Introduction

Mathematics for Degree

Studies B (Commerce)
Study Guide

FPMC021P | 2020 V1.0

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Functions and Graphs

Chapter 1 – Functions and Graph

This unit is aligned to:
Learning outcomes
• Demonstrate problem-solving and graph work involving the prescribed functions.

Assessment criteria:
• Differentiate between a variable and a constant, a function and a relation, a domain
and a range.
• Work with relationships between variables using tables, graphs and equations.
• Identify the various types of functions.
• Know what a functional notation is, and how to apply this.
• Solve functions with different operations.
• Plot basic graphs, point by point (i.e. linear and quadratic functions).
• Find the maximum and minimum (turning point) from a quadratic equation.
• Investigate the effect of 𝑚 and 𝑐 on the graphs defined by 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐.
• Solve where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! .
• Find the slope and 𝑦-intercept of a line.
• Determine the slope, given two points.
• Graph a line using the slope and 𝑦-intercept.
• Find the equation of a line, given the slope and 𝑦-intercept.
• Determine the slope of parallel and perpendicular lines from a given line.

1.1 Terminology

Before we can delve into the world of functions and graphs, we need to understand some basic terminology.
In mathematics, a function is a rule that takes one input value and produces a unique output value. The input
value is called the independent variable, and the output value is called the dependent variable.

A variable is the alphabet letter that replaces an unknown number. For example, instead of saying ‘Dan ate
a lot of sweets’, we can say ‘Dan ate 𝑥 amount of sweets’.

A constant is a known number that does not consist of any variable.

For example, if 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 7, then 7 is the constant of the linear function.

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Functions and Graphs

Relation refers to a relationship between a set of values. In function, this relationship is between 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
and 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 in an ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), which is usually defined by rules. For example, in the ordered pair
(coordinate) of (2,5), 2 is the 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 and 5 is the 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒.

The domain of a function is the set of all the possible independent variables. This is the first element of the
ordered pair (𝒙, 𝑦), that has all possible 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 that makes a function. For example, in the ordered pair
(coordinate) of (2,3), 2 is the domain.

The range of a function is the set of all the possible dependent variables. This is the second element of the
ordered pair (𝑥, 𝒚), that has all the possible 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 after substituting all the possible 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠. For
example, in the ordered pair (coordinate) of (2,3), 3 is the range. Because the 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 is determined
(substituted) by 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, then a function can be written as 𝑓(𝑥), instead of being equal to 𝑦.
For example, 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4 instead of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4

1.2 What is a Function?

The concept of a function is a fundamental topic in mathematics, commonly studied in algebra, calculus, and
other related fields. A function is a special type of relation that describes the relationship between two
variables, where each value of the first variable is uniquely associated with a single value of the second
variable. In simpler terms, a function is like a machine that takes in a value (input) and produces a result
(output).

Functions are commonly used in modeling real-world phenomena and solving mathematical problems. They
are essential in various scientific and engineering disciplines, such as physics, economics, and computer
science. Understanding the concept of functions is crucial for students to progress in mathematics and for
professionals to apply mathematical models and methods to real-world problems.
There are various kinds of functions, each with their unique characteristics and applications. Let's look at a
few examples:
1. Linear Function: This is a function that has a constant rate of change, meaning that as the input
variable (x) changes by a certain amount, the output variable (y) changes by a fixed amount. A linear
function has the form f(x) = mx + b, where m is the slope or gradient of the line and b is the y-
intercept.
Example: f(x) = 2x + 3 is a linear function with a slope of 2 and a y-intercept of 3.
2. Quadratic Function: This is a function that has a degree of 2, meaning the highest power of the input
variable is 2. The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, and it can have a maximum or
minimum point called the vertex. A quadratic function has the form f(x) = ax^2 + bx + c, where a, b,
and c are constants.
Example: f(x) = x^2 + 4x - 5 is a quadratic function with a vertex at (-2, -9).
3. Exponential Function: This is a function that has a variable in the exponent, such as f(x) = a^x,
where a is a constant. Exponential functions grow or decay exponentially, and they are often used to
model situations involving compound interest, population growth, and radioactive decay.

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Functions and Graphs

Example: f(x) = 2^x is an exponential function with a base of 2.

