1.

Abstract
The objective of this lab is to observe the behaviour of various operational amplifier circuits, and
circuits involving capacitors and inductors. Our observations are valid if the obtained values
agree with the theoretic values. After our measures and calculations, we found (for the most part)
values that are fairly approximated to the values dictated by the theory, which means this
experiment was successful.
2. Introduction
In the first part of this experiment, we built circuits with operational amplifiers (op-amps) to
observe if the measured values of gain and output amplitudes agree with the theoretical values.
We also observed the saturation of an inverter circuit and how different gain values contribute to
saturation.
In the second part, we built RC and RL circuits to measure their time constants and compare
them to their theoretical values. We also built an RLC circuit to observe its overdamped,
critically damped and underdamped responses. For the underdamped response, we found the
damped natural frequency and the time constant to compare them with the theoretical values.
After taking our measures, we expect to find values that agree with the values provided by the
theory.
3. Procedure (Methods)
Part 1 – Operational Amplifiers:
1. Build an inverting op-amp circuit using the μA741 op-amp box and adjust the variable
feedback resistor to obtain the gain value given by the TA.
2. Measure the input and output voltages with the oscilloscope and make a hardcopy of the
display.
3. Gradually increase the amplitude of the input voltage until saturation just becomes visible
on the display and find the output voltage at this state. Make a hardcopy of the display.
4. Reset the input voltage at the value given by the TA and adjust the variable feedback
resistor to the values asked for by the TA and record the amplitudes of the display for
each different resistor value.
5. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with a non-inverting op-amp circuit.
Part 2 – Transient Response:
1. Build a circuit with the resistor and capacitor of the RLC chassis (RC circuit). Set the
variable resistor to the value given by the TA and measure the time constant 𝜏 with the
help of the oscilloscope. Make a hardcopy of the display.
2. Repeat the previous step with an RL circuit (use an inductor instead of a capacitor).
3. Build a with the resistor, inductor and capacitor of the RLC chassis (RLC circuit). Set the
resistor to 5000 Ω and the frequency of the input voltage to 0.5 kHz.
4. Measure the measure the time constant 𝜏 and make a hardcopy of the display.
 5. Gradually increase the resistor value until the output voltage does not exceed 2 volts.
Make a hardcopy of the display
6. Measure the resistance with the ohmmeter.
7. Set the resistor value to 500 Ω and the frequency of the input voltage to 266 Hz.
8. Measure the damped period of oscillation (and find the natural frequency) and the three
maxima (the peak voltages), as well as their time.
4. Results and Discussion
The scope displays are found in the appendix section.
Inverter Circuit:
The scope display gives us a sinusoidal curve with an output amplitude slightly lower than the
input amplitude. The inverter circuit is supposed to give us an output amplitude that is the same
as the input amplitude, but inverted.
The expected output amplitude is (-𝑅2/R1)*Vi = (-1 kΩ /1 kΩ) *2.08 V = -2.08V

Instead, we measured an output amplitude of 1.64 V. This is probably caused by the limits of
precision and accuracy of the lab instruments, as we encountered many technical difficulties
during the experiment, especially with the oscilloscope.
“Inverter” means that the circuit produces an output voltage that is the opposite of the input
voltage. So yes, the signal is inverted.
Saturation:
The scope display gives us a slightly flattened sinusoidal curve for the output.
“Saturation” of an op-amp’s output voltage is when the output voltage reaches a maximum or
minimum value and cannot go any higher or lower.
The maximum value of output voltage that we observed without saturation is 28.60 V.
The largest input voltage that does not give rise to saturation in the output is equal to the supply
voltage, which is 15 V.
Increasing Gain and Saturation:
Table 1: Increasing Gain and Saturation
Gain
Value of Expected amplitude Measured Amplitude of 𝑉o
𝐺 = 𝑅2 /𝑅1
𝑅2 = 1 kΩ 𝐺=1 5x1= 5 volts 𝑉o = 5.28 V
𝑅2 = 2 kΩ 𝐺=2 10 𝑉o = 9.46 V
𝑅2 = 3 kΩ 𝐺=3 15 𝑉o = 13.86 V
𝑅2 = 4 kΩ 𝐺=4 20 𝑉o = 18.26 V
𝑅2 = 5 kΩ 𝐺=5 25 𝑉o = 22.77 V
𝑅2 = 6 kΩ 𝐺=6 30 𝑉o = 26.62 V
 According to our measures, the circuit delivers gain values fairly close to the expected gain for
all 𝑅2 values, which is reflected when comparing the measured amplitudes of 𝑉o to the
expected amplitudes. However, we can see that, as the R 2 values increase, the measured
values lag more and more behind the expected values, especially when 𝑅2 = 6 kΩ. That
is because the output voltage gets close to the maximum output voltage without
saturation. From this table, we can say that this value is equal to 26.62 V, which is
fairly close to the value we found previously of 28.60V.

Figure 1: Inverter circuit considering the internal resistance of the voltage generator

As Rs and R1 are in series, you add them together to make a new resistor value : R 1S.
The expected gain is now calculated with the equation R 2/R1S, which is R 2/(R1 + RS).
Therefore, all the expected gain values would be slightly lower if we take R S into
consideration.

