Electrical Systems for

Renewable Energy
DC Circuit Analysis

Dr. Yifei Guo

School of Engineering
SERIES & PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
 Resistance in Series
Addition Rule: To find the resistance of a series
combination of resistors, add their individual resistances.

Combined (series) resistance and conductance:

 Resistance in Parallel
Combined (parallel) resistance
and conductance:

Two resistances in parallel Three resistances in parallel

 Voltage Source

Ideal Voltage Source Practical Voltage Source

or

Ideal voltage source has Practical voltage sources usually

ZERO internal resistance have a small internal resistance
Voltage Source in Series
 Current Source

Ideal Current Source Practical Current Source

A Current Source is an active circuit element that is capable

of supplying a constant current flow to a circuit regardless of
the voltage developed across its terminals.
Current Source in Parallel
 Current and Voltage in Series Circuits

Voltage Divider Rule

• Current flowing in a series circuit will be of the same value

through all components.
• Voltage drop across a resistor in a series circuit depends
on the ratio of its resistance as compared to the total
resistance in the circuit.
 Current and Voltage in Series Circuits
Example Find the current and voltage across each resistor

10Ω

10 V 15Ω

20Ω

5Ω
Current and Voltage in Parallel Circuits
Current Divider Rule
 Current and Voltage in Parallel Circuits
Example (Find I, I1,I2)

V R1 R2
 Current and Voltage in Hybrid Circuits
Example

V
Current and Voltage in Hybrid Circuits

Can you find all the

branch currents in
this hybrid circuit?
Current and Voltage in Hybrid Circuits

Step 1:
• R4 is in series with R5.
• R6 is in parallel with R7.
Current and Voltage in Hybrid Circuits

Step 2:
• R1 is in series with RB.
• R3 is in parallel with RA.
Current and Voltage in Hybrid Circuits
Step 3: R2 is in series with RC.

Step 4: RE is in parallel with RD.

Current and Voltage in Hybrid Circuits
Current and Voltage in Hybrid Circuits
Current and Voltage in Hybrid Circuits
 Can you find the branch currents
using the previous method?
B

10Ω 30Ω

A
40Ω C

20Ω 20Ω
D

Any two resistors are not in series or in parallel!

Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
At any node of a circuit, the sum of the currents flowing into
the node is equal to the sum of the currents flowing out of
the node. In other words, at any node of a network, the
algebraic sum of the currents flowing into the node is zero.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
KCL also applies to any closed surface
The algebraic (or signed) summation of currents through
any closed surface must equal zero.

KCL essentially means that charge does not build up at a

connection point, and that charge is conserved.
 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
Example
Find the unknown currents in the circuit below:

5A 1A 4A

2A 3A
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
The algebraic sum of all the voltages across individual
components around any loop of a circuit is zero.

A B 1. Specify the direction of the loop

and the reference direction of each
branch.

2. If a branch’s direction is in
consistent with the loop direction,
then the sign of this branch voltage
is taken as ‘+’ otherwise ‘-’ in the
D C KVL equation.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Example 1 Check if KVL holds here.

A B C

F E D
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Example 2 Find V2
A B C D

9V 4V

12V
6V

J H G F
 Nodal Analysis

Nodal (Voltage) Analysis finds the unknown voltage

drops around a circuit between different nodes,
which is based on the Kirchhoff's current law (KCL).
 Nodal Analysis
1) Choose one node as a reference node, which will be considered to have
zero voltage. (The choice should not affect the final results, but there is
often a fairly obvious convenient choice e.g., a junction of several
resistors, or of two or more voltage sources).
2) Assign node voltages V1, V2, etc. to all the nodes other than the
reference node (the labelling is arbitrary).
3) At any known node whose voltage is fixed by an ideal voltage source,
the corresponding node voltage may be written down at once.
4) At all nodes other than the reference node or known nodes, write down
Kirchhoff’s Current Law in terms of the branch currents flowing into
and out of the node. These currents are found from Ohm's law in the
form (V1 - V2)/R.
5) Solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations (the nodal equations)
for the unknown node voltages in terms of the known voltage and
current sources (and the known resistance values).
6) Complete the analysis by working out the branch voltages and currents.
 Nodal Analysis
Example 1
Find load current via Nodal Analysis.
4Ω 1Ω

28V 2Ω 7V

0V
 Nodal Analysis

4Ω 1Ω By KCL:

28V 2Ω 7V

0V
 Nodal Analysis
Example 2
Find load current via Nodal Analysis.