4. Trigonometric Function: These are functions that involve the angles of a right triangle, such as sine,
cosine, and tangent. Trigonometric functions are used extensively in geometry, physics, and
engineering.
Example: f(x) = sin(x) is a trigonometric function that gives the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse in
a right triangle with angle x.
These are just a few examples of the many kinds of functions. Understanding their properties and
applications can help in solving problems and modeling real-world situations.

Additionally, a function is a special relation that relates the values of one variable quantity to the values of
another variable quantity, where every second element in the ordered pair is determined by the value of a
unique first element in the ordered pair. In other words, this is where no 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 may be repeated in any
set of function ordered pairs. Please note that while not all relations are a function, all functions are relations.
For example, (5,1) (4,2) (3,3) (2,4)
The above relation does not have any 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 repeated, therefore it is a function.

Another example, (7,4) (-4,4) (9,3) (4,8)

In the above relation, even though the 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 is repeated, it still functions as the 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 does not
repeat.
Another example, (1,2) (2,3) (3,1) (1,3)
Although the above relation does not have any repeated 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, it is not a function because the 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
has been repeated.
Since a relation is considered as a function, as long as no 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 is repeated, then there are many
different kinds of functions. Here are some examples:

Various Kinds of Functions Equations

Linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 ! + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑝)! + 𝑞
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑝, 𝑞).
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑟" )(𝑥 − 𝑟! )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟" 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟! 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Power function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 #
Exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 $
Logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔% (𝑥)
Hyperbolic function 𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = +𝑞
𝑥+𝑝
Please note: Apart from the 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 variables in the above equations, all the other variables are known
numbers.

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Functions and Graphs

1.3 Graphing a Function

Graphing a function is the process of visually representing a mathematical relationship between two
variables, typically the independent variable (x) and the dependent variable (y). It is a fundamental concept
in mathematics and is used extensively in various fields, such as science, engineering, and economics. In
this lesson, we will explore the steps involved in graphing a function and provide examples for each step.

When it comes to graphing a function, it is essential to understand the basics of the Cartesian plane. The
Cartesian plane is a coordinate system that allows us to locate any point on a plane by using an ordered
pair. This ordered pair is formed by the intersection of two perpendicular lines that are known as the x-axis
(horizontal) and y-axis (vertical), which meet at a point called the origin.
It is important to note that while all graphs can be plotted on a Cartesian plane, not all graphs are functions.
A function is a set of ordered pairs where no x-value may be repeated. Functions can be represented in
different forms such as equations, tables, and graphs, and all of these forms are related to each other.
One simple method of graphing a function is by first determining the ordered pairs of the function and then
creating a table to organize them. Once you have the ordered pairs, you can then plot them onto the
Cartesian plane. Let's take a look at an example:
Suppose we have the function f(x) = 2x - 3. We can begin by selecting a few values of x and plugging them
into the equation to find the corresponding y-values. For instance, if we set x = 0, we get f(0) = 2(0) - 3 = -3.
If we set x = 1, we get f(1) = 2(1) - 3 = -1. We can continue to find more ordered pairs by selecting different
values of x.
Next, we can organize these ordered pairs into a table:
x f(x)
0 -3
1 -1
2 1
3 3
Now, we can plot these ordered pairs onto the Cartesian plane. We locate the x-value on the x-axis and the
corresponding y-value on the y-axis, and then we plot a point where these values intersect. For example, the
point (0, -3) is located at the origin on the y-axis. We repeat this process for all the other ordered pairs, and
then we can connect the points with a smooth curve to get the graph of the function.
It is worth noting that not all functions will have a smooth curve, but rather may be represented by discrete
points or other types of curves. Nonetheless, the basic process of graphing a function involves determining
the ordered pairs, organizing them into a table, and then plotting them onto a Cartesian plane.

Example

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Functions and Graphs

Graph the linear function of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2.

First determine the ordered pairs, then choose some 𝑥 values that are close to the
origin. Then calculate the y values by substituting the x value into the equation.
𝑦 = 3(−3) − 2 = −11 𝑦 = 3(0) − 2 = −2 𝑦 = 3(3) − 2 = 7
𝑦 = 3(−2) − 2 = −8 𝑦 = 3(1) − 2 = 1
𝑦 = 3(−1) − 2 = −5 𝑦 = 3(2) − 2 = 4

𝒙 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

𝒚 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 −11 −8 −5 −2 1 4 7

Please note: The scale of the x and y axis may be adjusted to fit the graph if there is no scale requirement.
Furthermore, the arrows in the graph show that it goes on into infinity. Even though this linear function can
go into infinity, they can often function even though a restriction is given.

