DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

CHAPTER 1
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
Life Span: The period from birth to natural death of an organism represents its life span.
Life span of the organisms are not necessarily correlated with their sizes.
Eg: The sizes of Crows and Parrots are not very different yet their life spans show wide
differences.
Crow= 15years, Parrot=140 years, Tortoise =100-150years. Similarly, a Mango tree has
much shorter life span compared to Peepal tree. Whatever may be the life span, death of
every organism is a certainity i.e.no individual is immortal, except single cell organisms.
Reproduction: It can be defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to
young ones (offspring) similar to itself.
The offspring grow, mature and in turn produce new offspring. Thus there is cycle of Birth,
Growth and Death.
Types of Reproduction:
1) Asexual reproduction.
2) Sexual reproduction.
Reproduction enables the continuity of the species generation after generation.
Asexual Reproduction:
1. It is a kind of reproduction where offspring is produced by a single parent with or
without the involvement of gamete formation.
2. The offsprings are produced from one parent (Uniparental).
3. There is no formation of gametes or there is no union of gametes. All cell divisions are
mitotic.
4. The offsprings are identical to one another and also exact copies of their parents. All the
offsprings are morphologically and genetically similar or identical and called "clones".
5. Asexual reproduction occurs most commonly in unicellular organisms such as Monerans,
Protists, plants and in animals with relatively simple organization.
Different Types of Asexual Reproduction:
1) Cell division in unicellular organisms
2) Budding in Yeast.
3) Binary fission in Amoeba
Cell division: In prokaryotes there is only one simple type of cell division which produces
two identical daughter cells.

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 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
Budding: Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops
from an outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one particular site.

Budding in Yeast
Eg: In Yeast, the division is unequal and small buds are produced that remain attached
initially to the parent cell, which eventually gets separated and mature into new yeast ells.
Binary fission: Here a cell divides into two halves and each rapidly
grows into an adult.
Eg: Amoeba, Paramecium.
Asexual Reproductive Structures:
1) Zoospores: Microscopic motile structures. Eg: Chlamydomonas.
2) Conidia: Microscopic non-motile asexual structures. Eg: Penicillium..
3) Buds: Asexual exogenous buds. Eg: Hydra.
4) Gemmules: Asexual special internal buds. These buds contain special
cells called archaeocytes. Eg: Sponges.

Binary Fission
in Amoeba

Vegetative Reproduction: In plants, the term vegetative reproduction is used for asexual
reproduction i.e. reproduction through vegetative parts of the plant is called vegetative
reproduction.
Vegetative propagules in Angiosperms: Vegetative reproductive structures having the
capacity of giving rise to new offspring through asexual reproduction.
Eg: a) Eyes of Potato (Tuber).
b) Rhizome of Ginger, Banana.
c) Bulbil of Agave.
d) Leaf buds of Bryophyllum.[Advetitious buds arise from the notch present at
margins of leaves of Bryophyllum. This is used by farmers & gardeners for
commercial propagation of such plants]

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 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
e) Offset of water hyacinth, Pistia.
f) Runner of Oxalis.·
g) Suckers of Chrysanthemum
h) Bulb of Onion
(Note: Leaf buds of Bryophyllum-Adventitious buds arise from the notch present at
margins of leaves of Bryophyllum. This is used by farmers and gardeners for commercial
propagation of such plants)
Since the formation of these structures does not involve two parents, the process involved
is "Asexual".
Note: Terror of Bengal –Water Hyacinth (Eicchornia)
1. It is an aquatic most invasive weed found growing in stagnant or standing water.
2. It drains oxygen from the water, which leads to death of fishes.
3. This plant was introduced to India because of its beautiful flowers and shape of leaves.
4. Since it can propagate vegetatively at a phenomenal rate and spread all over the water
body in a very short period of time, it is very difficult to get rid of them.
Sexual Reproduction:
1. It is a kind of reproduction where two parents (Opposite sex) participate in the
reproductive process and also involve fusion of male and female gametes.
2. Sexual reproduction involve formation of male and female gametes, either by the same
individual or by different individual of opposite sex.
3. These gametes fuse to form the zygote, which develops to form the new organism.
4. Because of the fusion of male and female gametes, sexual reproduction results in
offsprings that are not identical to the parents or amongst themselves.
Phases in Sexually Reproducing Organisms:
All organisms have to reach a certain stage of growth and maturity in their life before they
can reproduce sexually.
1) Juvenile phase: Period of growth between their birth up to their reproductive maturity.
Juvenile phase is of variable duration in different organisms.
Vegetative phase: In plants, the period of growth between seed germination up to
initiation of flowering.
2) Reproductive phase: When the organisms attain sexual maturity and start reproducing
sexually is called reproductive phase. (In plants reproductive phases can be seen easily in
higher plants when they start to flower. In animals, Juvenile phase is followed by
morphological and physiological changes prior to active reproductive behaviour.)

