Engineering Mechanics-I (statics) 2020/21

CHAPTER ONE
VECTORS and SCALARS
1.1 Introduction
Mechanics is a physical science which deals with the state of rest or motion of bodies under the
action of forces. Thus it can be inferred that Mechanics is a physical science which deals with the
external effects of force on bodies. Mechanics is the foundation of most engineering sciences and
is an indispensable prerequisite to their study.
It is divided into three parts: mechanics of rigid bodies, mechanics of deformable bodies, and
mechanics of fluids.
Mechanics of rigid bodies is divided into two parts: Statics and Dynamics.
Statics: deals with the equilibrium of rigid bodies at rest under the action of forces.
Dynamics: deals with the motion of rigid bodies caused by unbalanced force acting on them.
Dynamics is further subdivided into two parts:
 Kinematics: dealing with geometry of motion of bodies without reference to the
forces causing the motion, and
 Kinetics: deals with motion of bodies in relation to the forces causing the motion.
Basic Concepts:
The concepts and definitions of Space, Time, Mass, Force, and Rigid body are basic to the study
of mechanics.
Space: - The geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by linear and
angular measurements relative to a coordinate system. For three-dimensional problems,
three independent coordinates x, y and z are needed. For two-dimensional problems, only
two coordinates are required.
Time: - The measure of the succession of events and is a basic quantity in dynamics. Time is not
directly involved in the analysis of statics problems.
Mass: - A measure of the inertia of a body, which is its resistance to a change of velocity. Mass can
also thought of as the quantity of matter in a body.
Force: - The action of one body on another. A force tends to move a body in the direction of its
action. The action of a force is characterized by its magnitude, by the direction of its
action, and by its point of application. Thus force is a vector quantity.

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Particle: - A body of negligible dimensions. A particle is a body whose dimensions are considered
to be near zero. We may treat a body as a particle when its dimensions are irrelevant to
the description of its position or the action of forces applied to it.
Rigid body: - A body is considered rigid when the change in distance between any two of its points
is negligible. A rigid body can be a combination of a large number of particles in
which all the particles remain at a fixed distance from one another, both before and
after applying load.
In this course, the bodies are assumed to be rigid such that whatever load applied, they don’t deform
or change shape. But translation or rotation may exist. The loads are assumed to cause only external
movement, not internal. In reality, the bodies may deform. But the changes in shapes are assumed
to be minimal and insignificant to affect the condition of equilibrium (stability) or motion of the
structure under load.
When we deal Statics/Mechanics of rigid bodies under equilibrium condition, we can represent the
body or system under a load by a particle or centerline. Thus, the general response in terms of other
load of the bodies can be spotted easily.
Fundamental Principles
The three laws of Newton are of importance while studying mechanics:
First Law: A particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line with uniform velocity
if there is no unbalanced force on it.
Second Law: The acceleration of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and is
in the direction of this force.
F  ma
Third Law: The forces of action and reaction between interacting bodies are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction, and collinear.
The first and third laws have of great importance for Statics whereas the second one is basic for
dynamics of Mechanics.
Another important law for mechanics is the Law of gravitation by Newton, as it usual to compute
the weight of bodies. Accordingly:
m1  m2
F G Thus the weight of a mass ‘m’ w  m  g
r2

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1.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS
1.2.1 Definition and properties
After generally understanding quantities as Fundamental or Derived, we shall also treat them as
either Scalars or Vectors.
Scalar quantities: - are physical quantities that can be completely described (measured) by their
magnitude alone. These quantities do not need a direction to point out their application (Just a value
to quantify their measurability). They only need the magnitude and the unit of measurement to fully
describe them.
E.g. Time[s], Mass [Kg], Area [m2], Volume [m3], Density [Kg/m3], Distance [m], etc.
Vector quantities: - Like Scalar quantities, Vector quantities need a magnitude. But in addition,
they have a direction, and sometimes point of application for their complete description. Vectors
are represented by short arrows on top of the letters designating them.
E.g. Force [N, Kg.m/s2], Velocity [m/s], Acceleration [m/s2], Momentum [N.s, kg.m/s], etc.
1.2.2 Types of Vectors
Generally vectors fall into the following three basic classifications:
Free Vectors: are vectors whose action in space is not confined or associated with a unique line in
space; hence they are ‘free’ in space.
E.g. Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Couples, etc.

Sliding Vectors: has a unique line of action in space but not a unique point of applicatation.
E.g. when an external force acts on a rigid body, the force can be applied at any point
along its line of action without changing its effect on a body as a whole.

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NB: From the above we can see that a force can be applied anywhere along its line of action on a
rigid body without altering its external effect on the body. This principle is known as Principle
of Transmissibility.
Fixed Vectors: are vectors for which a unique and well-defined point of application is specified to
have the same external effect.
E.g. Force acting on non-rigid (deformable) bodies.

1.2.3 Representation of Vectors

A) Graphical representation
Graphically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment headed by an arrow. The length of
the line segment is equal to the magnitude of the vector to some predetermined scale and the arrow
indicates the direction of the vector.
Head
Tail  Length of the line equals to some scale, the magnitude of the vector
and the arrow indicates the direction of the vector.
NB: The direction of the vector may be measured by an angle θ from some known reference
direction.
B) Algebraic (arithmetic) representation
Algebraically a vector is represented by the components of the vector along the three dimensions.

 vx 
 
V   vy 
v 
 z

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 vx 
 
Expression by unit vectors i  j  k  1 V   v y   vx i  v y j  vz k
v 
 z

vx  v  cos  x

vy  v  cos  y

vz  v  cos  z

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Properties of vectors
Equality of vectors: Two free vectors are said to be equal if and only if they have the same
magnitude and direction.

The Negative of a vector: is a vector which has equal magnitude to a given vector but opposite in
direction.

Null vector: is a vector of zero magnitude. A null vector has an arbitrary direction.
Unit vector: is any vector whose magnitude is unity.
A unit vector along the direction of a certain vector, say vector A (denoted by UA) can then be found
by dividing vector A by its magnitude.
Orientation of Vectors
Generally, any two or more vectors can be aligned in different manner. But they may be:
* Collinear-Having the same line of action.
* Coplanar- Lying in the same plane.
* Concurrent- Passing through a common point.

1.3 Operations with Vectors

Scalar quantities are operated in the same way as numbers are operated. But vectors are not and
have the following rules:
1.3.1 Vector Addition or Composition of Vectors
Composition of vectors is the process of adding two or more vectors to get a single vector, a
Resultant, which has the same external effect as the combined effect of individual vectors on the
rigid body they act.
There are different techniques of adding vectors

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A) Graphical Method
I. The parallelogram law
The law states, “if A and B are two free vectors drawn on scale, the resultant (the equivalent vector)
of the vectors can be found by drawing a parallelogram having sides of these vectors, and the
resultant will be the diagonal starting from the tails of both vectors and ending at the heads of both
vectors.”

Once the parallelogram is drawn to scale, the magnitude of the resultant can be found by measuring
the diagonal and converting it to magnitude by the appropriate scale. The direction of the resultant
with respect to one of the vectors can be found by measuring the angle the diagonal makes with that
vector.
Note: As we can see in the above figure.

A  B  R  B  A  Vector Addition is commutative

The other diagonal of the parallelogram gives the difference of the vectors, and depending from

which vertex it starts, it represents either A  B or B  A

Since the two diagonal vectors in the above figure are not equal, of course one is the negative vector

of the other, vector subtraction is not commutative. i.e. A  B  B  A

NB. Vector subtraction is addition of the negative of one vector to the other.

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II. The Triangle rule
The Triangle rule is a corollary to the parallelogram axiom and it is fit to be applied to more than
two vectors at once. It states “If the two vectors, which are drawn on scale, are placed tip (head) to
tail, their resultant will be the third side of the triangle which has tail at the tail of the first vector
and head at the head of the last.”

Thus the Triangle rule can be extended to more than two vectors as, “If a system of vectors are
joined head to tail, their resultant will be the vector that completes the polygon so formed, and it
starts from the tail of the first vector and ends at the head of the last vector.”

NB. From the Triangle rule it can easily be seen that if a system of vectors when joined head to tail
form a closed polygon, their resultant will be a null vector.
III. Analytic method.
The analytic methods are the direct applications of the above postulates and theorems in which the
resultant is found mathematically instead of measuring it from the drawings as in the graphical
method.
A. Trigonometric rules:
The resultant of two vectors can be found analytically from the parallelogram rule by applying the
cosine and the sine rules.
Consider the following parallelogram. And let θ be the angle between the two vectors

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Consider triangle ABC

From cosine law,
2 2 2
 R  A  B  2 A B cos 
2 2
 R  A  B  2 A B cos 

This is the magnitude of the resultant of the two vectors

Similarly, the inclination, β, of the resultant vector from A can be found by using sine law

 B 
sin  sin 
    sin 1 sin  *  Which is the angle the resultant makes with vector A.
B R  R 
 
Decomposition of vectors:
Decomposition is the process of getting the components of a given vector along some other different
axis. Practically decomposition is the reverse of composition.
Consider the following vector A, and let our aim be to find the components of the vector along the
n and t axes.

From sine law then,

An A sin  At A sin 
  An  A and   At  A
sin  sin  sin  sin  sin  sin 
The above are general expressions to get the components of a vector along any axis. In most cases
though, components are sought along perpendicular axes, i.e.   180       90

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B. Component method of vector addition
This is the most efficient method of vector addition, especially when the number of vectors to be
added is large. In this method first the components of each vector along a convenient axis will be
calculated. The sum of the components of each vector along each axis will be equal to the
components of their resultant along the respective axes. Once the components of the resultant are
found, the resultant can be found by parallelogram rule as discussed above.
1.4 Vector Multiplication: Dot and Cross products
1.4.1 Multiplication of vectors by scalars
Let n be a non-zero scalar and A be a vector, then multiplying A by n gives as a vector whose
magnitude is nA and whose direction is in the direction of A if n is positive or is in opposite
direction to A if n is negative.
Multiplication of vectors by scalars obeys the following rules:
i. Scalars are distributive over vectors.

n( A  B)  nA  nB
ii. Vectors are distributive over scalars.

 n  m A  nA  mA
iii. Multiplication of vectors by scalars is associative.

 nm A  n(mA)  m(nA)

1.4.2 Multiplication of vector by a vector
In mechanics there are a few physical quantities that can be represented by a product of vectors.
Eg. Work, Moment, etc
There are two types of products of vector multiplication
1.4.2.1 Dot Product: Scalar Product
The scalar product of two vectors A and B which are θ degrees inclined from each other denoted by

A  B (A dot B) will result in a scalar of magnitude A B cos 

A  B  A B cos 
If the two vectors are represented analytically as
A  ax i  a y j  az k and B  bx i  by j  bz k
r r
A  B  ax bx  a y by  az b z

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1.4.2.2 Cross Product: Vector Product
The vector product of two vectors A and B that are θ degrees apart denoted by A  B (A cross B) is

a vector of magnitude A B sin  and direction perpendicular to the plane formed by the vectors

A and B. The sense of the resulting vector can be determined by the right-hand rule.

