EQUIPMENTS IN

HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
MODULE 4
 INTRODUCTION
• Planning , Geometrics, materials and structural design of highways
• How highways are built ?
• Engineers are always with open mind to adopt any materials avaailable
to them for its use in construction purpose
• The main purpose of Highway construction is to provide a firm and
even surface for carriageway, whih would stand the stress caused due
to number of load applications.
• Thus pavement is prepared with broken stones and binder material.
• The binder materials are SOIL , BITUMINOUS and CEMENT
• depending upon the strength of pavement- aggregate gradation and
type and proportion of binders are decided.
TYPES OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

1. EARTH ROAD AND GRAVEL ROADS

2. SOIL STABILIZED ROADS

3. WATER BOUND MACADAM [WBM] ROADS

4. BITUMINOUS OR BLACK TOP ROADS

5. CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS

HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
• stage construction technique is adopted
• two phases
• earthwork and prepartion of subgrade

• pavement structure
pavement structure
 EARTHWORK
• is prepared by bringing is to desired grade and camber and by
comapcting adequately.
• subgrade may be in embankment or in excavation- depending upon
topography and vertical alignment
EXCAVATION
EXCAVATION - [CUTTING]

• Process of cutting or loosening and removing earth including rock

from its original position, transporting and dumping it as a fill or
spoil bank.
• Needed in soil, soft rock or even in hard rock before subgrade
preparation.
• selection of excavation equipment and the cost analysis is made
based on stiffness of the materials to be excavated.
EXCAVATION - [CUTTING]
• May be divided as
• Excavation

• Grading

• Compaction

• depth of excavation, slope of excavation is important

• For Highway much flatter slopes are preffered.

• side drains construcion also require excavation

EXCAVATION EQUIPMENTS
• Used in Highway Projects

1. Bull Dozers

2. Scrapers

3. Power Shovels

4. Draglines

5. Clamshells

6. Hoes
• for small projects- Hand tools
BULL DOZER
BULL DOZER

• Bulldozer is a versatile equipment because it can be used in undulating

ground or level ground, can be used for various building construction
projects including pilot road constructions or even in farms.

• SHALLOW EXCAVATION

• hauling the earth for relatively short distance.

• crawler equipment used to push and haul the earth material up a distance of
100 m using its front blade and a ripper attached at its rear.
 SCRAPER
• Scraper is one of the useful earth moving equipments.

• it can dig, haul and discharge the material in uniformly thick layers.

• having a blade in its rear part which is used to scrap the earth and then
to store it in the bowl.

• Once the bowl is full the loose earth can be hauled to the deposition site.

• There is an elevator arrangement for the blade which can elevate or

lower the blade according to the need.

• not capable of digging very stiff soil.

POWER SHOVEL
• primarily used to excavate earth of all clases except rock and to load
it into wagons

• Power shovel is a power equipment used to dig the earth material at

lower depths than the standing elevation.

• The parts of a power shovel are crawler mounting, cab, boom, shovel
and hoist cable.

• depth of excavation is not too shallow

DRAGLINE
• excavate soft earth and to deposit in nearby banks or load into wagons.

• may be mounted on crawler.

• it can operate in natural ground

• Drag line has a bucket suspended from the book which can be dragged with a
drag cable and hoist cable to collect the loose material inside the bucket.

• Drag line can be used to collect the loose material from a much larger depths.
DRAGLINE LINE DIAGRAM
CLAM SHELL

• Clam-shell bucket is combination of two shells which are joined together

with hinges at top and when these half are closed form a bucket.

• It is attached to a cable and a boom arrangement and to lift the material it is

made to fall on it and then lifted up.

• In the lifting operation clam-shells close them up and will lift the material
filled inside.

• useful to excavate soft to medium materials.

HOE

• belongs to power shovel family

• meant to excavate below the natural surface

• has high tooth ptressure hence can excavate stiff material

• Hoe can be used to excavate relatively stiffer earth from a depth below the
standing level of the equipment.

• This material can excavate all types of earth materials except hard rocks.
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GRADING EQUIPMENTS
GRADER
A grader is a construction machine with a long blade used to create a flat
surface.

It is commonly called in names such as road grader, a blade, a maintainer and

motor grader.

Graders are mostly been used in road construction for construction and
maintenance of dirt roads and gravel roads.

