COMPUTER NETWORKS

MCQ’S

Syntax(Y)

Semantics(N)

The structure or format of data

1
is stated as ___________ Struct(N)

Formatting(N)

Automatic(N)

Half-duplex(N)
Communication between a
computer and a keyboard
2
defines ______________ Full-duplex(N)
transmission.

Simplex(Y)

Path(N)

Medium(Y)

A _______ defines the physical

3 path over which a message
travels. Protocol(N)

Route(N)

Protocols(Y)
A _________ defines a set of
4 rules that governs data
communication.
Standards(N)
 RFCs(N)

Servers(N)

Unipoint(N)

Multipoint(Y)

Three or more devices share a

5 Point to point(N)
link in ________ connection.

Simplex(N)

computer network(N)

distributed system(Y)
When collection of various
computers seems a single
6
coherent system to its client, networking system(N)
then it is stated as _________

mail system(N)

a process in one device is able to

exchange information with a process in
another device(Y)

a process is running on both devices(N)

Two devices are in observed to
7
be in network if __________
PIDs of the processes running of different
devices are same(N)
 a process is active and another is
inactive(N)

the computer that originates the data(N)

the computer that routes the data(N)

In computer network nodes are

8
defined as _________ the computer that terminates the data(N)

all of the mentioned(Y)

broadcast network(Y)

unicast network(N)

Communication channel is
9 shared by all the machines on
the network in ________ multicast network(N)

anycast network(N)

bridge(N)

A __________ is stated as a
firewall(N)
device that forwards packets
between networks by
10
processing the routing
information included in the router(Y)
packet.

hub(N)

in case of traffic overloading(Y)

Network congestion is
11
observed _________
 when a system terminates(N)

when connection between two nodes

terminates(N)

in case of transfer failure(N)

local area network(N)

virtual private network(Y)

Select which of the following
networks extends a private
12
network across public enterprise private network(N)
networks?

storage area network(N)

5(Y)

7(N)

Define the number of layers are

13 present in the Internet protocol
stack (TCP/IP model)? 6(N)

10(N)

Application layer(N)

Presentation layer(N)
Which of the following layers is
14 an addition to OSI model when
compared with TCP IP model?
Session layer(N)

Session and Presentation layer(Y)

 End system(Y)

NIC(N)

Application layer is observed

15
in ____________ Ethernet(N)

Packet Transport(N)

Data compression(N)

Data encryption(N)

The functionalities of the

16 presentation layer is observed
as ____________ Data description(N)

All of the mentioned(Y)

Application layer(N)

Session layer(Y)

Delimiting and synchronization

17 of data exchange is defined by
__________ Transport layer(N)

Link layer(N)

Added(N)

In the OSI model, as a data

packet moves from the lower to
18 Removed(Y)
the upper layers, headers are
_______

Rearranged(N)
 Randomized(N)

A structured way to discuss and easier

update system components(N)

One layer may duplicate lower layer

functionality(N)
Which of the following
19 statements can be recognized
with OSI model? Functionality at one layer no way requires
information from another layer(Y)

It is an application specific network

model(N)

open system interconnection(Y)

operating system interface(N)

State the full name of OSI

20
Model. optical service implementation(N)

open service Internet(N)

session layer(Y)

transport layer(N)

TCP/IP model does not have

21 ______ layer but OSI model
have this layer. application layer(N)

network layer(N)
 network layer(N)

transport layer(Y)
State the layer that is
responsible for process to
22
process delivery in a general session layer(N)
network model?

data link layer(N)

physical address(N)

logical address(N)

Define the address that is used

23 to identify a process on a host
by the transport layer? port address(Y)

specific address(N)

network layer(N)

physical layer(Y)

Transmission data rate is

24
examined by ____________ data link layer(N)

transport layer(N)

bit-by-bit delivery(Y)

process to process delivery(N)

The physical layer is
25
concerned with ___________

application to application delivery(N)

 port to port delivery(N)

digital modulation(Y)

amplitude modulation(N)

Bits can be sent over guided

26 and unguided media as analog
signal by ___________ frequency modulation(N)

phase modulation(N)

mechanical specifications of electrical

connectors and cables(N)

electrical specification of transmission

line signal level(N)
The physical layer recognizes
27
__________
specification for IR over optical fiber(N)

all of the mentioned(Y)

analog modulation(N)

digital modulation(N)
A single channel is shared by
multiple signals by the
28
mechanism stated as multiplexing(Y)
____________

phase modulation(N)

radio waves(N)
Wireless transmission of
29 signals can be done via
___________
microwaves(N)
 infrared(N)

all of the mentioned(Y)

data link layer(Y)

network layer(N)
The physical layer translates
logical communication
30
requests from the ______ into transport layer(N)
hardware specific operations.

application layer(N)

device that allows wireless devices to

connect to a wired network(Y)

wireless devices itself(N)

Define access point (AP) in a

31 both device that allows wireless devices
wireless LAN?
to connect to a wired network and
wireless devices itself(N)

all the nodes in the network(N)

CDMA(N)

State the multiple access CSMA/CA(Y)

technique is used by IEEE
32
802.11 standard for wireless
LAN?
ALOHA(N)
 CSMA/CD(N)

collision detection(Y)

acknowledgement of data frames(N)

State the following event which

33 is not possible in wireless
LAN? multi-mode data transmission(N)

connection to wired networks(N)

Star(N)

Mesh(N)

_______ topology states to

34 require a multipoint
connection. Ring(N)

Bus(Y)

LAN(Y)

WAN(N)
Data communication system
spanning states, countries, or
35
the whole world is stated as MAN(N)
________

PAN(N)

Seconds(N)

In TDM, slots are further

36
divided into __________ Frames(Y)
 Packets(N)

Bits(N)

FDM(Y)

TDM(N)
_____ states the multiplexing
technique that shifts each
37
signal to a different carrier Both FDM and TDM(N)
frequency.

PDM(N)

32kbps(Y)

500bps(N)
If link transmits 4000frames per
second, and each slot has 8
38 bits, the transmission rate of
circuit this TDM is recorded as 500kbps(N)
_________

32bps(N)

Greater than(Y)

Lesser than(N)
In TDM, the transmission rate
of a multiplexed path is always
39 _______ the sum of the
transmission rates of the Equal to(N)
signal sources.

Equal to or greater than(N)

Select the following delay that Propagation delay(N)

40
is faced by the packet in
 travelling from one end system
to another? Queuing delay(N)

Transmission delay(N)

All of the mentioned(Y)

3.2(Y)

For a 10Mbps Ethernet link, if

32(N)
the length of the packet is
32bits, the transmission delay
41
is ____________ (in
microseconds). Select the 0.32(N)
correct answer.

320(N)

Processing delay(Y)

Queuing delay(N)
The time required to examine
the packet’s header and
42
determine where to direct the Transmission delay(N)
packet is part of __________

Propagation delay(N)

In the transfer of file between 20Mbps(N)

server and client, if the
transmission rates along the
43 path is 10Mbps, 20Mbps,
30Mbps, 40Mbps. The
throughput is usually stated to 10Mbps(Y)
be ___________
 40Mbps(N)

50Mbps(N)

Packet length(N)

Distance between the routers(Y)

Transmission delay does not

44 depend on _____________.
Select the correct answer. Transmission rate(N)

Bandwidth of medium(N)

Packet length(N)

Transmission rate(N)

Propagation delay depends on

45 ___________. Select the
correct answer. Distance between the routers(Y)

Speed of the CPU(N)

network layer(Y)

physical layer(N)
The data link layer takes the
packets from _________ and
46
encapsulates them into frames transport layer(N)
for transmission.

application layer(N)

framing(N)
Predict the following tasks is
47
not done by data link layer?
 error control(N)

flow control(N)

channel coding(Y)

logical link control sublayer(N)

media access control sublayer(Y)

Select the sublayer of the data
link layer performs data link
48
functions that depend upon the network interface control sublayer(N)
type of medium?

error control sublayer(N)

synchronization bytes(N)

addresses(N)

Header of a frame generally

49 contains ______________.
Predict the correct option. frame identifier(N)

all of the mentioned(Y)

logical link control sublayer(Y)

media access control sublayer(N)

Automatic repeat request error

50 management mechanism is
predicted by ________ network interface control sublayer(N)

application access control sublayer(N)

 random error(N)

burst error(Y)
When 2 or more bits in a data
unit has been changed during
51
the transmission,the error inverted error(N)
reported as ____________

double error(N)

ethernet(N)

point to point protocol(N)

Indicate the following as a data

52
link protocol? hdlc(N)

all of the mentioned(Y)

CSMA/CD(N)

CSMA/CA(N)
Select the one from the
following as the multiple
53
access protocol for channel Both CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA(Y)
access control?

HDLC(N)

piggybacking(Y)

The technique of temporarily

delaying outgoing cyclic redundancy check(N)
acknowledgements so that
54
they can be hooked onto the
next outgoing data frame is
cited as ____________ fletcher’s checksum(N)
 parity check(N)

Remove after congestion occurs(N)

Remove after sometime(N)

In open-loop control, policies

55 are applied to report
__________ Prevent before congestion occurs(Y)

Prevent before sending packets(N)

Packet is lost(N)

Packet is corrupted(N)
Retransmission of packets
must not be done when
56
_______. Predict the correct Packet is needed(N)
option.

Packet is error-free(Y)

Packet which are not lost(N)

In Go-Back-N window, when

the timer of the packet times
out, several packets have to be Only those packets which are lost or
resent even some may have corrupted(Y)
57
arrived safe. Whereas in
Selective Repeat window, the
sender resends ___________. Packet from starting(N)
Identify the correct option.

All the packets(N)

Remove after congestion occurs(Y)

58
 Remove after sometime(N)

Closed-Loop control
Prevent before congestion occurs(N)
mechanisms try to report
_________

Prevent before sending packets(N)

Data transmission over the physical

medium(Y)

Routing data between networks(N)

Select the primary purpose of
59 the Data Link Layer in the OSI
model? Ensuring end-to-end data delivery(N)

Managing application-layer protocols(N)

Pure ALOHA(N)

Slotted ALOHA(Y)
Select the multiple access
protocol that uses time slots to
60
divide the transmission time CSMA/CD(N)
into fixed intervals?

CSMA/CA(N)

Whenever a station transmits(N)

Whenever a station successfully

In Pure ALOHA, identify when transmits(N)
61
is a collision detected?

After a fixed time interval(N)

 Only when two stations transmit
simultaneously(Y)

Both stations stop transmitting and retry

later(Y)

One station continues transmitting while

In CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense the other waits(N)
Multiple Access with Collision
62 Detection), cite the action
being taken if a collision is Both stations continue transmitting
detected? without any changes(N)

The stations switch to full-duplex mode(N)

Hamming code(N)

CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)(Y)

Select the error detection
technique that uses a
63
polynomial division to generate Block coding(N)
a checksum?

Parity bit(N)

Hamming code(N)

CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)(N)

In error correction, select the
technique that allows the
64 receiver to correct errors
Block coding(Y)
without requesting
retransmission?

Parity bit(N)

Efficiently transmit large data packets(N)

65
 Detect and correct errors in data(N)

Ensure ordered and reliable data

Identify the purpose of the
transfer(Y)
Stop-and-Wait ARQ (Automatic
Repeat reQuest) protocol?

Share the communication medium among

multiple users(N)

Stop-and-Wait ARQ(N)

Go-Back-N ARQ(N)
Identify the error control
protocol that retransmits only
66
the packets that are corrupted Selective Repeat ARQ(Y)
or lost during transmission?

Sliding Window(N)

A protocol for transmitting data over long

distances(N)

A technique for attaching error-checking

information to data frames(N)

What does the term

67 \"piggybacking\" infer to in A method for combining data and
networking? acknowledgment frames in a single
transmission(Y)

The process of routing data packets

through multiple networks(N)

Pure ALOHA(N)
Select the medium access
68 protocol that is commonly
used in Ethernet networks? Slotted ALOHA(N)
 CSMA/CD(Y)

CSMA/CA(N)

Hamming code(Y)

CRC(N)

Identify the coding scheme that

69 can detect and correct single-
bit errors? Block coding(N)

Parity bit(N)

Only at the beginning of each time slot(Y)

At any time during a time slot(N)

In Slotted ALOHA, discuss the

70 After detecting an idle channel(N)
time a station transmit data?

Only after receiving an

acknowledgment(N)

Detect and correct errors in data

frames(N)

Handle flow control between sender and

Identify the purpose of the receiver(N)
71 Medium Access Control (MAC)
sublayer?
Manage access to the shared
communication medium(Y)
 Route data between different networks(N)

Stop-and-Wait ARQ(N)

Go-Back-N ARQ(N)

Which error control protocol

72 maintains a sender\'s window
of unacknowledged packets? Selective Repeat ARQ(N)

Sliding Window(Y)

Accessing data stored in a random

order(N)

Randomly selecting a transmission

medium(N)
In the context of data
73 transmission, what does
\"random access\" infer to? Allowing multiple stations to transmit
without coordination(Y)

Sending data in a random sequence(N)

By counting the number of bits set to 1 in

a data frame(N)

By identifying the positions of flipped bits

in a received frame(Y)
Indicate the way Hamming
74 Distance help in error
detection? By generating a polynomial checksum for
data frames(N)

By using block coding to correct errors(N)

75 Pure ALOHA(Y)
 Slotted ALOHA(N)

Select the access protocol that

has a higher probability of
CSMA/CD(N)
collisions but simpler
implementation?

CSMA/CA(N)

Detect and correct errors in data

frames(N)

Manage access to the communication

medium(N)
Select the primary purpose of
76 the Flow Control mechanism in
data communication? Ensure data is delivered to the correct
destination(N)

Prevent sender from overwhelming the

receiver(Y)

Simpler implementation(N)

Lower transmission delay(N)

Estimate is the key advantage

77 of Selective Repeat ARQ over Fewer retransmissions(Y)
Go-Back-N ARQ?

Greater efficiency in handling lost

packets(N)

Dividing data into blocks for

transmission(N)
What does the term \"Block
78 coding\" refer to in the context
of error correction?
Coding data into fixed-size blocks for
error detection(Y)
 Encoding data with a fixed-length code for
transmission(N)

Coding data in variable-sized blocks for

error correction(N)

Error reporting(Y)

Handle addressing conventions(N)

Select the function from the

79 following that is not applicable
for IP? Datagram format(N)

Packet handling conventions(N)

Flags(N)

Offset(N)

Select from the following field

80 in IPv4 datagram is not related
TOS(Y)
to fragmentation?

Identifier(N)

TCP(N)

UDP(Y)
If the value in protocol field is
17, the transport layer protocol
81
used is estimated as
_____________ ICMP(N)

IGMP(N)
 is connectionless(N)

offer reliable service(Y)

Select which of these is not

82
applicable for IP protocol? offer unreliable service(N)

does not offer error reporting(N)

complicates routers(N)

open to DOS attack(N)

Predict from the following,

83
demerits of Fragmentation? overlapping of fragments.(N)

all of the mentioned(Y)

Ips(N)

Blocks(Y)

In classless addressing, there

84 are no classes but addresses
Codes(N)
are still described in _____

Sizes(N)

Class Network(N)

First address in a block is used

Entity(N)
85 as network address that
represents the ________

Organization(Y)
 Codes(N)

Organized(N)

Blocked(N)

In classful addressing, a large

86 part of available addresses are
identified as ________ Wasted(Y)

Communicated(N)

Routing(N)

Mask(N)

Network addresses are

87 describes as a very important
concept of ________ IP Addressing(Y)

Classless Addressing(N)

4 bytes(N)

128 bits(Y)

The size of an IP address in

88
IPv6 is infered as _________ 8 bytes(N)

100 bits(N)

broadcast(Y)
IPv6 does not use _________
89 type of address. Select the
correct answer. multicast(N)
 anycast(N)

unicast(N)

Fragmentation(N)

Header checksum(N)

Select among the following

90 features that is present in IPv6
but not in IPv4? Options(N)

Anycast address(Y)

Use dual-stack approach(N)

Suppose two IPv6 nodes want Tunneling(Y)

to interoperate using IPv6
datagrams, but they are
91 connected to each other by
intervening IPv4 routers. The No solution(N)
best solution here is order a
________
Replace the system(N)

Isolated router(N)

Isolated mask(N)

A link local address of local

92 addresses is used in an
_______ Isolated subnet(Y)

Isolated net(N)

Select the statement(s)about Leading zeros are required(N)

93
IPv6 addresses are true?
 Two colons (::) are used to represent
successive hexadecimal fields of zeros(Y)

Two colons (::) are used to separate

fields(N)

A single interface cannot have multiple

IPv6 addresses of different types(N)

Class A, Subnet 172.16.13.0, Broadcast

address 172.16.13.127(N)

Class B, Subnet 172.16.13.0, Broadcast

You have an IP address of address 172.16.13.127(Y)
172.16.13.5 with a
255.255.255.128 subnet mask.
94
Select your class of address, Class B, Subnet 172.16.13.0, Broadcast
subnet address, and broadcast address 172.16.13.255(N)
address?