A  B  A B sin  perpendicular to the plane formed by A and B

If the two vectors are represented analytically as,

A  ax i  a y j  az k and B  bx i  by j  bz k

Then the cross product A  B will be the determinant of the three by three matrix as,
i j k
ax ay az
bx by bz

A  B   a y bz  az by  i   az bx  axbz  j   axby  a y bx  k

NB. Vector product is not commutative; in fact, A  B   B  A

Moment of a Vector
The moment of a vector V about any point O is given by:

Where: is a position vector from point O to any point on the line of action of the vector.

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Example 1.1
Determine the angle made by the vector V  10i  24 j with the positive x-axis. Write the unit

vector n in the direction of V

Ans  x  112.6o , n  0.385i  0.923 j

Solution: - to determine the angle made by the vector V , we have to use

Opposite 24
tan  x    2.4
Hypotenuse 10
 x  tan 1 (2.4)  112.6o

To write the unit vector n in the direction of V , first we need to determine the magnitude of

vector V

V  V  Vx 2  Vy 2  (10) 2  242  26

V 10i  24 j
then unit vector n    0.385i  0.923 j
V 26
Example 1.2.
For the vectors V1 and V2 shown in the figure,
a) Determine the magnitude V of their vector sum V= V1 + V2
b) Determine the angle  x which V makes with the positive x-axis
c) Write V as a vector in terms of the unit vectors i and j and then write a unit vector n along

the vector sum V

d) Determine the vector difference D = V2 – V1

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Solution: - (a) we construct to scale the parallelogram shown in Fig. for adding V1 and V2. Using
the law of cosines, we have

3
  tan 1    37o
  4
  60  97o
o

V 2  182  142  2(18)(14) cos97o

V  24.11 units

b) Using the law of sines for the right triangle, we have

sin 97o sin 


24.11 14
14
sin   sin 97o
24.11
  sin  0.5763    35.19o
1

 x      35.19o  37o
 x  72.19o

c) By using V and  x , we can write the vector V as

V  V  i cos  x  j sin  x 

=24.11  i cos 72.19o  j sin 72.19o   7.37 i  22.95 j

V 7.37i  22.95 j
Then unit vector n    0.305i  0.952 j
V 24.11
d) The vector difference D is

D  V1  V2  18(i cos 37o  j sin 37o )  14(i cos 60o  j sin 60o )
=(18cos 37o  14 cos 60o )i  (18sin 37o  14sin 60o ) j
=21.38i  1.292 j units

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Exercise

1.1. For the given vector V  8i  4 j  6k , calculate the angles made by V with the x-, y- and z-

axes. Write the unit vector n in the direction of V

1.2. Determine the magnitude of two vectors V1 and V2. And also determine the angle  which the
magnitude of the vectors makes with the positive x-axis by using parallelogram rule.

1.3. If the magnitude of the resultant vector is to be 9 kN directed along the positive x axis,
determine the magnitude of V1 and its angle 

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CHAPTER TWO
FORCE SYSTEMS
2.1 Introduction
A force can be defined as the action of one body on another that changes/tends to changes the state
of the body acted on.
A force can be applied on a body as;
 Contact force:-Applied by direct mechanical contact of the acting body on the acted one
(Created by push and pull).
 Remote action ( Body force):-Applied by remote action as in gravitational, electrical,
Magnetic, etc
The action of a force on a body can be divided as internal and external. Internal force is a force
exerted by one part of a body on another part of the same body. External force is a force exerted on
a body by some other body. An external force can then be applied on a body as:
 Applied force
 Reactive force

 The effects of P external to the bracket are the reactives forces exerted
on the bracket.
 the resulting internal forces and deformations distributed throughout
the material of the bracket are the effects of P internal.
2.1.1. Force systems
A system of forces can be grouped into different categories depending on their arrangement in
space.
Coplanar Forces:-are forces which act on the same plane.
Depending on their arrangement on the plane too, coplanar forces can further be divided as:
Coplanar collinear forces:-are coplanar forces acting on the same line-collinear.

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Coplanar parallel forces:-Are forces which are on the same plane and parallel

Coplanar concurrent forces:-Are forces on the same plane whose lines of action intersect at a
point.

General coplanar forces:

Non coplanar forces:-are forces which act on different planes

Again it can further be divided as
I. Non coplanar parallel forces:-is system of non-planar forces but which are parallel.

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II. Non-coplanar concurrent forces:-are non-planar forces whose lines of action meet at
a point.

III. General Non coplanar force:

2.1.2. Composition and Resolution of Forces

2.1.2.1. Composition of forces

Composition of forces is the process of combining two or more forces in to a single resultant force,
which has the same external effect as that of the applied system of forces.
In the previous chapter we defined force to be either sliding or fixed vector depending on what
type of bodies it acts-rigid or deformable bodies respectively.
In engineering mechanics we will be considering rigid bodies only; hence we can treat force as
sliding vector.
As discussed in the previous chapter, we have two laws of adding vectors:
• The parallelogram rule
• The triangle rule
The parallelogram rule
Consider the following planar force systems acting on the rigid body.

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To apply the parallelogram rule of vector addition, the vectors should be placed in such a way that
they form a parallelogram and they shouldn’t change their external effect. The principle of
transmissibility states that ‘’ A force may be applied at any point on its line of action, without
altering the resultant effects of the force external to the rigid body on which it acts’’. Thus, by the
principle of Transmissibility we can move each force on its line to meet at A without affecting the
external effect as shown in (b) above.
Once the parallelogram is formed the resultant can be found as in the previous chapter and its line
of action will pass through A.
The triangle rule
The triangle law can also be used to find the resultant of the above forces, but it needs moving of
the line of action of one of the forces.
We can change the line of action of either force, but the start of the first vector should coincide with
the point of intersection of the line of action of the forces.

As can be seen in the (a) and (b) parts the first force in the combination starts at the intersection of
the line of action of the forces. In the (c) part, however, the first force F2 doesn’t start at the
intersection. Although the resulting resultant has the same magnitude and direction as the previous
ones, its line of action is different; hence its external effect is also different.
2.1.2.2. Resolution of forces
Resolution as defined earlier is the reverse of composition. It is the process of getting the
components of a vector along different axes.

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sin  sin 
Fn  F Ft  F
sin  sin 

I. Two Dimensional Force Systems

Rectangular components
In many problems it will be found desirable to resolve a force into two components which are
perpendicular to each other. In Fig. below the forces F has been resolved into a components Fx

along x-axis and a components Fy along y-axis. The parallelogram drawn to obtain the two

components is a rectangle, Fx and Fy are called rectangular components.

In determining the rectangular components of a force, the construction lines shown in Fig. as being
parallel to the x and y axes, rather than perpendicular to these axes.

Denoting by F the magnitude of force F and by  the angle

between F and the x-axis, measured counterclockwise from the

positive x-axis. We may express the scalar components of F as
follows:
Fx  F cos Fy  F sin 

When a force F is defined by its rectangular components Fx and Fy , the angle  defining its

direction can be obtained by writing

 Fy 
 =tan 1  
 Fx 
The magnitude F of the force can be obtained by applying the Pythagorean Theorem and writing

F  Fx 2  Fy 2

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Two vectors of unit magnitude, directed respectively along the positive x and y axes, will be
introduced at this point. These vectors are called unit vectors and denoted by i and j , respectively.

The rectangular components Fx and Fy of a force F may be obtained by multiplying the unit vectors

i and j by appropriate scalars. We write

Fx  Fxi Fy  Fy j and F  Fxi  Fy j

NB. Depending to which quadrant the vector corresponds; the scalar components Fx and Fy can be

positive or negative.

Determining the components of a force

Rectangular components are convenient for finding the sum or resultant R of two or more than two
forces which are concurrent. Consider three forces F1, F2 and F3 which are originally concurrent at
a point O in the figure below.

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R  F1  F2  F3  ( F1x i  F1y j )  ( F2x i  F2 y j )  ( F3x i  F3 y j )

Rxi  Ry j  ( F1x  F2x  F3x )i  ( F1y  F2 y  F3y ) j
from which we conclude that
Rx  F1x  F2x  F3x =  Fx Ry  F1y  F2 y  F3 y   Fy
F1x  F1 cos  F1y  F1 sin 
F2x   F2 cos  F2 y  F2 sin 
F3x  F3 sin  F3y   F3 cos 
the angle which R makes with the positive x-axis
 Ry 
  tan 1  
 Rx 

Example-2.1
Determine the magnitude of the resultant R of the two forces and the angle θ which R makes with
the positive x-axis.

Solution: - The scalar components of F1

F1x  6cos15o  5.8 kN

F1y  6sin15o  1.55 kN

The scalar components of F2

F2x  4cos 45o  2.83 kN

F2 y  4sin 45o  2.83 kN

Then the resultant force Rx and Ry are

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Rx  F1x  F2x  5.8 kN  2.83 kN  8.63 kN
Ry  F1y  F2 y  1.55 kN  2.83 kN  1.28 kN

the magnitude of the resultant R of the two forces

R  Rx  Ry  (8.63)2  (1.28)2  8.72 kN

the angle θ which R makes with the positive x-axis.

Ry 1.28
  tan 1  tan 1  171.56o
Rx 8.63
Example-2.2
If the resultant of force acting on the bracket is to be 750N directed along the positive x-axis,
determine the magnitude of F and its direction θ.

Solution: - The scalar components of F1

5 5
cos   F1x  325    125 N
13  13 
sin  
12  12 
F1y  325    300 N
13  13 

The scalar components of F2

F2x  600cos 45o  424.26 N

F2 y  600sin 45o  424.26 N

The scalar components of F

Fx  F cos 
Fy  F sin 

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The resultant force R= 750 N directed along the positive x-axis with an angle of 0o

Therefore the scalar components of resultant force Rx and Ry are

Rx= R= 750 N……… (1) Ry= 0 N…………. (2)

Then the resultant force Rx and Ry are

Rx  F1x  F2x  Fx  125 N  424.26 N  F cos   549.25  F cos  ............(3)

Ry  F1y  F2 y  Fy  300 N  424.26 N  F sin   124.26  F sin  ..........(4)

From (1) and (3) From (2) and (4)

549.25  F cos   750 124.26  F sin   0
F cos   200.75 F sin   124.26
200.75 124.26
F ..................(5) F ..................(6)
cos  sin 

From (5) and (6) then use either (5) or (6) to determine F
200.75 124.26 200.75 200.75
 F   236.1N or
cos  sin  cos  cos 31.757o
sin  124.26

cos  200.75 124.26 124.26
F   236.1 N
tan   0.619    tan 1  0.619  sin  sin 31.757o
  31.757o

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Exercise
2.1 Determine the resultants of four forces and the angle θ which R makes with the positive x-axis.

2.2 The cable AB prevents bar OA from rotating clockwise about the point O. If the cable tension
is 750N. Determine the n- and t-components of this force acting on point A of the bar.

2.3 If the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the eye bolt is 600N and its direction measured
clockwise from the positive x-axis is θ=30°, determine the magnitude of F1 and the angle 𝜙.

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2.4 Determine the magnitude and direction  of F2 so that the resultant force is directed along the
positive u axis and has a magnitude of 50 kN.

2.2 Moment
In addition to its tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force also tends to
rotate the body about any axis which doesn’t intersect the line of action of the force and which is
not parallel to it. This tendency of a force to rotate a body about a given axis is known as the
moment, M, of the force. The moment of a force is also known as torque.
The figure below shows a two-dimensional body acted upon by a force F in its plane.

