Chapter 3: Complex Numbers © Lee @ KLIUC

CHAPTER 3: COMPLEX NUMBERS

3.1: Introduction
 If a real number is squared, the answer cannot be negative.
For example, squaring both 7 and  7 , the result is
positive. That is 7 2  49 and (7) 2  49 . It is impossible
to obtain a negative result by squaring a real number.

 Consider a new sort of number, say j, with the property

that j 2  1 and follows that j   1 . The number j
cannot be a real number because its square is negative.

 We call j as imaginary number and we can use this to

write the square root of any negative number.

e.g.: Write down expressions for the square roots of

(a) 9 (b)  9
solution:
(a) 9  3
(b) Noting that  9  9  1, we can write
 9  9  1
 9   1  3   1
Then using the fact that 1  j , we have
 9  3 j
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e.g.: Using the fact that j 2  1, simplify

(a) j 3 (b) j 4
solution:
(a) j 3  j 2  j
 1 j   j ; since j 2  1
(b) j 4  j 2  j 2
 (1)  (1)  1

 Using the imaginary number j, it is possible to solve all

quadratic equations

e.g.: Solve the quadratic equation x 2  10 x  29  0 .

solution:
 b  b 2  4ac
We use the formula x  . With a  1, b  10
2a
and c  29 , we find
 (10)  (10) 2  4(1)(29) 10  100  116
x 
2(1) 2
10   16 10  16 j
 
2 2
10  4 j
x  5 2 j
2

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 In the previous example, the solutions ( 5  2 j ) known as

complex numbers.

If z is a complex number then we write

z  a  bj
where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.

e.g.: State the real and imaginary parts of  11 19 j

solution:
The real part is:  11 and the imaginary part is:  19

 Two complex numbers are equal only when their real

parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. So, if
a  bj is equal to 3  2 j it follows that a  3 and b  2 .

 If z  a  bj , its complex conjugate, denoted by z , is

z  a  bj . In general, to find the complex conjugate of a
complex number, the sign of the imaginary part is
changed from + to – , or vice versa.

e.g.: Write down the complex conjugates of each of the

following complex numbers:
(a) z1  11  2 j (b) z 2  7  3 j (c) z3  8 (d) z 4  9 j
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solution:
(a) z1  11  2 j (b) z 2  7  3 j
(c) z3  8 (d) z 4  9 j

3.2: Algebra of Complex Numbers

Addition and Subtraction

If z1  a1  b1 j and z 2  a2  b2 j then
z1  z 2  (a1  a2 )  (b1  b2 ) j
z1  z 2  (a1  a2 )  (b1  b2 ) j

e.g.: If z1  3  11 j and z 2  18  21 j , find

(a) z1  z 2 (b) z 2  z1
solution:
(a) z1  z 2  (3  11 j )  (18  21 j )
 (3  18)  (11  (21)) j  21  10 j
(b) z 2  z1  (18  21 j )  (3  11 j )
 (18  3)  ((21)  11) j  15  32 j

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Multiplication

If z1  a1  b1 j and z 2  a2  b2 j then
z1 z 2  (a1  b1 j )(a2  b2 ) j
 a1a2  a1b2 j  b1a2 j  b1b2 j 2
 (a1a2  b1b2 )  (a1b2  a2 b1 ) j

e.g.: Find z1 z 2 if z1  3  2 j and z 2  5  3 j .

solution:
z1 z 2  (3  2 j )(5  3 j )
 15  9 j  10 j  6 j 2
Simplify the result, we get
z1 z 2  15  9 j  10 j  6  21  j .

e.g.: Find z z if z  a  bj .
solution:
Recall that z is the complex conjugate of z.
z z  (a  bj )(a  bj )
 a 2  abj  baj  b 2 j 2
 a 2  b 2 (1)  a 2  b 2

Note: the result of z z is purely real: multiplying a complex

number by its complex conjugate results in a non-negative
real answer.
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Division

If z1  a1  b1 j and z 2  a2  b2 j then
z1 a1  b1 j

z 2 a2  b2 j
a1  b1 j a2  b2 j
 
a2  b2 j a2  b2 j
a1a2  b1b2  (a2 b1  a1b2 ) j

a22  b22

z1
e.g.: If z1  2  9 j and z 2  5  2 j find .
z2
solution:
Both numerator and denominator are multiplied by the
complex conjugate of the denominator. So
z1 2  9 j 5  2 j
 
z2 5  2 j 5  2 j
10  4 j  45 j  18 j 2

25  4
Simplify the result to produce
z1  8  49 j 8 49
   j
z2 29 29 29

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3.3: The Argand Diagram and Polar Form

3.3.1: The Argand Diagram (Complex Plane)

 The complex number z  a  bj is plotted as a point with

coordinates (a, b) as shown below:
Imaginary axis

z  a  bj
b .
( a, b)

0 a Real axis

 The real part of z is plotted on the horizontal axis (real

axis). The imaginary part of z is plotted on the vertical
axis (imaginary axis).

