FIBRE OPTICS

Optical Fibre
Optical Fibres are glass or plastics as thin as human hair, designed to guide light waves along
their length. An optical fibre works on the principle of the internal reflection. When the light
enters through one end of the fibre it undergoes successive total internal reflections from one
side wall and travels down the length of the fibre along zigzag path. A small fraction of light
may escape through side wall but a major fraction emerges out from the other end of the fibre.
A practical optical Fibre has in general three coaxial regions:
The innermost region is the light guiding region known as the core. It is surrounded by a
coaxial middle region known as cladding. The outermost region is called the sheath.
The refractive index of cladding is always lower than that of the core. The purpose of the
cladding is to make the light to be confined to the core. Light launched into the core and
striking the core to cladding interface at greater than critical angel will be reflected back into
the core.
Since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the light will continue to rebound and
propagate through the fibre. The sheath protects the cladding and the core from abrasions,
contamination and harmful influence of moisture. In addition it increases the mechanical
strength of the fibre.

Sheath
Core
150m

125m

50m

Cladding

Figure 1: Optical Fibre

Total Internal Reflection :

If a ray of light is incident at an angle i in denser medium of refractive index n1 the refracted ray
will bend away from the normal in the rarer medium of refractive index n2
Using Snell’s law ,
sin i n2

sin r n1

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 1 of 16

Figure 2: Total Internal reflection
If a ray of light incident at such angle (say ic ) that the angle of refraction becomes
r = 90o then
n2
sin ic 
n1
Where ic is known as critical angle. The value of critical angle is depends on the values of
the refractive indices of two media.
If a ray of light in denser medium is directed at an angle of greater than critical angle ic, the
ray of light does not suffer refraction in rarer medium. But it is reflected back into the denser
medium. This reflection is called the total internal reflection.
In total internal reflection the intensity is not diminished, hence this phenomenon is
used in fibre optics.
Attenuation :
Attenuation means loss of optical power or signal while it is propagating in the form of light waves
through an optical fibre..
The signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of the optical output power from a fibre of length
L to the i/p power.
It is expressed in decibel per kilometer dB/Km.
10 P
 log o
L Pi
`
Where Pi is the power of optical signal launched from one end of the fibre and P0 is the power of
optical signal emerging from the other end of the fibre.

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 2 of 16

 DISPERSION:
A pulse launched with a fibre gets attenuated due to losses in fibre. The incoming pulse also
spreads during the transit through the fibre. So a pulse at the output is wider than the pulse at the
input i.e. pulse gets distorted as it moves through the fibre. This distortion of pulse is due to
dispersion effect which is measured in terms of nanosecond per kilometer (ns/km).

Input pulse Output pulse

Fibre
Figure 3: Broading of the Signal due to Dispersion

There are three phenomenon that may contribute towards the distortion effect.
(i) Material Dispersion
(ii) Waveguide Dispersion
(iii) Intermodal Dispersion

(A) Material Dispersion :

Light waves having different wavelengths will travel with different speeds through a
medium. Light waves having shorter wavelength will move slower than those of longer
wavelengths. So narrow pulses of light tend to broaden as they move through an optical fibre. This
process is called Material Distortion.
The spectral width of the source will determine the extent of dispersion and the material dispersion
is given by the equation
 ( ) d 2n
Dm   L 2 --------------------------------(1)
C d
Where  corresponds to peak wavelength
 is the spectral width
L is the angle of the fibre
N corresponds to core refractive index
Example:- A LED operating at 820 nm and having spectral spread of 38 nm gives dispersion of 3
ns/km. This dispersion can be reduced to about 0.3 ns/km with the help of a laser diode that
operates at 1140 nm with a spectral width 3 nm.

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 3 of 16

(B) Wave-Guide Dispersion:
Wave guided dispersion arises due to guiding properties of the fibre. Amount of wave guide
dispersion may also be guided expressed in a similar way as similar to Eq. (1) with the material
refractive index being replaced by effective refractive index as the effective refractive index for
any mode propagation varies with wavelength that may cause pulse spreading in the same as the
variation of refractive index does in case of material dispersion.
(C) Intermodal Dispersion:
A ray of light passing through a fibre follows zig-zag path and when a number of modes are
moving through a fibre, they will move with different net velocities with respect to the fibre axis. It
means that some mode will arrive at the output earlier than the others i.e. there is a spread of input
pulse. This process is called Intermodal Dispersion. This type of the dispersion does not depend
on the spectral width of the source.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth of a fibre. The information flow i.e. pulse rates must be slow
enough that dispersion does not cause adjacent pulses to overlap. If the distortion due to dispersion
is large, the pulse may overlap appear at the output as a single pulse with a number of humps. The
detector can not distinguish between the individual pulse.
Other Fibre Losses:
The losses occurring in optical fibre (glass fibres) may be mainly attributed to three mechanisms,
namely absorption, Rayleigh scattering and geometric effects.
(1) Absorption:
Even very pure glass absorbs light of a specific wavelength. Strong electronic absorption occurs
in UV region and vibrational absorption occurs in IR region of wavelength 7 m to 12 m.
These losses are attributed due to inherent property of the glass itself and are called intrinsic
absorption.
Impurities are a major extrinsic source of losses in fibre. Hydroxyl radical ions (OH) and
transition metal such as copper, nickel, chromium, vanadium, manganese, etc. have electronic
losses in near visible range of spectrum. These impurities should be kept as far as possible from
the fibre.
Intrinsic as well as extrinsic losses are found to be minimum at about 1.3 m.
(2) Geometric Effects:
These may occur due to manufacturing defects like irregularities in fibre dimensions during
coating, cabling or insulation processes.

