (x1 , y1 ) and Q = (x2 , y2 ), with x1 6= x2 . Let the equation of
P Q be y = mx + b. Now to find all the points of intersection of the line and
the cubic we must solve the equation
(mx + b)2 = x3 − x. (3)
Rewrite this as
0 = x 3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3 . (4)
Now we know that x1 and x2 are two roots of this cubic, and we are seeking
the third, x3 . If we find it then the cubic factors as (x − x1 )(x − x2 )(x − x3 ).
What does this say about the relationship of a1 , a2 , and a3 to x1 , x2 , and
x3 ? Use this to deduce a formula for x3 .
Your formula should involve m and b, the coefficients of the equation
for P Q. Determine m and b from x1 and x2 and substitute these into your
formula. Choose various values of x1 and x2 , determine the corresponding
values of y1 and y2 , and use your formula to determine (x3 , y3 ). Show the
results of your additions on your graph.
Now consider what happens when x2 → x1 . What happens to your
formula in the limit? Use the limiting formula to determine P + P , where P
is one of the inflection points of E. What is P + P + P ?

2
Assignment 10
Study the group law of the curve

y 2 + y = x3 − x. (5)

To graph it you might start by completing the square on the left, so that you
can rewrite your equation as
1 1
(y + )2 = x3 − x + (6)
2 4
Use Maple or a graphing calculator to help you graph f (x) = x3 −x+ 14 . Note
that from equation (6) we see that the graph of equation (5) is symmetric
about the line y = − 21 , not the x-axis. Hence, on this curve, P and −P are
symmetrically placed about this line.
After you have your graph, determine the algebraic formulas for the group
law, and use these to compute nP = P +· · ·+P (n summands) for P = (0, 0)
and |n| < 10. Take care to adjust your formulas for this vertical shift.
You will also have to redo the implicit differentiation. Do your algebra and
calculus carefully!

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