Example

𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 for −3 < 𝑥 ≤ 2. This means the function must be greater than −3 but less
than or equal to +2 .

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Functions and Graphs

– This hollow circle represents the x value of this function is excluded.

– This solid circle represents the x value of this function is included.

This graphing of a function will work on any function. For example, you may need to graph a quadratic
function of = 𝑥 ! + 2𝑥 + 1 .

Example

𝑦 = 𝑥 ! + 2𝑥 + 1

𝒙 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2

𝒚 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

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Functions and Graphs

If the function was given a restriction of −4 ≤ 𝑥 < 4

Please note: The equation, table, and graph form a representative of function. Hence the equation, table,
and graph are interchangeable. They are not unidirectional from the equation to the table and then to the
graph. In other words, in a given graph, the equation may be determined as well. This may be done via
graph transformation.

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Functions and Graphs

1.4 Linear Function

1.4.1 What is Linear Function?
Linear functions are an essential concept in mathematics, frequently used in real-world applications. A linear
function is a function that can be represented as a straight line. The general form of a linear function is f(x) =
mx + b, where m is the slope or gradient of the line and b is the y-intercept.
Linear function refers to a straight-line graph that is represented in the form of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. The
function has only one as the exponent in the variable. In the linear equation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑚
represents the gradient of the linear equation, and 𝑐 represents the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡.

1.4.2 How to Calculate the Gradient?

Gradient is the slope (rate of change) of the linear function. The gradient of a linear function is the measure
of how steep the line is. It is the ratio of the change in the y-value to the change in the x-value, represented
as Δy/Δx or (y2 - y1)/(x2 - x1), where (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are two points on the line. To calculate the
gradient, you simply divide the difference in y-values by the difference in x-values. For example, the gradient
of the line passing through the points (2, 3) and (5, 7) would be (7-3)/(5-2) = 4/3.

The y-intercept of a linear function is the point at which the line crosses the y-axis. To calculate the y-
intercept, you need to know the value of the gradient and at least one point on the line. Once you have the
value of the gradient and a point on the line, you can use the formula y = mx + b to solve for b, the y-
intercept. For example, if the gradient of the line is 2 and it passes through the point (3, 7), you can solve for
the y-intercept as follows: 7 = 2(3) + b, which simplifies to b = 1. Therefore, the y-intercept is (0, 1).

In order to calculate the rate of change, simply divide the changing of the y value with the changing of the x
value. To get the changing of the y-value or x-value select two different coordinates of the linear graph.

∆' ' ('

𝑚 = ∆$ = $!($" , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥! ≠ 𝑥" . Apart from calculating the gradient from the coordinates, the gradient can
! "

also be calculated by the graph.

Example

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Functions and Graphs

The above linear graph has eight different coordinates. Select two different coordinates
and apply it to the gradient formula. If point B (-6,-1) and G (4,4) is chosen, then you
can choose any one of the two points to be (𝑥" , 𝑦" ) where the other point is (𝑥! , 𝑦! ).

Regardless of the choice, the answer would be the same.

If point B is (𝑥" , 𝑦" ) and point G is (𝑥! , 𝑦! ) If point G is (𝑥" , 𝑦" ) and point B is (𝑥! , 𝑦! )
∆𝑦 𝑦! − 𝑦" ∆𝑦 𝑦! − 𝑦"
𝑚= = 𝑚= =
∆𝑥 𝑥! − 𝑥" ∆𝑥 𝑥! − 𝑥"
4 − (−1) −1 − 4
= =
4 − (−6) −6 − 4
4+1 −5
= =
4+6 −10
5 1
= =
10 2
1
=
2

Apart from calculating the gradient from the coordinates, gradient can also be calculated by the graph:

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Functions and Graphs

From one coordinate to the next coordinate, the point always translates two units to the right (run) and one
unit up (rise).
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑚 = =
𝑟𝑢𝑛 2

1.4.3 How to Calculate the Y – Intercept

The y-intercept is where the graph of the linear function cuts through the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. In order to calculate the
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡, we must first calculate the gradient by using any of the methods mentioned in Unit 1.4.2, and
then select any one point on the linear function to substitute back into the equation. In the same example as
"
Unit 1.4.2, in the equation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑚 has calculated to be . Hence, the new equation would be
!
"
𝑦 = ! 𝑥 + 𝑐. This is followed by selecting any one point from the linear graph and substituting into the new

equation. Example: If point H (6,5) is chosen, then:

1
5 = (6) + 𝑐
2
5=3+𝑐
2=𝑐
"
Therefore, the final equation of the linear equation would be 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2.
!