The axis of the force to rotate the body about the axis O-O normal to the plane of the body –hence
the moment is proportional both to the magnitude of the force and the moment arm d, which is the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action of the force.
Hence the magnitude of the moment is defined as:
M  F d

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The moment will be a vector perpendicular to the plane of the body-parallel to the axis O-O-and its
sense depends on the direction in which the force tends to rotate the body. The right hand rule can
be used to identify this sense; curl your fingers in the direction of the tendency to rotate, the thumb
will point in the direction of the moment vector.
For a coplanar force system vector representation of the moment is unnecessary as it can be
represented as its tendency to rotate that plane-clockwise or counter clockwise.
Sign convention
In representing moment by its tendency to rotate, it is a good practice to assign one of the senses,
clockwise or counter clockwise, a positive direction and the other negative.
Here we will be treating counter clockwise moment as positive moment and clockwise moment as
negative moment.
Note: - One can assign the positive sense to either the clockwise or counterclockwise moments.
Principle of moment: - One of the most important principles in mechanics is Varignon’s theorem,
or the principle of moment, which for coplanar forces states “the moment of a force about any point
is equal to the sum of the moments of the components of the force about the same point.”
Example-2.3
The 30N force P is applied perpendicular to the portion BC of the bent bar. Determine the moment
of P about point B and Point A.

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Solution: - Moment about point B
(I) The moment arm to the 30 N force is
d= 1.6 m
By M  F  d the moment is clockwise and has the magnitude
M B  30(1.6)  48 N  m

(II) Replace the force by its rectangular components at C

P1  30sin 45o  21.21 N

P2  30 cos 45o  21.21 N
By varignon's theorem, the moment becomes
M B  21.21(1.13)  21.21(1.13)  48 N  m

(III) By the principle of transmissibility, move

the 30 N force along its line of action to point
D, which eliminates the moment of the
components P1. The moment arm of P2
becomes d1 + d2.
d 2  1.6sin 45o  1.13 m
d3  1.6 cos 45o  1.13 m
d1  d3 tan 45o  1.13 tan 45o  1.13 m
then d1  d 2  1.13  1.13  2.26 m
and the moment is
M B  30 cos 45o (2.26 m)  48 N  m

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(IV) Moving the force to point E eliminates the moment of the component P2. The moment
arm of P1 becomes d1 + d2
1.6sin 45o
d1   1.13 m
tan 45o
d 2  1.6 cos 45o  1.13 m
then d1  d 2  1.13  1.13  2.26 m
and the moment is
M B =30 sin45o (2.26)=48 N  m

(V) By the vector expression for a moment, and by using the coordinate system with the
procedures for evaluating cross products, we have
M B  r  F  (1.6 cos 45o i  1.6sin 45o j )  30(cos 45o i  sin 45o j )
M B  48k N  m
The minus sign indicates that the vector is in the negative z-direction. The magnitude
of the vector expression is
M B  48 N  m
Example-2.4
Calculate
a) The moment of 90N force about point O for the condition θ=15°.
b) Also, determine the value of θ for which the moment about O is zero and maximum

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Solution: - Replace the force by its rectangular components at A
for   15o
Fx  F  cos   90 N  sin15o  23.29 N
Fy  F  sin   90 N  cos15o  86.93N

Then determine moment by each force components

M o  23.29 N (0.8m)  86.93N (0.6m)

 33.526 N  m
b) The value of θ for which the moment about O is zero.
Given :- M o  0 N  m Fx  90  sin 
 ? Fy  90  cos 
M o  90sin  (0.8)  90cos  (0.6)
M o  72sin   54cos 
Then,  72sin   54cos   0
sin  54
  0.75
cos 72
tan   0.75    tan 1 (0.75)
  36.87o
The value of θ for which the moment about O is maximum.
Given :- M o  max imum Fx  90  sin 
 ? Fy  90  cos 
M o  90sin  (0.8)  90cos  (0.6)
M o  72sin   54cos 
Use derivative application to find the unkown 
d
M o  72cos  54sin 
d
d
M o  0  72cos   54sin   0
d
sin  72
  1.333
cos  54
tan   1.333    tan 1 ( 1.333)
  53.13o

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Exercise
2.5 The 120N force is applied as shown to one end of the curved wrench. If α=30°, calculate the
moment of F about the center O of the bolt.determine the value of α which would maximize the
moment about O; state the value of this maximum moment.

2.3 Couples
A couple moment is produced by two parallel non-collinear forces that are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction. Its effect is to produce pure rotation, or tendency for rotation in a specified
direction.
Consider the action of equal and opposite forces F and –F at a distance d apart.

These two forces can’t be combined in to a single force of the same effect on the body, as their sum
in every direction is zero. But the effect of the forces on the body isn’t zero.
The combined moment of the two forces about an axis normal to their plane and passing through
any point such as O in their plane is the couple, M.
M  F (a  d )  F  a
The magnitude of the couple
 F d
It can, therefore, be concluded that the moment of a couple is independent of the moment center
selected-hence a couple can be represented as free vector.

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2.3.1 Force-couple system
The effect of a force on a body has been described in terms of the tendency to push or pull the
body in the direction of the force and to rotate the body about any axis which doesn’t intersect the
line of the force. The representation of this dual effect can be facilitated by replacing the given
force by an equal and parallel force at the new point sought and a couple to compensate for the
change in the moment of the forces.
The resolution process can best be illustrated by the following figures.

The given force F acting at A is replaced by an equal force at point B and the anti-clockwise couple
M  F  d . The transfer process can be seen from the middle figure and it involves the following
procedure:
• Apply two equal and opposite forces of F and –F at B where F is equal in magnitude and
Parallel to the force acting at A.
• The forces applied at B will cancel each other –hence they will have no effect on the body.
• The Forces F at A and –F at B form a couple; hence can be replaced by the counter clockwise
couple M  F  d
The original force at A can be replaced by an equal and parallel force at B and a corresponding
couple as shown in the right figure.
Note: - The transformation described above can be performed in the reverse order. i.e. a force F
acting at a point B and a couple M acting on the body can be combined into a single resultant force.
This is performed by moving F until its moment about B becomes equal to the moment M of the
couple to be excluded.

2.4 Resultants
The resultant of a force system is the simplest force combination that can replace the original forces
without altering the external effect of the system on the rigid body to which the forces are applied.
The equilibrium of a body is the condition where the resultant if all forces that act on it is zero.
When the resultant is not zero, the acceleration of the body is described by equating the force
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resultant to the product of the mass and the acceleration of the body. Thus, the determination of the
resultant is basic to both statics and dynamics.

R  F1  F2  F3  .......   F
Rx   Fx Ry  Fy

 F    F 
2 2
R x y

  tan    tan  
R 
1
 F 1


y y

R  x  F x 

Algebraic method

1. Choose a convenient reference point and move all forces to that point. This process is
depicted for a force system, where M1, M2, M3 are the couples resulting from the transfer
of F1, F2, and F3 from their respective original lines of action to lines of action through
point O.

2. Add all forces at O to form the resultant force R, and add all couples to form the resultant
couple MO. we now have the single force-couple system

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3. Find the line of action of R by requiring R to have a moment of MO about point O. note
that the force systems of figs 1 and 4 are equivalent, and that Σ(Fd) is equal to Rd

Example-2.5
Determine the resultant moment produced by the forces about point O.

Solution: - point O is selected as a convenient reference point for the moment to represent the
given system.

M o  6kN (1m)  5kN (4.768m)  3kN (2.5sin 45o )

M o  12.54kN  m

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Example-2.6
Determine the resultant of the four forces and one couple which act on the plate shown.

Solution: - point O is selected as a convenient reference point for the force-couple system
that is to represent the given system.

 Rx   Fx  Rx  40  80cos30o  60cos 45o  66.9 N

 Ry   Fy  Ry  50  80sin 30o  60cos 45o  132.4 N

R  R 2  R 2  R  (66.9) 2  (132.4) 2  148.3 N

 x y

 1 Rx
 132.4
  tan  R  tan 1  63.2o
 Ry  66.9
 M o   ( Fd )  M o  140  50(5)  60 cos 45o (4)  60sin 45o (7)
M o  237 N  m
The force-couple system consisting of R and Mo is shown in fig we know determine the final line
of action of R such that R alone represents the original system.

 Rd  M o  148.3d  237  d  1.6m

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Exercise
2.6 Determine and locate the resultant R of the two forces and one couple acting on the beam.

2.7 If the resultant of the two forces and couple M passes through point O, determine M.

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II. THREE DIMENSIONAL FORCE SYSTEMS
Rectangular component
Many problems in mechanics require analysis in three dimensions and for such problems it is
often necessary to resolve a force into its three mutually perpendicular components. The force F
acting at point O has the rectangular components Fx , Fy and Fz

Fx  F cos X F  Fx 2  Fy 2  Fz 2
Fy  F cos y F  Fxi  Fy j  Fz k
Fz  F cos z F  F  i cos  x  j cos  y  k cos  z 


cos xi  cos y j  cos z k  nF is a unit vector which characterizes the direction of F F  FnF 
In most cases, the direction of a force is described (a) by two points on the line of action of the
force or (b) by two angles which orient the line of action.
a) Specification on the line of action of the forces
If the coordinates of points A and B are known, the force F

AB ( x  x )i  ( y2  y1 ) j  ( z2  z1 )k
F  FnF  F F 2 1
AB ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z2  z1 ) 2

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b) Specification by two angles which orient the line of action of the force
Consider the geometry of the Fig, we assume that the angles θ and Φ are known. First resolve F
into horizontal and vertical components.

Fxy  F cos 
Fz  F sin 

Then resolve the horizontal components Fxy into x- and y-

components

Fx  Fxy cos  F cos cos

Fy  Fxy sin   F cos sin 

The quantities Fx , Fy and Fz are the desired scalar components of F.

Example-2.7
A force F with a magnitude of 100 N is applied at the origin O of the axes x-y-z as shown. The
line of action of F passes through a point A. Determine
(a) The x, y, and z scalar components of F
(b) The projection Fxy of F on the x-y plane
(C) The projection FOB of F along line OB

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Solution: - a) we begin writing the force vector F as its magnitude F times a unit vector nOA . To

determine the unit vector nOA first we need to locate the co-ordinate of O and A.

(3  0)i  (4  0) j  (5  0) 3i  4 j  5k
O(0,0,0) and A(3,4,5)  nOA  
(3  0)  (4  0)  (5  0)
2 2 2
50
 0.424i  0.566 j  0.707k

F  FnOA  100 N (0.424i  0.566 j  0.707k )

F  42.4i  56.6 j  70.7 k N
The desired scalar components are thus
Fx  42.4 N Fy  56.6N Fz  70.7 N

b) To determine the projection Fxy of F on the x-y plane, first we need to find the cosine of
the angle  xy between F and the x-y plane by locating co-ordinates O, A and C.

O(0,0,0) A(3,4,5) and C(3,4,0)

length OC (3  0)2  (4  0)2

cos xy  
length OA (3  0)2  (4  0)2  (5  0)2
 0.707

So that Fxy  F cos xy  100 N (0.707)  70.7 N

C) To determine the projection FOB of F along line OB,

first we need to determine the unit vector nOB .

