Course: ICT & Computer for Business Mr.

TAWE Boris M

MODULE TWO:

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Introduction

Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical
execution of a program like the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent various data
types, I/O mechanisms and techniques for addressing memory.

On the other hand, computer organization refers to the operational units of the system and their
interconnections that realize the architectural specifications like control signals, interfaces between
computer and peripherals and the memory technology used.

So, for example, the fact that a multiply instruction is available is a computer architecture issue.
How that multiply is implemented is a computer organization issue.

The Von Neumann Architecture

The Von Neumann architecture is a stored-program computer model that was designed by the
Hungarian born Mathematician, John Von Neumann. It is based on three concepts:

o Both data and instructions (programs) are stored in a single storage structure called memory
o The contents of this memory are addressable by location, without regard to the type of data
contained there.
o It has a single processing unit which. As such, execution occurs in a sequential fashion
from one instruction to the next.

Programs being stored in memory ensures that by altering the stored program, the computer can
perform a different task – reason why a computer is called a general-purpose machine.

Neumann divided the computer into four functional units: input, processing, storage and output.

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit

Input Unit Output Unit

Arithmetic
Logic Unit

Primary
Storage

Secondary
Storage

Storage Unit

Functional Units of a Computer

1.1. Input Devices

Input devices are hardware components that are used to enter data and instructions into the
computer. Examples are keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick, light pen, touchpad, trackball and
microphone.

Keyboard
The keyboard is the standard input device attached to computers. It has keys (buttons) that are
pressed to enter data and commands into the computer. These keys represent letters, numbers,
symbols and control characters. The keyboard has a total of 101-104 keys divided into different
groups or keypads.
✓ Function keys, labeled F1-F12, perform specific functions based on the software used. F1
for example is used in most software to display help.
✓ Alphabetical keys
✓ Numerical keys
✓ Navigation keys also called direction keys are used to navigate through documents and
websites. Examples of navigation keys are the up, down, left and right arrows.
✓ Action keys

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There are different keyboard layouts but the best known are QWERTY mainly used by English
speakers and AZERTY used by French speakers. Another keyboard layout modified greatly from
a standard layout is DVORAK, devised to increase typing speed by placing frequently used keys
more naturally.
A keyboard connects to the computer through cable PS/2 cable, USB cable or wireless (cordless).

Mouse
A mouse is a handheld device which is moved across a flat surface to control the movement of a
pointer on a computer screen. The mouse has two buttons, the right and the left buttons, which are
clicked (pressed)to enter commands into the computer.
Different actions that can be performed with a mouse are:
✓ Click: Pressing the left mouse button.
✓ Right-click: pressing the right mouse button
✓ Double-click: pressing the left button two times in quick succession
✓ Drag: pressing the left button and while holding, moving the mouse
✓ Drop: Releasing the left button after dragging

Drag and drop can be used to move files or documents from one place to another.
A mouse connects to a computer through PS/2 cable (PS/2 mouse), USB cable (USB mouse), or
wireless (optical mouse).

Scanner
A scanner is an optical device that converts hardcopy image or text into digital form so that it can
be fed into the computer. The common optical scanner devices are the flatbed scanner, optical
mark reader, optical character reader and barcode reader.
✓ Flatbed Scanner: a scanner in which the object to be scanned is held flat against a piece of
glass.
✓ Optical Mark Reader
✓ Optical Character Reader
✓ Barcode Reader

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Other types of input devices are joystick, light-pen, trackball and touch pad.

1.2. Output Devices

Output devices are hardware components that are used to retrieve information from the computer.
They provide the results of computations to the person using the computer, in a way they can
understand. Examples are monitor, printer, speaker and projector.

1.2.1. Monitor
Also referred to as VDU (Visual Display Unit), the monitor is the most popular output device. It
displays information generated by a computer on a screen. Such output is known as softcopy
output. Monitors are characterized by the technology they use and their resolution.
✓ By the technology used, monitors are of two main types: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors
and Flat Panel Display.
o CRT monitors are similar to a television set.
o Flat panel display monitors are of different types: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD),
Electroluminescent Display (ELD), Gas Plasma (GP) and Thin Film Transistor (TFT)
monitors.

✓ Monitor resolution refers to the number of dots (pixels) on the screen. It is expressed as a pair
of numbers that give the number of dots on a line (horizontal) and the number of lines
(vertical). The size of a pixel is known dot pitch. The smaller the dot pitch, the clearer and
sharper the picture appears on the monitor. Most monitors come with a .28 dot pitch.