The grader typically consist of three axles, with the engine and cab situated top,
the rear axles at one end of the vehicle and a third axle at the front end of the
vehicle, with the blade in between.
GRADER
• In the construction of paved roads they are used to prepare the base
course to create a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be placed on.
• They are also used to set native soil foundation pads to finish grade
prior to the construction of large buildings.
• Many countries use grader for the flatting process that is done before
the placing of Asphalt.
• Graders too have various types; some consist a large fork front, and
some consist of a flat blade front, which vary from different sizes
COMPACTORS
• Compaction is the job, which is often required at majority of the
construction projects.
• The process of compaction involves removing any air entertainment
in soil to make to it dense.
• This will result in better bearing capacity of the soil for supporting
heavier loads on top of it without any failure.
• there is OMC for soil which would give MDD for a type of
compaction
COMPACTORS
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL COMPACTION
• Moisture Content
• Amount and type of compation
• soil type
• stone content
COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS
• soil compaction is acheived in the field either by rolling, ramming or
by vibration

• classified as,

1. Rollers

2. Rammers

3. Vibrators
 ROAD ROLLERS
• A road roller is a compactor type
engineering vehicle used to compact soil,
gravel, concrete or asphalt in the
construction of roads,foundation .
• Road rollers use the weight of the vehicle to
compress the surface being rolled.
• Compaction can be achieved by static and
d y n a m i c l o a d i n g
ROLLERS
• application of pressure,which is slow;y increased and then decreased.
• The following types of road rollers are generally used
1) Cylindrical roller
2) Sheepfoot roller
3) Pneumatic tyred rollers
4) Vibratory roller
5) Grid roller

• trucks, tractors and bull dozers also help in compaction of the materials to some extent
 Cylindrical Roller
1) One steel drum in front and two steel drum at rear.
2) Suitable for compacting gravel, sand and crushed rock.
3) Gross weight varies from 8 to 10 tonnes.
4) Appropriate operating speed of 3 to 6 kmph.
5) Approximate Cost Rs.8,00,000.
 Sheepfoot Roller
1) Many solid round or rectangular feet
attached to the steel drum.
2) Appropriate speed 6 to 10 kmph.
3) Suitable for compacting heavy and
silty clays
4) Compacts soil by pressure and
manipulation.
5) Approximate Cost Rs10,00,000.
 Pneumatic tyred Roller
1) Four pneumatic smooth wheels on the front axle and 5
wheels on the rear axle for uniform compaction.
2) 7 to 8 no of passes are required for adequate compaction.
3) Appropriate speed varies from 16 to 24 kmph.
4) Used for earthwork(granular & cohesive) and bituminous
work.
5) They are capable of compacting all types of soil due to its
high tyre pressure.
6) Approximate Cost Rs.20,00,000.
Vibratory Roller
1) Similar to smooth wheeled rollers but
with the modification of rotating drums.
2) Appropriate speed varies from 1 to 5
kmph.
3) Not suitable for clayey and soft soils.
4) Compaction is obtained by the
combination of both pressure and vibration
5) Approximate Cost Rs.15,00,000.
Vibratory Rollers are further classified into

1) Towed vibratory rollers

2) Self propelled vibratory rollers
3) Tandem rollers
4) Combination rollers
5) Dual drum rollers
 Grid Roller
1) A Cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of a
network of steel bars forming a grid with square holes.
2) Weight varies from 5.5 to 15 tonnes.
3) Appropriate speed during operation varies from 5
to 24kmph.
4) Weight can be increased by ballasting with
concrete blocks.
5) Provide high contact pressure.
6) Suitable for coarse grained soils. (Cost Rs.5,00,000)
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
MANUFACTURER:

1) Caterpillar Inc
2) Volvo
3) Komatsu
4) Bomag
5) Hitachi
6) JCB
7) Dynapac
SPECIAL EQUIPMENT:
Impact Roller:
 Tamping Compactor (Dynapac CT3000):
1) Used in cohesive and semi cohesive
soils.
2) Has an operating weight of 22 tons.
3) Average production capacity of
900 cubic metres per hour.
4) It is ideal on projects such as
highways, dams and airport runways.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS
• There are so many types of equipment needed
before Motor Grader, but this is an integral one.
Motor grader, also known as a road grader is used
to surplus or flatten the surface.

• The equipment is so powerful that it can flat even

rockery or earthen surface in no time.

• The motor grader generally consists of three axles.

• This machine is very important as it fastens the

work and helps to complete the construction
MOTOR GRADER
project quickly.
Asphalt Mixing Plant
• Asphalt Mixing Plant is another important road
construction equipment.

• If the project is a large one, then the asphalt mixing

plant is set on the road construction site.

• In this process, the concrete asphalt including other

materials including macadam and coated roadstone
are mixed together in correct proportion.