Determine the unit vector nOB by locating the co-

ordinate of O and B.
O (0, 0, 0) and B(6,6,2)

(6  0)i  (6  0) j  (6  0) 6i  6 j  2k
 nOB  
(6  0) 2  (6  0) 2  (2  0) 2 76
 0.688i  0.688 j  0.229k

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The scalar projection of F on OB is

FOB  F  nOB  (42.4i  56.6 j  70.7k )(0.688i  0.688 j  0.229k )

 (42.4)(0.688)  (56.6)(0.688)  (70.7)(0.229)
 84.4 N
The projection as a vector

FOB  FOB .nOB  84.4(0.688i  0.688 j  0.229k )

 58.1i  58.1 j  19.35k N
Example - 2.8
The rigid pole and cross-arm assembly is supported by the three cables. A turnbuckle at D is
tightened until it induces a tension T in CD OF 1.2 KN. Express T as a vector.

Solution: - we begin writing the force vector F as its magnitude F times a unit vector nCD . To

determine the unit vector nCD first we need to locate the co-ordinate of C and D.

C (1.5,0, 4.5) and D(0,3,0)

(0  1.5)i  (3  0) j  (0  4.5) 1.5i  3 j  4.5k
nCD    0.267i  0.535 j  0.802k
(0  1.5)  (3  0)  (0  4.5)
2 2 2
31.5

F  FnCD  1.2 kN (0.267i  0.535 j  0.802k )

F  0.321i  0.641 j  0.962k kN

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Example. - 2.9
The turnbuckle T is tightened until the tension in cable OA is 5 KN. Express the force F acting on
point O as a vector. Determine the projection of F onto the y-axis and onto the line OB. Note that
lines OB and OC lie in the x-y plane.

Solution: - From triangle OCA the tension

force is needed to resolve along z and OC
components.

The magnitude of the components are

Fz  F cos50o  5kN  sin 50o  3.83kN

FOC  F sin 50o  5kN  cos50o  3.214kN

Then resolve the component force FOC that

lies on the horizontal xy plane.

Fx  FOC  sin 25o  3.214kN  sin 25o  1.358kN

Fy  FOC  cos 25o  3.214kN  cos 25o  2.91kN

Therefore the force vector is F  1.358i  2.91 j  3.83k

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The projection of F on the line OB
The scalar projection of F on OB is FOB  F  nOB and the unit vector

nOB  cos xi  cos y j  cos  z k  x  30o ,  y  60o ,   90o

 cos30o i  cos 60o j  cos90o k
= 0.866i  0.5 j

FOB  F  nOB  (1.358i  2.91 j  3.83k )  (0.866i  0.5 j )

Then = (1.358)(0.866)+(2.91)(0.5)+(3.83)(0)
=2.63 kN

FOB  FOB .nOB  2.63 kN (0.866i  0.5)

The projection as a vector
=2.278i  1.315 j

Exercise

2.8 The cable BC carries a tension of 750 N. write this tension as a force T acting on point B in
terms of the unit vectors i, j, and k. the elbow at A forms a right angle.

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2.9 Two cables BG and BH are attached to the frame ACD as shown. Knowing that the tension in
cable BH is 600 N, determine the components of the force exerted by cable BH on the frame at
B.

2.5 Moment and Couple

2.5.1 Moments in three dimension
Consider a force F with a given line of action acting on a body, and any point O not on this line,
point O and the line F establish a plane A. The moment MO of F about an axis through O normal
to the plane has the magnitude MO= Fd

The vector MO is normal to the plane and is directed along the axis through O. We can describe
both the magnitude and direction of MO by the vector cross-product of r and F

i j k
M o  rx ry rz Mo  r  F
Fx Fy Fz

M o  (ry Fz  rz Fy )i  (rz Fx  rx Fz ) j  (rx Fy  ry Fx )k

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The scalar magnitudes of the moments of these

forces bout the positive x, y, and z- axes through
can be obtained from the moment-arm rule, and
are

M x  ( ry Fz  rz Fy )
M y  (rz Fx  rx Fz )
M z  (rx Fy  ry Fx )

The sum of the moments about O of concurrent Forces

F1, F2, F3 ………3

r  F1  r  F2  r  F3  ....  r  ( F1  F2  F3  ......)
 rF
M o   (r  F )  r  R

2.5.2 Couples in three dimension

The vector r runs from any point B on the line of action of –F to any point A on the line of action
of F. points A and B are located by position vectors rA and rB from any point O. the combined
moments of the two forces about O is

M  rA  F  rB  ( F )  (rA  rB )  F
However , rA  rB  r , so that all reference to the moment
center O disappers, and the moment of the couple becomes
M  rF

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Example - 2.10
Determine the vector expression for the moment of the 1.2 KN tension
A) About point O
B) About the pole z-axis
(Find each moment in two different ways)

Solution: - a) about point O

Method-1 by using position vector rD
To find MO, the position vector r is any vector from point O to the line of action T. the simplest
choice is the position vector from O to D, which is written as rD  3 j m . The vector expression for

T is T  T  nCD which, nCD is the unit vector of line CD that is the line of action of T. To determine
this unit vector we need to have C and D co-ordinates.

C (1.5, 0, 4.5) and D(0,3, 0)

(0  1.5)i  (3  0) j  (0  4.5) k
nCD 
(0  1.5) 2  (3  0) 2  (0  4.5) 2
1.5i  3 j  4.5k

31.5
 0.267i  0.535 j  0.802k
T  1.2kN (0.267i  0.535 j  0.802k )
 0.3204i  0.642 j  0.9624k

M o  rD  T  (3 j )  (0.3204i  0.642 j  0.9624k )  2.89i  0.962k kN  m

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Method-2 by using position vector rC
rC  (1.5i  4.5k ) m
M O  rC  T
M O  (1.5i  4.5k )  (0.3204i  0.642 j  0.9624k )
=(  1.5i  0.642 j )  (1.5i  0.9624k )  (4.5k  0.3204i)  (4.5k  0.642 j )
 0.963k  1.4436 j  1.4418 j  2.889i
M O  2.89i  0.962k which is the same with the previous answer.

b) About the pole z-axis

The value Mz of the desired moment is the scalar component of MO in the z-direction or M z  M O  k

. Therefore,
M z  M O  k  (2.89i  0.962k )  k  0.962 kN  m

The minus sign indicates that the vector Mz is in the negative z-direction. Expressed as a vector, the

moment is M z  0.962k kN  m

Example - 2.11
A precast concrete wall section is temporarily held by two cables as shown. Knowing that the
tension in cables BD and EF are 900 N and 675 N, respectively. Determine the moment about point
O of the force exerted by

a) Cable BD

b) Cable FE

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Solution: - a) by Cable BD
To find MO, the position vector r is any vector from point O to the line of action of cable BD. the
simplest choice is the position vector from O to B, which is written as rB  (2.5i  2 j ) m . The vector

expression for T is T  T  nBD which, nBD is the unit vector of line BD that is the line of action of T.
To determine this unit vector we need to have B and D co-ordinates.
B (2.5, 2, 0) and D (1.5, 0, 2)
(1.5  2.5)i  (0  2) j  (2  0) k
nBD 
(1.5  2.5) 2  (0  2) 2  (2  0) 2
1i  2 j  2k

9
1 2 2
 i j k
3 3 3
1 2 2
T  900 N ( i  j  k )
3 3 3
 300i  600 j  600k

M o  rB  T  (2.5i  2 j )  (300i  600 j  600k )

 (2.5i  600 j )  (2.5i  600k )  (2 j  300i)  (2 j  600k )
 1500k  1500 j  600k  1200i
M O  1200i  1500 j  900k kN  m

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b) by Cable EF
To find MO, the position vector r is any vector from point O to the line of action of cable EF.
The simplest choice is the position vector from O to E, which is written as rE  (2.5i  2 j) m .

The vector expression for T is T  T  nEF which, nEF is the unit vector of line EF that is the line
of action of T. To determine this unit vector we need to have E and F co-ordinates.
E (2.5, 2, 0) and F(2, 0, 4)
(2  2.5)i  (0  2) j  (4  0) k 1 4 8
nEF   i j k
(2  2.5)  (0  2)  (4  0)
2 2 2 9 9 9
1 4 8
T  675 N ( i  j  k )  75i  300 j  600k
9 9 9
M o  rE  T  (2.5i  2 j )  (75i  300 j  600k )
 (2.5i  300 j )  (2.5i  600k )  (2 j  75i)  (2 j  600k )
 750k  1500 j  150k  1200i
M O  1200i  1500 j  600k kN  m

2.6 RESULTANTS
Resultant is the simplest force combination which can replace a given system of forces without
altering the external effect on the rigid body on which the forces act. We found the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force for the two-dimensional force system by a vector summation of
forces and we located the line of action of the resultant force by applying the principle of moments.
These same principles can be extended to three dimensions.
In the previous two-dimensional force system we showed that a force could be moved to a parallel
position by adding a corresponding couple. Thus, for the system of forces F1, F2, F3 …., acting on
a rigid body in Fig. a, we may move each of them in turn to the arbitrary point O, provided we a
also introduce a couple for each force transferred. Thus, for example, we may move force F1 to O,
provided we introduce the couple M 1  r1  F1 , where r1 is a position vector from O to any point on

the line of action of F1 .

When all forces are shifted to O in this manner, we have a system of concurrent forces at O and a
system of couple vectors, as represented in part b of the figure below. The concurrent forces may
then be added vectorially to produce a resultant force R, and the couples may also be added to
produce a resultant couple M, in Fig. c. the general force system, then, is reduced to

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R  F1  F2  F3  ....   F
M  M1  M 2  M 3  .....   (r  F )

The couple vectors are shown through point O, but because they are free vectors, they may be
represented in any parallel positions. The magnitudes of the resultants and their components are
Rx   Fx Ry   Fy Rz   Fz
R  ( Fx ) 2  ( Fy ) 2 ( Fz ) 2
M x   (r  F ) x M y   (r  F ) y M z   (r  F ) z
M  M x2  M y2  M z2

The point O selected as the point of concurrency for the forces is arbitrary, and the magnitude and
direction of M depend on the particular point O selected. The magnitude and direction of R,
however, are the same no matter which point is selected.
Example - 2.12
Determine the resultant of the force and couple system which acts on the rectangular solid.

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Solution: - we choose point O as a convenient reference point for the initial step of reducing the
given forces to a force-couple system. The resultant force is
R   F  (80  80)i  (100  100) j  (50  50)k  0 kN
The sum of the moments about O is
M O  [50(16)  700]i  [80(12)  960] j  [100(10)  1000]k kN .m
 100i kN .m
Example - 2.13.
Determine the resultant of the system of parallel forces which act on the plate.

Solution: - transfer of all forces to point O results in the force-couple system

R   F  (200  500  300  50) j  350 j N
M O  [50(0.35)  300(0.35)i  [50(0.5)  200(0.5)]k
 87.5i  125k N  m
The placement of R so that it alone represents the above force-couple system is determined by the
principle of moments in vector form
r  R  MO
( xi  yj  zk )  350 j  87.5i  125k
350 xk  350 zi  87.5i  125k
From the one vector equation we may obtain the two
scalar equations
350xk  125k and  350zi  87.5i
Hence, x  0.357m and z=0.250 m are the coordinates
through which the line of action of R must pass.

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Example - 2.14
Replace the forces and single couple by an equivalent force-couple system at point A.