Assignment: State the advantages of flat panel monitors over CRT.

1.2.2. Printer
A printer is a device that produces computer-generated information on paper. Such output is
referred to as printout or hardcopy. Based on the technology used, printers can be classified into
impact and non-impact printers.
✓ Impact printers have mechanical contact between paper and printing head (e.g. daisy wheel,
dot matrix and line printers).

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✓ Non-impact printers have no mechanical contact between paper and printing head (e.g. ink-
jet, desk- jet, laser printers).

Assignment: State the advantages and disadvantages of impact and non-impact printers?

1.3. The Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit (CPU) also called processor, is the brain or heart of the computer. It is
the part of the computer that interprets and executes program instructions. It also controls the other
components of the system. The CPU is made up of three main components: the arithmetic-logic
unit (ALU), the control unit (CU) and registers. Examples of CPUs are Intel Pentium II, III, IV,
Pentium Celeron, and AMD Athlon.

1.3.1. Control Unit

The control unit acts like supervisor seeing that things are done as they ought to. It locates and
retrieves program instructions from memory, interprets them and ensures that they are executed in
proper sequence. It also ensures that data is selected from memory as necessary and information
is stored correctly as well.

1.3.2. Arithmetic-Logic Unit

The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logic operations. It contains arithmetic
circuits that perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,
and logic circuits that perform comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, greater than or
equal to and less than or equal to.

1.3.3. Registers
Registers are special storage locations within the CPU that offer an advantage of speed. They work
under the direction of the control unit to accept and hold data that is being processed. Since the
CPU uses registers for the processing of data, the number of registers in a CPU and the size of
each register affect the power and speed of the CPU.
Registers are grouped into two: special purpose registers and general-purpose registers.

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✓ Special purpose registers are dedicated to specific tasks like:

o the accumulator which collects the result of computations,
o the memory address register (MAR) which keeps track of where a given instruction or
piece of data is stored in memory
o the memory data register (MDR)which holds data values.
o the program counter (PC) which holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.
o The current instruction registers (CIR) which holds the instruction being executed.

✓ General purpose registers on the other hand have no specific function; they are used according
to the need of the program being executed.

NB: Processing is performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide etc) or logical
operations (comparisons like less than, greater than, equal to etc) on data to convert it to useful
information.

1.3.4. The Instruction Cycle

The instruction cycle describes how program instructions are repeatedly fetched, decoded and
executed, one instruction at a time, until an instruction to HALT is encountered. Before an
instruction can be fetched, it must be placed into memory as well as related data, from an input or
secondary storage device. Once the necessary data and instructions are in memory, the central
processing unit performs the following four steps for each instruction:
1. The control unit fetches (gets) data and instructions from memory.
2. The control unit decodes the instructions i.e., determines what they mean, and directs that the
necessary data be moved to the arithmetic-logic unit.
3. The arithmetic-logic unit then executes the instruction on the data. That is, the ALU is given
control and performs the actual operation on the data.
4. The arithmetic-logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in a register.

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1.3.5. System Clock

The CPU has a small quartz crystal circuit called the system clock that controls the timing of all
computer operations. The system clock generates regular electronic pulses, or ticks, that set the
operating pace of components of the system unit. Each tick is known as clock cycle and the pace
of the system clock is called clock speed. Clock speed is measured in megahertz (Mhz) or gigahertz
(Ghz) and refers to the number of clock cycles per second that the CPU runs at. Mega and giga
stand for million and billion respectively while hertz means cycles per second. Thus, 1Ghz means
one billion cycles per second. A computer that operates at 3 Ghz has 3 billion (giga) clock cycles
in one second (hertz).
The faster the clock speed, the more instructions the processor can execute per second. The speed
of the system clock has no effect on devices such as a printer or disk drive. The speed of the
system clock is just one factor that influences a computer’s performance. Other factors, such as
the type of processor chip, amount of cache, memory access time, bus width, and bus clock speed.

1.4. Storage Devices

Storage devices are computer components that hold programs and data for use in the computer.
Programs and data can be made available for initial or additional processing when required. A
storage device is made of two parts: the storage medium and the device.
✓ The medium is the surface or substrate that holds actual data
✓ The device reads information from or stores information onto the medium

Computer storage can be classified basically into two: primary storage and secondary storage.

1.4.1. Primary Storage

Primary storage is directly accessible to the CPU. It holds programs and data that the CPU is
currently working with. Primary storage is also called internal memory, immediate access memory
or primary memory. Primary memory consists of random access memory, read only memory and
cache memory.