However, substituting the selected point from the linear graph into the new equation is not the only way that
can work. Reading the accurate value from the linear graph will also work. Since the y-intercept is the value
where it cuts through the y-axis, then it cuts through the y-axis, which is +2.

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Functions and Graphs

1.5 Parallel and Perpendicular Line

Parallel and perpendicular lines are important concepts in geometry and have many practical applications in
the real world. For example, architects and engineers use these concepts to design buildings, roads, and
bridges. Parallel lines are two or more lines that run side by side and never intersect, while perpendicular
lines are two lines that meet at a right angle, or 90 degrees. Understanding the properties of these lines is
essential for solving problems in geometry and other fields that involve spatial reasoning.

Parallel lines are two or more lines that never meet and are always the same distance apart. If you imagine
two train tracks that run alongside each other, they are a good example of parallel lines. Because the
gradient of a line (also known as its slope) determines its steepness, parallel lines always have the same
gradient. In other words, if you have two parallel lines, they will have the same slope or gradient, which is
represented by the letter m in the equation of a line (y = mx + b).
Perpendicular lines, on the other hand, are two lines that meet at a right angle, or 90 degrees. If you think of
the corners of a square, they are a good example of perpendicular lines. When two lines are perpendicular,
their gradients are related in a specific way. Specifically, the gradients of two perpendicular lines are
negative reciprocals of each other. This means that if you have two perpendicular lines with gradients m1
and m2, then 𝑚" × 𝑚! = −1. In other words, if you know the gradient of one perpendicular line, you can use
this relationship to find the gradient of the other.

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Functions and Graphs

Example

Example 1: Find the equation of a line that is parallel to y = 3x + 2 and passes through
the point (1, 5).
Solution: Since the line we want is parallel to y = 3x + 2, it must have the same
gradient or slope as this line. We know that the gradient of y = 3x + 2 is 3, so the
equation of the line we want is y = 3x + c, where c is a constant. We also know that this
line passes through the point (1, 5), so we can substitute these values into the
equation to find c:
5 = 3(1) + c c = 2
Therefore, the equation of the line we want is y = 3x + 2.
Example 2: Find the equation of a line that is perpendicular to y = -2x + 4 and passes
through the point (2, 5).
Solution: To find the equation of the line we want, we first need to determine its
gradient or slope. Since the line is perpendicular to y = -2x + 4, its gradient must be the
negative reciprocal of -2, which is 1/2. So the equation of the line we want is y = (1/2)x
+ c, where c is a constant. We also know that this line passes through the point (2, 5),
so we can substitute these values into the equation to find c:
5 = (1/2)(2) + c c = 4
Therefore, the equation of the line we want is y = (1/2)x + 4.
Example 3: Two parallel lines have equations y = 4x + 3 and y = 4x - 2. What is the
distance between them?
Solution: Since the two lines are parallel, they will always be the same distance apart.
To find this distance, we can find the difference between the y-intercepts of the two
lines, which represents the vertical distance between them. The y-intercept of y = 4x +
3 is 3, while the y-intercept of y = 4x - 2 is -2. So the distance between the two lines is:
3 - (-2) = 5
Therefore, the distance between the two lines is 5 units.
Example 4:
If the equation of a line 𝑘 is given as 𝑦 = −5𝑥 − 7, then:
a) What is the slope of a line 𝑔 parallel to line 𝑘?
𝑚" = 𝑚!
if 𝑚" = −5, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚! 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 5.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 − 5.

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Functions and Graphs

b) What is the slope of a line 𝑡 that is perpendicular to line 𝑘?

𝑚" × 𝑚! = −1
if 𝑚" × 𝑚! = −1, and 𝑚" = −5 then −5 × 𝑚! = −1
−5𝑚! = −1
()*! ("
()
= ()
"
𝑚! =
)

There is a shorter way to get 𝑚! . Instead of calculating it from the perpendicular

equation
𝑚" × 𝑚! = −1, we can simply inverse the 𝑚" with the opposite sign. For example, if
+
the 𝑚" × 𝑚" = 4 = " , then swop the 4 and 1 around and change the current sign to
"
the opposite sign. Therefore the perpendicular slop will be 𝑚! = − + .