Class B, Subnet 172.16.0.0, Broadcast

address 172.16.255.255(N)

255.255.255.252(N)

255.255.255.255(N)
If you wanted to have 12
subnets with a Class C network
95
ID, Select the subnet mask 255.255.255.240(Y)
would you use?

255.255.255.248(N)

The combination of _________ Network number and host number(N)

and __________ is often
96 explained as the local address
of the local portion of the IP Network number and subnet number(N)
address.
 Subnet number and host number(Y)

Host number(N)

Static subnetting(Y)

Dynamic subnetting(N)

_________ infers that all

97 subnets obtained from the
same subnet mask. Variable length subnetting(N)

Dynamic length subnetting(N)

Ethernet(N)

_________ is a collective term Fast Ethernet(Y)

that represent a number of
Ethernet Standards that carry
98
traffic at the nominal rate of
Gigabit Ethernet(N)
1000 Mbit/s against the original
Ethernet speed of 10 Mbit/s.

Gigabyte Ethernet(N)

Your router has the following

IP address on Ethernet0:
172.16.2.1/23. Select from the i only(N)
following can be valid host IDs
99
on the LAN interface attached
to the router? i. 172.16.1.100 ii.
172.16.1.198 iii. 172.16.2.255 iv.
172.16.3.0

ii and iii only(N)

 iii and iv only(Y)

ii only(N)

14(N)

Predict the maximum number 15(N)

of IP addresses that can be
100 assigned to hosts on a local
subnet that uses the 16(N)
255.255.255.224 subnet mask?

30(Y)

255.255.255.192(N)

255.255.255.224(Y)
You need to subnet a network
into 5 subnets, each with at
101 least 16 hosts. Select the
255.255.255.240(N)
classful subnet mask would
you use?

255.255.255.248(N)

You have a network that needs

29 subnets while maximizing
the number of host addresses 2(N)
available on each subnet.
102
Predict the number of bits
must you borrow from the host
field to provide the correct
subnet mask?
 3(N)

4(N)

5(Y)

172.16.112.0(Y)

172.16.0.0(N)
If an Ethernet port on a router
were assigned an IP address of
103 172.16.112.1/25, what would be
the valid subnet address of this 172.16.96.0(N)
host?

172.16.255.0(N)

6(Y)

You have an interface on a

router with the IP address of
192.168.192.10/29. Including
104 the router interface, judge how
8(N)
many hosts can have IP
addresses on the LAN attached
to the router interface?
30(N)

32(N)

172.16.36.0(N)

What is the subnet id of a host

105 with an IP address
172.16.48.0(N)
172.16.66.0/21?
 172.16.64.0(Y)

172.16.0.0(N)

7 subnets, 30 hosts each(N)

8 subnets, 8,190 hosts each(Y)

The network address of
172.16.0.0/19 provides how
106 many subnets and
8 subnets, 2,046 hosts each(N)
hosts?Select the correct
option.

7 subnets, 2,046 hosts each(N)

60(Y)

90(N)

Novell’s implementation of RIP

107 updates routing tables every
_________ seconds. 10(N)

30(N)

Ticks & Hops(Y)

Hops & Loops(N)

In Novell’s use of RIP, there are
two metrics used to make
108
routing decisions. Select the Loops & Counts(N)
correct metrics.

Counts & Ticks(N)

Predict the routing protocol RIPv1(N)

109 that has a maximum network
diameter (hop count) of 15?
 RIPv2(Y)

EIGRP(N)

Both RIPv1 and RIPv2(N)

Every 30 seconds(Y)

Every 60 seconds(N)

Estimate how often does a

110 RIPv1 router broadcast its
routing table by default? Every 90 seconds(N)

RIPv1 does not broadcast periodically(N)

Show IP route(N)

Debug IP rip(Y)

Select the command that

111
displays RIP routing updates? Show protocols(N)

Debug IP route(N)

The updated information will be added to

the existing routing table Debug IP rip(N)

Two connected routers are

configured with RIP routing. The update will be ignored and no further
Estimate the result when a action will occur Debug IP route(Y)
112 router receives a routing
update that contains a higher-
cost path to a network already
in its routing table? The updated information will replace the
existing routing table entry(N)
 The existing routing table entry will be
deleted from the routing table and all
routers will exchange routing updates to
reach convergence(N)

The route is 16 hops away Debug IP rip(N)

The route has a delay of 16 microseconds

Debug IP route(N)
You type debug IP rip on your
router console and see that
113 172.16.10.0 is being advertised
to you with a metric of 16. The route is inaccessible(Y)
Indicate its meaning.

The route is queued at 16 messages a

second(N)

0(N)

90(N)

Default administrative distance

114 of a static route is estimated as
________ 100(N)

1(Y)

IEGRP(N)

RIP(Y)

Trace the protocol that gives a

115 full route table update every 30
seconds? ICMP(N)

IP(N)

0(N)
116
 90(N)

_________ is estimated as the

120(Y)
default administrative distance
of RIP.

130(N)

The use of discontinuous networks is not

allowed(N)

Use of variable length subnet masks is

permitted(Y)
Select the statement that is
117 true regarding classless
routing protocol? RIPv1 is a classless routing protocol(N)

IGRP supports classes routing within the

same autonomous system(N)

On stub networks- which have only one

exit path out of the network(Y)

Which have more than one exit path out of

the network(N)

Predict when should we use

118
default routing? Minimum five exit paths out of the
network(N)

Maximum five exit paths out of the

network(N)

Connection-oriented(N)

Select which of the following is

119
false with respect to TCP?
Process-to-process(N)
 Transport layer protocol(N)

Unreliable(Y)

Stream of bytes(Y)

Sequence of characters(N)

In TCP, sending and receiving

120 data is done as _______. Select
the correct option. Lines of data(N)

Packets(N)

Packets(N)

Buffers(Y)
TCP process may not write and
read data at the same speed.
121
So we need __________ for Segments(N)
storage.

Stacks(N)

Packet(N)

Buffer(N)

TCP groups a number of bytes

122 together into a packet
Segment(Y)
explained as _______

Stack(N)

Communication observed by Full-duplex(Y)

123
TCP is ________
 Half-duplex(N)

Semi-duplex(N)

Byte by byte(N)

Packet(N)

Buffer(N)
To achieve reliable transport in
TCP, ___________ is used to
124
check the safe and sound Segment(N)
arrival of data.

Acknowledgment(Y)

Byte number(Y)

Buffer number(N)

In segment header, sequence

125 number and acknowledgement
number fields infer to _______ Segment number(N)

Acknowledgment(N)

Suppose a TCP connection is 10000(N)

transferring a file of 1000
bytes. The first byte is
126 numbered 10001. Select the
sequence number of the
segment if all data is sent in 10001(Y)
only one segment?

12001(N)
 11001(N)

Fixed number(N)

Random sequence of 0’s and 1’s(N)

Bytes of data being transferred
in each connection are
127 numbered by TCP. These
numbers start with a One(N)
_________

Sequence of zero’s and one’s(Y)

sequence number of the byte received

previously(N)

total number of bytes to receive(N)

The value of acknowledgement

128 field in a segment explains
sequence number of the next byte to be
_______
received(Y)

sequence of zeros and ones(N)

16 and 32 bytes(N)

16 and 32 bits(N)

Size of TCP segment header

129
ranges between ___________ 20 and 60 bytes(Y)

20 and 60 bits(N)

Connection establishment in Flow control(N)

130
TCP is done by which
 mechanism? Select the
correction opttion. Three-Way Handshaking(Y)

Forwarding(N)

Synchronization(N)

Active open(N)

Active close(N)
The server program tells its
TCP that it is ready to accept a
131
connection. This process is Passive close(N)
indicated as ___________

Passive open(Y)

Active open(Y)

A client that wishes to connect

to an open server tells its TCP Active close(N)
that it needs to be connected
132
to that particular server. The
process is identified as Passive close(N)
___________

Passive open(N)

Mutual open(N)

In Three-Way Handshaking
process, the situation where Mutual Close(N)
133
both the TCP’s issue an active
open is ___________
Simultaneous open(Y)
 Simultaneous close(N)

SYNC flooding attack(Y)

A malicious attacker sends a
large number of SYNC
segments to a server,
pretending that each of them is
coming from a different client
134
by faking the source IP
address in the datagram. Active attack(N)
Select the type of attack is
being performed in this
situation? Passive attack(N)

Denial-of-service attack(N)

SYNC flooding attack(N)

Active attack(N)

SYNC flooding attack belongs

135 to a type of security attack
known as ___________ Passive attack(N)

Denial-of-service attack(Y)

16-bits and 32-bits(N)

The sizes of source and 16-bits and 16-bits(Y)

destination port address in
136
TCP header are extended as
___________ respectively.
32-bits and 16-bits(N)
 32-bits and 32-bits(N)

Sequence number(N)

Acknowledgment number(Y)
Identify the field that allows
TCP to detect lost segments
137 Checksum(N)
and in turn recover from that
loss?

Both Sequence & Acknowledgment

number(N)

Connection-oriented(Y)

Unreliable(N)

Predict from the following is

138
false with respect to UDP? Transport layer protocol(N)

Low overhead(N)

String of characters(Y)

String of integers(N)

Return value of the UDP port

139 “Chargen” is reported as
_______ Array of characters with integers(N)

Array of zero’s and one’s(N)

Routing and switching(N)

Beyond IP, UDP provides
140 additional services illustrated
as _______ Sending and receiving of packets(N)
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing(N)

Demultiplexing and error checking(Y)

More overload(N)

Reliable(N)

Select the main advantage of

141
UDP? Low overhead(Y)

Fast(N)

161(N)

123(N)

Port number used by Network

142 Time Protocol (NTP) with UDP
is identified as ________ 162(N)

124(Y)

8 bytes(Y)

8 bits(N)

Select the header size of a UDP

143
packet? 16 bytes(N)

124 bytes(N)

NTP(N)
144
 Echo(N)

The port number is “ephemeral

Server(N)
port number”, if the source
host is reported as _______

Client(Y)

Only UDP header(N)

Only data(N)

“Total length” field in UDP

145 packet header is the length of
_________ Only checksum(N)

UDP header plus data(Y)

UDP length = IP length – IP header’s

length(Y)

UDP length = UDP length – UDP header’s

length(N)
Predict the correct expression
146 for the length of UDP
datagram? UDP length = IP length + IP header’s
length(N)

UDP length = UDP length + UDP header’s

length(N)

udp header(N)

The ______ field is used to

147 detect errors over the entire checksum(Y)
user datagram.

source port(N)
 destination port(N)

AH(Y)

ESP(N)

______ provides authentication

148
at the IP level. PGP(N)

SSL(N)

source authentication(N)

data integrity(N)

ESP does not provide

149
________ privacy(N)

error control(Y)

confidentiality(N)

integrity(Y)
In computer security _______
express that computer system
150
assets can be modified only by availability(N)
authorized parities.

authenticity(N)

confidentiality(Y)
In computer security _______
151 express that the information in
a computer system only be
integrity(N)
 accessible for reading by
authorized parities.
availability(N)

authenticity(N)

generate executable files from web

content by web server(Y)

generate web pages(N)

Common gateway interface is

152
used to _______
stream videos(N)

download media files(N)

 MARKS-3
1. Define each of the fundamental components of data
communication systems?
Data communication is the exchange of data between devices over a
transmission medium. It uses physical phenomena, like electromagnetic waves
or light propagation, to transfer information.
Here are some fundamental concepts of data communication systems:
 Data: The information being transmitted, which can be text, photos,
video, sound, or numbers
 Sender: The device that sends the data
 Receiver: The device that receives the data
 Medium: The channel that carries the data between the sender and
receiver, such as a wire, optical fibre, or wireless
 Network: A group of devices connected by communication links
 Node: A device that can send and receive data, such as a computer or
printer
 Link: A medium that carries the signal, such as a cable, air, or optical
fibre.

2. Describe the concept of data flow in a network.

Data flow in a network refers to the movement of data packets between devices over
communication channels, governed by protocols that ensure efficient, secure, and
reliable transmission.
Key Points:
Types of Data Flow:
 Simplex: Data flows in one direction only (e.g., keyboards to computers).
 Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time
(e.g., walkie-talkies).
 Full-Duplex: Data flows simultaneously in both directions (e.g., telephone
calls).
Flow Control: Mechanisms like TCP use flow control to manage data transfer rates,
preventing congestion and ensuring smooth communication.
Data Segmentation: Large data is divided into smaller packets for transmission,
reassembled upon reaching the destination.
Routing: Data flows along optimal paths determined by network protocols like IP.
Error Control: Mechanisms ensure data integrity during transmission (e.g.,
checksums).

3. Name three common types of network topologies and provide

a brief explanation of each.
Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network. It defines how these
components are connected and how data transfer between the networks.
Below mentioned are the common types of Network Topology:
 Star Topology: In Star Topology, all the devices are
connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node, and all other nodes are connected to
the central node. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are
used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many
popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as
CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access), etc.

Bus Topology: Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected to a single cable. It
is bi-directional. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes. In Bus Topology,
various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA,
Slotted Aloha, etc.

Ring Topology: In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring

connecting devices with exactly two neighbouring
devices. Several repeaters are used for Ring topology
with many nodes, because if someone wants to send
some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100
nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes
to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.

4. Describe network protocols and standards in data

communication?
Network Protocols: Network protocols are formal rules, procedures, and conventions
that govern communication between devices on a network. They define how data is
formatted, transmitted, and processed to ensure seamless and reliable communication
between devices, regardless of differences in their underlying hardware or software.

Network Standards: Network standards are established guidelines and specifications

created by organizations to ensure interoperability and compatibility of devices across
networks. Standards ensure uniformity in design, operation, and communication,
enabling diverse systems and devices to work together.

Explanation: Network protocols and standards work in tandem to facilitate effective

communication. Protocols focus on technical rules for specific tasks (e.g., addressing,
routing, or error checking), while standards provide a universally accepted framework,
ensuring compatibility across manufacturers and systems. Examples include the HTTP
protocol for web browsing and the IEEE 802.11 standard for Wi-Fi communication.
5. Define the OSI model and list its seven layers.
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that
standardizes the functions of a communication system into seven distinct layers. It was
developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to facilitate
interoperability between different network systems and protocols.
Seven Layers of the OSI Model:
 Physical Layer: Responsible for the physical connection between devices,
including the transmission of raw data bits over a medium (e.g., cables, radio
waves).
 Data Link Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer between directly connected
nodes by managing error detection, correction, and framing.
 Network Layer: Handles logical addressing, routing, and forwarding of data
across multiple networks.
 Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end communication, error recovery, and
data flow control between host systems.
 Session Layer: Manages and controls connections (sessions) between
applications, ensuring synchronization and proper termination.
 Presentation Layer: Translates data between the application layer and the
network, handling encryption, compression, and data format conversion.
 Application Layer: Interfaces directly with end-user applications and provides
services like email, file transfer, and web browsing.

6. What are the different types of transmission media used in data

communication? Provide examples of each.
Transmission media refers to the physical medium through which data is transmitted
from one device to another within a network. These media can be wired or wireless.
The choice of medium depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference.
Transmission Media is mainly classified into two types:
1. Guided Media: Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded
transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a
narrow pathway by using physical links.
Examples: Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, Fiber Optic Cable, etc.
2. Unguided Media: It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission
media. No physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals.
Examples: Radio Waves, Microwaves, Infrared (IR), etc.
7. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of wired LANs and
wireless LANs.
8. Define the primary purpose of Virtual LAN (VLAN) in network
management?
The primary purpose of a Virtual LAN (VLAN) in network management is to logically
segment a physical network into multiple virtual networks. VLANs allow administrators
to group devices based on factors like function, department, or application, regardless
of their physical location. This segmentation improves network efficiency, security, and
management.
Key Purposes:
 Enhanced Security: VLANs isolate broadcast domains, preventing
unauthorized access between different network segments.
 Reduced Broadcast Traffic: By limiting the scope of broadcast traffic to a
specific VLAN, overall network congestion is minimized.
 Simplified Management: VLANs provide flexibility in network design, allowing
devices to be grouped and managed logically, without needing physical
changes.
 Improved Network Performance: By isolating traffic within VLANs, network
performance is optimized, as each VLAN operates independently.

9. Describe the concept of multiplexing and why it is used in

networking?
Multiplexing is a technique used in communication systems to combine multiple signals
or data streams into one signal, which is transmitted over a single communication
channel or medium. This process allows efficient use of the available bandwidth, as
multiple pieces of data can be sent simultaneously without requiring separate channels
for each.
Why Multiplexing is Used in Networking:
 Efficient Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing allows multiple data streams to
share the same transmission medium, optimizing the use of available
bandwidth.
 Cost Reduction: By minimizing the need for separate channels or
infrastructure, multiplexing reduces costs associated with network hardware
and maintenance.
 Improved Network Capacity: It increases the capacity of communication
systems, allowing for more data to be transmitted simultaneously over existing
network resources.
 Better Management of Resources: Multiplexing helps manage network
resources more effectively by enabling the consolidation of traffic from multiple
users or devices into a single stream.