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 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
3) Senescent phase: It is the last phase of life span which is characterized by deterioration
of metabolic activities of the body that ultimately terminates to death.
[Senescent phase is characterized by yellowing of leaves that ultimately leads to death of
plants].
Note: In both plants and animals, Hormones are responsible for transition between the
phases. Interaction between hormones and certain environmental factors regulate the
reproductive processes and the associated behavioral expressions of organisms.
Types of Plants based on their life span:
In plants there are 3 types observed, based on their life span.
1) Annuals: Living only for one growing season (Pertaining to a year). They start flowering
at the end of season.
2) Biennials: Start flowering in second year of growth (completes their life cycle within 2 years)
Both annuals and biennials die after flowering and they have clear-cut 3 phases:
a) Vegetative b) Reproductive c) Senescent phase.
3) Perennials: The plants that live for a number of years. Woody perennials (trees and
shrubs) have a permanent aerial form, which continues to grow year after year. In
perennials it is very difficult to clearly define these 3 phases.
Some plants exhibit unusual flowering phenomenon :-
Eg: For unusual flowering plants:
1) Certain Bamboo species flower only once in their life span(50-100 years). They produce a
large number of fruit and die.
2) Strobilanthus kunthiana(Neel kuranji) flowers once in 12 years. Its mass flowering
transformed large tracks of Hilly areas of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu into blue
stretches and attracted a large number of tourists.
Reproductive phases in Animals:
The reproductive phase is of variable duration in different organisms.
1) Seasonal Breeders: These animals reproduce only during favourable season in their
reproductive phase.
Eg: Frog, Lizard. .
2) Continuos Breeders: These animals are reproductively active throughout their
reproductive phase. Eg: Rabbit, Mice etc.
Reproductive cycles:
The cyclic changes that occur in female reproductive system of Mammals are of two types
a) Oestrus cycle b) Menstrual cycle.

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 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
a)Oestrus cycle: Cyclic changes that takes place in female reproductive system during
reproductive phase in female non-primates are called Oestrus cycle. Eg: Cow, Deer, Sheep,
Dog, Tiger etc.
b)Menstrual cycle: Cyclic changes that takes place in female reproductive system (Ovaries,
accessory ducts as well as hormones) during reproductive phase in female primates. Eg:
Monkeys, Apes and Humans.
[Note: Birds living in nature lay eggs only seasonally. However, birds in captivity (poultry
farms) can be made to lay eggs is not related to reproduction, but it is commercial
exploitation for human welfare]
Events in sexual reproduction:
Sexual reproduction is characterized by fusion of male and female gametes, formation of
zygote and embryogenesis. These sequential events can be grouped into 3 distinct stages
namely:-
a) Pre-fertilisation events
b) Fertilisation
c) Post fertilisation events .
Pre-fertilisation events: These are the events of sexual reproduction that occur before
fertilization(prior to fusion of gametes).
These include : A) Gametogenesis B) Gamete transfer
A) Gametogenesis: It is the process of formation of two types of gametes – male & female
in gonads. It involves meiosis and results in the formation of haploid gametes.
Homogametes: Homogametes are male and female gametes which are similar
(morphologically) in appearance.
Eg:Algae.
Heterogametes: Heterogametes are male and female gametes which are morphologically
dissimilar. Eg: Higher animals and plants.
Sexuality in Organisms
1) Sexuality in plants:
a) Bisexual or Monoecious or Homothallic: Plants may possess both male and female
reproductive structures in the same plant.
Eg: Hibiscus, Cucurbit, Coconut.
b) Unisexual or dioecious or Heterothallic: Plants possessing either male flower
(staminate) or female flower (pistillate ) are called unisexual.
Eg: Papaya, Date palm.

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 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
2)Sexuality in Animals:
a) Unisexual or dioecious: Animals with either male or female reproductive structures are
called unisexual. They exhibit sexual dimorphism. Eg: Mammals. (Cockroach is also an
example of a unisexual species).
[Sexual dimorphism – Distinct differences in size or appearance between the sexes of an
animal in addition to the sex organs themselves].
b) Bisexual or Monoecious: Animals which possess both male and female reproductive
organs in the same individual.
Hermaphrodites: They are bisexual animals which possess both male and female
reproductive organs.
Eg: Earthworm, sponge, Tape worm, Leech etc·
Note: Cell division during gamete formation.
x Several organisms belonging to Monera, Fungi, Algae and Bryophytes have haploid
plant body. Haploid parents produces gametes by mitotic division.
x Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms and most of the animals including
human beings the parental body is diploid. Diploid parents produces gametes by
meiosis.
x In diploid organisms specialized cells called "Meiocytes" (gamete mother cells)
undergo meiosis. At the end of meiosis only one set of chromosomes gets
incorporated into each gamete. Meiocytes are the diploid gamete mother cells
present in diploid organisms which can undergo meiosis to give rise to haploid
gametes.
B) Gamete transfer: It is the process of bringing together the male and female gametes to
facilitate fertilization. In majority of organisms, male gamete is motile and female gamete
is stationary.
1. In few algae and fungi both the motile gametes approach each other for fertilization.
2. In Bryophytes and Pteridophytes water is the medium through which transfer of
gametes takes place.
3. In Gymnosperms, the ovules are naked and hence pollen grains fall directly on the ovule.
4. In Angiosperms pollens are transferred to the stigmatic surface by pollination.
5. Pollen grain received by the stigma germinates and form pollen tube which carries
two male gametes and then discharge near the female gamete. i.e. Eggs.
6. In dioecious animals, since male and female gametes are formed in different
individuals, the organism must evolve a special mechanism for gamete transfer.