• Once the product is ready, it is used for building the

road.
 Forklift Truck
• The forklift truck (also known as fork
truck or lift truck) equipped with an
attached prolonged platform helps to pick
an object laying on or below the ground
and move it to the destination.
• It can lift heavy materials and take it to
anywhere within the construction site and
therefore can fasten the road construction
project.
Crawler Excavator
• It’s a heavy construction equipment used to excavate
paved rocks & clay and load onto a dump truck.

• It serves many purposes like digging earth,

excavating rocks and clay or move rocks or soil from
the construction sites,just by changing the front
attachment as per purpose.

• The excavator equipped with a boom, bucket, and

cab serve assists multiple works as required
Truck Crane
• Truck crane helps to do number of things
including loading/unloading heavy industry
material to lifting heavy products and much
more.

• Generally, cranes comes-attached back to

the trucks lorry and it works to lift
construction equipment to the construction
site.
Wheel Loader
• This is much like a tractor and it can
live and move a pile of materials
including clay, soil, stones, rocks, etc.
from the ground and load it on to a
dump truck.

• It is popular for removing, lifting

and loading things without
spreading it out.
 Pavers:
• The paver unit is a compromise
between a pneumatic tractor and a
dumper.

• It consists of the chamber having a

capacity equal to that of a dumper
bringing bituminous mix from the
central mixing plant.

• The chamber is provided with an

adjustable Slot opening.
(i) The dumper discharges its contents completely into the chamber of paver.

(ii) The chamber is sloped in forward direction and it discharges the mix through
adjustable slot opening on the road surface

(iii) The dumped material is laid by means of the following blade whose height above the
pavement level corres-ponds to the designed spread thickness of the mix according to the
prescribed camber.

(iv) The width of the blade is made equal to the finished width of the pavement surface.

(V) The paver is followed by one or two road rollers so that the compaction of laid mix is
carried out while it is hot.
 Road Roller Machine
• Road roller machine is used soon after asphalt is laid down
on road.

• The equipment is rolled to compact the asphalt.

• Mostly, three wheels are there in the machines. The two

rear one is built in regular tyres while the front one is built
in hard metal.

• . The wheels play a significant role in compacting the

asphalt.

• It needs water on the wheel when it rolls on the asphalt.

EQUIPMENTS FOR CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
CC pavements, the plants and equipments will be required for batching, mixing,
placing finishing and curing of concrete.

1. batching plant

2. concrete mixer

3. vibrating screed

4. internal vibrator

5. float

6. straight edge
BATCHING PLANT
MATERIAL LOADING TO CONCRETE MIXER
CONCRETE MIXER
VIBRATING SCREED
INTERNAL VIBRATOR
FLOAT
STRAIGHT EDGE
 EMBANKMENT
• To raise the grade line of highway abpve the existing level -
Embankment is necessary.
• Grade line may be raised due to
• to keep subgrade avove high Groungd water table
• to prevent damange to pavement due to surface and capillary
water.
• to maintain design standards of highway with respect to vertical
alignment.
Design Elements for Embankments
• HEIGHT
• FILL MATERIAL
• SETTLEMENT
• STABILITY OF FOUNDATION
• STABILITY OF SLOPES
HEIGHT
• Depends on desired grade line of road and sol topography.
• it also depends on stability of foundation
FILL MATERIAL
• Granular soil is generally prefeered
• silts and clays are less considered.
• best soil available locally is selected with a view of lead and lift as
low as possible.
• light weight fll material like CINDER,
may be used to redce the weight when
foundation is weak.
SETTLEMENT
• Embankments may settle after the completion of construction
• either due to consolidation and settlement of foundation, setlement of
fill or both.
• if soil is compressible with high moisture content- Consolidation can
occur due to increase in the load.
• settlemet of fill is due to inadequate compaction
• settlement should be almost completed before the construction of
pavement structure.
• to accelerate consolidation, sand drains are constructed.
SAND DRAINS
STABILITY OF FOUNDATION

• When embankment foundation consists of weak soil just beneath or

at certain depth below in the form of weak stratum- essential to
consider the foundation satbility aganist failure.

• more required for High embankments.

• Elastic Theory, average shear stress and strength, Swedish circular

methods cna be used to find out stability of soil foundation.
STABILITY OF SLOPES

• Embankemnt slope should be stable enough to eliminate the

possibility of a failure under adverse moisture and other conditions.

• sope should be deisgned with minimum factor od safety 1.5

• often flater slopes are recommended.

CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENTS/SUBGRADE

• These Specifications shall apply to the construction of embankments

including subgrades, earthen shoulders and miscellaneous backfills
with approved material obtained from roadway and drain excavation,
borrow pits or other sources.
Materials and General Requirements

• The materials used in embankments, subgrades, earthen shoulders

and miscellaneous backfills shall be soil, moorum, gravel, a mixture
of these or any other material approved by the Engineer.

• Such materials shall be free of logs, stumps, roots, rubbish or any

other ingredient likely to deteriorate or affect the stability of the
embankment/subgrade.
The following types of material shall be considered
unsuitable for embankment:
(a) Materials from swamps, marshes and bogs;

b) Peat, log, stump and perishable material; any soil that classifies as OL, OH etc

(c) Materials susceptible to spontaneous combustion;

(d) Materials in a frozen condition;

(e) Clay having liquid limit exceeding 70 and plasticity index exceeding 45; and

(f) Material with salts resulting in leaching in the embankment.

The size of the coarse material in the mixture

of earth shall ordinarily not exceed 75 mm when being placed in the

embankment and 50 mm when placed in the subgrade.
• The materials for embankment shall be obtained from approved
sources with preferences given to materials becoming available from
nearby roadway excavation or any other excavation under the same
Contract.
Borrow materials :
• Where the materials are to be obtained from designated borrow areas,
the location, size and shape of these areas shall be as indicated by the
Engineer and the same shall not be opened without his written
permission.

• Borrowpits along the road shall be discouraged.

• Haulage of material to embankments/subgarde fill shall proceed only

when sufficient spreading and compaction plant is operating at the
place of deposition.
• The Contractor shall ensure that he does not adversely affect the
stability of excavation or fills by the representative samples from
each of the identified borrow areas and

• have these tested at the laboratory following a testing programme

approved by the Engineer.
DENSITY REQUIREMENTS OF EMBANKMENT AND
SUBGRADE MATERIALS
SL Type of work Relative compaction
No as percentage of max.
laboratory dry density
as per IS: 2720 (Part
8)
1 Subgrade and earthen shoulders Not less than 97.

2 Embankment Not less than 95.

3 Expansive Clays Not less than 90.

CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENTS
1. Clearing and Grubbing
2. Stripping and storing of top soil
3. Compaction of original ground
4. Benchinf of steep slopes
5. Borrow-pit Practice
6. Depostion of soils in layers
7. Moisture content
8. compaction
9. Quality control
1. Clearing and Grubbing
 Construction Operations as per MORTH
1. Setting out:
• After the site has been cleared, the limits of embankment/subgrade shall be
marked by fixing batter pegs on both sides at regular intervals as guides before
commencing the earthwork.

• The embankment/subgrade shall be built sufficiently wider than the design

dimension so that surplus material may be trimmed, ensuring that the remaining
material is to the desired density and in position specified and conforms to the
specified side slopes.
Dewatering:

• If the foundation of the embankment is in an area with stagnant

water, and in the opinion of the Engineer it is feasible to remove it, the
same shall be removed by bailing out or pumping, as directed by the
Engineer and the area of the embankment foundation shall be kept dry.
CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENTS
2. Stripping and storing of top soil:
• where embankment soil is not conducive to the growth of truff and
vegetation
• stripped and stored
• later used as blanket on slopes
Compacting ground supporting
Embankment/subgrade:
• The original ground shall be leveled to facilitate placement of first layer of
embankment, scarified, mixed with water and then compacted by rolling so
as to achieve minimum dry density.

• Where so directed by the Engineer, any unsuitable material occurring in the

embankment foundation shall be removed and replaced by approved materials

laid in layers to the required degree of compaction.
 Spreading material in layers and bringing to
appropriate moisture content

• The embankment and subgrade material shall be spread in layers of uniform

thickness not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness over the entire width of
embankment by mechanical means, finished by a motor grader and compacted.

• Successive layers shall not be placed until the layer under construction has been
thoroughly compacted to the specified requirements

• Each compacted layer shall be finished parallel to the final cross-section of the
embankment.
• Moisture content of the material shall be checked at the site of
placement prior to commencement of compaction

• Where water is required to be added in such constructions, water

shall be sprinkled from a water tanker fitted with sprinkler capable
of applying water uniformly with a controllable rate of flow to
variable widths of surface
• After adding the required amount of water, the soil shall be
processed by means of graders, harrows, rotary mixers or as
otherwise approved by the Engineer until the layer is uniformly wet.
Compaction
• Only the compaction equipment approved by the Engineer shall be
employed to compact the different material types encountered during
construction.