1.6 Function Notation

Functions are a fundamental concept in mathematics and are used to describe how two variables, usually
represented by x and y, are related to each other. A function is essentially a set of ordered pairs in which
each input value (x) is uniquely associated with a single output value (y). Functions are typically denoted by
letters such as f or g, and the input value is often represented by x.
To represent the output value of a function corresponding to a specific input value, there is a special notation
called function notation, which uses the name of the function and the input value in parentheses. For
example, if the function name is “f” and the input name is “x”, then the unique corresponding output is called
f(x). The notation f(x) is read aloud as "f of x."
Function notation is important because it allows us to clearly and concisely describe the relationship between
the input and output values of a function. It also helps us to distinguish between different functions that might
have similar input and output values. For example, if we have two functions, f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x + 2, it
might not be immediately clear which function is which if we just write down the values of x and y. However,
by using function notation, we can clearly differentiate between the two functions and their corresponding
output values.

Example

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Functions and Graphs

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ! + 8𝑥 − 4, find:
a) 𝑓(2)
𝑓(2) = 2(2)! + 8(2) − 4
𝑓(2) = 8 + 16 − 4
𝑓(2) = 20

b) 𝑓(𝑎𝑏)
𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = 2(𝑎𝑏)! + 8(𝑎𝑏) − 4
𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = 2𝑎! 𝑏! + 8𝑎𝑏 − 4

c) 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 2(𝑥 + 1)! + 8(𝑥 + 1) − 4
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 2(𝑥 ! + 2𝑥 + 1) + 8𝑥 + 8 − 4
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑥 ! + 4𝑥 + 2 + 8𝑥 + 4
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑥 ! + 12𝑥 + 6

A function notation does not have to be limited to only one function with one variable. It can also function
with two variables. This is known as a bivariate function. A bivariate function is a quantitative (statistical)
analysis that involves two variables.

Example

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥 ! + 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 ! , find:

a) 𝑓(3, −2) = 2(3)! + 3(3 × −2) − 2(−2)!
𝑓(3, −2) = 2(9) + 3(−6) − 2(4)
𝑓(3, −2) = 18 − 18 − 8
𝑓(3, −2) = −8

b) 𝑓(𝑎𝑏, 𝑐𝑑) = 2(𝑎𝑏)! + 3(𝑎𝑏 × 𝑐𝑑) − 2(𝑐𝑑)!

𝑓(𝑎𝑏, 𝑐𝑑) = 2𝑎! 𝑏 ! + 3(𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑) − 2𝑐 ! 𝑑 !

Operations with functions.

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Functions and Graphs

Example

Given 𝑘(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 4 − 5𝑥, find

i) (𝑘 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = [(3𝑥 + 2) − (4 − 5𝑥)] = 3𝑥 + 2 − 4 + 5𝑥 = 8𝑥 − 2
ii) (𝑘 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = [(3𝑥 + 2) + (4 − 5𝑥)] = 3𝑥 + 2 + 4 − 5𝑥 = 6 − 2𝑥
iii) (𝑘. 𝑔)(𝑥) = (3𝑥 + 2)(4 − 5𝑥) = 12𝑥 − 15𝑥 ! + 8 − 10𝑥 = −15𝑥 ! + 2𝑥 + 8
, .$/!
iv) Z-[ 𝑥 = +()$

N.B: Any letter may be used in the function notation; thus 𝑔(𝑥), ℎ(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥), etc. may represent functions of 𝑥.

