Chapter Eight

Chapter Objectives
 Draw, label and describe a chloroplast.

 Locate where light-dependent and -independent processes occur in the chloroplast.

 Name the products of the light-dependent and –independent processes.

 Explain how the structure of a photosystem is related to its function.

 Describe how glucose is synthesized in the light independent reactions of photosynthesis.

 Describe the factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis and explain why they affect the rate..

 Distinguish between C3 and C4 plants and give at least three examples of each.

 Describe the CAM photosynthetic pathway and explain and why this brings added benefits to
plants living in desert conditions.
 Introduction
• Living organisms obtain chemical energy by one of two major nutrition modes:
 Autotrophs“self-feeders”
• Produce organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic raw materials obtained from the
environment.
• Almost all plants are autotrophs; the only nutrients they require are water and
• minerals from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air.
• Plants are using light as a source of energy to synthesize organic compounds.
 Heterotrophs can’t make their own food, so they must eat or absorb it.
 live on organic compounds produced by other organisms.
• Almost all living things nourish directly or indirectly products from photosynthesis.

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 Introduction
 Sunshine plays a bigger role in our lives.
 All the food we eat and the fossil fuels we burn are products of
photosynthesis.

 Plants turn solar energy into food which is

nice of them because animals can’t eat
sunshine.

 When animals eat plants and other animals, that

original solar energy is passed along the food chain.
 Biosynthesis
Biosynthesis is a multi-step, enzyme-catalyzed process where substrates are converted
into more complex products in living organisms.

Biosynthesis is usually synonymous with anabolism.

The prerequisite elements for biosynthesis include:

Precursor compounds

Chemical energy (e.g. ATP)

 Catalytic enzymes which may require coenzymes (e.g.NADH, NADPH).

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 Con’t
Photosynthesis is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy
that is used by biological systems (that means us).

 Photosynthesis has 3 major events:

1. Sunlight is converted into chemical energy
2. Water (H2O) is split into oxygen (O2)
3. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is fixed into sugars (C6H12O6)

 The photosynthesis reaction:

6 CO2 + 12 H2O + sunlight  C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2
6 Carbon 12 Water 1 Sugar 6 Water 6 Oxygen
dioxide molecules (glucose) molecules molecules
molecules molecule
 Con’t
Photosynthesis is carried out by:
certain bacteria plants
 These organisms are known as photoautotrophs or
producers meaning they make their own food and
energy from the sun.

most algae cyanobacteria phytoplankton

 Consumers such as herbivores

and carnivores depend on the
products of photosynthesis that
producers make to live.
 Con’t
There are two types of photosynthesis:
1. Oxygenic photosynthesis 6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
 Light energy transfers electrons from water (H2O) to carbon dioxide (CO2), to produce
carbohydrates.
 CO2 is "reduced" or receives electrons
 water becomes "oxidized," or loses electrons.
 oxygen is produced along with carbohydrates.
2. Anoxygenic photosynthesis CO2 + 2H2A + Light Energy → [CH2O] + 2A + H2O

 Does not produce oxygen.

 The by product is depends on the electron donor.
 For example, bacteria that use hydrogen sulfide, producing solid sulfur as a byproduct.

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 The photosynthetic apparatus
1. Plastids
Photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms contain organelles called plastids.

Plastids generally contain different pigments.

Non pigmented Store Fats and

leucoplasts Starches
pigments
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts
Carotenoids
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 Con’t
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts grana and
stroma regions.

The grana is the innermost portion of the organelle

They are a collection of disc-shaped membranes,

stacked into columns like plates.

The individual discs are called thylakoids.

It is here that the transfer of electrons takes place.

The empty spaces between columns of grana

constitute the stroma.

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 Con’t
 Pigments are molecules that determine colors of plants, algae and bacteria
 Pigments of different colors also absorb different wavelengths of light.
 Below are the three main groups.

No, pigments Colors of Colors absorb by the pigments

Pigments
1. Chlorophylls Green blue and red colors of light

2 Carotenoids Red, Orange or bluish-green light

Yellow
3 Phycobilins Red or Blue absorb wavelengths of light that are not as well
absorbed by chlorophylls and carotenoids.