Solution: - transfer of all forces to point A results in the force-couple system

3 1
R   F  20i  (40)( ) j  (40)( )k
10 10
=  20i  37.95 j  12.65k kN

M O   r  F  (1k )  (20i)  (2i)  (37.95 j  12.65k )  35k

 20 j  75.9k  25.3 j  35k
 45.3 j  40.9k kN  m

The angle  x , y , and  z which R makes with each axis can be determined by

Rx 20
 x  cos 1 ( )  cos 1 ( )  116.56o
R (20)  (37.95)  12.65
2 2 2

Ry 37.95
 y  cos 1 ( )  cos 1 ( )  148.05o
R (20)  (37.95)  12.65
2 2 2

Rz 12.65
 z  cos 1 ( )  cos 1 ( )  73.57o
R (20)  (37.95)  12.65
2 2 2

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EXERCISE

2.10 Determine the x and y-coordinates of a point through which the resultant of the parallel forces
passes.

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CHAPTER THREE
EQUILIBRIUM
3.1. Introduction
A particle is said to be in equilibrium if it remains at rest, if originally at rest, or has a constant
velocity if originally in motion. To maintain equilibrium, it is necessary to satisfy Newton’s first
law of motion, which requires the resultant force and moment acting in a particle to be equal to
zero.
R  F  0 and M  M  0

All physical bodies are three-dimensional, but we can treat many of them as two-dimensional when
the forces to which they are subjected act in a single plane or can be projected onto a single plane
I. EQUILIBRIUM IN TWO-DIMENSIONS

System Isolation and Free-Body diagram

 A mechanical system is defined as a body or a group of bodies which can be conceptually

isolated from all other bodies. A system may be a single body or a combination of
connected bodies. The bodies may be rigid or non-rigid.
 Once we decide which body or combination of bodies to analyze, we then treat this body or
combination as a single body isolated from all surrounding bodies. This isolation is
accomplished by means of the free-body diagram.
 Free-body diagram is a diagrammatic representation of the isolated system treated as a single
body

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Before attempting to draw a free-body diagram, we must recall the basic characteristic of forces,
with primary attention focused on its properties.

MODELING THE ACTION IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Types of Contact and Force Origin Action on Body to Be Isolated
1. Flexible cable, belt, chain, or rope
- Weight of cable negligible Force exerted by a
flexible cable is
always a tension
- Weight of cable not negligible away from the body
in the direction of the
cable.
2. Smooth surfaces Contact force is
compressive and is
normal to the surface.

3. Rough surfaces Rough surfaces are capable

of supporting a tangential
component F (frictional
force ) as well as a normal
component N of the
resultnat contact force R.

4. Roller Support Roller, rocker, or ball

support transmits a
compressive force normal
to the supporting surface.

5. Freely sliding guide Collar or slider free to

move along smoot
guides; can support force
normal to guide only.

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MODELING THE ACTION IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Types of Contact and Force Origin Action on Body to Be Isolated
6. Pin Connection A freely hinged pin
connection is capable of
supporting a force in any
direction in te plane
normal to the axis;
usually shown as two
components Rx and Ry .
A pin not free to turn
may also support a
couple M.
7. Built-in or fixed support A built-in or fixed support
is capable of supporting an
axial force F, a transverse
force V (shear force), and
a couple M (bending
moment) to prevent
rotation.
8. Gravitational Attraction The resultant of gravitational
attraction on all elements of a
body of mass m is the weight W=
mg and acts toward the center of
the earth through the center mass
G.

9. Spring action Spring force is tensile

if spring is stretced
and compressive if
compressive. For a
linearly elastic spring
the stiffness K is the
force required to
deform the spring a
unit distance.

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Construction of Free-body diagram
The full procedure for drawing a free-body diagram which isolates a body or system consists of te
following steps.
1. Decide which system is isolate. The system chosen should usually involve one or more of
the desired unknown quantities.
2. Next isolate the chosen system by drawing a diagram which represents its complete external
boundary.
3. Identify all forces which act on the isolated system as applied by the removed contacting
and attracting bodies and represent them in their proper positions on the diagram of the
isolated system.
4. Shows the choice of the coordinate axes directly on the diagram.
The free-body method is extremely important in mechanics because it ensures an accurate definition
of a mechanical system and focuses attention on the exact meaning and application of the force laws
of statics and dynamics.

Sample Free-body Diagram

Mechanical system Free-body diagram of isolated Body

1. Plane truss
weight of truss
assumed negligible
Compared with P.

2. Cantilever Beam

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Mechanical system Free-body diagram of isolated Body
3. Beam
Smooth surface
Contact at A.

4. Rigid system of interconnected

bodies analyzed as a single unit.

Free-body Diagram Exercise

Body Incomplete FBD

1. Bell crank
supporting mass m
with pin support at
A.

2. Control lever
applying torque to
shaft at O.

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3. Boom OA, of
negligible mass
compared with
mass m. boom
hinged at O and
supported by
hoisting cable at B.

4. Uniform crate of
mass m leaning
against smooth
vertical wall and
supported on a
rough horizontal
surface.
5.Loaded bracket
supported by pin
connection at A and
fixed pin in smooth
slot at B.
6. Bent rode welded
to support at A and
subjected to two
forces and couple.

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EQUILIBRIUM CONDITONS

The condition in which the resultant of all forces and moment acting on a body is zero. Stated in
another way, a body is in equilibrium if all forces and moments applied to it are in balance.

F x 0 F y 0 M O 0

Categories of Equilibrium

The categories of force system acting on bodies in equilibrium

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Two and Three force members

A two force member is the equilibrium of a body

under the action of two forces only. The force must
be equal, opposite, and collinear.

Three force member is a body under the action of three

forces and the line of action the force is to be
concurrent.

Example-3.1.
The member is pin-connected at A and rests against a smooth at B. determine the horizontal and
vertical components of reaction at the pin A.

Solution: - Free body diagram

As shown in fig. the support reaction force against a smooth surface are perpendicular at B. and
also, horizontal and vertical components of reaction force are exists at pin support A.

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Equations of Equilibrium. Summing moments about A, we obtain a direct solution for NB.

M A  0;  90 N .m  60 N (1m)  N B
N B  200 N
using this result
F x  0; Ax  200sin 30o  0
Ax  100 N
F y  0; Ay  200cos30o  60  0
Ay  233 N

Example. 3.2.
Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pin A and the tension developed
in cable BC used to support the steel frame.

Solution: - Free body diagram

As shown in fig. the tension force developed in cable BC. And also, horizontal and vertical
components of reaction force are exists at pin support A.
Equations of Equilibrium. Summing moments about A, we obtain a direct solution for T.
 M A  0; Tx (3m)  Ty (1m)  60kN (1m)  30kN .m  0
T cos  (3m)  T sin  (1m)  90 kN .m  0
3 4
T ( )(3m)  T ( )(1m)  90kN .m  0
5 5
T  34.62kN

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Using this result

F x  0; Ax  Tx  0
Ax  T cos   0
3
Ax  34.62kN ( )  0
5
Ax  20.8kN
F y  0; Ay  Ty  60kN  0
Ay  T sin   60kN  0
4
Ay  34.62kN ( )  60kN  0
5
Ay  87.7 kN

Exercise
3.1 Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pin A and the reaction
of the smooth collar B on the rod.

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3.2 Determine the support reactions of roller A and the smooth collar B on the rod. The collar
is fixed to the rod AB, but allowed to slide along rod CD.

3.3 The uniform beam has a mass of 50 Kg per meter of length. Compute the reactions at the
support O. the force loads shown lie in a vertical plane.

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II. EQUILIBRIUM IN THREE-DIMENSIONS

Equilibrium Conditions

The conditions for the equilibrium of a body require that the resultant force and resultant couple is
zero. The reactive forces and couple moments acting at various types of supports and connections,
when the members are viewed in three dimensions. It is important to recognize the symbols used to
represent each of these supports and to understand clearly how the forces and couple moments are
developed.
 A force is developed by a support that restricts the translation of its attached member.
 Fx  0

F  0 or  Fy  0

 Fz  0
 A couple moment is developed when rotation of the attached member is prevented.
 M x  0

 M =0 or  M y  0

 M z  0

The first three scalar equations state that there is no resultant force acting on a body in equilibrium
in any of the three coordinate directions. The second three scalar equations express the further
equilibrium requirement that there be no resultant moment acting on the body about any of the
coordinate axes or about axes parallel to the coordinate axes.

These six equations are both necessary and sufficient conditions for complete equilibrium. The
reference axes may be chosen arbitrarily as a matter of convenience, the only restriction being that
a right-handed coordinate system should be chosen when vector notation is used.

In applying the vector form of the above equations, we first express each of the forces in terms of
the coordinate unit vectors i, j , and k . For the first equation,  F  0 , the vector sum will be zero

only if the coefficients of i, j , and k in the expression are, respectively, zero. These three sums,
when each is set equal to zero, yield precisely the three scalar equations of equilibrium,

F
x  0, F y  0 , and Fz  0.

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For the second equation,  M  0 , where the moment sum may be taken about any convenient
point O, we express the moment of each force as the cross product r  F , where r is the position
vector from O to any point on the line of action of the force F. thus  M  (r  F )  0 . When the
coefficients of i, j , and k in the resulting moment equation are set equal to zero, respectively. We

obtain the three scalar moments  M x  0, M y  0, and M z  0.

Modeling the action of forces in three-dimensional analysis

Types of contact and force origin Action on the body to be isolated

1. Member in contact with smooth surface, Force must be normal to the surface and directed
or ball-supported member. toward the member.

2. Member in The possibility exists for a

contact with force F tangent to the

rough surface surface (friction force) to act

on the member, as well as a
normal force N.

3. Roller or A lateral force P exerted

wheel support by the guide on the wheel
with lateral can exist, in addition to the
constraint normal force N.

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4. Ball-and-socket joint A ball-and-socket joint
free to pivot about the
center of the ball can
support a force R with all
three components.

5. Fixed In addition to the three

connection components of force, a

(embedded or fixed connection can

support a couple M
welded)
represented by its three
components.
6. Thrust-bearing support Thrust bearing is capable of supporting axial force
Ry as radial forces Rx and Rz. couples Mx and MZ
must, in some cases, be assumed zero in order to
provide statical determinancy.

Categories of Equilibrium in three-dimension

Application of the above equations falls into four categories which we identify with the aid of figure
below. These categories differ in the number and type (force or moment) of independent equilibrium
equations required to solve the problem.

Category 1- equilibrium of forces all concurrent at point O, requires all three force equations, but
no moment equations because the moment of the forces about any axis through O is zero.

Category 2- equilibrium of forces which are concurrent with a line, requires all equations except
the moment about that line, which is automatically satisfied.

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Category 3- equilibrium of parallel forces, requires only one force equation, the one in the direction
of the forces (x-direction as shown), and two moment equations about the axes (y and z) which are
normal to direction of the forces.

Category 4- equilibrium of a general system of forces, requires all three force equations and all
three equations.
Force System Free-Body Diagram Independent Equations
1.Concurrent
at a point

F x 0
F y 0
F z 0

2. concurrent
with a line

F x 0 M y 0
F y 0 M z 0
F z 0

3.Parallel

F x 0 M y 0
M z 0

4.General

F x 0 M x 0
F y 0 M y 0
F z 0 M z 0

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Example-3.3

The uniform 7-m steel shaft has a mass of 200 kg and is supported by a ball-and-socket joint at A
in the horizontal floor. The ball end B rests against the smooth vertical walls as shown. Compute
the forces exerted by the walls and the floor on the ends of the shaft.