1.7 How to Determine the Vertex of a Quadratic Function

In mathematics, a quadratic function is a function of the form f(x) = ax^2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are
constants. This type of function typically forms a parabolic shape when graphed, and one important
characteristic of the graph is the vertex, or the highest or lowest point on the parabola. In this lesson, we will
learn how to determine the vertex of a quadratic function.
To determine the vertex of a quadratic function, we can use the formula x = -b/2a, which gives us the x-
coordinate of the turning point of the function. The turning point is the point where the function changes
direction, going from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa). We can then use this x-value to find the
corresponding y-value by substituting it into the original function.
However, the vertex can be determined more easily if the quadratic function is written in the form y = a(x -
p)^2 + q. In this form, p is the x-coordinate of the turning point, and q is the y-coordinate of the turning point.
This form is also known as vertex form.
To see why this is true, consider the following:
• If we have a quadratic function f(x) = ax^2 + bx + c, we can complete the square to write it in vertex
form:
f(x) = a(x^2 + (b/a)x + (b/2a)^2 - (b/2a)^2) + c
f(x) = a(x + b/2a)^2 - a(b/2a)^2 + c
f(x) = a(x + b/2a)^2 + (4ac - b^2)/4a
• The vertex of the function occurs at x = -b/2a, which we can substitute into the vertex form to get:
f(-b/2a) = a(-b/2a + b/2a)^2 + (4ac - b^2)/4a
f(-b/2a) = a(0)^2 + (4ac - b^2)/4a
f(-b/2a) = (4ac - b^2)/4a
• Therefore, the y-coordinate of the vertex is (4ac - b^2)/4a, which can be found by plugging in the
values of a, b, and c into the formula.

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Functions and Graphs

In summary, to determine the vertex of a quadratic function, we can use the formula x = -b/2a to find the x-
coordinate of the turning point, and then substitute this value into the original function to find the
corresponding y-value. Alternatively, we can write the quadratic function in vertex form, y = a(x - p)^2 + q,
and use the values of p and q to easily determine the vertex.

Example

𝑦 = 3 – 2𝑥 – 𝑥 !
# (!
Using the formula of the turning point at 𝑥 i.e. 𝑥 = − !% = − !((") = −1

Substituting for 𝑥 = −1 in the function gives 𝑦 = 3 – 2(−1) – (−1)2 = 4

Therefore from the above the maximum point of the graph is at 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑦 = 4.

Test your knowledge

1. State whether the following relation is a function or not.

1.1 (1, 3) (4, 5) (5, 2) (4, 4)
8 16
1.2 (4, 3) (2, 5) Z , 4[ ( , 7)
2 4

1.3 (-1, -2) (-3, -4) (-5, -6) (-7, -8)

2. Construct and complete the table of values for the following functions:
2.1 𝑦 = 𝑥 ! − 4 for −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.
2.2 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ! + 3𝑥 − 4 for −5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.

3. Graph the following functions:

3.1 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5
3.2 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ! + 4𝑥 + 5

4. Determine the slope and y-intercept in the following linear equation.

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Functions and Graphs

4.1 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 5
4.2 𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 5
+ )
4.3 𝑦 = . +2𝑥

5. Write an equation of the line in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 form.

5.1 𝑚 = 2, 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (0, 5)
3 )
5.2 𝑚 = − !, 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (0, 4)
44 4
5.3 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = !
, 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (0, − ))

6. Determine the slope of the straight line that passes through the ordered pairs.
6.1 (1, 2) and (3, 5)
6.2 (-7,-6) and (-8, 9)
6.3 (-2,-4) and (-5, -2)

7. Determine whether the following functions are parallel or perpendicular.

7.1 𝑦 = 7𝑥 − 1 and 𝑦 = 7𝑥 + 4
"
7.2 𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 5 and 𝑦 = + 𝑥 − 2
"
7.3 𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦 = − ) 𝑥 − 5
" )
7.4 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑦 = 𝑥+7
! "5

+
8. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ! − 3𝑥 + $ , find:

8.1 𝑓(−2)
"
8.2 𝑓(.)

8.3 𝑓(𝑥 − 1)

$ ! (!$
9. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = $("
, find:
+
9.1 𝑓(2)

9.2 𝑓(−5𝑎𝑏)
9.3 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑏)

10. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 . 𝑦 + − 2𝑥 + 𝑦 . + 4𝑥 ) 𝑦 ! − 5𝑥 6 𝑦 , find:

10.1 𝑓(1, 2)
10.2 𝑓(𝑐 ! , 𝑔(. )

Answer:

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Functions and Graphs

1.1 Not a function

1.2 Not a function
1.3 Function

2.1 𝑦 = 𝑥 ! − 4 for −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Y 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0 5

2.2 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ! + 3𝑥 − 4 for −5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.

X -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Y 31 16 5 -2 -5 -4 1 10 23 40

3.1 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5

3.2 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ! + 4𝑥 + 5

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Functions and Graphs

4.1 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −5
4.2 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 5
+
4.3 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = .

5.1 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5
)
5.2 𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 4
44 4
5.3 𝑦= 𝑥−
! )

. "
6.1 𝑦= 𝑥+
! !

