Make the most of the sun

A Guide to maximising the Performance of

Photovoltaic and Thermal Solar Energy Systems
with Precision Monitoring of Solar Radiation

improve technology • find optimal locations • help investment decisions • select the appropriate system type • maximise operating efficiency • schedule maintenance • monitor performance
 Solar radiation spectrum at sea level UVA
Typical photovoltaic cell response UVB
Visible Near-infrared
Spectral response of thermopile pyranometer Far infrared
Spectral response of thermopile pygeometer

1.0
Response [arbitrary units]

0.5

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000

Wavelength [nm]

The solar spectrum, and the responses of PV cells and the instruments for measuring solar radiation
What is solar radiation?
The sun is the energy supply for our planet that allows, The amount of short-wave radiation reaching the ground is
directly or indirectly, the existence of life on Earth. The sun mainly influenced by clouds, particles, pollutants and
consists of 71 % Hydrogen, 27 % Helium and 2 % solid matter. aircraft contrails in the atmosphere. On a clear sunny day it “
Near its centre the temperature is around 16 million degrees is typically in the range of 1,000-1,300 W/m² at midday,
and the nuclear reaction area in its core takes up almost one depending on the latitude, altitude and time of year.
quarter of its whole diameter. The energy emitted by the sun
is 3.72 x 1020 MW.

At the mean distance between Earth and sun this radiation

reaches the outside of our atmosphere with an intensity of
1,367 Watts per square metre (W/m²). This is called the

face
Incoming
Solar Constant. The total energy emitted by the sun does

sur
ere
Solar Energy

th’s
sph

atm ce from
100 %

e
not change by more than 0.1 %, no matter at which point

her
ear
tmo

osp
om
by a

ds a o spa
the sun is in its active or inactive cycles, which last 11

d fr
cted

ecte

clou ated t
nd

th
years each.

efle

refl

ear
s

i
rad
r

oud
6%

4%

rom
y cl

64%

ce f
db

spa
ecte
The solar radiation is partially reflected, scattered and

por

to
r va
refl
16% absorbed by atmosphere

tly
ate
absorbed in the atmosphere by its constituent gases, water

irec
20%

nw

dd
i
vapour and clouds. Radiation reaching the ground is partly

ate
eat

adi
nt h
3% absorbed by clouds

r
reflected but mostly it is absorbed, heating up the land and

late

6%
e by
the oceans. Some of the energy absorbed by the surface and

er
r

phe
phe
ir

mos
mos
ng a
the atmosphere is re-radiated in the far infrared. The Earth’s

y at
d at
risi

ed b
s an
energy budget (or ‘energy balance’) is shown in the diagram.

and

b
oud
tion

sor
l

n ab
to c
duc
con

o
ied

iati
Radiation reaching the Earth’s surface from the sun and sky

carr
7%

rad
23%

15%
is split into short-wave radiation, at a number of bands in
51% absorbed by land and oceans
the wavelength range from 300 to 4,000 nm (4 µm), and
long-wave radiation from 4.5 to more than 40 µm (far infra-
red). The short-wave radiation includes the ultraviolet,
visible and near-infrared bands.
Earth’s Energy Budget
Why should I measure it?
Good quality, reliable solar radiation data is becoming However, such energy maps and satellite data are not localized
increasingly important in the field of renewable energy with enough, or accurate enough, to provide a reliable basis on
regard to both photovoltaic (PV) and thermal systems. It helps which to make technology and investment decisions. Due to
well-founded decision making on activities such as research micro-climate differences, changes of a few hundred kilometers
and development, production quality control, determination can give a yearly change of several hundred sun shine hours.
of optimum locations, monitoring the efficiency of installed
systems and predicting the system output under various sky The real available energy at a given location needs to be measured
conditions. on-site over a full year. The differences in efficiency between PV
technologies are often very small, so accurate measurements are
Maps are available showing the potential for solar electricity essential to make meaningful price/performance comparisons.
generation, as below for European countries. Errors in the solar radiation measurement can significantly impact
upon the return on investment.
30 W 20 W 10 W 0E 10 E 20 E 30 E 40 E 50 E 60 E

High quality solar radiation data enables the choice of optimum

locations and the most effective solar energy system type.
60 N

60 N
50 N
50 N
50 N
50 N

50 N

Yearly sum of global irradiation incident on

optimally-inclined south-oriented photovoltaic modules [kWh/m²]

<600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200>

40 N

40 N

Yearly sum of solar electricity generated by 1 kWp system with

optimally-inclined modules and performance ratio 0.75 [kWh/kWp]

0E 10 E 20 E 30 E 40 E <450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650>

Šúri M., Huld T.A., Dunlop E.D. Ossenbrink H.A., 2007. Potential of solar electricity generation in the European Union member states and candidate countries. Solar Energy, 81, 1295–1305, http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis
What do I measure it with?
Commercial-scale thermal energy systems typically use
reflective solar collectors that focus the full spectrum of
short-wave and long-wave energy onto the medium that is to
be heated for the energy transfer process.