10. Define spread spectrum in the context of data

communication, and why is it important in modern wireless
networks?
Spread Spectrum is a technique used in wireless communication to spread the signal
over a wide range of frequencies, rather than transmitting it on a single frequency. This
is achieved by modulating the signal so that it occupies a larger bandwidth than the
 minimum required to transmit the data. The signal is "spread" over a broad frequency
spectrum, making it more resistant to interference and eavesdropping.
Importance of Spread Spectrum in Modern Wireless Networks:
 Resistance to Interference: Spread Spectrum reduces the impact of
interference from other wireless devices and environmental noise, allowing for
more reliable communication.
 Security: By spreading the signal across a wide frequency range, it becomes
harder for eavesdroppers to intercept or decode the signal, enhancing privacy
and security.
 Increased Capacity: Spread Spectrum allows multiple users to share the
same frequency band (via techniques like Code Division Multiple Access, or
CDMA) without significant interference, improving network capacity.
 Better Multipath Resilience: It helps mitigate the effects of multipath
propagation (signals bouncing off obstacles) by making it more likely that parts
of the signal will be received correctly despite distortions.

11. Describe the differences between Frequency Division

Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

12. Analyse a brief overview of different data representation
in computer networks.
In computer networks, data representation is crucial for communication between
systems. Different forms of data representation ensure that transmitted information is
correctly interpreted by the receiving system. Here's a brief overview:

Text: Represented using encoding standards like ASCII or Unicode, which map
characters to numerical values. It ensures interoperability across different platforms
and languages.
Numbers: Represented in binary format using fixed or floating-point notation. Binary
encoding is critical for mathematical operations and efficient storage.
Images: Encoded in formats like JPEG, PNG, or GIF, using compression techniques
to reduce size while maintaining quality.
Audio: Represented as digital signals through sampling and quantization of analogy
sound waves. Common formats include MP3, WAV, and AAC, using codecs to
compress data.
Video: Combines image and audio data, represented as a sequence of frames with
synchronized audio. Formats like MP4, AVI, and MKV employ codecs like H.264 for
compression.
Structured Data: Includes formats like XML, JSON, or YAML, used for data exchange
between applications in a human-readable form.
Encrypted Data: Represented as ciphered text using encryption algorithms to ensure
data confidentiality during transmission.

13. Explain the advantages of Computer Networks.

Computer networks provide a wide range of advantages that enhance communication,
resource sharing, and data management.
Here are the key benefits:
Resource Sharing: Networks allow users to share hardware (e.g., printers, scanners)
and software resources (e.g., applications, databases), reducing costs and improving
efficiency.
Data Sharing and Collaboration: Enables seamless sharing of data among users,
supporting collaborative work and enhancing productivity, especially in organizational
environments.
 Communication: Facilitates various communication modes such as emails, instant
messaging, video conferencing, and VoIP, enabling real-time interaction regardless of
geographical locations.
Centralized Data Management: Centralized storage and management of data make
it easier to maintain, update, and secure information across connected devices.
Remote Access: Provides users with access to files, applications, and systems from
any location, promoting flexibility and remote work opportunities.
Improved Security: Networks allow for the implementation of sophisticated security
measures such as firewalls, encryption, and access control, protecting sensitive data
from unauthorized access.

14. Differentiate between LAN, MAN and WAN.

15. Highlight the advantages and disadvantages of Mesh

topology.
A Mesh Topology is a network design where every node is connected to every other
node either directly (fully connected mesh) or partially (some nodes connected). This
setup allows multiple paths for data to travel, enhancing reliability and fault tolerance.
Advantages:
 High Reliability: Multiple paths ensure that the network remains operational even if
one link fails.
Fault Tolerance: A failure in one connection does not disrupt the entire network, as
alternative paths exist.
Enhanced Security: Point-to-point communication between nodes ensures secure
data transmission with reduced risk of interception.
Disadvantages:
High Cost: Requires significant investment in cables and network interfaces for full
connectivity.
Complex Installation and Maintenance: The large number of connections makes
installation, configuration, and troubleshooting challenging.
Inefficient Use of Resources: Many links remain underutilized, leading to
redundancy and inefficiency.

16. Explain the primary function of the Data Link Layer in a

network.
The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model. Its primary function is to ensure reliable data transfer between adjacent network
nodes over a physical link. It acts as an intermediary between the Physical Layer and
the Network Layer.
Primary Functions:
Framing: The Data Link Layer organizes raw bits received from the Physical Layer
into structured data units called frames for transmission and vice versa at the receiver's
end.
Error Detection and Correction: Identifies errors introduced during transmission
using techniques like Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) and ensures data integrity.
Some protocols also offer error correction mechanisms.
Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transmission to prevent a fast sender from
overwhelming a slower receiver.
Addressing: Provides physical addressing (MAC addresses) to ensure frames are
delivered to the correct device within the same network segment.

17. Differentiate between Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA

multiple access protocols.
18. Explain the basic operation of CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection) in Ethernet networks.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network
protocol used in Ethernet networks to manage access to a shared communication
medium and handle collisions. Here's a breakdown of its basic operation:
Basic Operation Steps:
Carrier Sensing: Before transmitting data, a device listens to the communication
medium (e.g., cable) to check if it is idle or busy. This ensures no two devices transmit
simultaneously.
Transmission: If the medium is idle, the device begins transmitting its data. If the
medium is busy, the device waits and retries after a random backoff period.
Collision Detection: While transmitting, the device monitors the medium for collisions,
which occur when two or more devices transmit simultaneously, causing signals to
overlap.
Collision Handling: Upon detecting a collision, the transmitting devices immediately
stop sending data to avoid further corruption.
Backoff and Retry: After a collision, each device waits for a random backoff time
(calculated using the exponential backoff algorithm) before attempting to retransmit.

This reduces the likelihood of repeated collisions.

19. Illustrate the purpose and operation of CSMA/CA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) in wireless
communication.
Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is a network
protocol that reduces the likelihood of collisions when multiple stations send signals
over a data link layer. CSMA/CA works by having stations check the state of the
medium before transmitting, and only transmitting when the channel is free.
Basic Operation of CSMA/CA:
Carrier Sensing: A device checks the medium to ensure it is idle before attempting to
transmit. If the medium is busy, the device waits until it becomes idle.
Collision Avoidance: Instead of transmitting immediately after sensing an idle
medium, the device waits for a random backoff period. This reduces the chance of two
devices transmitting simultaneously.
RTS/CTS Mechanism (Optional): In some implementations, the device uses a
Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) handshake.
Data Transmission: Once the medium is reserved, the sender transmits the data
frame.
The receiver sends an acknowledgment (ACK) upon successful receipt of the data.
Retransmission: If no acknowledgment is received, the sender assumes a collision
or transmission error occurred and retransmits the data after another backoff period.

20. Explain the fundamental concept of error detection in

data communication.
Error detection in data communication is a fundamental process that ensures the
integrity of data transmitted over a network or communication channel. Since data can
be corrupted due to noise, interference, or other issues during transmission, error
detection helps identify these discrepancies and, in some cases, correct them.

Fundamental Concept of Error Detection:

Error detection involves adding extra information to the data being transmitted,
enabling the receiver to verify the correctness of the received data. This additional
information is called error detection code. If the received data does not match the
expected pattern or checksum, an error is flagged, and retransmission can be
requested.

21. Explain how CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) works as

an error detection technique.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is a powerful error detection technique used in digital
networks and storage devices to ensure data integrity. It detects errors in data
transmission by comparing the transmitted data with a calculated checksum value.
Here's how CRC works step by step:

Steps Involved in CRC Error Detection:

Data Representation: The data to be transmitted is treated as a long binary string,
and a generator polynomial is chosen.
 Division of Data: The data is divided by the generator polynomial using binary
division, but without carrying over the digits.
Calculation of Remainder: The remainder after dividing the data by the generator
polynomial is the CRC code or checksum. This remainder is appended to the original
data before transmission.
Transmission: The data, along with the CRC checksum, is transmitted to the receiver.
Receiver's Check: Upon receiving the data, the receiver also divides the entire
received message by the same generator polynomial.
Error Detection:
 No Error: If the remainder after division is zero, the receiver accepts the data
as correct.
 Error Detected: If the remainder is non-zero, the receiver knows that an error
occurred during transmission and requests a retransmission.

22. Illustrate the Stop-and-Wait protocol for flow control. How

does it ensure reliable data transfer?
The Stop-and-Wait Protocol is a simple flow control and error control method used in
data communication to ensure reliable transmission of data between sender and
receiver. It ensures that each packet is acknowledged before the sender sends the
next one. This method is typically used in point-to-point communication systems.
Ensuring Reliable Data Transfer:
The Stop-and-Wait Protocol ensures reliable data transfer through the following
mechanisms:

Acknowledgment (ACK) for Each Packet: Every packet sent by the sender is
acknowledged by the receiver.
Timeout and Retransmission: If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment
within a set timeout period, it assumes the packet was lost or corrupted and retransmits
the packet.
Error Detection: Although not directly part of the Stop-and-Wait protocol itself, error
detection mechanisms are typically used in conjunction with this protocol.
Flow Control: By sending one packet at a time and waiting for an acknowledgment
before sending the next, the protocol ensures that the receiver is not overwhelmed with
too much data at once. This helps manage data flow and prevents buffer overflow at
the receiver.

23. Compare and contrast Go-Back-N ARQ (Automatic

Repeat reQuest) and Selective Repeat ARQ in terms of error
recovery in data transmission.
24. Explain the concept of sliding window in the context of
data communication. How does it improve network efficiency?
The sliding window is a flow control mechanism used in data communication protocols
to manage the flow of data between a sender and receiver, particularly in protocols like
Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Repeat ARQ. It defines the range of packets that can
be sent by the sender before waiting for an acknowledgment from the receiver. The
window “slides” as acknowledgments are received, allowing more packets to be sent
without waiting for individual acknowledgments for each one.
How Sliding Window Improves Network Efficiency:
Reduces Idle Time: By allowing the sender to transmit multiple packets before waiting
for an acknowledgment, the sliding window reduces the idle time between sending
packets.
Increased Throughput: Since the sender can send a larger number of packets
without waiting for individual acknowledgments, throughput increases.
Better Utilization of Available Bandwidth: The sliding window ensures that the
network link is fully utilized by allowing continuous data transmission, instead of having
to wait for an acknowledgment after every single packet
Flow Control: The sliding window mechanism provides effective flow control by
limiting the number of unacknowledged packets in transit.
Error Handling: The sliding window allows the receiver to buffer out-of-order packets
and only request retransmission for specific lost or corrupted packets.
Improves Reliability: The sliding window mechanism improves the reliability of data
transfer by controlling the flow of data and ensuring that the receiver can process
packets in an orderly manner without overwhelming its buffer.

25. Illustrate the principle of piggybacking in network

communication. When is it commonly used?
Piggybacking is a technique used in network communication to improve efficiency by
combining data transmission with acknowledgment messages. Instead of sending a
separate acknowledgment (ACK) message for each received data packet, the
acknowledgment is piggybacked onto the next data packet that the receiver is sending
 back to the sender. This method helps to reduce the number of packets transmitted,
which conserves bandwidth and minimizes network overhead.
Piggybacking is commonly used in full-duplex communication
systems where both the sender and receiver can transmit data simultaneously, such
as in TCP/IP networks, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
It is typically used in:
Bidirectional Communication: Piggybacking is effective in systems where both the
sender and receiver need to send and receive data.
Reliable Communication Protocols: It is used in reliable transport protocols like TCP
to combine data transfer with acknowledgment.
Low-Latency Networks: Piggybacking is useful when the round-trip time (RTT) is not
too high, as waiting for a data packet to send the ACK may introduce unnecessary
delays if not piggybacked onto the next packet.
Wireless Networks: In wireless communication (e.g., Wi-Fi or Bluetooth), where
bandwidth is more limited, piggybacking helps reduce the number of control messages
(like ACKs) and thus improves the overall throughput of the system.

26. Explain the purpose of a random-access protocol in a

network? Provide an example of a random-access protocol.
A random-access protocol is a type of communication protocol used in networks where
multiple devices or nodes share the same transmission medium (like a wireless
channel or a bus). The primary purpose of random-access protocols is to manage how
devices access and transmit data over a shared communication medium, especially
when multiple devices may attempt to transmit simultaneously.
Key Purposes of Random-Access Protocols:
Collision Avoidance: Random access protocols handle the collision and define
mechanisms for retransmission to ensure data is delivered reliably.
Fairness: These protocols ensure that each device has a fair chance to access the
communication medium.
Efficiency: By allowing devices to transmit randomly, these protocols can minimize
delays and reducing the overhead caused by fixed-time schedules.
Scalability: Random access protocols are scalable and suitable for networks with
varying numbers of devices, such as wireless networks or Ethernet-based systems.
One of the most well-known examples of a random-access protocol is
ALOHA. It is a simple protocol originally used in satellite communication systems but
is also foundational to other protocols like Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

27. Explain the concept of Hamming Distance in error-

correcting codes. How is it used to detect and correct errors in
data transmission?
Hamming Distance is a measure of the difference between two binary strings or
codewords. Specifically, it is defined as the number of positions at which the
corresponding bits are different. In the context of error-correcting codes, the Hamming
distance plays a critical role in determining how well a code can detect and correct
errors during data transmission.
Error-correcting codes are designed to add
redundancy to the original data so that even if some bits are altered during
 transmission, the receiver can detect and correct those errors. The Hamming distance
is a key factor in determining the error detection and error correction capabilities of a
code.

Error Detection: The minimum Hamming distance between any two valid codewords
in a code is an important metric for error detection. A larger Hamming distance allows
the detection of more errors.
Error Correction: The ability to correct errors is also determined by the Hamming
distance. A code with a minimum Hamming distance of d can correct up to (d - 1) / 2
errors.

28. Explain the different types of Error Detection techniques

in brief.
Error detection techniques are used in computer networks to identify errors that occur
during data transmission and maintain data integrity. Below are the common types of
error detection techniques:

Parity Check: A single parity bit is added to the data to ensure that the total number
of 1s is either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
Checksum: The data is divided into fixed-size blocks, and their sum is calculated. This
sum, called the checksum, is transmitted with the data.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Treats the data as a binary number and divides it
by a fixed polynomial. The remainder (CRC) is appended to the data.
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC): Data is organized in rows, and a parity bit
is calculated for each column. These parity bits form a separate row.
Hamming Code: Adds redundant parity bits to data, allowing detection and correction
of single-bit errors.

29. Compare the different types of framing and the

approaches used in framing.
30. What is the primary function of the network layer in the
OSI model?
The network layer in the OSI model is responsible for enabling end-to-end
communication between devices across different networks. Its primary function is to
route and forward data packets from the source device to the destination device,
ensuring efficient and reliable delivery.

Key Functions of the Network Layer:

Logical Addressing: Assigns unique IP addresses to devices to identify source and
destination nodes in a network.
Routing: Determines the optimal path for data to travel between source and
destination across interconnected networks.
Packet Forwarding: Transfers packets from one node to the next, based on routing
decisions, toward their destination.
Fragmentation and Reassembly: Splits larger packets into smaller fragments to
match the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the network and reassembles them at
the destination.
Error Handling: Detects and reports errors like unreachable destinations using
protocols like ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol).
Congestion Control: Monitors and manages network congestion to ensure stable
data flow.

31. Differentiate between logical addressing and physical

addressing in networking.
32. Explain the purpose of IP addresses in the context of
network communication.
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier assigned to devices in a
network. It plays a critical role in facilitating communication between devices across
local and wide-area networks, such as the internet.

Key Purposes of IP Addresses:

Device Identification: IP addresses uniquely identify each device in a network. They
ensure that data is delivered to the correct destination.
Facilitating Routing: IP addresses help in determining the path that data packets
should follow to reach their destination. Routers use IP addresses to forward data
between networks.
Logical Addressing: Unlike physical (MAC) addresses, IP addresses provide logical
identification, enabling devices to communicate even across different networks.
End-to-End Communication: They enable direct communication between devices,
ensuring data can traverse multiple networks seamlessly.
Support for Hierarchical Structure: IP addresses are structured hierarchically (e.g.,
network and host portions) to make routing more efficient.
Facilitating Internet Connectivity: Every device accessing the internet requires an
IP address to send and receive data from remote servers or devices.

