ENGR4520 Electrical Power and Machinery

Zhou(Joe) Zhang, Ph. D.

[email protected]
Department of Engineering Technology
Middle Tennessee State University
 Ideal Transformers with Imperfect Core
 Ideal Transformer with Loose Coupling
 Primary and Secondary Leakage Reactance
 Equivalent Circuit of A Practical Transformer
 Construction of A Power Transformer
 Standard Terminal Markings and Polarity Tests
 Transformer Taps
 No-load Saturation Curve
 Simplifying the Equivalent Circuit
 Voltage Regulation
2
 Measuring Transformer Impedances
 Per-unit Method
 Impedance of A Transformer and Typical Per-unit
Impedances
 Transformers in Parallel

3
 Practical core has hysteresis, eddy-current losses and limit
permeability  magnetizing reactance 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 (measure
permeability of the transformer core) and a resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
(represents the iron losses and the resulting heat they
produce)
 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 creates Φ𝑚𝑚 and lags 90° 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐸𝐸1

Figure 1: a. An imperfect core represented by a reactance 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 and a resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 . b. Phasor
diagram of a practical transformer at no-load. 4
 Decide 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 experimentally by connecting the
transformer to an ac source under no-load conditions and
measuring the active power and reactive power it absorbs.
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 : resistance representing the iron losses [Ω]
R m = 𝐸𝐸12 /𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 magnetizing reactance of the primary winding [Ω]
Xm = 𝐸𝐸12 /𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚 𝐸𝐸1 : primary voltage [V]
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 : iron losses [W]
𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚 : reactive power needed to set up the mutual flux Φ𝑚𝑚 [var]

Figure 1: a. An imperfect core represented by a reactance 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 and a resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 . b. Phasor
diagram of a practical transformer at no-load. 5
 A large transformer operating at no-load draws an exciting
current 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 of 5 A when the primary is connected to a 120 V,
60 Hz source (Fig. 2a). From a wattmeter test it is known
that the iron losses are equal to 180 W.
Calculate
a. The reactive power absorbed by the core
b. The value of 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚
c. The value of 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 , 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜

6
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 Primary and secondary leakage flux:
 Φ𝑓𝑓𝑓 and Φ𝑓𝑓𝑓 created by 𝑁𝑁1 𝐼𝐼1 and 𝑁𝑁2 𝐼𝐼2 separately

Figure 3: Transformer with Figure 4: Mutual fluxes and leakage fluxes produced
infinitely permeable core at no-load. by a transformer under load. The leakage fluxes are
due to the imperfect coupling between the coils. 8
 Flux:
 Primary: Φ1 = Φ𝑚𝑚𝑚 + Φ𝑓𝑓𝑓 ; Φ𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≠ Φ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 Secondary: Φ2 = Φ𝑚𝑚𝑚 + Φ𝑓𝑓𝑓 ; Φ𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≠ Φ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 Mutual flux: Φm = Φ𝑚𝑚𝑚 + Φ𝑚𝑚𝑚

Figure 4: Mutual fluxes and leakage fluxes produced

by a transformer under load. The leakage fluxes are Figure 5: A transformer possesses two
due to the imperfect coupling between the coils. leakage fluxes and a mutual flux. 9
 Voltage 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 induced in the secondary:
 By leakage flux: 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 4.44𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 𝛷𝛷𝑓𝑓2 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑓 and 𝐸𝐸2 are not in
 By mutual flux: 𝐸𝐸2 = 4.44𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓2 𝛷𝛷𝑚𝑚 phase

Figure 4: Mutual fluxes and leakage fluxes produced

by a transformer under load. The leakage fluxes are Figure 5: A transformer possesses two
due to the imperfect coupling between the coils. leakage fluxes and a mutual flux. 10
 Voltage Ep induced in the primary:
 By leakage flux: 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 4.44𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 𝛷𝛷𝑓𝑓1
 By mutual flux: 𝐸𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 𝛷𝛷𝑚𝑚

Figure 4: Mutual fluxes and leakage fluxes produced

by a transformer under load. The leakage fluxes are Figure 5: A transformer possesses two
due to the imperfect coupling between the coils. leakage fluxes and a mutual flux. 11
 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 :