Solution: - Free body diagram

The shaft is first drawn where the contact forces acting on the shaft at B are shown normal to the
wall surfaces. The reaction force exerted by the floor on the ball joint at A is represented by its x-,
y-, and z- components.

m
W  mg  (200kg )(9.81 )  1962 N
s2

The vertical position of B is found from right

angle triangle BOA for which line OA lies on
the horizontal plane.

AB 2  OA2  OB 2  OB  AB 2  OA2
OA  62  22  40  6.325
AB  7 and OB  h
h  7 2  6.3252  3m

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Vector Solution. We will use A as a moment center to eliminate the forces at A. the position vectors
needed to compute the moments about A are

rAG  1i  3 j  1.5k and rAB  2i  6 j  3k

Where the mass center G is located halfway between A and B.

The vector moment equation gives

  M A  0  rAB  ( Bx  By )  rAG  W  0
(2i  6 j  3k )  ( Bxi  By j )  (1i  3 j  1.5k )  (1962k )  0
i j k i j k
2 6 3  1 3 1.5
Bx By 0 0 0 1962
(3By  5890)i  (3Bx  1962) j  (2 By  6 Bx )k  0

Equating the coefficients of i, j , and k to zero and solving give

3Bx  1962  0  Bx  654 N

3By  5890  0  By  1962 N

The force at A are easily determined by

  F  0 (654  Ax )i  (1962  Ay ) j  (1962  Az ) k  0

654  Ax  0  Ax  654 N
1962  Ay  0  Ay  1962 N
-1962  Az  0  Az  1962 N
Finally A  Ax 2  Ay 2  Az 2  (654) 2  (1962) 2  (1962) 2
 2850N

Scalar solution. Evaluating the scalar moment equations about axes through A parallel,
respectively, to the x- and y-axes, gives

  M Ax  0  1962(3)  3By  By  1962 N

 M A  0  1962(1)  3Bx  0  Bx  654 N
 y 

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The force equation give, simply
 Fx  0  Ax  654  0  Ax  654 N
 Fy  0  Ay  1962  0  Ay  1962 N
 Fx  0 Az  1962  0  Az  1962 N

Example. 3.4.
The welded tubular frame is secured to the horizontal x-y plane by a ball-and-socket joint at A and
receives support from the loose-fitting ring at B. under the action of the 2-KN load, rotation about
a line from A to B is prevented by the cable CD, and the frame is stable in the position shown.
Neglect the weight of the frame compared with the applied load and determine the tension T in the
cable, the reaction at the ring, and the reaction components at A.

Solution: - Free body diagram

The ring reaction is shown in terms of its two components at B. a
ball-and-socket joint at A have three component reaction forces.
And also, the tension force T in the cable modeled in the direction
away from frame.
All unknowns except T may be eliminated by a moment sum
about the line AB. the direction of AB is specified by the unit
vector n along the line AB.
(4.5  0) j  (6  0)k
nAB   0.6 j  0.8k
(4.5  0)2  (6  0) 2

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The moment of T about AB is the component in the
direction of AB of the vector moment about the point
A and equals r1  T  nAB . Similarly the moment of the

applied load F about AB is r2  F  nAB .

The vector expressions for T, F, r1, r2 are

(1  (3))i  (2.5  0) j  (0  6)k

T  T  nCD  T (
(1  (3)) 2  (2.5  0) 2  (0  6) 2
T
T (2i  2.5 j  6k )
46.2
F  2 j kN r1  (1  0)i  (2.5  0) j  i  2.5 j
r2  (2.5  0)i  (6  0)k  2.5i  6k

The moment equation now becomes

 M AB  0
T
(i  2.5 j )  (2i  2.5 j  6k )  (0.6i  0.8 j )  (2.5i  6k )  (2 j)  (0.6i  0.8 j)  0
46.2

Completion of the vector operations gives

48T
  20  0  T  2.83 kN
46.2

We may find the remaining unknowns by moment and force summations as follows:

  M z  0  2(2.5)  4.5Bx  1.042(3)  0  Bx  0.417 kN

  M x  0  4.5Bz  2(6)  1.042(6)  0  Bz  4.06 kN
  Fx  0  Ax  0.417  0.833  0  Ax  1.250 kN
  Fy  0  Ay  2  1.042  0  Ay  3.04 kN
  Fz  0  Az  4.06  2.50  0  Az  1.556 kN

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Exercise
3.4 The bent rod is supported at A by a journal bearing, at D by a ball-and-socket joint, and at
B by means of cable BC. Using only one equilibrium equation, obtain a direct solution for
the tension in cable BC. The bearing at A is capable of exerting force components only in
the z and y directions since it is properly aligned on the shaft.

3.5 The vertical mast supports the 4 kN force and is connected strained by the two fixed cables
BC and BD and by a ball-and-socket at A. calculate the tension T1 in BD. Can this be
accomplished by using only one equation of equilibrium?

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3.6 Determine the tensions TAE and TGF in the two supporting cables resulting from the 1.2 kN
tension in cable CD. Assume the absence of any resisting moments on the pole at O about
the x- and y-axes, but not about the z-axis.

3.7 The member is supported by a pin at A and a cable BC. If the load at D is 30 kN, determine
the components of reaction at the pin A and the tension in cable BC.

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CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE STRUCTURES
4.1. Introduction
In this chapter we focus on the determination of the forces internal to a structure, that is, forces of
action and reaction between the connected members. An engineering structure is any connected
system of members built to support or transfer forces and to safely withstand the loads applied to it.
To determine the forces internal to an engineering structure, we must dismember the structure and
analyze separate free-body diagrams of individual members or combinations of members.

We analyze the internal forces acting in several types of structures, namely, trusses, frames and
machines. In this treatment we consider only statically determinate structures, which do not have
more supporting constraints than are necessary to maintain an equilibrium configuration.

The analysis of trusses, frames and machines, and beams under concentrated loads constitutes a
straightforward application of the material developed in the previous two chapter.

4.2. PLANE TRUSSES

The truss is one of the major types of engineering structures. A framework composed of members
joined at their end to form a rigid structure is called a truss. Bridges, roof supports, derricks, and
other such structures are commonly examples of trusses.

It is an assemblage of straight members connected at their ends by flexible connections, and

subjected to loads and reactions only at the joints. When the members of truss lie essentially in a
single plane, the truss is called a plane truss. The basic element of a plane truss is the triangle.

Fig. 4.1 Plane Truss

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Trusses consist exclusively of straight members connected at joints located at the ends of each
member. Members of a truss, therefore, are two-force members, that is, members each acted upon
by two equal and opposite forces directed along the member.

Simple Trusses

If three members are pin connected at their ends they form a triangular truss that will be rigid, Fig
4.2. Attaching two more members and connecting these members to a new joint D forms a larger
truss, Fig 4.3. This procedure can be repeated as many times as desired to form an even larger truss.
If a truss can constructed by expanding the basic triangular truss in this way, it is called a simple
truss.

Fig 4.2 Fig 4.3

To design a truss we must first determine the forces in the various members and then select
appropriate sizes and structural shapes to withstand the forces. Several assumptions are made in the
force analysis of simple trusses. First, we assume all members to be two-force members. Each
member of a truss is normally a straight link joining the two points of application of forces. The two
forces are applied at the ends of the member and are necessarily equal, opposite, and collinear for
equilibrium.

The member may be in tension or compression. When we represent the equilibrium of a portion of
a two-force member, the tension T or compression C acting on the cut section is the same for all
sections.

Tension Compression

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Truss connections and supports

When welded or riveted connections are used to join structural members, we may usually
assume that the connection is a pin joint if the centerlines of the members are concurrent at the
joints.

We also assume in the analysis of simple trusses that all external forces are applied at the pin
connections.

Two methods for the analysis of simple trusses

1. Method of joints
2. Method of sections

4.2.1. METHOD OF JOINTS

In order to analyze or design a truss, it is necessary to determine the force in each of its members.
One way to do this is to use the method of joints. This method is based on the fact that if the entire
truss in equilibrium, then each of its joints is also in equilibrium. Therefore, if the free-body diagram
of each joint is drawn, the force equilibrium equations can then be used to obtain the member force
acting on each joint. Since the members of a plane are straight two-force members lying in a single
plane, each joint is subjected to a force system that is coplanar and concurrent. As a result, we use
only two independent equilibrium equations.

F x 0 F y 0

For example, consider a truss member supported by pin at A and roller at D shown on fig 4.4 (a).
Then the free-body diagram of a truss as a whole shown on fig 4.4 (b). The external reactions are
usually determined first, by applying the equilibrium equations to the truss as a whole.

We begin the analysis with any joint where at least one known load exists and where not more than
two unknown forces are present.

With the joints indicated by letters, we usually designate the force in each member by the two letters
defining the ends of the member.

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(a) (b) (c)

Fig 4.4

1. 2.

Joint F
4.

Joint A
3.
Joint C
5.

Joint E
6.

Joint B Joint C

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Example - 4.1
Compute the force in each member of the loaded truss by the method of joints.

Solution: - Free-body diagram

A free-body diagram of the entire truss is drawn; external forces acting on this free body consist
of the applied loads and the reactions at A and C. we write the following equilibrium equations,

M C  0 Ay (8m)  30kN (4m)  20kN (4m)  0

Ay  25kN 
F x 0 C x  20kN  0  Cx  20kN 
F y 0 C y  Ay  30  0  C y  5kN 

Internal Analysis
Joint A: - this joint is subjected to only two unknown forces, namely, the forces exerted by
members AB and AD, and at least one known external reaction force Ay.

F y 0 FAD sin 450  25kN  0  FAD  35.36kN (C )

F x 0  FAD cos 450  FAB  0  FAB  25kN (T )

Joint B: - Since the force exerted by member AB has been determined, only
two unknown forces are now involved at this joint.

F x 0  FAB  FBC  0  FBC  25kN (T )

F y 0 FBD  0

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Joint C: - Since the force exerted by member BC has been determined, only one unknown force
are now involved at this joint.

F y 0 FCD sin 450  5kN  0  FCD  7.071 (C )

Check
F x 0  FCD cos 450  FBC  Cx  0
 FCD cos 450  25kN  20kN  0  FCD  7.071kN (C )

Example - 4.2.
Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss. All triangles are equilateral.

Solution: - Free-body diagram

A free-body diagram of the entire truss is drawn; external forces acting on this free body consist
of the applied loads and the reactions at A and C. we write the following equilibrium equations,
Take all the length of triangle L

L 3L
M A  0 N C sin 600 (2 L)  12kN ( L)  6kN ( )  10( )  0
2 2
N C  17.32kN
F x 0 Ax  NC cos 600  0
Ax  17.32cos 600  0  Ax  8.66kN 
F y 0 N C sin 600  Ay  12  6  10  0  Ay  13kN 

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Internal Analysis
Joint A: - this joint is subjected to only two unknown forces, namely, the forces exerted by
members AB and AE, and known external reaction force Ax and Ay.