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 4 of 16

 (3) Rayleigh Scattering:
Glass is a disordered structure having local microscopic variations in density which in turn
causes local variations in refractive index. Light propagation through such a structure suffers
1
scattering losses. i.e scattering  . It means Rayleigh scattering sets a lower limit on
4
wavelength that can be transmitted by a glass fibre at 0.8 m below which scattering loss is
appreciably high.
Acceptance Angle and Acceptance cone:
Consider an optical fibre through which light is being sent. The end at which light enters is
called launching end. Let the refractive indices of the core and cladding be n1 and n2 respectively
n1 > n2. Let the refractive index of the medium through which light is launched be n0.

 
A r Core (n1)
Axis of
i C Fibre

Incident
Ray Cladding(n2 )

Figure 4: Acceptance angle

Let the light beam enter at an angle i to the axis of the fibre. The ray gets refracted at an angle r
and strikes the core cladding interface at an angle . The ray of light undergoes the total internal
reflection when an angle  is greater than the critical angle C and n1 > n2.
It means that so long as angle  is greater than critical angle C, light will stay within the fibre.
Let i be the angle made by the incident ray in entrance aperture of the fibre, and r be the angle
made by refracted rays with the axis.
Applying Snell’s law,
sin i n1
  n1 ………………………..(1)
sin r n0
Since the ray of light is coming from air medium so refractive index n0 of the air is 1.
The condition for total internal reflection to take place is

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 5 of 16

 n2
sin  
n1

n2
sin(90  r )  as shown in figure 4.
n1

n2
cos r 
n1

n2
 1  sin 2 r 
n1
2
n 
sin r  1   2 
2

 n1 

2
n 
sin r  1   2  ……………………………(2)
 n1 
sin i
But from Eq.(1)  sin r
n1
Putting value of sin r in Eq. (2) , we get,
2
sin i n 
 1   2 
n1  n1 

sin i  n1  n2
2 2

If imax is the maximum angle of incidence for which total internal reflection can occur

sin im  n1  n2
2 2

im  sin 1 n1  n2
2 2

The angle im is called the acceptance angle of the fibre.

For other medium with refractive index n0,

sin 1 n1  n2
2 2

im 
n0

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 6 of 16

Fractional Refractive Index Change:
The fractional difference  between refractive indices of the core and cladding is called
fractional refractive index change. It may be expressed as
n1  n2

n1
 has to be +ve as n1> n2. In order to guide light rays effectively through a fibre <<1.
Typically  is of the order of 0.01.
Numerical Aperture of a Fibre:
The numerical aperture is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.
NA = sin im

NA  n1  n2
2 2

n1  n2  (n1  n2 )(n1  n2 )
2 2

 n  n2  n1  n2 
 1    2n1
 2  n1 

 n1  n2 
   n1
 2 

 n1  n2  2n1 
2 2 2

NA  n1 2 ( where  is fractional refractive index change)

Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fibre. It is a measure of the
amount of light that can be accepted by a fibre.

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 7 of 16

It is seen that NA only depends on the refractive indices of the core and cladding material. Its
value ranges from 0.13 to 0.50.
Large NA implies that a fibre will accept large amount of light from the source.
Modes Of Propagation :
Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fibre. All the waves having ray
directions above the critical angle will be trapped within the fibre due to total internal reflection.
But not all rays propagate along the fibre. Only certain ray directions are allowed to propagate.
The allowed direction corresponds to the modes of the fibre. In simple form, we can understand
the modes as the possible number of path of light in an optical fibre.
The light rays moving through a fibre may be classified as (i) axial rays and (ii) zig-zag rays.
Since the rays get repeatedly reflected at the walls of the fibre, there occurs a phase shift . So
wave along zig-zag path be in phase and get intensified while some other waves moving in other
paths will be out of phase and diminish due to destructive interference.
The light ray paths along which the waves are in phase inside the fibre are called modes. Number
of modes, a fibre can support depends on the ratio d/ where d is the diameter of the core and 
is the wavelength of the wave transmitted.
In a fibre of fixed thickness, the higher order propagates at smaller angles than the order modes.
Axial ray that travels along the axis of the fibre is called zero order ray (shown in fig.(4)).