Figure 4: Mutual fluxes and leakage fluxes produced

by a transformer under load. The leakage fluxes are Figure 5: A transformer possesses two
due to the imperfect coupling between the coils. leakage fluxes and a mutual flux. 12
 By separating 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑓 and 𝐸𝐸2 ; 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓1 and 𝐸𝐸1
 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑓 a voltage drop across a reactance  secondary leakage
reactance X f2 = 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑓 /𝐼𝐼2
 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑓 a voltage drop across a reactance primary leakage reactance
X f1 = 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓1 /𝐼𝐼1

Figure 6: Separating the various induced voltages due to the mutual flux and the leakage fluxes. 13
 Equivalent circuit with perfect core
 Primary and secondary winding resistances 𝑅𝑅1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅2 , which,
of course, act in series with the respective windings.

Figure 7: Resistance and leakage reactance of the primary and secondary windings. 14
The secondary winding of a transformer possesses 180 turns. When
the transformer is under load, the secondary current has an effective
value of 18 A, 60 Hz. Furthermore, the mutual Φ𝑚𝑚 has a peak value of
20 mWb. The secondary leakage flux Φ𝑓𝑓𝑓 has a peak value of 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Calculate
a. The voltage induced in the secondary winding by its leakage flux
b. The value of the secondary leakage reactance
c. The value of 𝐸𝐸2 induced by the mutual flux Φ𝑚𝑚

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 T is an ideal transformer
 Only the primary and secondary terminals 1-2 and 3-4 are
accessible; all other components are “buried” inside the
transformer itself.
 By appropriate tests we can find the values of all the circuit
elements that make up a practical transformer.

Figure 8: Complete equivalent circuit of a practical transformer. The shaded box T is an ideal
transformer 17
 R , R2, Xf1, Xf2, X , and Rm for transformers ranging from 1 kVA to 400 MVA. The nominal
primary and secondary voltages 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 and 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 range from 460 V to 424 000 V. The
corresponding primary and secondary currents 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 and 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 range from 0.417 A to 29 000 A.
 The exciting current Io for the various transformers is also shown. It is always much smaller
than the rated primary current 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 .
 Note that in each case 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 , where 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 is the rated power of the
transformer.

18
 To approach ideal transformer
 High permeability with iron core
 Laminated core made of high, resistivity, high-grade silicon steel

Figure 9: a. Construction of a simple transformer. b. Stacking laminations inside a coil.

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 Terminals are designated by the symbols 𝐻𝐻1 and 𝐻𝐻2 for the
high voltage (HV) winding and by 𝑋𝑋1 and 𝑋𝑋2 for the low
voltage (LV) winding. By convention, 𝐻𝐻1 and 𝑋𝑋1 have the
same polarity.
 Power transformers commonly with four terminals on tank
 Additive polarity: 𝐻𝐻1 is diagonally opposite terminal 𝑋𝑋1
 Subtractive polarity: 𝐻𝐻1 is adjacent to terminal 𝑋𝑋1

Figure 10: Additive and subtractive polarity depend upon the location of the 𝐻𝐻1 − 𝑋𝑋1 terminals. 20
 Procedures:
1. Connect the high-voltage winding to a low voltage (say 120 V) ac source 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 .
2. Connect a jumper J between any two adjacent HV and LV terminals.
3. Connect a voltmeter 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 between the other two adjacent HV and LV terminals.
4. Connect another voltmeter 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 across the HV winding.
5. Based on KVL, 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 − 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 . So, if 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 gives a higher reading than 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 , the polarity is
additive. This tells us that 𝐻𝐻1 and 𝑋𝑋1 are diagonally opposite. On the other hand, if 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 gives
a lower reading than 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 , the polarity is subtractive, and terminals 𝐻𝐻1 and 𝑋𝑋1 are adjacent.

Figure 11: Determining the polarity of a transformer using an ac source. 21

 During a polarity test on a 500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, 69 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/600 𝑉𝑉
transformer (Fig. 11), the following readings were
obtained: 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 118 𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = 119 𝑉𝑉. Determine the
polarity markings of the terminals.