F y 0  FAE sin 600  Ay  0

 FAE sin 600  13kN  0  FAE  15.01kN (T )
F x 0 FAE cos 600  FAB  Ax  0
15.01cos 600  FAB  8.66 kN  FAB  16.165kN (C )
Joint E: - Since the force exerted by member AE has been determined, only two unknown forces
are now involved at this joint.

F y 0 FAE sin 600  6kN  FBE sin 600  0

15.01sin 600  6kN  FBE sin 600  0  FBE  8.08kN (C )
F x 0  FAE cos 600  FED  FBE cos 600  0
 15.01cos 600  FED  8.08cos 600  FED  11.545kN (T )
Joint C: - this joint is subjected to only two unknown forces, namely, the forces exerted by
members BC and CD, and at least one known external reaction force NC is exerted.

F
y 0  FCD sin 600  NC sin 600  0
 FCD sin 600  17.32sin 600  0  FCD  17.32kN (T)
F
x 0  FBC  FCD cos 60o  NC cos 600  0
 FBC  17.32cos 60o  17.32cos 600  FBC  17.32kN (C )
Joint D: - Since the force exerted by member DE and CD has been determined, only one
unknown force are now involved at this joint.

F x 0 FDE  FBD cos 60o  FCD cos 600  0

 11.545kN  FBD cos 60o  17.32cos 600  0
FBD  5.77 kN (C )

Joint B: for checking the final force member

F x  0 16.165  17.32  8.08cos 600  5.77cos 60o  0

F y 0  12  8.08sin 60o  5.77sin 600  0

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EXERCISE

4.1 Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss. All triangles are isosceles.

4.2 Determine the greatest force P that can be applied to the truss so that none of the members
are subjected to a force exceeding 1.5 KN in tension and 1KN in compression.

4.3 Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss supported by pin at A and roller
support at C.

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4.2.2. METHOD OF SECTIONS
When we need to find the force in only a few members of a truss, we can analyze the truss using the
method of sections. If the force within the members are to be determined, then an imaginary section,
can be used to cut each member into two parts and thereby “expose” each internal force as “external”
to the free-body diagrams. In choosing a section of the truss, we note that, in general, not more than
three members whose forces are unknown should be cut, since there are only three available
independent equilibrium relations.
The method of sections can also be used to “cut” or section the members of an entire truss. If the
section passes through the truss and the free-body diagram of either of its two parts is drawn, we can
then apply the equations of equilibrium to that the part to determine the member forces at the “cut”
section. “Since only three independent equilibrium equations F x  0,  Fy  0,  M O  0 can be

applied to the free-body diagram of any segment, then we should try to select a section that, in
general, passes through not more than three members in which the forces are unknowns.
For example, consider the truss in Fig. (a) below. Let us determine the force in the member BE, for
example. An imaginary section, indicated by the dashed line, is passed through the truss cutting it
into two parts in Fig. (b). this section has cut three members whose forces are initially unknown. In
order for the portion of the truss on each side of the section to remain in equilibrium, it is necessary
to apply to each cut member the force which was exerted on it by the member cut.

(a) (b)

Always assume that the unknown member forces at the cut section are tensile forces, i.e. “pulling”
on member. By doing this, the numerical solution of the equilibrium equations will yield positive
scalars for members in tension and negative scalars for members in compression.

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Example-4.3

Calculate the forces induced in members EF and FH on the truss.

Solution: - A free-body diagram of the entire truss is drawn; external forces acting on this free
body consist of the applied loads and the reactions at B and J. we write the following equilibrium
equations,

M  0 B J y (32m)  28kN (8m)  28kN (24m)  16kN (10)  0  J y  33kN 

F  0x Bx  16kN  0  Bx  16kN 
F  0y By  J y  28  28  0  By  23kN 

Force in Member EF. Section 1-1 is passed through the truss so that it intersects member EF and
only two additional members. After the intersected members have been removed, the left-hand
portion of the truss is chosen as a free body. Three unknowns are involved.

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F y 0  FEF  By  28kN  0
 FEF  23kN  28kN  0  FEF  5kN (C )
Force in Member FH. Section 2-2 is passed through the truss so that it intersects member FH and
only two additional members. After the intersected members have been removed, the right-hand
portion of the truss is chosen as a free body. Three unknowns are involved.

M G  0  FFH (10m)  33kN (8m)  0  FFH  26.4kN (T )

Example. 4.4
Calculate the force in member CH of the Howe roof truss supported by pin support at A and roller
support at B.

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Solutions: - A free-body diagram of the entire truss is drawn; external forces acting on this free
body consist of the applied loads and the reactions at A and E. we write the following equilibrium
equations,

M  0 A E y (16m)  20kN (4m)  20kN (8m)  40kN (12)  0  E y  45kN 

F  0
x Ax  0
F  0
y A y  E y  30  20  20  40  0  Ay  65kN 

Force in member CH. It is not possible to pass a section through CH without cutting four members
whose forces are unknown. For example section 1-1 cuts through HG, DH, CH, and BC. Therefore
the four unknown force members cannot be obtained from three equilibrium equations. Due to these
it is necessary to consider another additional section 2-2 to minimize the number of unknowns on
section 1-1.

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Section 2-2. After the intersected members have been removed, the right-hand portion of the truss
is chosen as a free body. Three unknowns are involved.

F y 0 FDH sin 45o  40kN  E y  0

FDH sin 45o  40kN  45kN  0  FDH  7.071kN (T )

Section 1-1. After the intersected members have been removed, the right-hand portion of the truss
is chosen as a free body. Three unknowns are involved.

F y 0 FDH sin 45o  40kN  E y  FCH  0

7.071sin 45o  40kN  45kN  FCH  0
FCH  10kN (C )

Exercise

4.4 Determine the force in member DJ of the loaded truss supported by pin at A and roller at G.

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4.5 Determine the applied load P on the truss so that member BC subjected to internal tension
force of 7.6905 kN. Use Support at A pin and at B rocker.

4.3. FRAMES

A structure is called a frame if at least one of its individual members is a multi-force member. A
multi-force member is defined as one with three or more forces acting on it, or one with two or more
forces and one or more couples acting on it. Frames are structures which are designed to support
applied loads and are usually fixed in position.
The forces acting on each member of a connected system are found by isolating the member with a
free-body diagram and applying the equations of equilibrium.
Example-4.5
Compute the forces acting on all of its members.

Solution: - Consequently the external reactions cannot be completely determined until the
individual members are analyzed. However, we can determine the vertical components of the
reactions at A and D from the free body diagram of the frame as a whole. Thus,

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0.65
M A  0 Dy (
sin 60 o
m)  800 N (0.95cos30o m)  0

Dy  877.57 N 
F y 0 A y  Dy  800 N  0
Ay  877.57 N  800 N  77.57 N 

Next we dismember the frame and draw the free-body diagram of each part.

Member AC. The two unknowns are easily obtained by

M A  0 FB (0.65m)  800 N (0.95cos30o )  0 FB  1013N

M B  0 Ax (0.65sin 30o )  800(0.3cos30o )  77.57 N (0.65cos30o )  0  Ay  505.17 N

FA  Ax 2  Ay 2  77.572  505.172  512N

Member BD. Since FB is known, we solve for FD.

FB  FD  1013N

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CHAPTER FIVE
CENTROID
5.1.CENTER OF MASS AND CENTROIDS
5.1.1. Center of mass
Consider a three-dimensional body of any size and shape, having a mass m. if we suspend the body,
as shown in fig. below, from any point such as A, B and C, the body will be in equilibrium under
the action of the tension in the cord and the resultant W of the gravitational forces acting on all
particles of the body. For all practical purposes these lines of action will be concurrent at a single
point G, which is called the center of gravity of the body.

Determining the center of gravity

A body is composed of an infinite number of particles of differential size, and so if the body is
located within a gravitational field, then each of these particles will have a weight dW . These
weight will form an approximately parallel force system, and the resultant of this system is the total
weight of the body, which passes through a single point called the center of gravity (G).

To determine mathematically the location of the center of gravity of any body, fig. below, we apply
the principle of moments to the parallel system of gravitational forces. The moment of the resultant
gravitational force W about any axis equals the sum of the moments about the same axis of the
gravitational forces dW acting on all particles treated as infinitesimal elements of the body.

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The resultant of the gravitational forces acting on all elements
is the weight of the body and is given by the sum W   dW . If

we apply the moment principle about the y-axis, for example,

the moment about this axis of the elemental weight is x dW ,
and the sum of these moments for all elements of the body is

 x dW . This sum of moments must equal W x, the moment of

the sum.

Thus, x W   x dW

With similar expressions for the other two components, we may express the coordinate of the center
of gravity G as

x  x dW y  y dW z  z dW
W W W

With the substitution of W  mg and dW  g dm , the expressions for the coordinates of the center
of gravity become

x  x dm y  y dm z  z dm
m m m

5.1.2. Centroids

Centroid is the center of mass of an object of uniform density. When the density  of a body is
uniform throughout, it will be a constant factor in both the numerators and denominators of the
above equations and will therefore cancel. The expressions define a purely geometrical property of
the body, since any reference to its mass properties has disappeared.

The calculation of centroids falls within three distinct categories, depending on whether we can
model the shape of the body involved as a line, an area, or a volume.

1) LINES- for a slender rod or wire of length L, cross-sectional area A, and density ρ

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dm   A dL

x  x dL y  y dL z  z dL
L L L

2) AREAS- when a body of density  has a small but constant thickness t, we can model it
as a surface area A.

dm   t dA

x  x dA y  y dA z  z dA
A A A

3) Volumes. For a general body of volume V and density  , the element has a mass dm   dV

x  x dV y  y dV z  z dV
V V V
Procedure for Analysis

 Select an appropriate coordinate system, specify the coordinate axes, and then choose a
differential element for integration.
 For lines the element is represented by a differential line segment of length dL.
 For areas the element is a rectangle of area dA of a finite length and a differential width
 For volumes the element can be a circular disk of volume dV
 Locate the element so that it touches the arbitrary point (x,y,z) on the curve that defines
the boundary of the shape.

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Example-5.1

Determine the distance y measured from the x axis to the centroid of the area of the triangle in fig.
(a)

Solution: - Differential Element. Consider a rectangular element having a thickness dy , and

located in an arbitrary position so that it intersects the boundary at (x, y), fig. b. above.

b
Area and Moment Arms. The area of the element is dA  x dy  (h  y )dy , and its centroid is
h
located at a distance y% y from the x-axis.

Integration. Applying the second area centroid equations and integrating with respect to y yields.

b 
 y  (h  y )dy  1 2
y
 A
y dA

A
h  6
bh

 A
dA b
A h (h  y)dy
1
bh
2

h
y
3

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5.2.CENTROIDS OF COMPOSITE BODIES

If the body is a composite of several shapes, each having a known location for its centroid, then the
location of centroid of the body can be determined from a discrete summation using its composite
parts.

A composite body consists of a series of connected “simpler” shaped bodies, which may be
rectangular, triangular, semicircular etc. such a body can often be sectioned or divided into its
composite parts.

X
x Ai i
Y
yi Ai
A i  Ai
E.g-5.2 Determine the location of the centroid of composite body.

Solution: - The composite area is divided into the four elementary shapes shown in the lower figure.
The area is obtained by adding a rectangle, a triangle and by then subtracting two half and quarter
circles. Using the coordinate axes shown, the area and the coordinates of the centroid of each of the
component areas are determined and entered in the table below. The area of two half and quarter
circles are indicated as negative, since the holes are to be subtracted from the other areas.