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 Antennae/ Photosystem
 A photosystem consists of a number of pigment molecules all clustered around one particular
chlorophyll molecule called the reaction center molecule.

 This cluster of pigment molecules is called an antenna complex or pigment-protein complex

 Antenna complex are combinations of proteins and different pigmments that helps to increase
pigment molecules flexibility to move toward the light.

 These structures effectively capture light energy from the sun, in the form of photons.

 The light energy transferred to chlorophyll pigments is then converted in to chemical Energy

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 Antennae/ Photosystem
 Different pigment molecules in the antenna complex can absorb different wavelengths of light,
making the whole system more efficient.

 The pigments in the antenna complex include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids.

 The range of wavelengths each molecule absorbs is known as absorption spectrum.

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 Antennae/ Photosystem
 Two photosystems in thylakoid membrane collections of
chlorophyll molecules act as light-gathering molecules.
Photosystem II
 chlorophyll a
 P680 = absorbs 680nm
wavelength red light
Photosystem I
 chlorophyll b
 P700 = absorbs 700nm
The structure of a photosystem
wavelength red light

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 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of
food.
• Chloroplast is the site of Photosynthesis in Plants.
• Leaves are the solar collectors in most plants.
• Chloroplasts are found mainly in the cells of the mesophyll, the
tissue in the interior of the leaf.

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 Photosynthesis

• Carbon dioxide enters the leaf, and oxygen exits, by way of

microscopic pores called stomata (singular, stoma; from the Greek,
meaning “mouth”).
• Water absorbed by the roots is delivered to the leaves in veins.
• Leaves also use veins to export sugar to roots and other non
photosynthetic parts of the plant.

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 Photosynthesis

Consists of 2 sets of reactions.

• Light Reactions:
• Dark Reactions /Calvin cycle/

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 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis consists of 2 sets of reactions.
• Light Reactions: The photon part of photosynthesis.
 Convert solar energy to chemical energy.
 Water is split, providing a source of electrons and protons (hydrogen ions, H+ ) and giving off O2 as a
by-product.
 Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of the electrons and hydrogen ions from water to an
acceptor called NADP+
 NADP+ is reduced to NADPH by adding a pair of electrons along with an H+
 light energy is initially converted to chemical energy in the form of two compounds: NADPH and ATP.
 NADPH, a source of electrons, acts as “reducing power” that can be passed along to an electron
acceptor, reducing it.
 ATP is the versatile energy currency of cells.

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 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis consists of 2 sets of reactions.
• Light Reactions:

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 Light Reactions.mp4
Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis consists of 2 sets of reactions.
• Light Reactions:

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 Photosynthesis
• Dark Reactions /:
 This is the second step in the mechanism of photosynthesis.
 Begins by incorporating CO2 from the air into organic molecules already present in the
chloroplast.
 This CO2 incorporation organic compounds is known as carbon fixation.
 Then reduces the fixed carbon to carbohydrate by the addition of electrons.
 The reducing power is provided by NADPH.
 CO2 convert to carbohydrate by chemical energy in the form of ATP.
 NADPH and ATP produced by the light reactions.
 Dark reactions is also referred to as light independent, because none of the steps requires
light directly.

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 Photosynthesis
• Dark Reactions/:
• But the Dark reaction in most plants occurs during daylight. Why ?
• Since Blackman demonstrated the existence of dark reaction, the reaction is also called as
Blackman’s reaction.
• In dark reaction two types of cyclic reactions occur.
1. Calvin cycle or C3 cycle
2. Hatch and Slack pathway or C4 cycle

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 Photosynthesis
• Dark Reactions/:
1. Calvin cycle or C3 cycle
 It is a cyclic reaction occurring in the dark phase of photosynthesis.
 In this reaction, CO2 is converted into sugars and hence it is a process of carbon fixation.
 The Calvin cycle was first observed by Melvin Calvin in chlorella, unicellular green algae.
 Calvin was awarded Nobel Prize for this work in 1961.
 Since the first stable compound in Calvin cycle is a 3 carbon compound (3 phosphoglyceric
acid), the cycle is also called as C3 cycle.
 C3 cycle occurs in the mesophyll cells of plants