Figure 11: Determining the polarity of a Figure 12: Determining the polarity of a
transformer using an ac source. transformer using a dc source.
22
Figure 11: Determining the polarity of a Figure 12: Determining the polarity of a
transformer using an ac source. transformer using a dc source.
23
 Procedures:
 A dc source, in series with an open switch, is connected to the LV winding of the
transformer.
 The transformer terminal connected to the positive side of the source is marked 𝑋𝑋1 .
 A dc voltmeter is connected across the HV terminals.
 When the switch is closed, a voltage is momentarily induced in the HV winding.
 If, at this moment, the pointer of the voltmeter moves upscale, the transformer terminal
connected to the (+) terminal of the voltmeter is marked 𝐻𝐻1 and the other is marked 𝐻𝐻2 .

Figure 11: Determining the polarity of a Figure 12: Determining the polarity of a
transformer using an ac source. transformer using a dc source.
24
 Taps enable us to change the turns ratio so as to raise the
secondary voltage to avoid insufficient secondary voltage

Tap changing transformers

Figure 13: Distribution transformer with taps at 2400 V, 2292 V, 2184 V, and 2076 V. 25
 Losses components:
 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 losses in windings
 Iron losses: Hysteresis, eddy-current

 Stray losses due to currents induced in tank and metal

supports by the primary and secondary leakage fluxes

 Dielectric Loss
 The losses appear in the form of heat and produce:
 An increase in temperature
 A drop in efficiency
26
 Heat produced by the iron losses depends upon the peak
value of the mutual flux Φ𝑚𝑚 , which in turn depends upon
the applied voltage.
 On the other hand, the heat dissipated in the windings
depends upon the current they carry.
 To keep the transformer temperature at an acceptable level
 set limits to both the applied voltage and the current
drawn by the load.
 These two limits determine the nominal voltage and
nominal current of the transformer winding (primary
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 or secondary 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠 ).

27
 Power rating of a transformer = nominal voltage × the
nominal current (primary or secondary winding)
 Power-handling capacity of a transformer is 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 or
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) instead of 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 due to phase angle between voltage
and current (depending on the nature of the load).
 The temperature rise of a transformer is directly
proportional to the apparent power that flows through it.
This means that a 500 kVA transformer will get just as hot
feeding a 500 kvar inductive load as a 500 kW resistive
load.

28
 The rated kVA, frequency,
and voltage are always
shown on the nameplate.
In large transformers the
corresponding rated
currents are also shown.

29
 The nameplate of a distribution transformer indicates 250
kVA, 60 Hz, primary 4160 V, secondary 480 V
a. Calculate the nominal primary and secondary currents.
b. If we apply 2000 V to the 4160 V primary, can we still draw 250 kVA from the
transformer?

30
 Peak flux density decide saturation
 Exciting branch (composed of 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 and 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 in Fig. 1a) is not
as constant. 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 is reasonably constant, 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 decreases
rapidly with increasing saturation.

Figure 14: No-load saturation curve of a 167 kVA, 14.4 kV/480 V 60 Hz transformer. 31
 Indoor transformers below 200
kVA can be directly cooled by the
natural flow of the surrounding air.
 Larger transformers can be built the
same way, but forced circulation
of clean air must be provided. Such
dry type transformers are used
inside buildings, away from hostile
atmospheres.
 Oil-Filled transformers

32
 At no-load.
 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼1 = 0 I1 since “T” is an ideal transformer. 
only exciting current 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 in 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓𝑓 . 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓𝑓 is
negligible (Small potential drop across them)
 𝐼𝐼2 = 0 (𝑅𝑅2 and 𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓𝑓 is zero ) neglect 𝑅𝑅2 and 𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓𝑓
 Further simplify circuit as Fig. 21. The turns ratio, 𝑎𝑎 =
𝑁𝑁1 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝
=
𝑁𝑁2 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠

Figure 20: Complete equivalent circuit of Figure 21: Simplified circuit at no-load.
a transformer at no-load 33
 At full-load.
 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 ≥ 20𝐼𝐼0  neglect 𝐼𝐼0 and the corresponding
magnetizing branch. This simplified circuit may be used
even when the load is only 10 percent of the rated
capacity of the transformer.