The ‘global’ short-wave radiation in the ultraviolet, visible and

near-infrared bands is measured by a horizontally mounted
Kipp & Zonen CMP series pyranometer (as shown at left).

Measurements of solar radiation are usually made using thermopile

type radiometers with a flat spectral response. The types of
instruments, performance specifications, and calibration methods
are defined by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
and International Standards Organisation (ISO). They provide
accurate measurements of the total solar energy available under
all sky conditions. The data can be compared with measurements
from meteorological networks and satellites, across various
locations and for different types of solar energy systems.

Photovoltaic materials have most of their sensitivity in the

visible and near-infrared parts of the spectrum, from The long-wave far infrared radiation is measured by a horizontally
approximately 400 to 1100 nm with a peak just beyond the mounted Kipp & Zonen CGR series pyrgeometer (as shown above).
visible range. There is little response to ultraviolet, and none Typical spectral responses of the instruments are shown in the
to long-wave radiation. graph on page 2.
What instruments do I need for my installed system?
PV panels have a wide field of view and are positioned to receive the Where relative measurements of trends are sufficient, a lower
maximum amount of solar radiation. Depending on location and specification and lower cost sensor can be used. Our SP Lite2 silicon
cost/benefit decisions these panels may be at a fixed angle or move pyranometer uses a photo-diode detector with a spectral response
to follow the sun using one-axis or two-axis tracking systems. PV similar to most types of solar cells. It is widely used for field testing
modules characterized by commercial solar simulators can seriously and monitoring applications, particularly in conjunction with our
overestimate module performance. PV modules are specified under METEON hand-held display and datalogger unit.
Standard Test Conditions, in reality the conditions are often less
optimal resulting in a lower performance. A pyranometer will
always give a correct measurement of the available solar radiation
whatever the environmental conditions.

Therefore, in addition to the horizontally mounted CMP series

pyranometer that is used for reference purposes, it is recommended
to have another mounted on the panel or array to measure the
energy available from the hemisphere that the panel can see. This is
sometimes called the ‘tilted global radiation’ and the pyranometer
is usually connected to the inverter control system and allows the
system efficiency to be monitored and maintenance, such as cleaning,
to be scheduled. Some PV systems use solar concentrators with lenses to focus the
sun’s radiation onto the cells in order to increase the output. Many
thermal solar energy systems have some form of reflector to focus the
sun’s energy onto a target. In both cases they have a relatively small
angle of view and must be continuously moved to point at the sun.

For these systems it is important to know the amount of radiation

available directly from the sun. This ‘direct’ short-wave radiation
is measured by the Kipp & Zonen CHP 1 pyrheliometer that has a
5 ° view and is mounted on our SOLYS 2 automatic sun tracker. The
pyranometer for horizontal global radiation can be conveniently
mounted on top of the tracker.
What do I need for research or solar prospecting?
As previously described, measurements using WMO / ISO
type pyranometers and pyrgeometers can be compared
directly across sites anywhere in the world, with data from
meteorological networks, with satellite information, and with
solar radiation prediction algorithms. They are technology
independent and can be used for any type of solar thermal
energy or PV system and are therefore the ideal solution for
solar energy research and site prospecting.

The next step is the extension to a complete Solar Monitoring

Station. It comprises a SOLYS 2 or 2AP sun tracker fitted with a
CMP pyranometer for global radiation, a CHP 1 pyrheliometer for
direct radiation, and a CMP pyranometer shaded from the direct
sun to measure the ‘diffuse’ sky radiation. There may also be a
tilted CMP pyranometer measuring the total radiation available to
a PV system that has 2-axis tracking arrays. For thermal energy
systems a CGR pyrgeometer is added. All of these instruments are
mounted on the sun tracker (as shown in the picture at right) using
the accessory shading ball assembly.

The outputs from all the radiometers are connected to a dedicated data
logger and stored for retrieval by remote access. Kipp & Zonen can
supply solutions for most data logging and data transfer requirements.
Why Kipp & Zonen?
Kipp & Zonen has been designing and manufacturing solar
radiation measurement equipment for over 75 years and
supplies leading meteorology and climatology organisations,
research institutes and energy companies around the globe.
Our radiometers can help you to optimize the performance of Ing. Giuseppe Terzaghi of Albarubens
your system. We have a world-wide reputation for quality,
reliability, expertise and support. “The difference in performance of PV panels is quite
small, so an objective power measurement has to be
made with very high precision and low uncertainty to
certify the performance. Therefore we choose the Kipp &
Zonen CMP 11 pyranometer as the absolute irradiance
meter. A reference cell has an uncertain spectral
response; however we do use a reference PV module for
comparison. The best way to quantify PV module
performance for certification purposes is in their real
working condition: natural sun light!”