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a. Random Access Memory

Random access memory (RAM) also called “main memory” is the temporary storage space into
which a computer loads programs and user data when it is running. It is the computer’s working
space. It is read/write meaning that data can be read from and written onto it. RAM is also volatile
meaning that everything held in it is lost when power is switched off. Two types of RAM exist:
Static RAM and dynamic RAM.

✓ Dynamic RAM (DRAM) consists of capacitors that slowly leak their charge over time. Thus,
they must be refreshed every few milliseconds to prevent data loss. DRAM is cheap memory
owing to its simple design.

✓ Static RAM (SRAM) consists of circuits that retain their charge over time. SRAM is faster
and more expensive than dynamic RAM, and does not need to be refreshed as DRAM does.
Due to its cost, it is not used as main memory but rather to build cache memory.

b. Read Only Memory

Read only memory (ROM) is a kind of memory whose contents can only be read by the computer.
Data found in ROM is written by the manufacturer and cannot be modified by the user. ROM is
useful for holding data that never changes like the “boot” or start-up program which is run when
the computer is switched on. ROM is non-volatile meaning that its content is preserved even
without power. There are four types of ROM:

✓ Masked ROM is ROM programmed with its data when the chip is fabricated.
✓ Programmable ROM (PROM) is ROM that can be programmed once but not reprogrammed.
✓ Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) is ROM that can be erased by strong ultraviolet light
and new data burnt into it. To do this the chip has to be removed from the machine and put
back after the changes have been made.
✓ Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) is ROM whose content can be erased
electrically. In this case, the chip need not be removed from the machine. The programming
is done using special software.

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c. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a smaller and faster memory between the CPU and main memory, which stores
copies of data from the most frequently accessed memory locations. The purpose of cache memory
is to speed up accesses by storing recently used data closer to the CPU, instead of storing it in main
memory. Cache is static RAM and is usually organized in levels:
✓ Level 1 (L1) cache, Level 2 and Level 3 cache.
✓ Level 1 cache is closest to the CPU or within it.
✓ L2 and L3 caches are outside it.

When the CPU needs to access memory, cache memory is examined first. If the data is found in
cache, it is read from it. Otherwise, main memory is accessed. When the CPU refers to memory
and finds the data in cache, it is said to be a HIT. Otherwise, it is a MISS.

1.4.2. Secondary Storage

Secondary storage is not directly accessible to the CPU. It is used to store programs and data for
backup purposes (future use). It could be placed within the computer or connected externally.
Programs and data from secondary storage must be transferred to main memory for processing.
Secondary storage is also called secondary memory, mass storage, backing storage or external
storage. It can be divided into magnetic storage, optical storage and solid state storage.

a. Magnetic Storage
Magnetic storage devices store data as electromagnetic charges on the magnetic surfaces of the
storage units. Examples are floppy disks, hard disks and magnetic tape.

✓ Floppy Disk
A floppy disk consists of a round flexible plastic disk coated with a magnetic substance and
protected by a plastic cover lined with a soft material that wipes the disk clean as it spins. The disk
is made of two recordable surfaces which are divided into a number of circular paths called tracks.
The number of tracks per surface varies with the particular type of disk. Each track is in turn
divided into a number of smaller units called sectors. A sector is the basic unit of storage on the
disk and has a capacity of 512 bytes.

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Floppy disk

✓ Hard Disk
A hard disk consists of several metallic platters which store data. Each platter has two sides and is
divided into a number of rings called tracks. Tracks on a platter are numbered 0 from the outside
and usually go up to 1023. Each track is divided into sectors. A sector is the basic unit of storage
on the disk and has a capacity of 512 bytes. Sectors are grouped together to form clusters. A cluster
is the smallest logical amount of disk space that can be allocated to hold a file. A cylinder is a sum
set of all the tracks on all the platters that have the same track value.
Factors that determine the performance of hard disks are, seek time and drive rotational speed.
o Seek time is the time taken to move the read/write head over the right track and sector.
o Drive rotational speed is the total number of revolutions the disk platters make per minute.
Higher rotational speed leads to higher transfer rate.

Hard disk

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✓ Magnetic Tape
A magnetic tape consists of a magnetically coated stripe on which data is stored. Data is stored on
the magnetic tape in chronological order or sequentially. This means that any piece of data is
always stored in the next available space on the tape. To access data, the tape drive has to move
through all the preceding data before it can access the desired data. This mode of access is known
as sequential access. Less susceptible to environment, they are suitable for long-term storage and
backup.

b. Optical Storage
Optical storage devices store data as microscopic light and dark spots on the disk surface.
Examples are Compact discs, digital versatile discs and Blu-ray discs. They are less susceptible to
environmental damage.