• Smooth wheeled, vibratory, pneumatic tyred, sheepsfoot or pad foot rollers,

etc of suitable size and capacity as approved by the Engineer shall be used for
the different types and grades of materials required to be compacted either
individually or in suitable combinations.

• The compaction shall be done with the help of vibratory roller of 80 to 100
kN static weight with plain or pad foot drum or heavy pneumatic tyred roller
of adequate capacity capable of achieving required compaction.
Compaction

• Each layer of the material shall be thoroughly compacted to

the densities specified.

• Subsequent layers shall be placed only after the finished

layer has been tested and accepted by the Engineer.
Drainage

• The surface of the embankment/subgrade at all times during

construction shall be maintained at such a cross fall (not
flatter than that required for effective drainage of an
earthen surface) as will shed water and prevent ponding.
Repairing of damages caused by rain/spillage of
water

• The soil in the affected portion shall be removed in such

areas as directed by the Engineer before next layer is laid
and refilled in layers and compacted using appropriate
mechanical means such as small vibratory roller, plate
compactor or power rammer to achieve the required density
Finishing operations
• Finishing operations shall include the work of shaping and
dressing the shoulders, side slopes to conform to the alignment,
levels, cross-sections and dimensions shown on the drawings or as
directed by the Engineer subject to the surface tolerance described
in Clause 902.

• Both the upper and lower ends of the side slopes shall be rounded
off to improve appearance and to merge the embankment with the
adjacent terrain.
Finishing operations
• The topsoil, removed and conserved earlier shall be spread over
the fill slopes as per directions of the Engineer to facilitate the
growth of vegetation.

• Slopes shall be roughened and moistened slightly prior to the

application of the topsoil in order to provide satisfactory bond.

• The depth of the topsoil in shall be sufficient to sustain plant

growth, the usual thickness being from 75 mm to 150 mm.
Plying of Traffic

• Construction and other vehicular traffic shall not use the prepared
surface of the embankment and/or subgrade without the prior
permission of the Engineer.

• Any damage arising out of such use shall, however, be made good
by the Contractor at his own expense as directed by the Engineer.
Surface Finish and Quality Control of Work

• The surface finish of construction of subgrade/Embankment

shall conform to the requirements of Clause 902 in MORTH
Subgrade Strength

• It shall be ensured prior to actual execution that the borrow

area material to be used in the subgrade satisfies the
requirements of design CBR.

• Subgrade shall be compacted and finished to the design

strength consistent with other physical requirements.
Measurements for Payment
• Earth embankment/subgrade construction shall be measured
separately by taking cross sections at intervals in the original
position before the work starts and after its completion and
computing the volumes of earthwork in cubic by the method of
average end areas.
• The measurement of fill material from borrow areas shall be
the difference between the net quantities of compacted fill and
the net quantities of suitable material brought fromroadway
and drainage excavation
Measurements for Payment
• Construction of embankment under water shall be measured in cu.m.

• Construction of high embankment with specified material and in specified

manner shall be measured in cu.m.

• Work involving loosening and recompacting of ground supporting

embankment/subgrade shall be measured in cu.m.

• Removal of unsuitable material at embankment/subgrade foundation and

replacement with suitable material shall be measured in cu.m.
Measurements for Payment

• Scarifying existing granular/bituminous road surface shall

be measured in square metres.

• Filter medium and backfill material behind abutments, wing

walls and other retaining structures shall be measured as
finished work in position in cu.m.
Rates

• The Contract unit rates for the items of embankment and

subgrade construction shall be payment in full for carrying
out the required operations including full compensation for,
1. Cost of arrangement of land as a source of supply of material of required quantity for
construction unless provided otherwise in the Contract;

2. Setting out

3. Compacting ground supporting embankment/subgrade except where removal and

replacement of unsuitable material or loosening and recompacting is involved

4. Scarifying or cutting continuous horizontal benches 300 mm wide on side slopes of

existing embankment and subgrade as applicable;

5. Cost of watering or dying of material in borrow areas and/or embankment and

subgrade during construction as required;
6. Spreading in layers, bringing to appropriate moisture
content and compacting to Specification requirements;

7. Shaping and dressing top and slopes of the embankment

and subgrade including rounding of corners

8. Restricted working at sites of structures;

9. Working on narrow width of embankment and subgrade;

10. Excavation in all soils from borrow pits/designated borrow areas
including clearing and grubbing and transporting the material
to embankment and subgrade site with all lifts and leads unless
otherwise provided for in the Contract;
11. All labour, materials, tools, equipment and incidentals necessary to
complete the work to the Specifications;
12. Dewatering; and
13 . Keeping the embankment/completed formation free of water