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The first moments of the component areas with respect to the coordinate axes are computed and
entered in the table.
Part-1 (Rectangular)

A  b  h  (13m)(9m)  117m 2
b 13m
x   3m   3m  3.5m
2 2
h 9m
y   4.5m
2 2

Part-2 (Triangular)

1 1
A  b  h  (3m)(9m)  13.5m 2
2 2
b 3m
x  10m   10m   11m
3 3
h 9m
y   3m
3 3

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Part-3 (half circle)

 r2  (5m) 2
A   39.27m 2
2 2
x  r  5m
4r 4(5m)
y  9m   9m   6.876m
3 3

Part-4 (Quarter circle)

 r2  (3m) 2
A   7.069m 2
4 4
4r 4(3m)
x  (3m  )  (3m  )  1.727 m
3 3
4r 4(3m)
y   1.273m
3 3

The calculations are tabulated as follows:

Part A (m 2 ) x (m) y (m) Ax (m3 ) Ay (m3 )

1 117 3.5 4.5 409.5 526.5
2 13.5 11 3 148.5 40.5
3 -39.27 5 6.878 -196.35 -270.099
4 -7.069 -1.727 1.273 12.2082 -8.999

 84.161 373.858 287.902

X
x A
i i

373.858 m3
 4.442 m Y
yi Ai 287.902 m3
  3.421m
A i 84.161 m2  i
A 84.161 m 2

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EXERCISE

5.1 Locate the centroid of composite area

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CHAPTER SIX
AREA MOMENTS OF INERTIA
6.1. Introduction
When forces are distributed continuously over an area on which they act, it is often necessary to
calculate the moment of these forces about some axis either in or perpendicular to the plane of the
area. The intensity of the force (pressure or stress) is proportional to the distance of the force from
the moment axis. The elemental force acting on an element of area, then is proportional to distance
times differential area, and the elemental moment is proportional to distance squared times
differential area. We see, therefore that the total moment involves an integral that has the form

 (dis tan ce)

2
d (area) . This integral is known as the moment of inertia or the second moment of

the area.

dF    dA  ky  dA
dM  y.dF  y (ky  dA)  ky 2  dA
M   dM   ky 2dA  k  y 2dA

 y dA is called second moment of area

2
The term

or area moment of inertia of the cross-section.

6.2. Rectangular and Polar Moments of Inertia

Consider the area A in the x-y plane, the moments of inertia of the element dA about the x- and y-
axes are dI x  y 2dA and dI y  x 2dA , respectively. They are called rectangular moments of inertia.

The moments of inertia of A about the same axes are therefore

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I x   y 2dA
I y   x 2dA

The moment of inertia of dA about the pole O (z-axis) is, by similar definition, dI z  r 2dA . This is
referred to as the polar moments of inertia. The moment of inertia of the entire area about O is

I z   r 2dA

x 2  y 2  r 2 Multiply both sides by  dA

 x dA   y dA   r dA
2 2 2

Ix  I y  Iz

RADIUS OF GYRATION

Consider an area A, which has rectangular moments of inertia I x and I y and a polar moment of

inertia I z about O. we now visualize this area as concentrated into a long narrow strip of area A a

distance k x from the x-axis. By definition the moment of inertia of the strip about the x-axis will be

the same as that of the original area if kx 2 A  I x . The distance k x is called the radius of gyration of
the area about x-axis.

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Ix
I x  kx2 A kx 
A
Iy
I y  ky2 A or ky  kz 2  kx 2  k y 2
A
Iz
I z  kz 2 A kz 
A
TRANSFER OF AXIS

The parallel-axis theorem can be used to find the moment of inertia of an area about any axis that
is parallel to an axis passing through the centroid and about which the moment of inertia is known.
Let us now determine the moments of inertia of the area about the parallel x-y axes. By definition,
the moment of inertia of the element dA about the x-axis is

dI x  ( yo  d x )2 dA Expanding and int egrating

I x   yo 2 dA  2d x  yo dA  d x 2  dA

The second integral is zero, since y

o dA  A yo

and yo is automatically zero with the centroid on

the xo-axis.

I x  I x  Ad x 2
I y  I y  Ad y 2

The sum of this two equation gives

I z  I z  Ad 2
Two points in particular should be noted.

1. The axis between which the transfer is made must be parallel

2. One of the axes must pass through the centroid of the area.

If a transfer is desired between two parallel axes neither of which passes through the centroid, it is
first necessary to transfer from one axis to the parallel centroidal axis and then to transfer from the
centroidal axis to the second axis.

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Example-6.1
Determine the moment of inertia for the rectangular area shown in Fig. below with respect to a)
The centroidal x ' axis b) the axis xb passing through the base of the rectangle,

c) The pole or z ' axis perpendicular to the x ' y ' plane and passing through the centroid C.

Solution: - a). The differential element shown in the above fig. is chosen for integration. Because
of its location and orientation, the entire element is at a distance y ' from the x ' axis. here it is
h h
necessary to integrate from y '  to y '  . sin ce dA  b dy ', then
2 2
h h
I x '   y '2 dA  2h y '2 (b dy ') b 2h y '2 dy '
A
2 2

1 3
I x' 
bh
12
b) The moment of inertia about an axis passing through the base of the rectangle can be
obtained by using the above result of part (a) and applying the parallel-axis theorem.

I xb  I x '  Ad y 2
1 3 h 1

bh  bh( )  bh3
12 2 3
c) to obtain the polar moment of inertia about point C, we must first obtain I y ' which may
be found by interchanging the dimensions of b and h in the result of part (a), i.e.,
1 3
I y'  hb
12
The polar moment of inertia about C is therefore
1
I z  I x'  I y'  bh(h 2  b 2 )
12

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COMPOSITE AREAS

The moment of inertia of a composite area about a particular axis is simply the sum of the moments
of inertia of its component parts about the same axis.

It is often convenient to regard a composite area as being composed of positive and negative parts,
we may then treat the moment of inertia of a negative area as a negative quantity.

When a composite area is composed of a large number of parts, it is convenient to tabulate the
results for each of the parts in terms of its area A, its centroidal moment of inertia I, the distance d
from its centroidal axis to the axis about wich the moment of inertia of the entire section is being
computed, and the product Ad2.

part Area, A dx dy Ad x 2 Ad y 2 Ix Iy

sums A  Ad x
2
 Ad y
2
I x I y

I x   I x   Ad x 2
I y   I y   Ad y 2

I
The radius of gyration for the composite area about the axis is given by k  , where I is the
A
total moment of inertia of the composite area. Similarly, the radius of gyration k about a polar axis

Iz
through some point equals k z  , where I z  I x  I y for x-y axes through that point.
A

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Example 6.2.
Find
A. The rectangular moments of inertia about X and Y axis.
B. The rectangular moments of inertia about X' and Y' axis that pass through the centroid of
composite body.
C. Polar moments of inertia about the origin and the centroid of the composite body.
D. Rectangular and polar radius of gyration about the origin and the centroid of composite
body.

Solution: - The composite area is divided into the four elementary shapes shown in the lower
figure.

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The moment of inertia of each component areas are computed and entered in the table below.

Part-1 (Rectangular)

A  b  h  (13m)(9m)  117m 2
b 13m
x   3m   3m  3.5m
2 2
h 9m
y   4.5m
2 2
1 1
I x  bh3  (13m)(9m)3  789.75m 4
12 12
2
I x  I x  Ay  789.75m 4  (117m 2 )(4.5m) 2  3159m 4
1 3 1
Iy  b h  (13m)3 (9m)  1647.75m 4
12 12
2
I y  I y  Ax  1647.75m 4  (117m 2 )(3.5m) 2  3081m 4

Part-2 (Triangular)

1 1
A  b  h  (3m)(9m)  13.5m 2
2 2
b 3m
x  10m   10m   11m
3 3
h 9m
y   3m
3 3
1 1
I x  bh3  (3m)(9m)3  60.75m 4
36 36
2
I x  I x  Ay  60.75m 4  (13.5m 2 )(3m) 2  182.25m 4
1 3 1
Iy  b h  (3m)3 (9m)  6.75m 4
36 36
I y  I y  Ax  6.75m 4  (13.5m 2 )(11m) 2  1640.25m 4

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Part-3 (half circle)

 r2  (5m)2
A   39.27m 2
2 2
x  r  5m
4r 4(5m)
y  9m   9m   6.876m
3 3
 8   8 
I x      r 4      (5m)4  68.598m4
 8 9   8 9 
2
I x  I x  Ay  68.598  (39.27)(6.876)2  1925.3m 4
 r4  (5m)4
Iy     245.44m 4
8 8
2
I y  I y  Ax  245.44  (39.27)(5)2  1227.19m4

Part-4 (Quarter circle)

 r2  (3m) 2
A   7.069m 2
4 4
4r 4(3m)
x  (3m  )  (3m  )  1.727 m
3 3
4r 4(3m)
y   1.273m
3 3
 4  4  4 
Ix  I y    r     (3m)  4.445m
4 4

 16 9   16 9 
2
I x  I x  Ay  4.445m 4  (7.069m 2 )(1.273m) 2  15.9m 4
2
I y  I y  Ax  4.445m 4  (7.069m 2 )(1.727m) 2  25.53m 4

The calculations are tabulated as follows:

Part A (m 2 ) x (m) y (m) Ax (m3 ) Ay (m3 ) I x ( m4 ) I y (m 4 ) I x (m4 ) I y (m4 )

1 117 3.5 4.5 409.5 526.5 789.75 1647.75 3159 3081

2 13.5 11 3 148.5 40.5 60.75 6.75 182.25 1640.25
3 -39.27 5 6.878 -196.35 - -68.598 -245.44 -1925.3 -
270.099 1227.19
4 -7.069 -1.727 1.273 12.2082 -8.999 -4.445 -4.445 -15.9 -25.53

 84.161 373.858 287.902 1400.05 3468.53

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A. The rectangular moments of inertia about X and Y axis.
I X  1400.05 m4 and IY  3468.53 m4

B. The rectangular moments of inertia about X' and Y' axis that pass through the centroid of
composite body.

By using parallel axis theorem

2
I X  I X  AY  1400.05m4  (84.161m2 )(3.421m)2  415.09m4
2
IY  IY  AX  3468.53m4  (84.161m2 )(4.442m)2  1807.92m4
C. Polar moments of inertia about the origin and the centroid of the composite body
Polar moment of inertia about the origin
I Z  I X  IY  1400.05m 4  3468.53m 4  4868.58m 4
Polar moment of inertia about the centroid of composite body
I Z  I X  IY  415.09m 4  1807.92m 4  2223.01m 4

D. Rectangular and polar radius of gyration about the origin and the centroid of composite body

IX 1400.05m 4 IX 415.09m 4
kx    4.08m kx    2.22m
A 84.161m 2 A 84.161m 2
IY 3468.53m 4 IY 1807.92m 4
ky    6.42m ky    4.64m
A 84.161m 2 A 84.161m 2
IZ 4868.58m 4 IZ 2223.01m 4
kZ    7.61m kZ    5.14m
A 84.161m 2 A 84.161m 2

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EXERCISE

6.1 calculate the moment of inertia and radius of gyration for the shaded area

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