Charging RC Circuit:
The scope display shows the inputted square wave to excite the RC circuit and a curve that
shows the charging and discharging of the RC circuit.
Table 2: Time Constant for the RC Circuit
Value of 𝑅1 from the TA 𝑅1 = 1500 Ω
Measured time Constant of the RC circuit 𝜏 = 34.0 µs
Calculated time Constant of the RC circuit 𝜏 = 34.1 µs
% error in the time constant 0.293%

We measured the time constant by finding the time difference between the initial value (when the
curve starts) and when the charge is equal to 0.632 of the final value.
Our measured time constant is very close to the theoretical value, as it has a percent error lower
than 1%.
Charging RL Circuit:
The scope display shows the inputted square wave to excite the RL circuit and an exponential
curve that shows the voltage across VR.
Table 3: Time Constant for the RC Circuit
Value of 𝑅1 from the TA 𝑅1 = 150 Ω
Measured time Constant of the RL circuit 𝜏 = 235.0 µs
Calculated time Constant of the RL circuit 𝜏 = 235.0 µs
% error in the time constant 0.000%

We measured the time constant by finding the time difference between the beginning of a
decreasing exponential curve and when the voltage is decreases to 0.368 of the initial value.
Our measured time constant agrees entirely with the theoretical value, as there is no percent error
between the two values.
Overdamped RLC Response:
The scope display shows the inputted square wave to excite the RLC circuit and the curve that
shows the overdamped response
We measured the time constant by finding the time difference between the initial value (when the
curve starts) and when the charge is equal to 0.632 of the final value.
We measured a time constant of 120.0 µs with the scope display, which is fairly close to
the theoretical value of 0.1 ms (100 µs).
Critically Damped Response:
Our scope display shows critical damping because we set the pot resistor to the smallest value
that does not cause the curve to oscillate. Matter of fact, we see that the curve is slightly
deformed compared to the scope display from the overdamped response as if it were just about to
oscillate. We found the resistor value to be equal to 2243.4 Ω.
Underdamped RLC Response:
Our scope display shows a set of oscillating curves showing the underdamped response,
with amplitudes progressively getting smaller until getting inverted.
To find the natural frequency, we divide 1 by the period of oscillation, which is found
thanks to the V-bars of the oscilloscope by measuring the time difference between two
oscillating curves.
We found a natural frequency of 4807 Hz, which is lower than the theoretical value of
5319 Hz, but not by too much, as the percent error is only of 9.63%.
The time constant we found thanks to the V-bars (as said before, with the time
difference between two maxima) is of 204 µs, which is lower than the theoretical
value of 0.188 ms (188 µs), with a percent error of 10.64%.
5. Conclusion
After our measures and calculations, we managed to find values that seem to agree with the
desired values provided by the theory, as most of them have relatively small percent errors. The
only value which differed from our expectations is the first measured output voltage amplitude of
the inverter circuit, which wasn’t inverted from the input. As mentioned before, we experienced
technical difficulties with the oscilloscope, which may have been the cause of this discrepancy. It
is also possible that we made a mistake when making connections to build the circuit. Asides
from this, we can consider the experiment to be a success, as we met all of our other
expectations.
6. References
1- Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Alexander and Sadiko McGraw Hill, 7th ed. 2021
2- ELEC 273 Laboratory Manual, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Concordia University, 2023

7. Appendix
Data Table Sheet (Team A)
Part 1 – Operational Amplifiers:
Table A.1: Inverter Circuit
Gain value from the TA 𝐺=1
Value of 𝑅2 𝑅2= 1 kΩ
Measured input amplitude 𝑉i = 2.08 V
Measured output amplitude 𝑉o = 1.64 V
Gain 𝐺 = 𝑉o /V i 𝐺 = 0.7885

Table A.2: Increasing Gain and Saturation

Gain
Value of Expected amplitude Measured Amplitude of 𝑉o
𝐺 = 𝑅2/𝑅1
𝑅2 = 1 kΩ 𝐺=1 5x1= 5 volts 𝑉o = 5.28 V
𝑅2 = 2 kΩ 𝐺=2 10 𝑉o = 9.46 V
𝑅2 = 3 kΩ 𝐺=3 15 𝑉o = 13.86 V
𝑅2 = 4 kΩ 𝐺=4 20 𝑉o = 18.26 V
𝑅2 = 5 kΩ 𝐺=5 25 𝑉o = 22.77 V
𝑅2 = 6 kΩ 𝐺=6 30 𝑉o = 26.62 V
 Table A.3: Non-inverting Amplifier
Gain value from the TA 𝐺 = 5.5
Value of 𝑅2 𝑅2 = 4.5 kΩ
Measured input amplitude 𝑉i = 6 V
Measured output amplitude 𝑉o = 24.84 V
Gain 𝐺 = 𝑉o /V i 𝐺 = 4.14

Part 2 – Transient Response:

Table B.1 : RC circuit : Time constant
Value of 𝑅1 from the TA 𝑅1 = 1500 Ω
Measured time constant of the RC circuit 𝜏 = 34.0 µs

Table B.2: RL circuit: Time constant

Value of 𝑅1 from the TA 𝑅1 = 150 Ω
Measured time constant of the RL circuit 𝜏 = 235.0 µs

Table B.3: Overdamped RLC Response

Measured time constant for the overdamped circuit 𝜏 = 120.0 µs

Table B.4: Critically Damped Response

Measured resistor value for critical damping R = 2243.4 Ω

Table B.5: Underdamped Response

Measured damped period of oscillation: 𝑇d = 208.8 µs

Measured damped natural frequency: fd = 1/Td = 4807 Hz
Measure three maxima in the underdamped response:
Time = Voltage = 5.800 V
Time = Voltage = 4.240 V
Time = Voltage = 3.560 V