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 Photosynthesis
• Dark Reactions Calvin cycle/:
• Three chemical reaction steps make up the Calvin cycle:
• The first step of the Calvin cycle called carbon fixation/ Carboxylative phase
 The joining of carbon dioxide with other organic molecules is called carbon fixation.
 6CO2 combine with six 5-carbon compounds to form twelve 3- carbon molecules called
3-phosphoglycerat (3-PGA).
• The second step of Calvin cycle is called reduction and Sugar production Phase
 The chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH is transferred to the 3-PGA molecules to
form high-energy molecules called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphates (G3P).
 ATP supplies the phosphate groups for forming G3P molecules.
 NADPH supplies hydrogen ions and electrons.
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 Photosynthesis
• Dark Reactions Calvin cycle/:
• Three chemical reaction steps make up the Calvin cycle:
• The third step of Calvin cycle reaction is known as Regeneration phase
 Two G3P molecules leave the cycle to be used for the production of glucose and other organic
compounds.
 An enzyme called rubisco converts the remaining ten G3P molecules into 5-carbon molecules
called ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphates (RuBP).
 These molecules combine with new carbon dioxide molecules to continue the cycle.

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 Calvin cycle or C3 cycle

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 Photosynthesis and its Mechanism.mp4

Leaf structure of C3 plant

 The cells that contain most chloroplasts (the palisade cells)
are nearest the upper surface of the leaf.

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 Overall Energy Production
The Energy produced through Photosynthesis is summarized as follows:

 3 turns of Calvin cycle = 1 G3P

 3 CO2  1 G3P (3C)

 6 turns of Calvin cycle = 1 C6H12O6 (6C)

 6 CO2  1 C6H12O6 (6C)

 18 ATP + 12 NADPH  1 C6H12O6

 any ATP left over from light reactions will be used elsewhere by the cell
Photosynthesis summary
Light reactions
produced ATP
produced NADPH
consumed H2O
produced O2 as byproduct
Calvin cycle
consumed CO2
produced G3P (sugar)
regenerated ADP ADP NADP
regenerated NADP
Light Reactions
light
H2O + energy  ATP + NADPH + O2

 produces ATP
 produces NADPH
 releases O2 as a waste product

O2
Calvin Cycle
CO2 + ATP + NADPH  C6H12O6 + ADP + NADP

 builds sugars
 uses ATP & NADPH
 recycles ADP & NADP
 back to make more ATP &
NADPH
Putting it all together
light
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Plants make both:

 energy
 ATP & NADPH
 sugars

O2
 photorespiration
• Plants in the tropics have a problem

• If the temperature is too hot the leaves close their stomata to minimize water loss.

• When C3 plants do this, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the leaves falls and the enzyme
Rubisco starts to behave in an unusual way.

• In the low concentrations of carbon dioxide, Rubisco binds with oxygen, not carbon dioxide.

• This means that RuBP is oxidised to one molecule of GP (not two) and a molecule of
phosphoglycolate.

• When this happens, less photosynthesis takes place

• In addition, carbon dioxide is produced in the process. The process is called photorespiration because
it involves oxidation of carbon.

O2
 photorespiration
• There are two phases of photorespiration:

• Rubisco catalyzes a reaction between oxygen and

RuBP to form one molecule of GP and one molecule
of phosphoglycolate.

• The phosphoglycolate is converted to GP in reactions

in the chloroplast, peroxisome and mitochondrion.

The reactions of photorespiration

O2
 photorespiration
Photorespiration reduces the efficiency of photosynthesis due the following
reasons several reasons:
The carbon is oxidised, which is the reverse of photosynthesis –the reduction of carbon
to carbohydrate

The ribulose bisphosphate must be resynthesised and the phosphoglycolate removed

ATP is used in the resynthesis of RuBP.