3.3.2: The Modulus and Argument of a complex number

Modulus
 Consider the Argand diagram below which shows the
complex number z  a  bj .
Imaginary axis
z  a  bj
b . ( a, b)
z r

0 a Real axis
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 The distance of point (a, b) from the origin is known as

the modulus, or magnitude, of the complex number and is
given the symbol r or z . The modulus can be found using
Pythagoras theorem, that is z  a 2  b 2 . The modulus is
never negative.

e.g.: Find the modulus of each of the following complex

numbers:
(a) z  5  12 j (b) z  6  8 j
solution:
(a) z  5  12 j
 52  12 2  25  144  169  13
(b) z   6  8 j
 (6) 2  (8) 2  36  64  100  10

Argument
Consider figure below:
Imaginary axis
b . z  a  bj


0 a Real axis

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 Given a complex number z  a  bj we can calculate the

angle between the positive x axis and a line joining (a, b)
to the origin. This angle is called the argument (arg(z)) of
the complex number. We often use the symbol  .

 This angle is measured so that      , in which case

 is called the principle value of the argument. Angles
measured anticlockwise from the positive x axis are
positive. Angles measured clockwise are negative.

1 . z  1 j
 
4

-1 0 1
 
3

-1
. z  1 3j
-2

Polar Form
 The position of a complex number is uniquely determined
by giving its modulus and argument. This description is
known as the polar form and can be written as
z  r
where r is the modulus and  is the argument.
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3.3.3: The form r (cos   j sin )

Figure below shows the complex number z  a  bj  r.

( a, b)
b

r
b


0 a
a

Using trigonometry, we can write

a b
cos   and sin  
r r
 a  r cos   b  r sin 
Using these results, we can then write z  a  bj as
z  a  bj  r cos   jr sin 
 r (cos   j sin )

e.g.: State the modulus and argument of

z  17(cos 3.2  j sin 3.2) .
solution:
Comparing the given complex number with the standard form
r (cos   j sin ) , we see that r  17 and   3.2 radians.

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e.g.:
(a) Find the modulus and argument of the complex number
z  5 j.
(b) Express 5j in the form r (cos   j sin ) .

solution:
(a) On an Argand diagram the complex number 5j lies on the
positive vertical axis a distance 5 from the origin. Thus 5j
is a complex number with modulus 5 and argument 2 .
(b) z  5 j  5(cos 2  j sin 2 ) .

e.g.: Find the real and imaginary parts of the complex number
z  4( 3 ) and hence express it in the form a  bj .

solution:
z  4( 3 )  modulus = 4, and argument = 3 .
To find the real and imaginary parts, we use
a  r cos   4 cos 3  2 and b  r sin   4 sin 3  3.464
Hence the complex number can be written as z  2  3.464 j .

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3.3.4: Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

 When two complex numbers are given in polar form, it is
simple to multiply and divide them.

If z1  r11 and z 2  r2  2 then

z1 r1
z1 z 2  r1r2 (1   2 ) ,  (1   2 )
z 2 r2
Generally, if z  r then z n  r n n

   
e.g.: If z1  5  and z 2  4   find
6  4
z1
(a) z1 z 2 (b)
z2
solution:
    
(a) z1 z 2  (5)(4)     
 6  4 
 
 20   
 12 

z1 5      
(b)       
z 2 4  6  4 
5 5
 
4 12
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3.4: The Exponential Form of a Complex Number

 To derive the exponential form, we refer to the power
series expansions of cos x, sin x and e x , provided x is
measured in radians.
x2 x4 x3 x5
cos x  1     , sin x  x    
2! 4! 3! 5!
x2 x3 x4 x5
e  1 x     
x

2! 3! 4! 5!
 Suppose x be an imaginary number in the expansion of e x
and write x  j . Hence
j 22 j 3 3 j 4  4 j 5 5
e  1  j 
j
   
2! 3! 4! 5!
2 3  4 5
 1  j   j   j 
2! 3! 4! 5!
Since j 2  1, j 3   j , etc.
By rearrange this to separate the real and imaginary parts,
we get
 2
 4
  3
 5

e j  1      j      
2! 4!  3! 5! 
e j  cos   j sin  (Euler’s relation).
It is straightforward to show that:
e  j  cos   j sin 

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 Euler’s relations can be use to express cos  and sin  in

terms of e j and e  j . From the Euler’s relations, we have
e j  cos   j sin  e  j  cos   j sin 
By adding, and then subtracting these two identities gives
e j + e  j = (cos   j sin )  (cos   j sin )  2 cos 
e j – e  j  (cos   j sin )  (cos   j sin )  2 j sin 
Rearrange the results, we get

e j  e  j e j  e  j
cos   and sin  
2 2j

 The complex number in exponential form is:

z  r (cos   j sin )  re j
z  r (cos   j sin )  re  j

where all angles are measured in radians and not degrees.

e.g.: Express the number z  3  3 j in exponential form.

solution:
We need the modulus and argument of the complex number:
Modulus: r  z  32  32  18 or 3 2 .
Argument:   tan 1  33   4 (Since the complex number lies
in the first quadrant of the Argand diagram).
j 4
Thus, z  3  3 j  18e .
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3.5: De Moivre’s Theorem

 This theorem involves raising the complex number
cos   j sin  to the power n.