33. Describe the key characteristics of IPv4 and IPv6

addressing schemes.
Characteristics of IPv4 Addressing Scheme:
 Address Length: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address format.
 Notation: Represented in dotted decimal format, e.g., 192.168.1.1.
 Address Types: Includes unicast, broadcast, and multicast addresses.
 Classes: Divided into five classes (A, B, C, D, E) for specific uses like public,
private, and multicast.
 Address Configuration: Supports manual configuration and Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) for automatic assignment.
 Header Size: IPv4 header has a minimum size of 20 bytes.
 Fragmentation: Can be performed by both routers and hosts.
 Security: Security features are not built-in; requires external protocols like
IPSec for encryption.
Characteristics of IPv6 Addressing Scheme:
 Address Length: IPv6 uses a 128-bit address format.
 Notation: Represented in colon-hexadecimal format, e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334.
 Address Types: Includes unicast, multicast, and anycast (no broadcast).
 Simplified Configuration: Supports stateless address autoconfiguration
(SLAAC) and DHCPv6.
 Header Size: IPv6 header is 40 bytes with a simpler design for efficiency.
 Fragmentation: Performed only by the source node.
  Security: Built-in support for IPSec, ensuring mandatory encryption and
authentication.
 Address Allocation: Designed to address scalability issues and provide a
nearly infinite pool of addresses.

34. How does ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) work, and

why is it important in networking?
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a network protocol used to map a known IP
address to its corresponding MAC (Media Access Control) address in a local network.
It operates primarily in IPv4 networks to ensure proper communication between
devices in a Local Area Network (LAN).

Here's a breakdown of how ARP works:

ARP Request: If the sending device does not know the MAC address, it broadcasts
an ARP Request packet to the entire local network. This request contains the target
device's IP address and asks, “Who has this IP address? Tell me your MAC address.”
ARP Reply: The device that owns the IP address in question will respond with an ARP
Reply. This reply contains the MAC address of the device that owns the IP address.
The reply is sent directly to the requesting device, not as a broadcast.
Caching: Once the requesting device receives the ARP reply, it stores the IP-to-MAC
address mapping in its ARP cache for future communication.
Unicast Communication: After the MAC address is obtained, the sender can use it
to create Ethernet frames and communicate with the target device using unicast
communication.

Why ARP is Important in Networking

Address Resolution: ARP provides a means to translate between these Data Link
Layer and Network Layer.
Efficient Local Communication: ARP provides a dynamic and efficient mechanism
for address resolution, allowing devices to easily communicate within a local network.
Network Discovery: ARP enables devices to discover and communicate with other
devices in the same subnet.
ARP Caching: The caching of IP-to-MAC address mappings helps improve
performance by reducing the frequency of ARP requests.
Network Troubleshooting: ARP can be used for network troubleshooting.
Security Considerations: ARP is susceptible to ARP spoofing.

35. Compare and contrast distance vector and link-state

routing protocols.
36. What is the significance of RIP (Routing Information
Protocol) in routing within a network?
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a distance-vector routing protocol used in
computer networks to determine the best path for data packets to travel. Its
significance lies in its simplicity and historical importance as one of the earliest routing
protocols. Below are the key aspects that highlight RIP's role and significance:

Ease of Implementation: RIP is simple to configure and implement, making it a

preferred choice for small to medium-sized networks.
Dynamic Routing: RIP enables routers to dynamically adjust their routing tables in
response to changes in the network topology.
Network Scalability (within limits): RIP efficiently manages routing in smaller, flat
networks. This prevents routing loops in networks exceeding this size.
Periodic Updates: Routers running RIP exchange routing tables periodically ensuring
all routers in the network have updated information about available routes.
Compatibility: RIP is widely supported across various devices and platforms, making
it a go-to protocol for interconnecting diverse network equipment.

37. Explain how DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol) simplifies IP address assignment in a network.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) simplifies IP address assignment in a
network by automating the process of configuring devices to communicate on an IP-
based network. Here’s how it works and why it is significant:

Automatic IP Address Assignment: DHCP eliminates the need for manual

configuration of IP addresses on devices.
Centralized Management: The DHCP server centralizes IP management, making it
easier for network administrators to handle large networks.
Efficient IP Address Utilization: DHCP dynamically assigns and reclaims IP
addresses as devices join and leave the network.
Scalability: DHCP is well-suited and can handle the assignment of IP addresses
efficiently.
Simplified Troubleshooting: By automating address assignment and reducing
configuration errors making troubleshooting easier for administrators.

38. What is the purpose of a routing table in routing decisions

within a router?
 The routing table is a critical component within a router that helps it make efficient and
accurate routing decisions. Its primary purpose is to store and manage information
about network paths, enabling the router to determine the best route for forwarding
packets toward their destination. Here’s how it serves its purpose:

Path Lookup: The routing table contains entries specifying possible destinations
(network addresses) and the associated paths.

Decision-Making: The table lists several key attributes for each route.
 Destination Network: The target network or host.
 Next Hop: The IP address of the next router or gateway along the path.
 Metric: A value indicating the cost or distance to the destination (e.g., hop
count, bandwidth).
 Interface: The router's local interface to send the packet through. These details
help the router make informed forwarding decisions.
Efficient Traffic Flow: By maintaining up-to-date information about network topology,
the routing table ensures packets are forwarded efficiently, minimizing delays.
Dynamic Adaptability: In dynamic routing, protocols like OSPF or RIP update the
routing table in response to changes in the network topology.
Support for Multiple Routes: Routing tables support multiple routes to the same
destination.

39. Discuss the role of subnetting in IP address management.

Subnetting plays a crucial role in efficient IP address management by dividing a larger
network into smaller, more manageable subnetworks (subnets). This process
enhances network organization, improves performance, and optimizes the utilization
of IP addresses. Here's a detailed look at its role:

Efficient IP Address Utilization: Subnetting helps avoid wastage of IP addresses by

allocating only the necessary number of addresses to each subnet.
Improved Network Organization: Subnetting simplifies network management by
logically segmenting a large network.
Enhanced Network Security: By isolating subnets, subnetting helps contain network
threats.
Reduced Network Traffic: Subnetting reduces broadcast traffic within a network by
confining it to smaller subnets.
Facilitates Hierarchical Addressing: Subnetting enables hierarchical IP address
allocation, which is essential for efficient routing.
Scalability: Subnetting supports the growth of networks by allowing additional subnets
to be created without disrupting existing structures.

40. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of IPv4 and

IPv6, considering their impact on the Internet\'s growth.
41. Evaluate the security implications of ARP spoofing
attacks and propose countermeasures.
ARP spoofing attacks exploit the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) to mislead
devices on a network by associating an attacker’s MAC address with the IP address
of another device, such as a gateway or server. This attack enables various malicious
activities, including eavesdropping, data interception, and man-in-the-middle (MITM)
attacks. Here’s an evaluation of the security implications and effective
countermeasures:

Security Implications of ARP Spoofing:

Data Interception: Attackers can intercept sensitive data, including credentials,
personal information, and financial details.
Denial of Service (DoS): Attackers can map multiple IP addresses to a single MAC
address, causing network traffic to collapse.
Session Hijacking: Allows attackers to hijack active sessions by masquerading as a
trusted entity.

Countermeasures Against ARP Spoofing:

Implement ARP Inspection: Use technologies like Dynamic ARP Inspection (DAI)
available on managed switches to validate ARP packets.
Enable Port Security: Configure port security on switches to restrict the number of
MAC addresses per port.
Encrypt Network Traffic: Employ secure protocols like HTTPS, SSH, and VPNs to
ensure data confidentiality even if ARP spoofing occurs.
42. Compare and contrast the design philosophy and
mechanisms of OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) and EIGRP
(Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) as advanced
routing protocols.

43. Investigate the scalability challenges faced by RIP

(Routing Information Protocol) and how modern routing
protocols have addressed them.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP), an early distance-vector routing protocol, faces
several scalability challenges due to its inherent limitations. Modern routing protocols,
such as OSPF, EIGRP, and BGP, were designed to address these shortcomings.
Below is an analysis of RIP’s scalability challenges and how they have been overcome
in modern protocols.
 Scalability Challenges of RIP
Limited Hop Count: RIP’s maximum hop count is 15, meaning any route requiring
more than 15 hops is considered unreachable. This severely restricts its applicability
in large networks.
Slow Convergence: RIP uses periodic updates (every 30 seconds) and relies on
timers to stabilize routes. This results in slow convergence, especially after topology
changes.
Excessive Bandwidth Usage: RIP broadcasts its entire routing table to all
neighbours, even if there are no changes.

Modern routing protocols address RIP's scalability issues through:

Hierarchical Routing: Protocols like OSPF and BGP support network segmentation
(areas and prefix summarization) to reduce routing table size and improve efficiency
in large networks.
Faster Convergence and Efficient Updates: OSPF and EIGRP use link-state
mechanisms and triggered updates, ensuring rapid convergence and minimizing
bandwidth usage by only sending updates when changes occur.

44. What is the primary difference between User Datagram

Protocol (UDP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) in the
context of process-to-process communication?

45. Explain the role of congestion control in the Stream

Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) and how it differs from
TCP congestion control.
In the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), congestion control is a key
mechanism used to regulate the flow of data between endpoints to prevent network
congestion and ensure efficient data transmission. SCTP’s congestion control is
designed to provide reliability and fairness while accommodating the protocol's unique
features, such as multihoming (the ability to use multiple network paths). Here's an
explanation of how congestion control works in SCTP:
 Key Roles of Congestion Control in SCTP
Avoiding Network Congestion: SCTP adjusts the rate of data transmission based
on the current network congestion.
Congestion Window (cwnd) Adjustment: Like TCP, SCTP uses a congestion
window to control the amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgments.
Multihoming and Path Selection: One of SCTP’s distinguishing features is its ability
to support multihoming—the use of multiple IP addresses or network paths for a single
SCTP association. This allows SCTP to distribute traffic across multiple paths.

46. Describe the fundamental purpose of the Transport Layer

in the OSI model and how it facilitates process-to-process
communication.
The Transport Layer in the OSI model serves as a critical intermediary between the
application and network layers. Its primary purpose is to provide reliable and efficient
process-to-process communication across a network, ensuring that data transmitted
from a source application reaches the intended destination application accurately and
in the correct order.

Fundamental Purposes of the Transport Layer

Process-to-Process Communication: The Transport Layer establishes
communication between specific processes running on source and destination devices
Segmentation and Reassembly: It breaks down large data streams from the
application layer into smaller, manageable segments for transmission. At the
destination, it reassembles these segments into the original message.
 Error Detection and Recovery: It ensures data integrity by detecting errors
requesting retransmissions if necessary, depending on the protocol.

To facilitate process-to-process communication, the Transport Layer uses

Ports, which are numerical identifiers associated with specific processes or
applications. For example:
Source Port: Identifies the originating application on the sender's device.
Destination Port: Identifies the target application on the receiver's device.

Protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) operate at this layer:
TCP: Ensures reliable, ordered delivery with acknowledgments, flow control, and
congestion management.
UDP: Provides faster, connectionless communication without reliability features,
suitable for real-time applications.

47. How does the Token Bucket algorithm work to regulate

traffic in a network, and what is its significance in Quality of
Service (QoS) management?
The Token Bucket algorithm is a widely used mechanism in network traffic regulation,
specifically for controlling the rate at which data is transmitted. It is crucial in Quality of
Service (QoS) management, as it helps enforce traffic shaping, ensuring that network
resources are used efficiently and fairly.

Steps Involved in Token Bucket Algorithm

Creation of Bucket: An imaginative bucket is assigned a fixed capacity, known as
"rate limit". It can hold up to a certain number of tokens.
Refill the Bucket: The bucket is dynamic; it gets periodically filled with tokens. Tokens
are added to the bucket at a fixed rate.
Incoming Requests: Upon receiving a request, we verify the presence of tokens in
the bucket.
Consume Tokens: If there are tokens in the bucket, we pick one token from it. This
means the request is allowed to proceed. The time of token consumption is also
recorded.
Empty Bucket: If the bucket is
depleted, meaning there are no
tokens remaining, the request is
denied. This precautionary measure
prevents server or system overload,
ensuring operation stays within
predefined limits.

Significance in Quality of Service

(QoS) Management
In Quality of Service (QoS) management, the Token Bucket algorithm plays a critical
role in enforcing traffic policies that prioritize certain types of traffic and ensure
consistent service delivery. It helps shape traffic to conform to a defined rate. It allows
for temporary bursts of traffic without violating long-term rate limits. By regulating the
 traffic flow, it ensures fair bandwidth allocation. It helps in monitoring traffic and
ensuring that packets are transmitted according to predefined traffic profiles.

48. In the context of QoS, what is the Leaky Bucket algorithm,

and how does it help in smoothing traffic flows within a
network?
The Leaky Bucket algorithm is another traffic management mechanism used in Quality
of Service (QoS) to regulate and smooth the flow of data in a network. It is particularly
effective at controlling bursty traffic and ensuring that data flows at a consistent,
predetermined rate. The algorithm is often used for traffic shaping, providing a smooth
output flow even when the input traffic is irregular.

How the Leaky Bucket Algorithm Works

Input Traffic (Packets): Data packets enter the "bucket" at varying rates. The input
traffic is often bursty, meaning there are periods of high traffic followed by periods of
low or no traffic.
Bucket: The bucket represents the system's capacity to hold incoming packets. If
packets arrive too quickly, they fill the bucket.
Leak Rate (Output Rate): The bucket has a fixed "leak rate," representing the
maximum rate at which data can be sent out of the bucket to the network. This rate is
usually constant, regardless of the input rate.
Overflow: If packets arrive faster than they
can leak out (i.e., the bucket fills up), they will
overflow and be discarded. This prevents the
network from becoming congested due to
excessive traffic.

How It Helps in Smoothing Traffic Flows

Regulating Traffic Output: The primary
function of the Leaky Bucket algorithm is to
smooth out bursty traffic by regulating the
rate at which packets leave the system.
Ensuring Consistent Data Flow: By leaking data at a constant rate, the algorithm
ensures that the network's capacity is not exceeded, and the data rate remains
consistent, even if the arrival rate of packets fluctuates.
Reducing Network Congestion: The fixed output rate prevents traffic from surging,
reducing the risk of congestion and packet loss.
Improving QoS for Critical Applications: For applications requiring a consistent
flow, such as real-time communications (voice and video), the Leaky Bucket algorithm
helps by smoothing traffic to meet the required QoS standards.

49. Compare and contrast the congestion control

mechanisms used in TCP and SCTP, highlighting their
advantages and limitations.
Advantages and Limitations of TCP’s Congestion Control
Advantages:
Well-Established Mechanisms: TCP's congestion control mechanisms, including
slow start, congestion avoidance, and fast recovery, have been in use for decades and
are well understood.
Simplicity: TCP’s congestion control is relatively simple to implement with a single
congestion window per connection, making it easier to deploy in many network
environments.
 Fairness: TCP is generally fair in shared network environments, as its congestion
control ensures that all flows gradually adjust to available network capacity.

Limitations:
Single Path: TCP operates on a single path, which can be a limitation in networks with
multiple paths, as it cannot take advantage of alternative routes during congestion or
failure.
Suboptimal in Case of Path Failure: TCP cannot switch paths if the current path
becomes congested or fails, potentially causing delays and data loss.
Slow Recovery from High Loss: TCP’s congestion control can lead to slower
recovery from network congestion, as its window size is significantly reduced after a
packet loss.

50. Discuss the potential impact of poor QoS on real-time

applications like video conferencing and online gaming.
Provide examples of how QoS improvement techniques can
address these issues.
Poor Quality of Service (QoS) can significantly degrade the performance of real-time
applications like video conferencing and online gaming, which rely on stable, low-
latency, and high-bandwidth communication. In these applications, even slight delays,
jitter, or packet loss can negatively impact user experience, making them unreliable or
frustrating to use.

Impact of Poor QoS on Real-Time Applications

1. Video Conferencing:
Latency and Delays: Video conferencing requires low latency to ensure real-time
communication.
Packet Loss: In video conferencing, packet loss can cause significant disruptions,
such as frozen or blurry video, audio dropouts, or missed words.
Jitter: Jitter refers to variations in the timing of packet arrival. In video conferencing,
jitter can cause issues like inconsistent video playback, lip-sync problems, or audio
gaps.
2. Online Gaming:
Latency and Ping: Online gaming, especially multiplayer games, requires low latency
for smooth interactions between players.
Packet Loss: Packet loss in online gaming can cause characters to freeze, actions to
be delayed, or players to be kicked from the game.
Jitter: Just like in video conferencing, jitter in online gaming causes irregular packet
delivery, leading to "rubber-banding" or other visual inconsistencies.

Quality of Service (QoS) improvement techniques play a critical role in addressing

issues caused by poor QoS in real-time applications like video conferencing and online
gaming. Below are specific examples illustrating how these techniques mitigate
challenges such as latency, jitter, and packet loss.
1. Traffic Prioritization (Differentiated Services): Assign higher priority to real-time
application traffic to ensure timely delivery.
2. Bandwidth Reservation: Allocate a guaranteed portion of network bandwidth to
critical applications.
 3. Forward Error Correction (FEC): Add redundant data to transmitted packets to
recover lost or corrupted packets.
4. Traffic Shaping: Regulate the flow of data to smooth out bursts and prevent
congestion.
5. Load Balancing: Distribute traffic across multiple servers or paths to avoid
congestion.
6. Adaptive Bitrate Streaming: Adjust the quality of video or audio dynamically
based on current network conditions.
7. Jitter Buffers: Introduce buffers to compensate for variations in packet arrival
times.

51. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Token Bucket algorithm

versus the Leaky Bucket algorithm in managing network traffic
for different types of applications. Include scenarios where one
might be more suitable than the other.

Scenario-Based Suitability
Token Bucket Algorithm: A video conferencing application where bandwidth usage
fluctuates based on participants’ actions (e.g., speaking or screen sharing). The token
bucket allows bursts when required while maintaining an average rate to optimize
bandwidth.
Leaky Bucket Algorithm: A server sending large batch files to multiple clients. The
leaky bucket ensures a steady and predictable data flow, reducing the risk of
overwhelming intermediate network devices.
52. Explain the role of DNS (Domain Name System) in the
context of cybersecurity and how DNSSEC (DNS Security
Extensions) enhances the security of DNS.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a critical component of the Internet, translating
human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses that
computers use to locate and connect to resources. In the context of cybersecurity,
DNS has dual roles:
Enabler of Connectivity: It ensures seamless user access to online resources by
resolving domain names efficiently.
Potential Security Vulnerability: Since DNS is essential for web traffic, attackers
often exploit it for malicious activities like DNS spoofing, DNS cache poisoning, and
DDoS attacks.
How DNSSEC Enhances DNS Security
Authentication of DNS Records: DNSSEC ensures that DNS responses come from
the authoritative source, preventing attacks like DNS spoofing.
Data Integrity: By signing DNS records with cryptographic keys, DNSSEC ensures
that DNS data has not been tampered with during transmission.
Chain of Trust: DNSSEC establishes a trust hierarchy from the DNS root to lower-
level domains, ensuring end-to-end security.
Protection Against Cache Poisoning: DNS resolvers validate responses using
DNSSEC signatures, rejecting tampered or forged data.
53. Discuss the differences between Telnet and SSH in terms
of security and authentication mechanisms. Provide examples
of scenarios where one is preferred over the other.
 Scenarios for Preference
Telnet: A developer working in a private, isolated test environment may use Telnet for
simple remote device configuration or debugging tasks where security is not a priority.
SSH: A system administrator managing servers over the Internet needs secure
communication to protect sensitive credentials and data.

54. Describe the basic principles of cryptography and how it

is utilized in securing data transmission over the Internet. Give
examples of cryptographic algorithms commonly used for this
purpose.
Basic Principles of Cryptography
Cryptography is the science of securing information by transforming it into an
unreadable format for unauthorized users while ensuring it remains accessible to
authorized parties. Its principles include:
Confidentiality: Ensures that data is accessible only to intended recipients.
Integrity: Ensures that the data has not been altered during transmission.
Authentication: Verifies the identity of parties involved in communication.
Non-repudiation: Ensures that a sender cannot deny sending a message.
Utilization of Cryptography in Securing Data Transmission
Cryptography is critical for protecting data transmitted over the Internet, particularly in
these ways:
Encryption: Data is encrypted before transmission and decrypted only by the
recipient.
Digital Signatures: Ensure the authenticity and integrity of messages.
Secure Key Exchange: Ensures encryption keys are shared securely over an
untrusted network.
Hashing: Verifies the integrity of data by generating a unique hash value.

Common Cryptographic Algorithms

Symmetric Encryption (Single Key): AES (Advanced Encryption Standard)
Use Case: Secure file storage, VPNs, and real-time data encryption.
Asymmetric Encryption (Public/Private Keys): RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman)
Use Case: Secure web communications, digital certificates, and key exchanges.

Hashing Algorithms: SHA-256 (Secure Hash Algorithm)

Use Case: Data integrity verification, digital signatures, and blockchain systems.

Hybrid Encryption (Combines Symmetric & Asymmetric): TLS (Transport Layer

Security)
Use Case: Secures web traffic by combining RSA for key exchange and AES for data
encryption.
 MARKS-5

1. Describe the different Guided transmission medias in computer networks.

Guided transmission media refers to the physical channels through which signals are directed
along a defined path. This includes cables and optical fibers that guide electromagnetic or light
signals from one point to another.

Types of Guided Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted-Pair Cables are cables consisting of two insulated conductor wires (typically copper)
wound and twisted together arranged in a regular spiral pattern. One wire carries the signal to
the receiver, and the other is used as a ground reference. The receivers use the difference
between the two to interpret signals.

Twisted pair cable is also classified into two types:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

UTP stands for Unshielded Twisted Pair cable. UTP cable is a 100-ohm copper cable that
consists of 2 to 1800 unshielded twisted pairs surrounded by an outer jacket. They do not have
any metallic shield.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

STP stands for Shielded Twisted Pair cable. STP Cabling is twisted-pair cabling with additional
metal foil covering to reduce crosstalks and other forms of electromagnetic interference (EMI)

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, also known as coax, consists of an inner conductor surrounded by a concentric
conducting shield. Coaxial Cables have an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer
made of PVC or Teflon and two parallel conductors, each having a separate insulated
protection cover.
 Coaxial cables are also classified into two types:

1. Baseband Coaxial Cable

This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable used for digital transmission. It is mainly used for Local Area
Net. Baseband transmits one signal at a time at a very high speed. The major drawback with
this is that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.

2. Broadband Coaxial Cable

This is accomplished by using analog transmission over conventional cable television wiring. It
sends several signals at the same time at various frequencies. When compared to Baseband
Coaxial Cable, it covers a larger region.

Fibre Optic Cable

A fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication. A fiber optic is a
cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic used to send the data by light pulses. The
plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, and electromagnetic interference
from other types of wiring.

3. Describe the different Unguided transmission medias in computer networks.

Unguided transmission media refer to communication channels that do not rely on physical
cables or wires to transmit signals. Instead, they use electromagnetic waves that propagate
through free space, such as air, vacuum, or water. These media are widely used in wireless
communication systems.

Types of Unguided Transmission Media:

1. Radio Waves:
 o Frequency Range: 3 kHz to 1 GHz.
o Applications: AM/FM radio, television broadcasts, cellular networks, and long-distance
communication.
o Advantages:
 Long-distance coverage.
 Can penetrate buildings and obstacles.
o Disadvantages:
 Susceptible to interference.
 Limited bandwidth in certain frequency bands.
2. Microwaves:
o Frequency Range: 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
o Applications: Satellite communication, mobile phones, and point-to-point
communication.
o Advantages:
 High data transmission rates.
 Suitable for line-of-sight communication.
o Disadvantages:
 Requires unobstructed paths (line of sight).
 Affected by weather conditions (e.g., rain).
3. Infrared Waves:
o Frequency Range: 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o Applications: Remote controls, wireless keyboards, and short-range communication.
o Advantages:
 Secure communication as it does not penetrate walls.
 Free from electromagnetic interference.
o Disadvantages:
 Limited range.
 Requires a direct line of sight.

4. Examine the differences between point-to-point links and multi-point links.

S.NO Point to point communication Multipoint Communication

1. Point to point communication means Multipoint Communication means the
the channel is shared between two channel is shared among multiple devices
devices. or nodes.
2. In this communication, There is In this communication, link is provided at
dedicated link between two nodes. all times for sharing the connection among
nodes.
3. In this communication, the entire In this communication, the entire capacity
capacity is reserved between these isn’t reserved by any two nodes and the
connected two devices with the network bandwidth is maximum utilized.
possibility of waste of network
bandwidth/ resources.
4. In this communication, there is one In this communication, there is one
transmitter and one receiver. transmitter and many receivers.
5. In point-to-point connections, the In multi-point connections, the smallest
smallest distance is most important distance is not important to reach the
to reach the receiver. receiver.
6. Point-to-point communication Multi-point communication does not
provides security and privacy provide security and privacy because
because communication channel is communication channel is shared.
not shared.

5. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of WAN.

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a large
geographical area, often spanning cities, countries, or even continents. WANs connect multiple
smaller networks (such as LANs and MANs) to enable communication and resource sharing
over vast distances. The Internet is the most prominent example of a WAN.

Advantages of WAN:

1. Global Coverage:
o Allows businesses, individuals, and organizations to communicate and access
resources worldwide.
2. Centralized Data and Resources:
o Enables centralized data storage, making it accessible to users across different
locations.
3. Resource Sharing:
o Facilitates sharing of software, hardware, and data across connected systems.
4. Remote Work Enablement:
o Supports telecommuting and remote access to enterprise systems.
5. Improved Communication:
o Enables seamless communication through email, video conferencing, VoIP, etc.
6. Scalability:
o Easy to expand to include new locations as businesses grow.

Disadvantages of WAN:

1. High Initial Costs:

o Setting up a WAN requires significant investment in infrastructure, hardware, and
software.
2. Complex Maintenance:
o Requires skilled professionals to manage and maintain the network.
3. Latency Issues:
o Communication delays can occur, especially over long distances or with poor
connections.
4. Security Risks:
o Greater exposure to cyberattacks due to its vast reach; requires robust security
measures.
5. Dependency on ISPs:
o WANs rely heavily on Internet Service Providers (ISPs) for connectivity and speed.
6. Data Transmission Speeds:
o Slower compared to LANs, especially if there is congestion or bandwidth limitations.

6. Examine the differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models.

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open Systems Transmission Control
Interconnection Protocol/Internet
Full Form Protocol

Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used

It is horizontally
It is vertically approached
Approach approached

Delivery of the package

Delivery of the package is
is not guaranteed in
guaranteed in OSI Model
Delivery TCP/IP Model

Replacing the tools is

Replacement of tools and changes
not easy as it is in OSI
can easily be done in this model
Replacement Model

It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than

Reliability Model OSI Model

Not tied to specific protocols, but

examples include HTTP
HTTP, FTP, TCP,
(Application), SSL/TLS
UDP, IP, Ethernet
Protocol (Presentation), TCP (Transport),
Example IP (Network), Ethernet (Data Link)

Error Built into Data Link and Transport Built into protocols like
Handling layers TCP
 Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Both connection-oriented (TCP)

TCP (connection-
and connectionless (UDP)
oriented), UDP
Connection protocols are covered at the
(connectionless)
Orientation Transport layer

7. List the advantages and disadvantages of Hybrid Topology.

A hybrid topology combines two or more different types of network topologies (e.g., star, bus,
ring) to create a customized network. It is commonly used in large organizations because it
allows flexibility and scalability while leveraging the strengths of individual topologies.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology:

1. Flexibility:
o Allows customization to meet specific organizational needs by combining different
topologies.
2. Scalability:
o Easy to add new nodes or networks without affecting existing systems.
3. Reliability:
o Failures in one segment do not necessarily affect the entire network, as multiple
topologies are used.
4. Optimized Performance:
o Individual segments can use the topology best suited for their requirements, ensuring
optimal performance.
5. Efficient Troubleshooting:
o Errors are easier to locate and fix because of the segmented structure.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology:

1. High Cost:
o Implementation and maintenance costs are higher due to the complexity and additional
hardware required.
2. Complex Design:
o Requires careful planning and expertise to design and configure.
3. Difficult Maintenance:
o Managing a hybrid network is challenging because it involves multiple topologies with
potentially different protocols.
4. Scalability Limitations:
o While scalable, adding new topologies may increase complexity and cost significantly.
5. Higher Latency:
o Communication between segments using different topologies may introduce latency.

8. Analyze the functions of the Presentation Layer in the OSI Model.

The Presentation Layer is the 6th layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model
and acts as a translator between the application layer and the lower layers. Its primary function
is to ensure that the data sent from the application layer of one system is readable by the
application layer of another, regardless of differences in data representation or format.

Functions of the Presentation Layer:

1. Data Translation:
o Converts data into a format that the application layer can understand.
o Example: ASCII (text encoding) to EBCDIC or vice versa.
2. Data Encryption and Decryption:
o Ensures secure transmission of data by encrypting it before transmission and
decrypting it upon reception.
o Example: HTTPS uses SSL/TLS protocols for encryption at this layer.
3. Data Compression:
o Reduces the size of data to minimize transmission time and optimize network
resources.
o Example: Compression formats like JPEG (images) or MP3 (audio).
4. Character Encoding:
o Standardizes character sets to ensure data integrity.
o Example: Converting characters to UTF-8 or Unicode.
5. Syntax and Semantics Handling:
o Resolves syntax differences between systems.
o Example: Differentiating between little-endian and big-endian formats in data
representation.
6. Data Formatting:
o Converts data into structured formats like XML, JSON, or HTML that applications can
process efficiently.
7. Graphics Translation:
o Handles image format conversions for compatibility.
o Example: Converting BMP to JPEG or PNG.

9. Estimate the parameters for measuring Network Performance.

 Network performance refers to the efficiency and reliability of a network in transmitting data. It
can be measured using various parameters that evaluate speed, quality, and resource
utilization.

 Bandwidth:

The maximum amount of data that can be transferred over a network in a specific time period,
usually measured in bits per second (bps).

 Latency:

The time it takes for a data packet to travel from one point to another on a network, often
referred to as "lag".

 Throughput:

The actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted over a network, considering factors
like network congestion and packet loss.

 Packet loss:

The percentage of data packets that fail to reach their destination, causing retransmissions
and impacting performance.

 Jitter:

The variation in delay between data packets, which can affect the quality of real-time
applications like video calls.

 Error rate:

The percentage of data packets that are corrupted during transmission, indicating potential
issues with signal quality.

 Availability:

The percentage of time a network is operational and accessible to users.

 Network congestion:

A situation where too much data is trying to traverse a network simultaneously, leading to
delays and packet loss

10. Classify the different transmission impairments in Data Communication.

In data communication, the primary transmission impairments are categorized as attenuation,

distortion, and noise.

Attenuation:
 Signal weakening as it travels through the transmission medium, causing a decrease in
amplitude.
 Factors include cable length, signal frequency, and medium type.
 Can be mitigated by using amplifiers to boost signal strength

Distortion:

 Alteration of the signal waveform, causing different frequencies within the signal to travel at
different speeds, leading to signal shape changes.
 Can be caused by imperfections in the transmission medium, such as non-linear
characteristics.
 Types include:
 Intermodulation distortion: When different signals mix in a non-linear device, creating new
unwanted frequencies.
 Amplitude distortion: Unequal amplification of different frequencies.
 Phase distortion: Different phases of frequencies traveling at different speeds

Noise:

 Random electrical signals that interfere with the transmitted signal, originating from various
sources like electrical equipment, atmospheric conditions, and other devices.
 Types include:
 Thermal noise: Random electrical noise generated by the thermal agitation of electrons
in a conductor.
 Impulse noise: Sudden, short-duration bursts of electrical energy, often caused by
switching operations.
 Crosstalk: Interference from signals on adjacent wires in a cable.

11. A data link layer protocol uses a sliding window with a sender window size of 8 frames.
If the sender has sent frames 1 to 10, and the acknowledgment for frame 4 is lost,
calculate how many frames the sender will retransmit before it can proceed with new
frames.

Given:

1. Sender Window Size = 8 frames.

2. Frames Sent = Frames 1 to 10.
3. Acknowledgment for Frame 4 is lost.

Assumptions:

1. Protocol Used: Selective Repeat ARQ (commonly assumed for sliding window problems
unless stated otherwise).
2. The receiver uses cumulative acknowledgments unless otherwise specified.

Case 1: Selective Repeat ARQ

 In Selective Repeat ARQ, only the lost frame (frame 4) and any unacknowledged frames will
be retransmitted.
 If the acknowledgment for frame 4 is lost, the sender assumes frame 4 wasn't received
successfully.
 It will retransmit frame 4 only, while other frames (frames 5 to 10) are not retransmitted.
 Retransmissions: 1 frame (frame 4).

Case 2: Go-Back-N ARQ

 In Go-Back-N ARQ, the sender retransmits frame 4 and all subsequent frames in the sender
window.
 The sender cannot proceed with new frames until it retransmits frames 4 to 10.
 Retransmissions: 7 frames (frames 4 to 10).

Answer:

 For Selective Repeat ARQ: 1 frame (frame 4) is retransmitted.

 For Go-Back-N ARQ: 7 frames (frames 4 to 10) are retransmitted.

12. In a selective repeat ARQ protocol, the sender sends a window of 10 frames, and the
receiver has a buffer of 20 frames. If the sender sends frames 1 to 10, and frame 5 gets
lost in transit, calculate the number of acknowledgments the receiver will send before it
can successfully receive all frames.

- Sender's window size: 10 frames (frames 1 to 10)

- Receiver's buffer size: 20 frames

- Frame 5 is lost during transmission

In a Selective Repeat ARQ protocol, when a frame is lost, the receiver does the following:

1. Receives the frames that arrive successfully

2. Sends Selective Negative Acknowledgments (SNAKs) for the missing frame

3. Can buffer out-of-order frames while waiting for the lost frame to be retransmitted

1. Frames 1, 2, 3, 4 arrive successfully

- Receiver sends individual ACKs for these frames

2. Frame 5 is lost
 - Receiver sends a SNAK (Selective Negative Acknowledgment) for frame 5

3. Frames 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 arrive

- Receiver cannot immediately acknowledge these frames

- These frames are buffered because frame 5 is missing

- Receiver continues to send a SNAK for frame 5

Calculation of acknowledgments:

- Successful frames before loss: 4 ACKs (for frames 1-4)

- SNAK for lost frame: 1 SNAK (for frame 5)

- Continuous SNAKs for frame 5 until retransmission

Total acknowledgments: 5 (4 ACKs + 1 SNAK)

13. In a CRC calculation, the sender generates a 16-bit checksum for a data frame. If the
received frame has an error, what is the probability that the error will go undetected?