✓ Compact Disc (CD)

A CD is a round disk coated with a metallic surface on which data can be stored and accessed via
laser technology. To store or access data on a CD, the CD drive focuses a laser beam on the disc
surface. Different variations of CD exist: CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW. A CD can store 650MB
to 700MB of data.
o CD-ROM stands for compact disc read only memory. CD-ROMs can only be read but not
recorded on, by the user’s computer. Their content is set during manufacture.
o CD-R stands for compact disc recordable. It is a type of CD that can be recorded by the
user. Once the user records on the CD, the content is set and cannot be changed. CD-R can
be read by CD-ROM drives but to write on them, you need a CD-R drive.
o CD-RW stands for compact disc rewritable. It is a type of CD that can be recorded, erased
and reused by the user. CD-RW cannot be read by a CD-ROM and CD-R drives. CD-RW
drives are required to read and write on them.

Compact disc
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✓ Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

A DVD is similar to a CD in size and thickness but has a higher storage capacity than the CD.
DVDs use a laser beam of wavelength shorter than used by CDs. This allows for smaller
indentations and increased storage capacity. Just like the CD, different ions of the DVD exist:
DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW. A DVD can store up to 17GB of data. Common DVD storage
capacities are:

Types Characteristics Capacity

DVD-5 Single-sided, Single-layer 4.7GB
DVD-9 Single-side, Dual-layer 8.5GB
DVD-10 Double-side, Single-layer 9.4GB
DVD-18 Double-side, Dual-layer 17.1GB

✓ Blu-Ray Disc
A Blu-ray disc is an optical disc similar to a DVD and of same size, but read and written with a
blue or violet laser, whose shorter wavelength makes a higher data density possible. Blu-ray discs
can hold 25 GB for single layer or 50 GB for double layer.

c. Solid State Storage

The term solid-state essentially means no moving parts. Solid-state storage devices are based on
electronic circuits with no moving parts (no reels, no spinning disks). They store data using a
special type of memory called flash memory. Flash memory is a type of EEPROM that can only
be erased in blocks; it cannot be erased one byte at a time. In this regard it resembles a disk that is
divided into sectors. Flash memory is usually used for storing larger amounts of data while
EEPROM is used for small amounts of data, such as machine configuration. Examples of solid-
state devices are USB memory sticks, memory cards and secure digital cards.

✓ USB Flash Drive

A flash drive is a small, keychain-sized flash memory device with a USB interface, treated by the
computer as if it were a disk drive. A flash drive is also called thumb drive, jump drive or memory

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stick’s flash drives have practically replaced diskettes as a handy way to transport data. They can
be carried in one’s pocket and plugged into any computer for immediate access.

✓ Secure Digital Cards

A secure digital (SD) card is a type of flash-memory card that incorporates a cryptographic security
system to prevent copyright violations, often used in digital music players and digital cameras.

1.4.3. Characteristics of Storage Devices

Four important characteristics of storage devices are:
✓ capacity
✓ access time
✓ access method
✓ volatility

a. Capacity
The capacity of a storage device is the maximum amount of data that can be stored on the device’s
medium. It is expressed in terms of the number of data bytes the device can hold. This simply
means the unit of measurement of storage capacity is byte. Units of storage are summarized as
follows:

1 bit = 0 or 1
4 bits = 1 nibble
8 bits = 1 Byte 1 character
1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (KB) approx. 1/2 page
1024 KB = 1 Megabyte (MB) approx. 500,000 pages
1024 MB = 1 Gigabyte (GB) approx. 5 million pages
1024 GB = 1 Terabyte (TB) approx. 5 billion pages

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b. Access time
Access time is the average time taken for a storage device to search and read required data on its
medium. In other words, it is how fast data can be read from or written to a memory device’s
medium. It is measured in seconds. Units of time are summarized as follows:
Millisecond (ms)
Microsecond (µs)
Nanosecond (ns)
Picoseconds (ps)
Femtoseconds (fs)

c. Access Method
An access method is the technique used to retrieve information from or store information to a
medium. Storage media can be accessed in two ways: sequentially or randomly.