Low Order
High Order

n2

n1 Zero Order

Figure 5: Mode of Propagation

Types of optical fibres:

There are two types of optical fibres
1. Single mode Fibre:
A single mode fibre has a smaller core diameter and can support only one mode of
propagation.
2. Multimode Fibre:
D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 8 of 16
 A multimode fibre has a large core diameter and support a large number of modes.
Multimode fibres are further classified on the basis of index profile.
An index profile is graph of refractive index (along X-axis) and the distance from the core
(along Y-axis). Multimode fibres are further distinguish on the basis of index profile. A
multimode can be either a step index type (SI) or graded index (GRIN) type. Index profile
of Single Mode fibre is usually same as a step index type.

(1) Single mode Fibre:

A single mode step index fibre has a very fine core of uniform refractive index of a higher value
which is surrounded by a cladding of a lower refractive index. The refractive index changes
abruptly at the core cladding boundary because of which it is known as step index fibre.

n2
n1 n2

n1
n1
n2

Figure 6: Single mode fibre

A fibre surrounded by an opaque protective sheath. A typical SMF has a core diameter of 4 m.
Light travels in SMF along a single path i.e. along the axes obviously it is zero order mode that is
supported by a SMF. A SMF is characterized by a very small value of . It is of the order of
0.002.
D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 9 of 16
 (2) Multimode Step Index Fibre

n2
n1 n2

n1 n1

n2

Figure 7: Multimode Step Index Fibre

A multimode step index is very mich similar to the single mode step index except that its core of
bigger diameter. A typical fibre has a core diameter of 100 m. Light follows a zig-zag paths
inside the fibre. Many such zig-zag paths of propagation are permitted in a MMF. The NA of a
MMF is larger as core diameter of the fibre is larger, it is of the order of 0.3.
(3) Multimode Graded Index Fibre:

n2

n(r)
2a 2a
n2 n1 n

Figure 8: GRIN Fibre.

A graded index fibre is a multimode fibre with a core consisting of concentric layers of different
refractive indices therefore the refractive index of the core varies with distance from the fibre
axis. It has high value at the center and falls off with increasing radial distance from the axis. In
case of GRIN fibres, the acceptance angle and numerical aperture decreases with radial distance
from the axis. (Fig. (8)). For fibres of parabolic index profile, the numerical aperture is given by

NA  n1 (2)1 / 2 1  (r / a) 2

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 10 of 16

Conventionally, the size of optical fibre is denoted by writing its core diameter and then cladding
diameter, with slash in between. A 100/140 fibre has a 100 m core and 140 m cladding.

Figure 9: Summary of types of Optical fiber

V-Number:
An optical fibre is characterized by one more important parameter, known as V-number which is
more generally called the Normalized frequency of the fibre. It is given by the relation
2  a
V n1  n2 ……………….(1)
2 2


Where a is the radius of the core and  is the free space wavelength. Equation (1) can be written
as
2  a
V ( NA)

2  a
V  n1 2

The maximum number of modes Nm
1
Nm  V 2
2

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 11 of 16

For V < 2.405, the fibre can support only one mode and is classified as SMF. MMFs have values
of V > 2.405 can support many modes simultaneously. The wavelength corresponding to the
value of V = 2.405 is known as cutoff wavelength c of the fibre
V
c 
2.405
In case of GRIN fibres, for large values of V
1
Nm  V 2
4
Difference Between Single Mode and Multimode
Single Mode Multimode
1 Supports only one mode of propagation Supports large number of modes of
. propagation
2 Has very small core diameter (5 to 10 micron) Has larger core diameter (50 to 150 micron).
3 Transmission losses are very small. Transmission losses are more.
4 Has higher bandwidth Has lower bandwidth.
5 Used for long distance communications. Used for short distance communications.
6 They are by default, step index. They can be step index or graded index.

Difference Between Step Index and Graded Index

Step Index Graded Index
1 The refractive index of core is uniform and The refractive index of core is gradually
. abruptly changes at core – cladding interface. lowered from maximum at the axis to
minimum at the cladding boundary.
2 Offer lower bandwidth. Offer higher bandwidth
3 Numerical aperture is higher. Numerical aperture is lower.
4 Reflection losses are present. Reflection losses are minimum.
5 Attenuation is higher. Attenuation is lower.
6 They can be a single mode or multimode. They are only multimode.