In a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) calculation, a 16-bit checksum means there

are 216 possible checksum values, which amounts to 65,536 distinct values.

For any given data frame with an error, there's a one in 65,536 chance that the incorrect frame
will generate the same CRC value as the correct frame, leading to an undetected error.
Therefore, the probability that an error will go undetected in a 16-bit CRC is:

1/216 =1/65536≈0.0000152588

14. You receive a data message with a CRC value of 1010. After transmitting the message
over a network, the CRC value at the receiver's end is calculated as 1110. Determine if
there is an error in the received message.

To determine whether there is an error in the received message, compare the Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC) values at the sender and receiver ends:

Given Data:

CRC at sender: 1010

CRC at receiver: 1110

Explanation:
 The CRC is a mechanism used to detect errors in data transmission. The value at the receiver
end should match the value sent by the sender. If there is a mismatch, it indicates an error
occurred during transmission.

Analysis:

Sender CRC: 1010

Receiver CRC: 1110

Since the CRC values do not match, it confirms that there is an error in the received message.

Conclusion: Yes, there is an error in the received message, as the CRC value has changed
during transmission.

15. Examine the difference between Pure and Slotted ALOHA.

Pure Aloha Slotted Aloha

In this Aloha, any station can In this, any station can transmit the data at
transmit the data at any time. the beginning of any time slot.

In this, the time is continuous and not In this, the time is discrete and globally
globally synchronized. synchronized.

Vulnerable time for Pure Aloha = 2 x

Vulnerable time for Slotted Aloha = Tt
Tt

In Pure Aloha, the Probability of

In Slotted Aloha, the Probability of
successful transmission of the data
successful transmission of the data packet
packet
= G x e-G
= G x e-2G

In Pure Aloha, Maximum efficiency In Slotted Aloha, Maximum efficiency

= 18.4% = 36.8%

Slotted Aloha reduces the number of

Pure Aloha doesn’t reduce the
collisions to half and doubles the efficiency
number of collisions to half.
of Pure Aloha.

16. Determine the different CSMA protocols based on their working.

Refer to 3 marks
17. Explain Block Coding Scheme. Illustrate the error detection in Block Coding.

Block Coding Scheme

Block Coding is a method used in digital communication to ensure data integrity by encoding
data into blocks before transmission. It helps in detecting and correcting errors that may occur
during data transmission.

Working of Block Coding:

Message Division: The original data is divided into fixed-sized blocks of bits (called data
words), each of size k bits.

Encoding: Each data word is mapped to a larger codeword of size n bits using an encoding
rule, where 𝑛>𝑘.

The difference (𝑛−𝑘) represents the redundant bits, which are added for error detection or
correction.

Transmission: The codewords are transmitted over the communication medium.

Decoding: At the receiver, the received codeword is checked for errors using predefined rules.
If errors are detected, appropriate actions (e.g., retransmission requests) are taken.

Error Detection in Block Coding:

Error detection is achieved by examining the redundant bits. Here’s how it works:

Parity Check: The simplest form of block coding adds a parity bit to each dataword.

Example: If the dataword is 1011 and even parity is used, the parity bit added would make the
total number of 1's even. The resulting codeword would be 10110.

Syndrome Decoding: The receiver applies a decoding algorithm to the received codeword to
compute a syndrome (a value that indicates the presence of errors).

If the syndrome is non-zero, it means an error has occurred.

Example of Error Detection:Suppose the transmitted codeword is 10110 (dataword: 1011,

parity: 0).

If a single bit is flipped during transmission (e.g., the received codeword is 10111), the receiver
detects the error because the parity condition is violated.

18. Compare and contrast SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) and HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol) in terms of their applications and how they are used for
managing network devices and services.
19. Explain the concept of Dynamic DNS (DDNS) and its significance in managing domain
names. Provide examples of situations where DDNS is particularly useful.

Dynamic DNS (DDNS) is a service that automatically updates the Domain Name System
(DNS) records when an IP address associated with a domain changes. It is especially useful in
environments where IP addresses are dynamically assigned, such as residential or small
business networks.

How DDNS Works:

1. A device (e.g., a router or computer) with a dynamically assigned IP address notifies the
DDNS service whenever its IP changes.
2. The DDNS service updates the DNS records to associate the domain name with the new IP
address.
3. This ensures that users can consistently access the device using its domain name, regardless
of IP changes.

Significance of DDNS:

1. Maintains Accessibility: Ensures a consistent domain name for devices with dynamic IPs.
2. Cost-Effective: Avoids the need for costly static IP addresses.
3. Simplifies Management: Automatically updates DNS records when IP changes.

Examples of DDNS Use Cases:

1. Home Web Hosting: Hosting a website on a dynamic IP.

2. Remote Access: Connecting to home devices (e.g., NAS, IoT) via a fixed domain.
3. VPN Servers: Ensuring stable access to VPN servers with changing IPs.
4. Gaming Servers: Hosting multiplayer games from a home network.
5. CCTV Monitoring: Remote monitoring of security cameras using a domain name.

20. Analyze the security vulnerabilities associated with the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and
propose advanced security measures to mitigate these vulnerabilities in modern FTP
implementations.

FTP or File Transfer Protocol is said to be one of the earliest and also the most common forms
of transferring files on the internet. Located in the application layer of the OSI model, FTP is a
basic system that helps in transferring files between a client and a server. It is what makes the
FTP unique that the system provides a reliable and efficient means of transferring files from
one system to another even if they have different file structures and operating systems.

FTP’s Security Issues

 Information could not go across a secure tunnel since FTP was not intended to do so. Thus,
encryption is not present. A hacker would not need to struggle with encryption to access or
alter data that is usable if they could intercept an FTP transaction.

 Even with FTP cloud storage, data can still be intercepted and misused if the service provider’s
system is attacked.

 As a result, data sent via FTP is a target for spoofing, sniffing, brute force, and other types of
attacks that move somewhat slowly. A hacker might examine an FTP transmission and try to
take advantage of any flaws by simply port scanning.

 The fact that FTP uses clear-text passwords—passwords that haven’t been encrypted—is one
of its main security flaws. Put differently, “Jerry1992” appears exactly like “Jerry1992.” The real
password is hidden via an algorithm in more secure protocols.

Security Measures to Mitigate Vulnerabilities in Modern FTP Implementations

1. Use Secure FTP Protocols

 SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol):

o Encrypts commands and data using Secure Shell (SSH), ensuring confidentiality and
integrity.
 o Recommended over standard FTP.
 FTPS (FTP Secure):
o Adds SSL/TLS encryption to traditional FTP.
o Protects credentials and data in transit.

2. Enforce Strong Authentication Mechanisms

 Require strong passwords with complexity rules (length, special characters, etc.).
 Implement multi-factor authentication (MFA) for an added layer of security.

3. Restrict Access

 Use IP whitelisting to allow only trusted IP addresses to connect.

 Configure firewall rules to limit access to FTP servers.

4. Monitor and Audit FTP Activity

 Enable logging to track user activities, including:

o File uploads/downloads.
o Failed login attempts.
 Regularly review logs to detect unauthorized access attempts or anomalies.

21. Evaluate the role of firewalls in network security. Discuss the differences between
packet-filtering, stateful, and application-layer firewalls, and provide examples of
scenarios where each type is most effective.

A firewall can be defined as a special type of network security device or a software program
that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing network traffic based on a defined set of
security rules. It acts as a barrier between internal private networks and external sources (such
as the public Internet).

Feature Packet-Filtering Stateful Firewall Application-Layer

Firewall Firewall
OSI Layer Network/Transport Network/Transport Application (Layer 7)
(Layer 3/4) (Layer 3/4)
Connection No Yes Yes
Awareness
Inspection Depth Basic (IP, Port, Tracks connection Deep Packet
Protocol) states Inspection (DPI)
Security Level Low Medium High
Performance High (Minimal Moderate (Tracks Low (Resource-
resource usage) connections) intensive)
Complexity Simple to configure Moderate Complex
Protection Against Basic IP/Port-based Unsolicited packets, Malware, SQL
filtering spoofed packets injection, XSS, app-
level threats
Cost Low Moderate High
Limitations No context Resource exhaustion Latency, high
awareness, (e.g., DDoS attacks) resource demands
vulnerable to spoofing
 Ideal Use Case Small networks Corporate networks Securing web
needing basic with dynamic servers, APIs, or e-
security connections commerce platforms
Example Scenario Blocking non- Managing FTP or Blocking SQL
essential traffic on a VPN connections in injection in an e-
small office network enterprises commerce site

22. Assess the security risks and challenges in using Bluetooth technology for wireless
communication. Propose strategies and best practices to enhance the security of
Bluetooth-enabled devices and networks.

Bluetooth technology, while convenient, comes with several security risks and challenges:

1. Eavesdropping: Unauthorized interception of Bluetooth communications.

2. Man-in-the-Middle Attacks: Hackers intercept and manipulate data between two Bluetooth
devices.
3. Unauthorized Access: Devices can be accessed without permission, leading to data theft or
control over the device.
4. Bluejacking: Sending unsolicited messages to Bluetooth devices.
5. Bluesnarfing: Unauthorized access to information on a Bluetooth device.
6. Bluebugging: Taking control of a Bluetooth device without the owner's knowledge.
7. Bluetooth Sniffing: Capturing Bluetooth traffic to gather sensitive information.

Strategies and Best Practices to Enhance Bluetooth Security

1. Keep Devices Updated: Regularly update the firmware and software of Bluetooth devices to
patch vulnerabilities.
2. Turn Off Bluetooth When Not in Use: Disable Bluetooth when it's not needed to reduce the
risk of unauthorized access.
3. Use Secure Pairing Methods: Employ secure pairing methods such as PIN codes or secure
simple pairing (SSP).
4. Avoid Public Pairing: Do not pair devices in public places where attackers might exploit the
pairing process.
5. Set Devices to Non-Discoverable: Keep devices in non-discoverable mode to prevent them
from being detected by unauthorized devices.
6. Limit Pairing Attempts: Set a limit on the number of pairing attempts to prevent brute force
attacks.
7. Use Strong Authentication: Implement strong authentication mechanisms for Bluetooth
connections.

23. Describe the header format of IP with a diagram.

The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is a fundamental component of computer networks

that serves as the foundation for transmitting data packets across the internet and other
interconnected networks.
 The IPv4 header consists of 12 fields, which are organized in the following manner:

1. Version (4 bits): This field specifies the version of the IP protocol being used, which is IPv4 in
this case.
2. Header Length (4 bits): The header length field indicates the length of the IPv4 header in 32-
bit words. Since the header is a fixed size of 20 bytes, the value of this field is typically 5.
3. Type of Service (8 bits): This field is used to define the quality of service (QoS) for the
packet, including priorities and other parameters for routing and processing.
4. Total Length (16 bits): The total length field specifies the length of the entire IPv4 packet,
including both the header and the data, in bytes.
5. Identification (16 bits): The identification field is used for packet fragmentation and
reassembly. It helps in grouping fragments of a larger packet together.
6. Flags (3 bits): These bits are used for controlling and identifying packet fragmentation. The
flags include the "Don't Fragment" (DF) and "More Fragments" (MF) flags.
7. Fragment Offset (13 bits): The fragment offset field specifies the position of the fragment
within the original packet. It is used to reassemble fragmented packets correctly.
8. Time to Live (TTL) (8 bits): The TTL field represents the maximum number of hops (routers
or network segments) that the packet can traverse before it is discarded. Each router
decrements this value by one.
9. Protocol (8 bits): This field indicates the type of protocol used in the data portion of the
packet, such as TCP, UDP, ICMP, or others.
10. Header Checksum (16 bits): The header checksum field is used to verify the integrity of the
IPv4 header during transmission. Routers and devices recalculate this checksum to check for
errors.
11. Source IP Address (32 bits): This field contains the IP address of the sender or source of the
packet.
12. Destination IP Address (32 bits): This field holds the IP address of the recipient or
destination of the packet.

24. Describe the packet format of ARP with a diagram.

ARP stands for “Address Resolution Protocol”. It is a network protocol used to determine the
MAC address (hardware address) from any IP address.
 In other words, ARP is used to mapping the IP Address into MAC Address. When one device
wants to communicate with another device in a LAN (local area network) network, the ARP
protocol is used.

 Hardware Type: The size of this field is 2 bytes. This field defines what type of Hardware is
used to transmit the message. The most common Hardware type is Ethernet. The value of
Ethernet is 1.

 Protocol Type: This field tells which protocol has been used to transmit the message.
substantially the value of this field is 2048 which indicates IPv4.

 Hardware Address Length: It shows the length of the tackle address in bytes. The size of
Ethernet MAC address is 6 bytes.

 Protocol Address Length: It shows the size of the IP address in bytes. The size of IP
address is 4 bytes.

 OP law: This field tells the type of message. If the value of this field is 1 also it's a request
message and if the value of this field is 2 also it's a reply message.

 Sender Hardware Address: This field contains the MAC address of the device transferring
the message.

 Sender Protocol Address: This field contains the IP address of the device transferring the
message.

 Target Hardware Address: This field is empty in the request message. This field contains the
MAC address of the entering device.

 Target Protocol Address: This field contains the IP address of the entering device.

25. Describe the importance of switching and the different types of switching techniques.
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or
goes out it is called egress.

There are three types of switching methods:

Message Switching: This is an older switching technique that has become obsolete. In
message switching technique, the entire data block/message is forwarded across the
entire network thus, making it highly inefficient.

Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is established between the source
and destination beforehand. This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network
until the data is transferred completely.
This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve sending data to the
entire network, instead of its destination only.

Packet Switching: This technique requires the data to be broken down into smaller
components, data frames, or packets. These data frames are then transferred to their
destinations according to the available resources in the network at a particular time.
This switching type is used in modern computers and even the Internet. Here, each data frame
contains additional information about the destination and other information required for proper
transfer through network components.
 Importance of Switching

 Connect devices

A switch connects devices like computers, printers, servers, and wireless access points to a
local area network (LAN).

 Enable communication

A switch allows devices to share information and resources like internet access, file storage,
and printers.

 Prevent interference

A switch prevents each device's traffic from interfering with other devices' traffic.

 Identify devices

A switch uses MAC addresses to identify where to send data packets.

26. Distinguish between circuit switching and packet switching.

Aspect Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Connection Setup Requires a dedicated No dedicated path is required; data
communication path to be is sent in packets independently.
established before
communication begins.
Path Usage Uses the entire path for the The path is used by multiple
duration of the call or packets, which may take different
connection. routes.
Efficiency Less efficient due to reserved More efficient, as resources are
resources, even during periods shared and used dynamically.
of inactivity.
Delay Fixed delay, as the path is Variable delay, depending on
reserved for the entire duration network congestion and routing.
of the communication.
 Reliability Highly reliable, as the Reliability is dependent on the
connection is dedicated and network and routing protocols;
maintained throughout. packets may get lost or delayed.
Best for Real-time communication like Best for data-heavy
voice calls, where continuous, communications like internet
uninterrupted data flow is browsing, emails, and file
essential. transfers.
Example Traditional telephone networks, The Internet, email, web browsing,
ISDN (Integrated Services and VoIP services.
Digital Network).
Resource Allocation Resources are allocated and Resources are dynamically
remain idle if not in use. allocated based on demand,
leading to more efficient use.

27. Explain the purpose of the RARP (Reverse ARP) protocol. How does it work, and in
what scenarios might it be used in a network?

The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a networking protocol that is used to map
a physical (MAC) address to an Internet Protocol (IP) address. It is the reverse of the more
commonly used Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

Working

1. Initiation: A device on the network (usually a diskless workstation or client) doesn't

know its IP address but knows its MAC address, which is hardcoded into its network
interface card (NIC).
2. Broadcast: The device sends a RARP request as a broadcast packet to all devices on
the local network segment. The packet includes the MAC address of the requesting
device.
3. RARP Server Response: The RARP request is received by a RARP server on the
network (usually a router or a dedicated RARP server). This server has a table mapping
MAC addresses to IP addresses.
4. IP Address Assignment: The RARP server looks up the requesting MAC address in its
table and sends a RARP reply with the corresponding IP address.
5. Client Configuration: The device receives the RARP reply and configures its network
interface with the IP address provided by the server.
 Scenarios where it is used

1. Diskless Workstations: Used by devices without local storage to obtain an IP address

from a server during bootup.
2. Network Booting: Employed by diskless devices (e.g., thin clients) to get an IP address
for booting from a network server.
3. Older Legacy Networks: Used in the past to assign IP addresses to devices in older IP
networks.
4. Specialized Hardware: Used by devices like network printers with fixed MAC
addresses to obtain an IP address.
5. Without DHCP Support: Used in networks where DHCP was not available, providing
IP addresses via a central RARP server.