De Moivre’s Theorem
cos   j sin n  cos n  j sin n

 Note that by using the theorem expression involving

powers of trigonometrical function can be converted into
one involving trigonometrical functions of multiple
angles.

  
e.g.: If z  7 cos  j sin  find z 2 .
 4 4
solution:
Using De Moivre’s theorem with n  2 , we have
  2 2 
2
 
z  7  cos  j sin   49 cos  j sin 
2 2

 4 4  4 4 
  
 49 cos  j sin 
 2 2
 
 49 j , since cos  0 and sin  1
2 2

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e.g.: If z  cos   j sin  , use De Moivre’s theorem with

1
n  1 to obtain an expression for .
z
solution:
With n  1, we have
z 1  (cos   j sin ) 1  cos()  j sin( )
 z 1  cos   j sin  , since cos  is an even function and
sin  is an odd function.

If z  cos   j sin  then

1 1
zn  n
 2 cos n and zn  n
 2 j sin n
z z

e.g.: If z  cos   j sin  write down expressions for

1 1 1 1
(a) z  (b) z 2  2 (c) z  (d) z2 
z z z z2
solution:
1 1
(a) z   2 cos  (b) z 2  2
 2 cos 2
z z
1 1
(c) z   2 j sin  (d) z 2  2  2 j sin 2
z z

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3.6: Solving Equations and Finding Roots

 By using complex numbers, solutions can be obtained to a

wide range of equations.
 Note that a polynomial equation of degree n possesses n
roots, but some of these can be repeated, or equal roots.
 When solving a quadratic equation we will be looking for
two roots, when solving a cubic equation we will be
looking for three roots, and so on.

e.g.: Solve the equation z 3  5 z  0 .

solution:
This is a polynomial equation of degree 3. We seek three
solutions. The equation can be factorised:
z 3  5 z  z z 2  5  0
So that one solution is z  0 , and others can be obtained by
solving z 2  5  0 .
z 2  5
z   5
  5j
Thus, the solutions of the given equations are z  0 and
z  5j.

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e.g.: Solve the equation z 2  2 z  2  0 .

solution:
This is simply a quadratic equation. Apply the formula we get
 2  2 2  4(1)(2)
z
2(1)
 2 48  2  4
 
2 2
22j
  1  j
2

e.g.: Express the number z  2  j in polar form, and include

the general form for the argument.
solution:
The complex number z  2  j is shown below. Its modulus
is z  2 2  12  5 . Its argument is tan 1  12   0.464 .
However, by adding on multiple of 2 results in the same
complex number so we can write arg( z )  0.464  2k .
Finally, the polar form is z  5  0.464  2k.

1 .z  2 j
5

0 1 2

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e.g.: Solve the equation z 2  2  j .

solution:
In polar form z  r , then z 2  r 2 2 . From the previous
example, z  2  j  5  0.464  2k, therefore
z 2  r 2 2  2  j  5  0.464  2k
 r 2 2  5  0.464  2k
Comparing the moduli on both sides we get
1 1
r 5  r 5 .
2 2 4

Also, comparing the arguments we get,

2  0.464  2k    0.232  k , k  0,1,2,
The two solutions are obtained by letting k  0 and k  1.
When k  0 ,   0.232
When k  1,   0.232  
Hence the two solutions are
1
5 (cos 0.232  j sin 0.232)
4
and
5 cos(0.232  )  j sin(0.232  )
1
4

These solutions are shown in the Argand diagram below:

5
1
4 .
0.232   0.232

.
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e.g.: Solve the equation z 3  4  0 .

solution:
This is a polynomial equation of degree 3. We look for three
solutions. Note that this equation can be written as:
z3  4
We shall show that by working in polar form as it is quite
straightforward to obtain the solution.
Given that z  r then z 3  r 3 3 .
Now express the right-hand side in polar form including the
general term for the argument.
Modulus: r  4
Argument:   tan 1 0  0  2k  2k
4  42k
Therefore, working entirely in polar form, we get
z 3  r 3 3  4  42k  r 3 3  42k
1
Equating moduli on both sides gives r  4 so that r  4 , the
3 3

real cube root of 4 since r is real.

Equating arguments on both side,
2k
3  2k so that   , k  0, 1, 2, 
3
Taking k  0, 1, 2 in turn gives the three solutions
1 1 2 1 4
z  4 0 , z  4 
3 3
, z4 
3

3 3

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