⸙ To get round the problem of photorespiration reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis, plants that grow
in tropical areas like Ethiopia (such as maize, crabgrass, sorghum and sugar cane) have evolved a
different photosynthetic pathway called C4 photosynthesis.

O2
 Photosynthesis
• Dark Reactions/:
2. Hatch and Slack pathway or C4 cycle
 It is the alternate pathway of C3 cycle to fix CO2.
 In this cycle, the first formed stable compound is oxaloacetic acid (4C
compound ).
 As a result it is also called C4 cycle.
 The path way is also called as Hatch and Slack as they worked out the pathway
in 1966.

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 2. Hatch and Slack pathway or C4 cycle
 When the weather is hot and dry, a C4 plant partially closes its
stomata, conserving water but reducing the CO2 concentration
in the leaves.

 However, sugar is still made because C4 plants use a multistep

process that operates even under low CO2 conditions.

 Photosynthesis begins in mesophyll cells but is completed in

bundle-sheath cells, cells that are arranged into tightly packed
sheaths around the veins of the leaf

The structure of a leaf from a C4 plant

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 2. Hatch and Slack pathway or C4 cycle
 In C4 plants, CO2 is first fixed in mesophyll cells into a four-carbon compound

 Then it passes into bundle-sheath cells and releases CO2 in high concentrations.

 The released CO2 is fixed by rubisco, and the remaining reactions of the Calvin cycle occur as in C3
plants.

 The C4 pathway occurs in plants such as sugar cane and corn.

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 2. Hatch and Slack pathway or C4 cycle

 In C4 cycle the following reactions take place:

1. Carbon dioxide reacts with a C3 compound called PEP to form the C4 compound oxaloacetate.

 This is catalyzed by the enzyme PEP carboxylase.

2. Oxaloacetate is converted into another C4 compound (malate), which then passes from the
mesophyll cell into a bundle sheath cell.

3. In the bundle sheath cell, malate is converted to pyruvate with the release of a molecule of
carbon dioxide, which starts the reactions of the Calvin cycle by binding with RuBP

4. The pyruvate is converted back to PEP; this reaction requires ATP.

• Overall, the C4 cycle uses two more molecules of ATP to deliver a molecule of carbon dioxide to
Rubisco than does the C3 cycle.

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 2. Hatch and Slack pathway or C4 cycle

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 2. Hatch and Slack pathway or C4 cycle

C4 photosynthesis is most efficient in conditions of:

 low carbon dioxide concentration

 high light intensity

 high temperature…….Why??

The efficiency of C3 and C4 photosynthesis at different

carbon dioxide concentrations
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 CAM pathway
Another adaptive pathway used by some plants to maximize photosynthetic
activity is called crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis).

The CAM pathway occurs in water conserving plants that live in:

Deserts

Salt marshes and

Other environments where access to water is limited.

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 Con’t
 CAM plants, such as cacti, orchids, and the pineapple allow carbon dioxide to enter the leaves only at night

 At night, these plants fix carbon dioxide into organic compounds.

 During the day, carbon dioxide is released from these compounds and enters the Calvin cycle.

 This pathway also allows for sufficient carbon dioxide uptake, while minimizing water loss.

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 Con’t
• In CAM Plants Malate is stored
in vacuole during night time.
• During day time the stomata is
closed & malate is converted to
Pyruvate to inter Calvin cycle.

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 Summary

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 Factors affecting photosynthesis
 Light

 Carbon dioxide

 Temperature

 Water

 Oxygen

 Mineral Content

 Chlorophyll content

 Leaf

 Carbohydrate

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 Summary
 Plants are the producers of the biosphere creating the oxygen and glucose needed for most
organisms.

 Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in plants.

 Chloroplasts contain thylakoids where the light reactions take place.

 Light reactions convert sunlight into ATP and NADPH.

 The dark reactions or Calvin Cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 into sugar.

 The light reactions and the dark reactions cooperate to convert light energy into chemical energy
housed in glucose.

 Plants and animals use glucose to power metabolic processes.

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