28. Explain the working of the BOOTP protocol in address mapping.

BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) is a network protocol used to automatically assign an IP

address and provide other configuration information (such as gateway, DNS server, and
boot file) to a device (client) that does not have a local IP address, typically during the system
startup (boot process).

How BOOTP Works:

1. Client Request:
o When a device (typically a diskless workstation) boots up, it sends a BOOTP Request
message to the network to get an IP address and configuration information. This
request is broadcasted to the network.
2. Server Response:
o A BOOTP Server listens for these requests. Once it receives a BOOTP Request, the
server looks up the client’s MAC address in its database and sends a BOOTP Reply.
o The reply contains the following information:
 IP address assigned to the client.
 Subnet mask.
 Gateway IP address.
 Other network-related configuration details (optional).
3. Client Configuration:
o The client uses the received configuration details to set up its IP address and network
settings, allowing it to communicate on the network.

29. Assess the scenarios when the logical and physical address of a system may change.

Physical Address (MAC Address) Changes

1. Network Interface Card (NIC) Replacement:
o When a NIC is replaced due to failure or upgrade, the system gets a new MAC address
associated with the new NIC.
2. Virtualization:
o In virtualized environments, each virtual machine (VM) may have its own virtual NIC
with a unique MAC address.
3. Network Interface Changes:
o Connecting to a different network interface (e.g., switching from Ethernet to Wi-Fi) can
result in a different MAC address being used.
4. MAC Address Spoofing:
o For privacy or security reasons, users may change or spoof their MAC address to mask
their identity on the network.

Logical Address (IP Address) Changes

1. Dynamic IP Allocation (DHCP):

o Systems using DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) can receive different IP
addresses each time they connect to the network or when the DHCP lease expires and
is renewed.
2. Network Topology Change:
o Moving a device from one network to another (e.g., from home to office) changes the
subnet and thus the logical address.
3. Reconfiguration:
o Manual reconfiguration of a network or IP address changes, such as when an
administrator assigns a new static IP address.
4. VPN Usage:
o Connecting through a Virtual Private Network (VPN) assigns a new logical address from
the VPN provider.
5. ISP Reassignment:
o Internet Service Providers (ISPs) may periodically change the IP address assigned to a
user.

30. Discuss advanced techniques and strategies for EIGRP optimization, such as route
summarization, load balancing, and route filtering.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a routing protocol that automates
network configuration and routing decisions. It's a distance-vector protocol that's used on
computer networks.

features of EIGRP:

 Bandwidth saving: EIGRP saves bandwidth by sending partial updates instead of the entire
network prefixes.
 Multiple network layer protocols: EIGRP can route IP, IPX, and AppleTalk.
 Backward compatibility: EIGRP is backward compatible with IGRP.
 Security: EIGRP over Secure Transport uses encryption to protect routing information.

Optimization:

1. Route Summarization
 Route summarization reduces the size of routing tables by aggregating multiple routes into a
single summary route. This minimizes the amount of routing information exchanged between
routers, conserving bandwidth and improving convergence times.

2. Load Balancing

EIGRP supports both equal-cost load balancing and unequal-cost load balancing:

 Equal-Cost Load Balancing: Distributes traffic evenly across multiple paths with the same
cost.
 Unequal-Cost Load Balancing: Distributes traffic across paths with different costs, allowing
more efficient use of available bandwidth.

3. Route Filtering

Route filtering controls the information that enters or exits a router's routing table. This can be
used to optimize routing tables, manage network traffic, and prevent the propagation of
unwanted routes.

31. Your organization is expanding its network infrastructure, and you need to plan for IP
address allocation and management using DHCP. Describe a comprehensive DHCP
implementation strategy, including subnetting, lease times, and redundancy
considerations.

Planning a comprehensive DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) implementation

strategy for an expanding network infrastructure involves several key components, including
subnetting, lease times, and redundancy. Here's a detailed strategy:

1. Subnetting

Subnetting is crucial for organizing and managing IP address allocation efficiently. Here's how
to approach it:

 Assess Network Requirements: Understand the number of devices and future growth to
determine the number of subnets and IP addresses required.
 Design Subnet Scheme: Create a subnet plan that logically separates different departments,
floors, or geographical locations. Use VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masking) to allocate
addresses based on actual needs.
 Example Subnetting Plan:
o Office A: 192.168.1.0/24
o Office B: 192.168.2.0/24
o Guest Network: 192.168.3.0/24

2. IP Address Allocation

Efficient allocation of IP addresses is essential for avoiding conflicts and ensuring optimal
network performance.

 Dynamic Allocation: Use DHCP to dynamically assign IP addresses to devices as they

connect to the network.
 Static Reservations: Reserve specific IP addresses for critical devices like servers, printers,
and network infrastructure devices, ensuring they always receive the same IP address.
 IP Exclusion Ranges: Define exclusion ranges to prevent DHCP from assigning IP addresses
that are manually configured on devices.

3. Lease Times

Lease times dictate how long a device can use an assigned IP address before it must renew
the lease.

 Short Lease Times: Suitable for environments with a high turnover of devices, such as guest
networks or conference rooms. Example: 1 hour.
 Medium Lease Times: Ideal for typical office environments where devices remain connected
for extended periods. Example: 8 hours to 24 hours.
 Long Lease Times: Used for devices that rarely change, such as servers and infrastructure
equipment. Example: 7 days.

4. Redundancy Considerations

Ensuring high availability and reliability of the DHCP service is crucial for network stability.

 DHCP Failover: Implement a failover system where two DHCP servers work together to
provide redundancy. If one server fails, the other can continue to provide IP address allocation
without disruption.
 DHCP Clustering: Use clustering to distribute DHCP load across multiple servers, enhancing
performance and redundancy.
 Backup and Recovery: Regularly back up DHCP server configurations and scopes to ensure
quick recovery in case of a failure.

5. Security Measures

Implementing security measures to protect the DHCP infrastructure from unauthorized access
and attacks is essential.

 DHCP Snooping: Enable DHCP snooping on network switches to prevent rogue DHCP
servers from assigning IP addresses.
 IP Address Conflicts: Monitor and resolve IP address conflicts promptly to ensure smooth
network operation.
 Network Segmentation: Use VLANs to segment network traffic, enhancing security and
performance.

32. Estimate the working of BGP protocol.

The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a crucial routing protocol used to exchange routing
information between different autonomous systems (AS) on the internet.

Types of Border Gateway Protocol

 External BGP: It is used to interchange routing information between the routers in different
autonomous systems, it is also known as eBGP(External Border Gateway Protocol). The
below image shows how eBGP interchange routing information.
 Internal BGP: It is used to interchange routing information between the routers in the same
autonomous system, it is also known as iBGP(Internal Border Gateway Protocol). Internal
routers also ensure consistency among routers for sharing routing information. The below
image shows how iBGP interchange routing information.

Working

 Session Establishment:

BGP routers establish TCP sessions (port 179) between peers (neighbors).

Sessions can be iBGP (within the same AS) or eBGP (between different ASes).

 Exchanging Routes:

Routers exchange UPDATE messages to advertise reachable networks and withdraw

unreachable ones.

Route information includes path attributes like AS path, next hop, and origin.

 Path Selection:

BGP uses attributes to select the best path:

o Highest weight (Cisco-specific).

o Highest local preference.
o Shortest AS path.
o Lowest origin type (IGP > EGP > incomplete).
o Lowest MED (if from the same AS).
 o Prefer eBGP over iBGP routes.
o Smallest router ID as a tie-breaker.

 Policy Enforcement:

Administrators can filter routes and modify attributes (e.g., AS path, local preference) to control
routing behavior.

 Route Propagation:

Changes (e.g., link failures) are communicated through UPDATE messages.

Convergence may be slow due to loop prevention mechanisms.

 Redundancy and Scalability:

Supports route summarization, filtering, and multipath routing.

Handles the large global internet routing table efficiently.

33. Suppose a network with IP Address 192.16.0.0 is divided into 2 subnets. Find the
number of hosts per subnet. Also, for the first subnet, estimate the Subnet Address,
First Host ID, Last Host ID, Broadcast Address.

No of additional bits required for subnetting = 2^n = 2  n = 1

Subnets No of Network ID First Host ID Last Host ID Broadcast

hosts Address
Subnet 2^15 – 192.16.0.0 192.16.0.1 192.16.127.254 192.16.127.255
1 2=
32766
Subnet 2^15 – 192.16.128.0 192.16.128.1 192.16.255.254 192.16.255.255
2 2=
32766

Subnet Mask (for both subnets) = 192.16.128.0

34. In a class B network on the internet with a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0, estimate the
maximum number of hosts per subnet.

In a class B Network, out of 32 bits: 16 bits are reserved for Network ID and 16 bits are
available for Host Addresses.

Network ID (16 bits) Host ID (16 bits)

Current Subnet Mask: 255.255.240.0

In Binary Form: 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000

So, there are 20 bits assigned for the network ID

 So remaining bits for host ID = 32 – 20 = 12

No of subnets = 24 = 16

So Total no of IP Address Possible = 212 = 4096

now, 2 IDs are reserved as Network and Broadcast ID.

So, Total no of Usable IP Address = No of Hosts Per Subnet = 2 12 – 2 = 4094

35. Consider we have a big single network with IP Address 200.1.2.0. We want to do
subnetting and divide this network into 4 subnets. Estimate the details of the
subnetworks.

 Total no of Addresses = 256

 4 subnets mean we need to allocate 2 additional bits for subnetting (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 22 = 4).
 New subnet mask = /26 (24 original network bits + 2 subnet bits).
 Each subnet will have: 232−26 = 26 = 64 IP addresses per subnet. Of these, 2 are reserved for
the network ID and broadcast address, leaving 64−2=62 usable host addresses per subnet.

Subnet Network ID Subnet Mask Range of Usable IPs Broadcast

Address
Subnet 1 200.1.2.0 255.255.255.192 200.1.2.1 - 200.1.2.63
200.1.2.62
Subnet 2 200.1.2.64 255.255.255.192 200.1.2.65 - 200.1.2.127
200.1.2.126
Subnet 3 200.1.2.128 255.255.255.192 200.1.2.129 - 200.1.2.191
200.1.2.190
Subnet 4 200.1.2.192 255.255.255.192 200.1.2.193 - 200.1.2.255
200.1.2.254

36. Consider we have a big single network with IP Address 200.1.2.0. We want to do
subnetting and divide this network into 3 subnets. Estimate the details of the
subnetworks.

 Total no of Addresses = 256

 3 subnets mean we need to allocate 1 additional bit for one subnet and 2 additional bits for
other two subnets.
 New Subnet Mask (for 1 additional bit) = /25 (24 Original network bits + 1 subnet bit)
 New Subnet Mask (for 2 additional bits) = /26 (24 Original network bits + 2 subnet bit)
 New subnet mask = /26 (24 original network bits + 2 subnet bits).
 Each subnet will have: 232−26 = 26 = 64 IP addresses per subnet. Of these, 2 are reserved for
the network ID and broadcast address, leaving 64−2=62 usable host addresses per subnet.

Subnet Network ID Subnet Mask Range of Usable IPs Broadcast

Address
 Subnet 1 200.1.2.0 255.255.255.128 200.1.2.1 - 200.1.2.63
200.1.2.127
Subnet 2 200.1.2.128 255.255.255.192 200.1.2.129 - 200.1.2.191
200.1.2.191
Subnet 3 200.1.2.192 255.255.255.192 200.1.2.193 - 200.1.2.255
200.1.2.254

37. Explain the mechanism of the three-way handshake protocol for TCP.

TCP or (Transmission Control Protocol) needs to establish connection with the receiver for
ensuring data is delivered correctly between computers on an internet network. A three-way
handshake is a process that's used to initiate a connection in a transmission control
protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) network.

1. SYN: The initiating computer (or active client) sends a synchronize sequence number (SYN)
packet to the receiving computer (usually a server). The SYN packet value is set to an arbitrary
number (e.g. 100) to “ask” if any open connections are available.

2. SYN-ACK: If the receiving computer (also known as a passive client) has open ports that
can accept the connection, it sends back a synchronize-acknowledge (SYN-ACK) packet to
the initiating computer. The packet includes two numbers: the receiving computer’s own SYN,
which can be any arbitrary number as well (e.g. 200), and the ACK number, which is the
initiating computer’s SYN plus one (e.g. 101).

3. ACK: The initiating computer (active client) then sends an acknowledge sequence number
(ACK) packet back to the receiving computer. This ACK packet is acknowledgement of receipt
of the SYN-ACK packet. The packet value is set to the receiving computer’s SYN (sent in step
two) plus one again (e.g. 201). With this final step, the connection establishes, and data
transmission can begin.

Importance:
 1. Reliable Connection Establishment: It ensures both the client and server are ready to
communicate before data is exchanged.

2. Synchronization of Sequence Numbers: It helps in setting sequence numbers for orderly

data transfer, preventing loss or mis ordering.

3. Flow and Congestion Control: It enables the exchange of parameters for managing data
flow and avoiding network congestion.

38. Describe a) TCP connection management. b) Avoidance of congestion in TCP.

a) Same answer as 36
b) Congestion refers to a network state where-
The message traffic becomes so heavy that it slows down the network response time.

TCP congestion control refers to the mechanism that prevents congestion from happening
or removes it after congestion takes place.
When congestion takes place in the network, TCP handles it by reducing the size of the
sender’s window. The window size of the sender is determined by the following two factors:
 Receiver window size
 Congestion window size

Receiver Window Size

It shows how much data can a receiver receive in bytes without giving any
acknowledgment.

Congestion Window
It is the state of TCP that limits the amount of data to be sent by the sender into the
network even before receiving the acknowledgment.

Congestion in TCP is handled by using these three phases:

1. Slow Start
2. Congestion Avoidance
3. Congestion Detection

Slow Start Phase

Exponential Increment: In this phase after every RTT the congestion window size
increments exponentially.
Example: If the initial congestion window size is 1 segment, and the first segment is
successfully acknowledged, the congestion window size becomes 2 segments. If the next
transmission is also acknowledged, the congestion window size doubles to 4 segments.
This exponential growth continues as long as all segments are successfully acknowledged.

Congestion Avoidance Phase

Additive Increment: This phase starts after the threshold value also denoted
as ssthresh. The size of CWND (Congestion Window) increases additive. After each RTT
cwnd = cwnd + 1.
 For example: if the congestion window size is 20 segments and all 20 segments are
successfully acknowledged within an RTT, the congestion window size would be increased
to 21 segments in the next RTT. If all 21 segments are again successfully acknowledged,
the congestion window size will be increased to 22 segments, and so on.

Congestion Detection Phase

In this phase, the sender identifies the segment loss and gives acknowledgment depending
on the type of loss detected.

Case-01: Detection on Time Out

 Indicates: Stronger possibility of network congestion, segment drop.
 Reaction:
o Set threshold to half of the current window size.
o Decrease congestion window size to MSS (Maximum Segment Size).
o Resume Slow Start phase.
Case-02: Detection of 3 Duplicate Acknowledgements
 Indicates: Weaker possibility of congestion, fewer segments may be dropped.
 Reaction:
o Set threshold to half of the current window size.
o Decrease congestion window size to slow start threshold.
o Resume Congestion Avoidance phase.

39. Discuss the various timers used by TCP to perform its various operations.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) uses several timers to manage and control its various
operations effectively. These timers ensure reliable data transmission and help in error
recovery, flow control, and connection management. Here are the key timers used by TCP:

1. Retransmission Timer

This is one of the most critical timers in TCP. It determines how long TCP should wait before
retransmitting an unacknowledged segment. If the acknowledgment (ACK) for a sent segment
is not received within this time, the segment is retransmitted. The timer's duration is calculated
based on the estimated round-trip time (RTT) and its variation.

2. Persist Timer

The persist timer prevents the TCP connection from becoming deadlocked when the receiver's
window size is zero. When the window size is zero, the sender periodically probes the receiver
to check if the window size has increased. If no response is received within the persist timer's
interval, the sender will retransmit the probe.

3. Keep-Alive Timer

The keep-alive timer is used to check if the other end of a connection is still reachable and
responsive. If no data or acknowledgment is received for a specified period, TCP sends keep-
alive probes to the idle connection. If a response is not received after a certain number of
probes, the connection is considered broken, and appropriate actions are taken.
 4.TIME-WAIT Timer

This timer is used to ensure that the final acknowledgment for a connection termination is
properly received. When a TCP connection is closed, it enters the TIME-WAIT state for a
period (usually twice the maximum segment lifetime). This ensures that any delayed segments
are not misinterpreted as new data.