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 12 of 16

Fibre Optic Communication:
The fibre optic communications system is very much similar to that of a traditional
communications system.

Figure 10: Fiber optical communication

A typical optical fibre communication system consists of transmitter unit, receiver unit and
channel or wave guide i.e. optical fibre cable.
Transmitter Unit: Normally it consists of minimum two modules the electric data generator and
the optical converter.
The input may be in the form of music note. It is first converted into an equivalent electric pulse
with proper modulation of the signal.
Two forms of modulation are possible: analog and digital. Digital modulation is more frequently
used in fiber optic communication where, signal is coded using discrete bits.
The driver circuit converts this electrical coded signal into optical form. An LED or Laser diode
is the actual converter.
The intensity of light emitted is proportional to the current passing through them and it follows
the variation of the electrical signal.

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 13 of 16

Receiver Unit: This also consists of minimum two modules. The data in the form of light
brought through the optical fibre cable is connected to the photodetector. It is normally OFF but
when light incident on it, it generates a small current pulse. This pulse is very small
(microamperes) and often requires amplification to a predetermined value.
Repeater Unit, Optical fibers and Couplers:
The signals in the form of light suffer from attenuation and distortion. Therefore, repeater units
are required at regular intervals to redesign the signal in both, amplitude and waveform.
The optical couplers are perhaps, the crucial parts. We cannot connect two optical fibers like
metallic cables. Many parameters like alignment, core profiles, material used and numerical
aperture are required to be matched. Special design is required to connect a fiber to the source,
detector or to one or many fibers simultaneously.
Advantages:
(1) Optical fibres are cheaper.
(2) Optical fibres are small in size, light in weight, flexible and mechanically strong.
(3) Optical fibres are not hazardous: A wire communication link could accidentally,
short circuit high voltage lines and the sparking occurring thereby could ignite
combustible gases in the area leading to a great damage. Such accidents can not
occur with fibre links because of their insulating nature.
a. In optical fibres, information carried by photons. Photons are electrically
neutral and cannot be disturbed by high – voltage fields, lighting external
influences so common to wires and wireless transmission.
b. Optical fibres reduce cross–talk possibility :
The light waves propagating along the fibres are completely trapped within the
fibre and cannot leak out. Similarly, light cannot couple into the fibres its sides.
Because of this feature, cross-talk susceptibility is greatly reduced.
c. Optical fibres have a wider bandwidth: While a telephone cable composed
of 900 pairs of wire can handle 10,000 calls, 1 mm fibre cable can transmit
50,000 calls. Thus, fibres have the ability to carry large amount of
information.
d. The transmission loss per unit length of an optical fibres is about 4dB/km.

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 14 of 16

Applications:
(1) Medical applications :
One of the important applications of optical fibres is in the field of medicine. A bundle of
fibres (MMF) is used to illuminate the areas in human body which are otherwise
inaccessible. A second bundles is used to collect the reflected light. An incandescent bulb can
be used as the source of light in this application. Such fiberoscopes are employed widely in
endoscopic applications.
In ophthalmology, a laser beam guide by the fibres is used to reattach detached retinas and to
corrects defects in vision.
(2) Military applications:
Use of fibres in place of copper wires reduces much weight and also maintains true
communication silence to the enemy.
Fibre – guided missiles are presented into the service during the recent wars. Sensors are
mounted on the missile which transmit video information through the fibre to a ground
control van and receive commands from the van again. The control van continuously
monitors the course of the missile and if necessary corrects it to ensure that the missile
precisely hits the target.
(3) Entertainment applications:
A coherent optical fibre bundle is used to enlarge the image displayed on a TV screen.
Conventional optional projection system is bulky and expensive.
(4) Optical fibre sensors:
If the fibre subjected to heating, the temperature causes a change in the refractive index of
the fibre. As the temperature increases, the difference between the refractive indices of core and
cladding reduces, leading to the leakage of light into the cladding.
A smoke detector and pollution detector can be built using fibres. A beam of light radiating from
one end of a fibre can be collected by another fibre. If foreign particles are present, they scatter
light and the variation in intensity of the collected light reveals their presence.
(5) Communication Applications:
Optical fibre communications systems can be broadly classified into two groups: (i) local and
intermediated range systems where the distances involved are small and (ii) long – haul systems
whereas cables span large distances. In many organizations, a LAN distributes information to
several stations within the organization. A number of computer terminals are interconnected over

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 15 of 16

a common channel to keep track of the flow of the data and to process the data. An optical fibre
data bus offers a great reduction in cost and enormously increases information handling capacity
compared to parallel multiwire data bus.
=*====****====****====****====*=

D. J. Sanghvi College of Engineering Page 16 of 16