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 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
Fertilization: The process of fusion of male and female gametes to form diploid
zygote(2n)is called fertilization. It is also called syngamy.
Fertilization is of 2 types: a) External fertilization b) Internal fertilization
1) External fertilization: Fertilization occurs outside the body of the female parent’s i.e.in
the external medium such as surrounding water.
It occurs in aquatic organisms like Fishes and Frogs.
The major disadvantage of external fertilization is that the gametes or offsprings are
vulnerable to predators. Therefore, they need to produce large number of gametes in
order to ensure fertilization.
2) Internal fertilization: Fertilization that occurs inside the body of the female organism.
Eg: Mammals. During this process, male gametes are released in the close vicinity of
female gametes.
Internal fertilization enhances their chances of fertilization and development upto
certain stage.
Parthenogenesis: The female gamete undergoes development to form new organism
without fertilization. This phenomenon is called parthenogenesis.
Eg: Honey bees, some lizards, Turkey bird, Crustaceans etc.
Post fertilization Events: Events in sexual reproduction after the process of fertilization are
called post fertilization events. These include:- a) Formation of zygote b) Embryogenesis.
a) Formation of Zygote: The product of fertilization is the zygote (2n). Zygote is the vital
link that ensure continuity of species between organisms of one generation and the next. In
every sexually reproducing organisms, life begins with a single cell i.e. the zygote.
b) Embryogenesis: It is the process of development of an embryo from zygote. Two
important events occur during embryogenesis – 1) Cell division 2) Cell differentiation.
Zygote undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to increase the number of cells. Then cells
undergo differentiation to become tissues and organs to form an organism.
The development of the embryo may take place outside or inside the body of the female
parent.
Accordingly animals are categorized into 2 major groups:
a) Oviparous animals b) Viviparous animals
a) Oviparous animals: These animals lay fertilized eggs and development of the embryo
takes place outside the body of the female.
Eg: Reptiles and Birds
Fertilized eggs are covered by hard calcareous shell and laid in a safe place in the

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 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
environment, after a period of incubation young ones hatch out.
b) Viviparous animals: Animals give birth to young ones. In these animals fertilization is
internal and further development of embryo takes place inside the body of the female.
After attaining certain stage of growth, the young ones are delivered out of body of female
organism.
Eg: Mammals.
Post-fertilization changes in flower:
1. In flowering plants the zygote is formed inside the ovule.
2. The zygote develops into embryo and the ovules developed into seeds.
3. The ovary develops into the fruit.
4. The ovary wall develops into pericarp (fruit wall).
5. The seeds after their dispersal from fruit germinate under favourable conditions to
produce new plants.
Note: After fertilization, sepals, petals and stamens of flower wither & fall off. Only the
pistil remains attached to the plant.
Differentiate between Asexual and Sexual reproduction
a) Asexual reproduction is a method in which a single individual (parent) is capable of producing
offspring whereas sexual reproduction is a method in which the fusion of male and female gametes
produced either by the same individual or by different individuals takes place.
b) The off springs produced by asexual reproduction are not only identical to one another
but are also exact copies of their parent, whereas the offsprings produced by sexual
reproduction are not identical to the parents or among themselves.
c) Asexual reproduction uses mitosis for production of offspring where as sexual
reproduction uses meiosis for production of gametes.
d) In asexual reproduction there is no mixing of hereditary material, where as in sexual
reproduction there is mixing of hereditary material.
e) No variation and evolution is possible in asexual reproduction, whereas variation and
evolution is possible in sexual reproduction.
Note: 1) Fragmentation: In some organisms, if the body breaks into distinct pieces
(fragments),each fragment grows into an adult capable of producing offspring (Eg: Hydra).
This is also a mode of asexual reproduction called as fragmentation. · ·
2) Multiple fission: It is a process in which the parent cell divides into many offsprings
of smaller size. It is exhibited by protozoans like amoeba.
Amoeba under unfavorable condition withdraws its pseudopodia and secretes a three

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 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, CANARA PRE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
layered hard covering or cyst around itself. This phenomenon is termed as ''encystations".
When favorable conditions return, the encysted Amoeba divides by multiple fission and
produces many minute amoeba or pseudopodiospores. The cyst wall bursts out, and the
spores are liberated in the surrounding medium to grow up into many amoebae. This
phenomenon is known as "Sporulation".

Give reason:
The chances of survival of young ones is greater in viviparous animals.
In these animals development of embryo takes place inside the body of female and after the
young ones are delivered. Because of proper embryonic care and protection the chances of
survival of young ones is greater.

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