5. Delayed ACK Timer

To improve performance, TCP does not always send an acknowledgment immediately after
receiving a segment. The delayed ACK timer is used to hold off the acknowledgment for a
short period (usually up to 200 milliseconds) to allow for possible piggybacking with data
segments. If no data segment is sent within this period, a standalone ACK is sent.

6. Connection Establishment Timer

During the connection establishment phase, TCP uses a timer to control the duration for which
a SYN (synchronize) request is kept active. If the SYN-ACK response is not received within the
timer's interval, the SYN request is retransmitted or the connection attempt is aborted.

40. Estimate the performance issues of the transport layer.

The transport layer, which is responsible for delivering data between hosts, can face several
performance issues that affect the efficiency and reliability of communication. Here are some
common performance issues:

1. Congestion Control

Congestion occurs when too much data is sent over a network, overwhelming the network's
capacity. This can lead to packet loss, increased latency, and reduced throughput. Effective
congestion control mechanisms are necessary to manage and alleviate congestion.

2. Latency

Latency refers to the delay between sending and receiving data. High latency can be caused
by factors such as long propagation delays, processing delays, and queuing delays. It impacts
real-time applications like VoIP and online gaming.

3. Throughput

Throughput is the rate at which data is successfully delivered over a network. Limited
bandwidth, high packet loss, and inefficient routing can negatively affect throughput, leading to
lower data transfer rates.

4. Packet Loss

Packet loss occurs when packets of data are lost in transit due to errors, congestion, or
network failures. It can lead to retransmissions and increased latency, degrading the overall
performance of the transport layer.
 5. Jitter

Jitter is the variability in packet arrival times. It can cause problems for time-sensitive
applications like video streaming and online gaming, where consistent timing is crucial for
quality.

6.Fault Tolerance

The transport layer must handle network failures gracefully to ensure reliable data delivery.
Inadequate fault tolerance mechanisms can result in data loss and connection interruptions.

7. Security

Security measures, such as encryption and authentication, can introduce additional overhead
and processing delays. Balancing security and performance is a key challenge.

8. Scalability

As the number of users and devices on a network grows, the transport layer must scale to
handle increased traffic. Scalability issues can lead to performance degradation if the network
infrastructure cannot keep up with demand.

41. Explain the services provided by SCTP Protocol.

SCTP stands for Stream Control Transmission Protocol. It is a connection- oriented

protocol in computer networks which provides a full-duplex association i.e., transmitting
multiple streams of data between two end points at the same time that have established a
connection in network. It is sometimes referred to as next generation TCP or TCPng, SCTP
makes it easier to support telephonic conversation on Internet.

the key services provided by SCTP:

1. Process-to-Process Communication: Facilitates communication between processes on

different hosts.
2. Multiple Streams: Supports multiple streams within a single connection.
3. Multihoming: Allows multiple IP addresses at both ends for fault tolerance.
4. Full-Duplex Communication: Enables simultaneous data flow in both directions.
5. Connection-Oriented: Establishes an association before data exchange.
6. Reliable Service: Ensures data is delivered correctly and in order.
7. Path Management: Monitors and manages multiple paths for data transmission.
8. Congestion Control: Manages network congestion for smooth data flow.
9. Security Features: Includes mechanisms to prevent certain types of attacks.

42. Explain SCTP Association with a mention of SYN Flooding attack.

Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is a transport-layer protocol used for

reliable, message-oriented communication. Unlike TCP, SCTP establishes an association
instead of a connection, which includes the following features:
 Steps in SCTP Four-Way Handshake:

1. INIT:
o The client sends an INIT chunk to start the association.
2. INIT-ACK:
o The server responds with an INIT-ACK chunk, which includes a cookie (server-side
state is not yet allocated).
3. COOKIE-ECHO:
o The client responds with a COOKIE-ECHO chunk, including the server-provided cookie.
4. COOKIE-ACK:
o The server validates the cookie and completes the association by sending a COOKIE-
ACK.

Protection Against SYN Flooding:

SYN Flooding is a denial-of-service (DoS) attack targeting TCP's three-way handshake.

Attackers send many SYN packets without completing the handshake, consuming server
resources by keeping incomplete connection states.

SCTP's Mitigation:

1. Stateless Server Design:

o During the INIT-ACK step, the server generates a cookie containing state information
(e.g., IP address, ports, etc.) and sends it to the client.
o No resources are allocated until the server receives the COOKIE-ECHO chunk from the
client.
2. Validation of Clients:
o Only clients that return the valid cookie (by completing COOKIE-ECHO) can establish
an association.
o Prevents attackers from consuming server memory since the server doesn't maintain
state for incomplete handshakes.

43. Distinguish between open and closed-loop congestion control.

Features Open-loop Control System Closed-loop Control System

Definition It is a control system that does not It is a type of control system that
have a feedback path. contains a feedback path.
Control Action It is independent of the output It is dependent on the output
generated. generated.
Changes Its output doesn't change and Its output changes the control
modify the control action. action.
Also Referred These are sometimes known as These are frequently referred to as
manual or non-feedback control automatic control systems or
systems. feedback control systems.
Design The design of this type of system is The design of this type of system is
complexity quite simple. complex.
Reliability Its reliability is less. Its reliability is high.
Cost It is less costly. It is more costly.
Maintenance It needs less maintenance. It needs more maintenance.
 Accuracy These systems are inaccurate These systems are more accurate
because there is no automated because there is an automatic
correcting mechanism. corrective mechanism.
Response It has a quick reaction as there is no Its response is slow because of
output measurement or feedback. feedback presence.
Optimization It doesn't optimize. It is optimized to generate the
desired output.
Implementatio It is easy to implement. It is complex to implement.
n
Noise It contains more internal noise. It has less internal noise than the
open-loop control system.
Stability It is highly stable. It is less stable than open-loop
control system.

44. Explain the techniques to improve QOS.

Quality-of-service (QoS) refers to traffic control mechanisms that seek to differentiate

performance based on application or network-operator requirements or provide predictable or
guaranteed performance to applications, sessions, or traffic aggregates. The basic
phenomenon for QoS is in terms of packet delay and losses of various kinds.

Key QoS Improvement Techniques:

 Traffic Prioritization:
 Marking packets: Assigning different priority levels to packets based on application
type (e.g., high priority for real-time video, medium for web browsing).
 Class-based queuing: Creating separate queues for different traffic classes, allowing
high-priority packets to be processed first.
 Resource Reservation:
 Bandwidth allocation: Specifying a dedicated portion of network bandwidth for specific
applications or users.
 Resource reservation protocol (RSVP): A signalling protocol that allows applications
to request specific network resources in advance.
 Queuing Mechanisms:
 First-In-First-Out (FIFO): Basic queuing where packets are processed in the order they
arrive.
 Priority queuing: Packets with higher priority are processed first, regardless of arrival
time.
 Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ): Ensures fair allocation of bandwidth among different
traffic flows based on their priority.
 Traffic Shaping/Policing:
 Traffic shaping: Controlling the rate at which data is sent to the network to prevent
congestion.
 Traffic policing: Dropping or delaying packets that exceed a predefined rate limit.
 Congestion Management:
  Active Queue Management (AQM): Algorithms that dynamically adjust queuing
behaviour to mitigate congestion.
 Congestion avoidance mechanisms: Techniques to prevent network congestion by
dynamically adjusting transmission rates.

45. Explain in detail about DNS messages.

 Transaction ID: for matching response to queries

 Flags: specifies the requested operation and a response code
 Questions: count of entries in the queries section
 Answer RRs: count of entries in the answers section (RR stands for “resource record”)
 Authority RRs: count of entries in the authority section
 Additional RRs: count of entries in the additional section
 Queries: queries data

 Name: the domain name

 Type: DNS record type (e.g., A, CNAME, and MX)
 Class: allows domain names to be used for arbitrary objects

Response Message
 A response message shares the same header and Queries with an
additional Answers section.

 Time to Live (TTL): number of seconds this record can live

 Data Length: the length of the data
 Data: the returned data, such as an IP address or CNAME

46. Distinguish the User agent in an E-mail system focusing on the services and its types.

A User Agent (UA) in an e-mail system is the software application or program used by the end-
user to access and manage their e-mails. It provides an interface for sending, receiving,
reading, and organizing e-mail messages. Here are the key points distinguishing the services
and types of User Agents:

Services Provided by User Agents

1. Message Composition: Allows users to create new e-mail messages, including text
formatting, attachments, and multimedia content.
2. Message Sending: Facilitates the sending of e-mails to recipients using SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol).
3. Message Reception: Retrieves e-mails from the mail server using protocols like POP3 (Post
Office Protocol 3) or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol).
4. Message Reading: Provides tools for viewing and reading received e-mails.
5. Message Organization: Offers features for sorting, labeling, and storing e-mails in folders or
categories.
6. Address Book: Maintains a list of contacts and their e-mail addresses.
7. Search Functionality: Allows users to search through their e-mails based on various criteria
like sender, subject, date, etc.
8. Spam Filtering: Helps in identifying and filtering out unwanted e-mails.
9. Encryption: Provides options for secure communication by encrypting e-mail content.
10. Calendar Integration: Syncs with calendars for managing events and schedules.

Types of User Agents:

 Desktop Clients: Dedicated software applications installed on a user's computer, like

Microsoft Outlook, Mozilla Thunderbird, or Apple Mail.
 Webmail Clients: Email access through a web browser, like Gmail, Yahoo Mail, or Hotmail,
where the user accesses their email through a web interface.
 Mobile Clients: Apps on smartphones or tablets that allow users to manage email on the go.

47. Distinguish the header format and the data types of MIME.

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an internet standard that allows users to send
and receive emails with a variety of data types, including images, audio, video, and application
programs:

Data types

MIME allows users to send both ASCII text and non-ASCII data, such as graphics, audio, and
video files.

MIME Header

1. MIME Version

It defines the version of the MIME protocol. This header usually has a parameter value 1.0,
indicating that the message is formatted using MIME.

2. Content Type

It describes the type and subtype of information to be sent in the message. These messages
can be of many types such as Text, Image, Audio, Video, and they also have many subtypes
such that the subtype of the image can be png or jpeg. Similarly, the subtype of Video can be
WEBM, MP4 etc.
 3. Content Type Encoding

In this field, it is told which method has been used to convert mail information into ASCII or
Binary number, such as 7-bit encoding, 8-bit encoding, etc.

4. Content Id

In this field, a unique "Content Id" number is appended to all email messages so that they can
be uniquely identified.

5. Content description

This field contains a brief description of the content within the email. This means that
information about whatever is being sent in the mail is clearly in the "Content Description". This
field also provides the information of name, creation date, and modification date of the file.

Features of MIME Protocol

1. It supports multiple attachments in a single e-mail.

2. It supports the non-ASCII characters.
3. It supports unlimited e-mail length.
4. It supports multiple languages.

48. Estimate the working of SMTP protocol.

Simple Mail Transfer mechanism (SMTP) is a mechanism for exchanging email messages
between servers. It is an essential component of the email communication process and
operates at the application layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack. SMTP is a protocol for
transmitting and receiving email messages.

Components of SMTP

 Mail User Agent (MUA): It is a computer application that helps you in sending and retrieving
mail. It is responsible for creating email messages for transfer to the mail transfer agent(MTA).
 Mail Submission Agent (MSA): It is a computer program that receives mail from a Mail User
Agent(MUA) and interacts with the Mail Transfer Agent(MTA) for the transfer of the mail.

 Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): It is software that has the work to transfer mail from one system
to another with the help of SMTP.

 Mail Delivery Agent (MDA): A mail Delivery agent or Local Delivery Agent is basically a
system that helps in the delivery of mail to the local system.

Working:

 Communication between the sender and the receiver: The sender’s user agent prepares
the message and sends it to the MTA. The MTA’s responsibility is to transfer the mail across
the network to the receiver’s MTA. To send mail, a system must have a client MTA, and to
receive mail, a system must have a server MTA.

 Sending Emails: Mail is sent by a series of request and response messages between
the client and the server. The message which is sent across consists of a header and a body.
A null line is used to terminate the mail header and everything after the null line is considered
the body of the message, which is a sequence of ASCII characters. The message body
contains the actual information read by the receipt.

 Receiving Emails: The user agent on the server-side checks the mailboxes at a particular
time of intervals. If any information is received, it informs the user about the mail. When the
user tries to read the mail it displays a list of emails with a short description of each mail in the
mailbox. By selecting any of the mail users can view its contents on the terminal.

49. Estimate the features of Bluetooth.

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard designed for exchanging data over short distances
using short-wavelength UHF radio waves. It has several key features that make it widely used
in various applications. Here are some notable features of Bluetooth:
 Wireless Communication: Enables cable-free connections between devices.
 Short Range: Typically operates within a 10-meter range.
 Low Power Consumption: Suitable for battery-powered devices.
 Data Transfer Speed: Supports up to 3 Mbps (24 Mbps for Bluetooth 5.0).
 Secure Connections: Offers authentication and encryption.
 Interoperability: Devices from different manufacturers can connect.
 Simple Pairing: Easy and quick device pairing process.
 Versatile Profiles: Supports various specific application profiles.
 Backward Compatibility: Newer versions work with older devices.
 Multi-Device Connectivity: Connects to multiple devices simultaneously.
 Low Latency: Suitable for real-time applications.
 Audio Quality: Supports high-quality audio streaming.

50. Explain the UDP datagram format with a diagram.

The UDP header contains four fields:

o Source port number: It is 16-bit information that identifies which port is going t send the
packet.
o Destination port number: It identifies which port is going to accept the information. It is 16-bit
information which is used to identify application-level service on the destination machine.
o Length: It is 16-bit field that specifies the entire length of the UDP packet that includes the
header also. The minimum value would be 8-byte as the size of the header is 8 bytes.
o Checksum: It is a 16-bits field, and it is an optional field. This checksum field checks whether
the information is accurate or not as there is the possibility that the information can be
corrupted while transmission.

51. Explain the TCP Segment format with a diagram.

 Field Description
Source Port 16-bit field identifying the source application (via
port number).
Destination Port 16-bit field identifying the destination application
(via port number).
Sequence Number 32-bit field indicating the position of the first byte in
the segment's data payload.
Acknowledgment 32-bit field used to acknowledge receipt of data
Number from the sender.
Data Offset 4-bit field indicating the size of the TCP header (in
32-bit words).
Reserved 6-bit field reserved for future use (always set to 0).
Control Flags 6-bit flags indicating specific purposes (e.g., SYN,
ACK, FIN, RST, PSH, URG).
Window Size 16-bit field specifying the size of the receiver's
buffer, used for flow control.
Checksum 16-bit field for error-checking the header and data.
Urgent Pointer 16-bit field indicating if the urgent data feature is in
use.
Options Variable-length field used for additional
functionality (e.g., timestamps, selective
acknowledgment).
Payload (Data) Variable-sized field containing the actual data
being transmitted.
52. Explain the concept of Queuing in the UDP protocol with a diagram.
 In UDP protocol, numbers are used to distinguish the different processes on a server and
client. We know that UDP provides a process-to-process communication. The client generates
the processes that need services while the server generates the processes that provide
services. The queues are available for both the processes, i.e., two queues for each process.
The first queue is the incoming queue that receives the messages, and the second one is the
outgoing queue that sends the messages. The queue functions when the process is running. If
the process is terminated then the queue will also get destroyed.

UDP handles the sending and receiving of the UDP packets with the help of the following
components:

o Input queue: The UDP packets uses a set of queues for each process.
o Input module: This module takes the user datagram from the IP, and then it finds the
information from the control block table of the same port. If it finds the entry in the control block
table with the same port as the user datagram, it enqueues the data.
o Control Block Module: It manages the control block table.
o Control Block Table: The control block table contains the entry of open ports.
o Output module: The output module creates and sends the user datagram.

53. Explain the structure of an E-Mail with a diagram.

Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of the most widely used services of the Internet. This service
allows an Internet user to send a message in a formatted manner (mail) to other Internet
users in any part of the world. Message in the mail not only contain text, but it also contains
images, audio and videos data. The person who is sending mail is called sender and person
who receives mail is called the recipient. It is just like postal mail service.

Format of E-mail :
An e-mail consists of three parts that are as follows :
1. Envelope:
The envelope part encapsulates the message. It contains all information that is required for
sending any e-mail such as destination address, priority and security level. The envelope is
used by MTAs for routing message.
2. Header :
The header consists of a series of lines. Each header field consists of a single line of ASCII
text specifying field name, colon and value. The main header fields related to message
transport are:

Header Meaning
To: E-mail address of primary receipt(s).
Cc: E-mail address of secondary receipt(s).
Bcc: E-mail address for blind carbon copies.
From: Person or people who have created a
message.
Sender: E-mail address of the actual sender.
Received: It is used to specify how to get back to the
sender.
Return-Path It can be used to identify a path back to the
sender

3. Body: The body of a message contains text that is the actual content/message that needs
to be sent, such as “Employees who are eligible for the new health care program should
contact their supervisors by next Friday if they want to switch.” The message body also
may include signatures or automatically generated text that is inserted by the sender’s
email system.