10 Ω 6Ω

70 V 5Ω 5A

0V
Nodal Analysis

By KCL:
 Nodal Analysis
Example 3
B

10Ω 30Ω
10Ω 20Ω
A 40Ω
C 2V
40Ω

20Ω 20Ω 30Ω 20Ω

D

2V
Find reference node and
assign node voltage labels.
Nodal Analysis
By KCL:

Combine ① and ②:
Thevenin’s and Norton’s
Equivalent Circuits
 Thevenin’s Theorem
Any (linear) two-terminal (one-port) network consisting of
resistors, independent voltage/current sources (and linearly
dependent sources) is externally equivalent to a circuit
consisting of a fixed voltage source VT in series with a
resistance RT.

Thevenin conversion
A A

Load Load

B B
 Thevenin’s Theorem

The value of VT is equal to the open circuit voltage

of the network.
The value of RT is the resistance which would be
measured between the terminals of the network if
all independent voltage sources were replaced by
short circuits, and all independent current sources
by open circuits (the load being removed).
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Steps

1) Remove load and calculate open circuit

voltage, VT.
2) Remove load, replace ideal voltage sources
with short-circuit, replace ideal current
sources with open-circuit and calculate RT.
3) Form Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with RT
and VT and connect load to this circuit.
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Example 1
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and calculate
load current.
10 Ω A

10V 10 Ω 20 Ω Load

B
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 1: Remove load and find VT

10 Ω A

10V
10Ω

B
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 2: Remove load; shortcut voltage source and
open current source; and find RT between A and B.

10 Ω A

10Ω

B
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 3: Form the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and
reconnect the load.

5Ω

5V Load 20 Ω

B
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Example 2 B

10Ω 30Ω

A
40Ω C

20Ω 20Ω
D

2V
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 1:
Remove the 40 Ω load resistor and find VT .
10Ω 30Ω

B
A C
20Ω D 20Ω

2V Applying KVL
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 2: Remove load; shortcut voltage
source; and find RT between B and D.

10Ω 30Ω
10Ω A 20Ω
B
A C
B D
20Ω D 20Ω
30Ω 20Ω
C
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 3: Form the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and
reconnect the load to compute the load current.

17.5Ω

0.5V Load 40 Ω

B
 Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that any linear circuit can be
simplified to an equivalent circuit consisting of a
single current source and parallel resistance that is
connected to a load.
Norton conversion
A

Load Load

B B
 Norton’s Theorem

The value of IN is equal to the short circuit current

between the load terminals.
The value of RN is the resistance which would be
measured between the terminals of the network if all
ideal voltage sources were replaced by short circuits,
and all ideal current sources by open circuits (the
load being removed).
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Steps
• Step 1: Remove the load resistor and replace it with a short
circuit; calculate the Norton current—the current through
the short circuit.
• Step 2: Replace the power sources. All voltage sources are
replaced with short circuits, and all current sources are
replaced with open circuits. Calculate the Norton
resistance—the total resistance between the open circuit
connection points after all sources have been removed.
• Step 3: Form the Norton equivalent circuit, with the Norton
current source in parallel with the Norton resistance. The
load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of
the equivalent circuit.
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Example 1
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit and calculate load current.

4Ω 1Ω

28V 2Ω 7V

B
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 1
Remove the load resistor and replace it with a short circuit and
calculate the Norton current.

4Ω A 1Ω

28V 7V

B
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 2
Replace the power sources. All voltage sources are replaced
with short circuits, and all current sources are replaced with
open circuits. Calculate the Norton resistance.

4Ω A 1Ω

B
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 3
Form the Norton equivalent circuit. The load resistor re-attaches
between the two open points of the equivalent circuit and calculate
the load current.
4Ω 1Ω

A
2Ω 28V 2Ω 7V

B
B
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Example 2
B

10Ω 30Ω

A
40Ω C

20Ω 20Ω
D

2V
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 1:
Remove the 40 Ω load resistor and find IN .

10Ω 30Ω
V
B
A C Current divider rule:
20Ω D 20Ω

2V
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 2: Remove load; shortcut voltage
source; and find RN between B and D.

10Ω 30Ω
10Ω A 20Ω
B
A C
B D
20Ω D 20Ω
30Ω 20Ω
C

Same as it is Thevenin’s
equivalent, i.e., RN=RT.
 Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Step 3: Form the Norton’s equivalent circuit and
reconnect the load to compute the load current.

Load 40 Ω

B
 Source Conversion

Same volt-ampere (V-I) characteristics

 Source Conversion

17.5Ω

0.5V Load 40 Ω Load 40 Ω

B B