Figure 20: Complete equivalent circuit of Figure 22: Simplified equivalent circuit of a
a transformer at no-load transformer at full-load. 34
 Shifting everything to the primary side:
𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 : total transformer resistance referred to the primary side
𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 = 𝑋𝑋𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 : total transformer leakage reactance referred to the primary side

𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝2

Figure 23: Equivalent circuit with impedances Figure 24: The internal impedance of a large
shifted to the primary side. transformer is mainly reactive. 35
 Transformers above 500 kVA: 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 ≥ 5𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝  neglect 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝

Figure 25: The internal impedance of a large

transformer is mainly reactive. 36
 Voltage regulation, an important attribute of a transformer:
𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 − 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 : secondary voltage at no-load [V]
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = × 100
𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 : secondary voltage at full-load [V]

 The voltage regulation depends upon the power factor of

the load. Consequently, the power factor must be specified.
If the load is capacitive, the noload voltage may exceed the
full-load voltage, in which case the voltage regulation is
negative.

37
 A single-phase transformer rated at 3000 kVA, 69 kV/4.16
kV, 60 Hz has a total internal impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 of 127 Ω,
referred to the primary side.
Calculate
a. The rated primary and secondary currents
b. The voltage regulation from no-load to fullload for a 2000 kW resistive load, knowing
that the primary supply voltage is fixed at 69 kV
c. The primary and secondary currents if the secondary is accidentally short-circuited

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40
 Open-circuit test:
 Rated voltage is applied to the primary winding
 Measure current 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 , voltage 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 , and active power 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 on
primary side, and 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 of secondary open-circuit voltage
 These test results give the following information:
2 2
𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 − 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝2 /𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 :active power absorbed by core
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸_𝑝𝑝𝐼𝐼0 : apparent power absorbed by core
𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝2 /𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑁1 𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚 : reactive power absorbed by core
𝑎𝑎 = = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 /𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠
𝑁𝑁2

Figure 27: Open-circuit test and determination of

Figure 21: Simplified circuit at no-load. 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 , 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 , and turns ratio. 41
 Short-circuit test:
 Secondary winding short-circuited and a voltage 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
much lower than normal (usually less than 5 percent of
rated voltage) is applied to the primary.
 Primary current 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 should be less than its nominal value
to prevent overheating and, particularly, to prevent a
rapid change in winding resistance during test
 Measure voltage 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 , current 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 , and power 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 are on
the primary side:
𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑍𝑍𝑃𝑃 =
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2
𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 /𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃2

Figure 28: Short-circuit test to determine leakage reactance and winding resistance.
42
 During a short-circuit test on a transformer rated 500 kVA,
69 kV/4.16 kV, 60 Hz, the following voltage, current, and
power measurements were made. Terminals 𝑋𝑋1 , 𝑋𝑋2 were in
short-circuit (see Fig. 28):
𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 2600 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 4 𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 2400 𝑊𝑊
Calculate the value of the reactance and resistance of the transformer, referred to the HV
side.

Figure 28: Short-circuit test to determine leakage reactance and winding resistance. 43
Figure 28: Short-circuit test to
determine leakage reactance and
winding resistance.

Figure 9

44
 An open-circuit test was conducted on the transformer
given in Example 6. The following results were obtained
when the low-voltage winding was excited. (In some cases,
such as in a repair shop, a 69 kV voltage may not be
available and the open circuit test has to be done by
exciting the LV winding at its rated voltage.)
𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 4160 𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼0 = 2 𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 = 5000 𝑊𝑊

Using this information and the transformer characteristics found in Example 6, calculate:
a. the values of 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 on the primary side (Fig. 21)
b. the efficiency of the transformer when it supplies a load of 250 kVA, whose power factor
is 80% (lagging)

Figure 21: Simplified circuit at no-load. 45

 An open-circuit test was conducted on the transformer
given in Example 6. The following results were obtained
when the low-voltage winding was excited. (In some cases,
such as in a repair shop, a 69 kV voltage may not be
available and the open circuit test has to be done by
exciting the LV winding at its rated voltage.)
𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 4160 𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼0 = 2 𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 = 5000 𝑊𝑊

Using this information and the transformer characteristics found in Example 6, calculate:
a. the values of 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 on the primary side (Fig. 21)
b. the efficiency of the transformer when it supplies a load of 250 kVA, whose power factor
is 80% (lagging)

Figure 21: Simplified circuit at no-load. 46

Figure 21: Simplified circuit at no-load. 47
Figure 21: Simplified circuit at no-load.