✓ Sequential Access
The medium is accessed by proceeding from the beginning of the medium until the designated
area is reached. Any new data is stored in the next available space on the medium. To read any
data stored on the medium, the device has to start from the beginning going through each data until
the required data is found. An example of sequential access medium is magnetic tape.

✓ Random Access
Data is accessed in any order, regardless of its location on the medium. To read any data stored on
the medium, the device does not need to go through all preceding data. It is also called direct
access. Examples of direct access devices are RAM, ROM, CDs, DVDs and magnetic disks.

d. Volatility
Volatility refers to the behavior of the device without power. A device can be volatile or non-
volatile. Volatile means that the device loses its content when power is switched off. Examples of
volatile devices are Cache and RAM.
Non-volatile means that the device preserves its content even without power. Examples of non-
volatile devices are ROM, magnetic disks, optical discs and solid state devices.

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1.4.4. Memory Hierarchy

Modern computers manage memory by organizing memory into a hierarchy in which large and
slower memories feed data into smaller but faster memories for faster processing of data. This
organization of computer memory is known as memory hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy are
the CPU registers followed by cache memory. The next level in the hierarchy is made up of main
memory, which is followed by magnetic disk.

Registers
Cache Memory
Faster and Main Memory Slower and
smaller in size larger in size
Magnetic Disk
Optical Disc/Solid State Devices
Magnetic Tape

Memory hierarchy

1.5. The Motherboard

The motherboard is the main printed circuit board in the computer which holds the chipset and
other electronic components that give function to the computer. The motherboard is indispensable
to the computer and provides the main computing capability.

The Motherboard
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1.5.1. Motherboard Form Factor

Motherboard types are better described by what we call the motherboard form factor. The form
factor of a motherboard determines the specifications for its general shape and size. It also specifies
what type of case and power supply will be supported, the placement of mounting holes, and the
physical layout and organization of the board. The most common form factors found in modern
PCs are:
✓ Advanced Technology (AT)
✓ Advanced Technology Extended (ATX)
✓ Low Profile Extension (LPX)
✓ New Low profile Extended (NLPX)

1.5.2. The System Bus

A computer bus is a set of parallel lines that interconnects various components inside the computer,
allowing the exchange of data between them. It is the pathway between these components,
enabling data to be transferred from one component to another. The width or size of a bus is
determined by the number of lines it has. The system bus is made up of three different busses:
the data bus, the address bus and the control bus.

a. The Data Bus

The data bus carries data between the CPU and main memory or peripherals. During a write
operation, data is carried from the CPU and during a read operation, data is carried into the CPU.
This means that the data bus is bidirectional. The size of the data bus determines how much data
can be transferred in a single operation.

b. The Address Bus

The address bus carries address information from the CPU to main memory or peripherals. It is
unidirectional. The CPU uses the address bus to send the address of the memory location to be
written to or read from. Also, when the CPU reads data from or writes to a port, it sends the port
address out on the address bus. The size of the address bus determines the maximum amount of

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main memory (RAM) that can be addressed. A computer with a 32-bit bus size can address a
maximum RAM of 232 bits = 4GB.

c. The Control Bus

The control bus is used by the CPU to send out signals to enable the outputs of addressed memory
devices or port devices. Typical control bus signals are memory read, memory write, I/O read and
I/O write.

When the CPU wants to read data from a memory location, it sends out the memory address of the
desired data on the address bus and then sends out a Memory Read signal on the control bus. The
memory read signal enables the addressed memory device to output the data onto the data bus. The
data from the memory travels along the data bus to the CPU.

1.5.3. Input/Output Interfaces

The CPU communicates with I/O devices through bus interfaces connected to the system bus.
These bus interfaces also called expansion buses are then connected to ports which allow the
exchange of data and information between the computer and external (peripheral) devices.

a. I/O Ports
A port is a pathway for data and information to go into and out of the computer from external
devices such as keyboards, monitors and printers.
There are many standard ports as well as custom electronic ports designed for special purposes.
Examples of ports are:
o PS/2 ports for connecting the keyboard and mouse
o VGA (Video Graphics Adapter) port for connecting the monitor
o RJ45 port for connection to an Ethernet network
o RJ14 for connection to the Internet via phone line
o USB port for connecting USB devices like Flash drives, printers, keyboards and mice
o Serial ports for connecting serial devices like Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs)
o Parallel port connecting parallel devices like printers

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o Firewire is high performance serial bus, for connecting devices to your personal computer.
FireWire provides a single plug-and-socket connection on which up to 63 devices can be
attached with data transfer speeds up to 400 mbps.

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