6.2 𝑦 = −15𝑥 − 111

! "6
6.3 𝑦=− 𝑥−
. .

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Functions and Graphs

7.1 Parallel
7.2 Perpendicular
7.3 Perpendicular
7.4 Parallel

8.1 𝑓(−2) = 14
" 2
8.2 𝑓Z [ = −
. 4

8.3 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 ! − 7𝑥 + 5

+ +5
9.1 𝑓 Z2[ = !"
!)%! # ! /"5%#
9.2 𝑓(−5𝑎𝑏) =
()%#("
%! (!%#/# ! (!%/!#
9.3 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑏) = %(#("

10.1 𝑓(1, 2) = 6
10.2 𝑓(𝑐 ! , 𝑔(. ) = 𝑐 6 𝑔("! − 2𝑐 3 𝑔(4 + 4𝑐"5 𝑔(6 − 5𝑐"! 𝑔(.

Additional questions:

1. What is the vertex of the quadratic function y = 2x^2 - 4x + 1? Solution: To find the vertex of the
quadratic function, we first need to convert it to the standard form of y = a(x - p)^2 + q. To do this, we
complete the square by halving the coefficient of x and squaring it, then adding and subtracting the
resulting term inside the parentheses. We get: y = 2(x - 1)^2 - 1. Therefore, the vertex of the
quadratic function is (1, -1).

2. Determine the vertex of the quadratic function y = -3x^2 + 12x + 9. Solution: To find the vertex of the
quadratic function, we use the formula x = -b/2a to find the x-coordinate of the turning point. We
have a = -3 and b = 12, so x = -12/(2(-3)) = 2. Substituting x = 2 into the quadratic function, we get y
= -3(2)^2 + 12(2) + 9 = 15. Therefore, the vertex of the quadratic function is (2, 15).

3. Write the quadratic function whose vertex is at (-4, 3) and passes through the point (1, -4). Solution:
The vertex form of a quadratic function is y = a(x - p)^2 + q, where (p, q) is the vertex. Therefore, we
have p = -4 and q = 3. To find a, we use the point (1, -4) that the quadratic function passes through.
Substituting these values into the vertex form, we get -4 = a(1 + 4)^2 + 3. Simplifying, we get -4 =
25a + 3, so 25a = -7 and a = -7/25. Therefore, the quadratic function is y = (-7/25)(x + 4)^2 + 3.

4. What is the maximum value of the quadratic function y = -2x^2 + 8x - 5? Solution: To find the
maximum value of the quadratic function, we first need to find the x-coordinate of the turning point
using the formula x = -b/2a. We have a = -2 and b = 8, so x = -8/(2(-2)) = 2. Substituting x = 2 into

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Functions and Graphs

the quadratic function, we get y = -2(2)^2 + 8(2) - 5 = 3. Therefore, the maximum value of the
quadratic function is 3.

"Identify the relationship between the following pairs of functions: are they parallel or perpendicular? Provide
a brief explanation or calculation to support your answer.

1. y = 2x + 3 and y = 2x - 4

2. y = 3x - 5 and y = (1/3)x + 2

3. y = -2x + 7 and y = (1/2)x - 4

4. y = 4x - 6 and y = -1/4 x + 2

5. y = 2x + 1 and y = (-1/2)x + 4"

Solution:

1. These two functions are parallel, because they have the same slope (which is 2 in both cases). Even
though their y-intercepts are different (3 and -4), this doesn't affect the fact that they are parallel.

2. These two functions are perpendicular, because their slopes are negative reciprocals of each other.
The first function has a slope of 3, while the second function has a slope of 1/3. When multiplied
together, these slopes give -1, which indicates that the functions are perpendicular.

3. These two functions are also perpendicular, because their slopes are negative reciprocals of each
other. The first function has a slope of -2, while the second function has a slope of 1/2. When
multiplied together, these slopes give -1, which indicates that the functions are perpendicular.

4. These two functions are also perpendicular, because their slopes are negative reciprocals of each
other. The first function has a slope of 4, while the second function has a slope of -1/4. When
multiplied together, these slopes give -1, which indicates that the functions are perpendicular.

5. These two functions are parallel, because they have the same slope (which is 2 in the first function
and -1/2 in the second function). Even though their y-intercepts are different (1 and 4), this doesn't
affect the fact that they are parallel.

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