Figure 30

48
Figure 21: Simplified circuit at no-load.

Figure 30

49
Figure 21: Simplified circuit at no-load.

Figure 30

50
 Don’t have to carry along units when per-unit values are
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 2
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠
used. 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =
𝐼𝐼
=
𝑆𝑆 /𝐸𝐸
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
=
𝑆𝑆
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = = =
𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 /𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛

base quantities vs. per-unit values

51
 In power and distribution transformers, Impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 is
always indicated on the nameplate. However, it is
expressed as a percent of the nominal load impedance.
Thus, if the nameplate is marked 3.6%, the per-unit value
of 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 is 0.036.

52
 A transformer rated 250 kVA, 4160 V/480 V, 60 Hz has an
impedance of 5.1%. Calculate
a. the base impedance on the primary and secondary side
b. the total internal impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 of the transformer referred to the primary side

53
 Typical Per-unit values

54
 Using the information given in Table C and Fig. 31,
calculate the approximate real values of the impedances of
a 250 kVA, 4160 V/480 V, 60 Hz distribution transformer.

55
56
 The 500 kVA, 69 kV/4160 V, 60 Hz transformer shown in
Fig. 30 has a resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 of 150 Ω and a leakage
reactance 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝 of 632 Ω. Using the per-unit method,
calculate
a. the voltage regulation when the load varies between zero and 250 kVA at a lagging
power factor of 80%
b. the actual voltage across the 250 kVA load c. the actual line current 𝐼𝐼1

57
Figure 30

Figure 33Per-unit equivalent circuit of a

500 kVA transformer feeding a 250 kVA
load
58
Figure 30

Figure 33Per-unit equivalent circuit of a

500 kVA transformer feeding a 250 kVA
load
59
Figure 30

Figure 33Per-unit equivalent circuit of a

500 kVA transformer feeding a 250 kVA
load
60
Figure 30

Figure 33Per-unit equivalent circuit of a

500 kVA transformer feeding a 250 kVA
load
61
Figure 30

Figure 33Per-unit equivalent circuit of a

500 kVA transformer feeding a 250 kVA
load
62
 When a growing load eventually exceeds the power rating
of an installed transformer  connect a second transformer
in parallel with it. To ensure proper load-sharing between
the two transformers, they must possess the following:
 The same primary and secondary voltages
 The same per-unit impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝

Figure 34: Connecting transformers in parallel to share a load 63

 Single transformer has load 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 , primary side impedance
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝 , primary voltage 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 , ratio 𝑎𝑎
 Second transformer has impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐼𝐼1 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐼𝐼2 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝2 But in order that the
𝐼𝐼1 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝 temperature rise be the same
= for both transformers, the
𝐼𝐼2 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝
currents must be proportional
(a) to the respective kVA ratings:
𝐼𝐼1 𝑆𝑆1
=
𝐼𝐼2 𝑆𝑆2

(b) (c)

Figure 35: a. Equivalent circuit of a transformer feeding a load 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 . b. Equivalent circuit with all
impedances referred to the primary side. c. Equivalent circuit of two transformers in parallel
feeding a load 𝑍𝑍1 . All impedances referred to the primary side. 64
 A100 kVA transformer is connected in parallel with an
existing 250 kVA transformer to supply a load of 330 kVA.
The transformers are rated 7200 V/240 V, but the 100 kVA
unit has an impedance of 4 percent while the 250 kVA
transformer has an impedance of 6 percent (Fig. 36a).
Calculate
a. The nominal primary current of each transformer
b. The impedance of the load referred to the primary side
c. The impedance of each transformer referred to the primary side
d. The actual primary current in each transformer

(a) (b)

Figure 36: a. Actual transformer connections. b. Equivalent circuit. Calculations show that the
100 kVA transformer is seriously overloaded. 65
(a) (b)

Figure 36: a. Actual transformer connections. b. Equivalent circuit. Calculations show that the
100 kVA transformer is seriously overloaded. 66
 (b)

Figure 36: b. Equivalent circuit. Calculations

show that the 100 kVA transformer is seriously
overloaded. 67