Albarubens S.r.l. is a test laboratory, located near

Milan in Italy that specialises in Solar Energy systems.

The laboratory is accredited under IEC 17025 for all the

performance and endurance tests on photovoltaic (PV)
solar panels, as described in the standards IEC EN
61215 (crystalline silicon), IEC EN 61646 (thin film) and
IEC EN 61730-2 (safety aspects). Albarubens is also
In addition to our radiometers and sun trackers, we have a wide testing to IEC 62108 (concentrators) and EN 12975
range of accessories, data loggers and interfacing solutions. All (thermal solar panels).
our products have a 2-year warranty.

Please visit our website www.kippzonen.com for more information.

Dr. Lourdes Ramirez Santigosa of CENER Ing. Simon Boddaert of CSTB

“As part of the BSRN (Baseline Service Radiation Network) “As part of our research, development and innovation
group, we monitor the background shortwave and long programme to develop new photovoltaic components and
wave radiative components and their changes with the best hybrid systems integrated into buildings, we - Renewable
methods currently available. We use a CMP 22 pyranometer Energy Department of CSTB - use numerical simulation
for global and diffuse radiation measurements and a CH 1 tools and experimental platforms to characterize electrical
pyrheliometer measures the direct radiation. All Kipp & performance and thermal behaviour. For the numerical
Zonen instruments are mounted on a 2AP sun tracker. The models it is necessary to determine the real-world
data is important for characterisation and monitoring of performance of the components used, and it is also
Solar Thermal Power Plants and Concentrated Solar Power necessary to know the weather conditions, such as wind,
systems. Furthermore the meteorological variables are temperature and solar radiation. For more than five years,
also inputs for energy performance models and energy we have used Kipp & Zonen pyranometers for most of our
forecasting.” photovoltaic activities, in order to meet customers’
requirements and expectations.”
The National Renewable Energy Centre (CENER) in Spain is
a worldwide recognised technology centre specialised in CSTB stands for Centre Scientifique et Technique du
applied research, development and promotion of renewable Bâtiment, the French Scientific and Technical Building
energies. The CENER Photovoltaic Solar Energy Department Centre (contact: [email protected])
collaborates in projects sponsored by AECI and in initiatives
of the International Energy Agency (IEA). The Solar Thermal
Energy Department of the CENER offers technological
services and carries out applied research activities.
System configurations Relevant IEC standards for PV panel testing
Basic Solar Monitoring IEC 60904 (part1/10) Photovoltaic devices, measurements and requirements
For fixed (tilted) panels
1 horizontal pyranometer for global radiation IEC 61215 Design qualification and type approval, crystalline silicon
1 tilted pyranometer for tilted global radiation
IEC 61646 Design qualification and type approval, thin film
Recommended instruments:
SP Lite2 / CMP 3 / CMP 6 / CMP 11 IEC 61853 Module performance testing

IEC 62108 Design qualification and type approval, concentrator photovoltaic (CPV)
Advanced Solar Monitoring modules and assemblies
For concentrating and / or tracking systems
1 horizontal pyranometer for global radiation
1 pyrheliometer with sun tracker for direct radiation Relevant EN standard for thermal solar panels
1 tilted pyranometer fitted to sun tracker
1 horizontal pyrgeometer for infrared radiation (thermal systems) EN 12975 Thermal solar system testing

Recommended instruments:
CMP 11, CHP 1, SOLYS 2, CGR 4 Relevant ISO standards for pyranometers
ISO 9060 Specifications and classifications of instruments
Complete Solar Monitoring System
Includes global, direct, diffuse and global tilted measurement ISO 9847 Calibration of field pyranometers
1 horizontal pyranometer for global radiation
1 pyrheliometer with sun tracker for direct radiation
1 tilted pyranometer fitted to sun tracker
1 shaded pyranometer for diffuse radiation (shading assembly on sun tracker) Traceability
1 horizontal pyrgeometer for infrared radiation (thermal systems)
All Kipp & Zonen solar radiation instruments are fully traceable to the World
Recommended instruments: Radiometric Reference (WRR) in Davos, Switzerland, where Kipp & Zonen
CMP 11 / CMP 21, CHP 1, SOLYS 2, CGR 4 instruments form part of the World Standard Groups.

Kipp & Zonen B.V. T: +31 (0) 15 2755 210

Delftechpark 36, 2628 XH Delft F: +31 (0) 15 2620 351
P.O. Box 507, 2600 AM Delft [email protected]
The Netherlands www.kippzonen.com

4414525
Go to www.kippzonen.com for your local distributor