MODULE 5

1. GLOBAL POSITIONONG SYSTEM

Various segments of GPS

There are mainly three segments of GPS (Garg, 2019), as shown in Figure 3.17.
(a) Space segment
(b) Control segment, and
(c) User segment

Figure 1 Various segments of a GPS

(a) Space segment

The space segment includes constellation of NAVSTAR Earth orbiting satellites, generally 24
satellites for full global coverage. Thus, there are four satellites moving in 6 orbital planes, as
shown in Figure 2. The orbital planes are inclined at 550 with respect to equator, such that their
orbits are separated by 600. They revolve around the Earth at the altitude of about 12,000 miles
(˜20,000 km) above Earth’s surface with orbital period of approximately 11 hr 55 minutes (Xu,
2010). This type of configuration provides a greater visibility of five to eight satellites at any
given time from anywhere on the Earth. Some of the important features of the GPS satellites
are given in Table 1.
 Figure 2 Space Segment

Table 1. Important features of GPS satellites

Each satellite carries four precise atomic clocks; only one of which is used at a time. It also
carries three nickel-cadmium batteries, two solar panels, battery charger, S band antenna-
satellite control, and 12 element L band antenna-user control. It has a micro-processor on board
for limited data processing. At a given time, several satellites can send their signals to a GPS
receiver. Each transmission of signal is time-tagged, and contains the satellite’s position. The
time-of-arrival of signal at GPS receiver is compared with the time-of-transmission, and this
time is multiplied by the speed of light to obtain the corresponding distance between that
satellite and GPS receiver. The location of the observer is then determined by the intersection
of several of these ranges.

(b) Control segment

The control segment is administered by the Department of Defence (DoD), US government,
who is responsible for the construction, launching, maintenance and monitoring the
performance and health of all GPS satellites launched by them. One master control station is
established in USA, and several ground monitoring stations and 4 antenna stations throughout
the world, as shown in Figure 3. The DoD monitors these stations and tracks all satellites for
controlling and predicting their orbits. The master control station is responsible for collecting
and tracking the data from the monitoring stations, and computes satellite orbits and clock
parameters. Other monitoring stations are responsible for measuring the pseudo range data.
This orbital tracking network is used by master control station to calculate the satellite
ephemeris and clock correction coefficients, and to forward them to ground antenna. The
satellite tracking data from these monitoring stations are transmitted to the master control
station for processing.
 Figure 3. The control segment

(c) User segment

It is the segment where observations are taken by the users for various uses. It consists of GPS
receiver unit that receives signals from the GPS satellites (Figure 4). The typical receiver is
composed of an antenna and a pre-amplifier, radio signal micro-processor, control and display
device, data recording unit, and power supply. The GPS receivers convert the satellite signals
into position, velocity, and time. The GPS receivers are available in different sizes and shapes.
A receiver is often described by its number of channels, signifying how many satellites it can
monitor simultaneously (Garg, 2021). Presently, the GPS receivers can operate up to 20
channels. The GPS receiver collects two types of data from satellites to get an exact location
i.e., almanac and ephemeris data which are continuously transmitted by the GPS satellites. The
almanac gives the exact status of satellites and its approximate orbital information which are
used to estimate the visibility of satellites. Ephemeris data gives the accurate information about
the orbit of satellite which can be used to calculate the location of a satellite precisely. It is
updated every two hours and usually valid for 4 hours. The receiver collects and stores the data.

Figure 4 . User Segments

3.4.6 Types of GNSS receivers
A wide variety of GPS receivers are commercially available today. Depending upon the type
of application, accuracy requirements and cost, the users can select the type of GNSS receiver
which best meets the requirements. These receivers cover a wide range from the high precision
receivers with built-in atomic clock, to the hand-held navigation receivers, which can give the
precise position to few-metres. Even wrist-watches with built-in GNSS receivers are now
commercially available. Three broad categories of GNSS are explained below (Garg, 2021).

(a) Navigation receivers:

Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GNSS. Navigational receivers are
made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carried by individuals. These are used
for navigation, positioning, time dissemination, measuring atmospheric parameters, surveying,
geodetic control, and plate tectonic studies. These receivers are normally single-frequency, C/A
code, hand-held light weight receivers, which can give the position with a few metres to few
tens of metres accuracy. These receivers are very much portable, weighing only few hundred
grams, and are fairly cheap. Single channel receivers, which can track 4 or more satellites, are
now being replaced by two or five channel receivers. The accuracies in positioning obtained
by these types of receivers are in the range of few tens of metres in absolute positioning 10 (in
the absence of SA), and few tens of cm in relative positioning, over short baselines of few km.

(b) Surveying receivers

The surveying type of receivers are single frequency, multi-channel receivers, which are useful
for most surveying applications, including cadastral mapping applications, providing tertiary
survey control, engineering surveys, etc. They are more expensive than the navigational
receivers, but more versatile. The data from many of these receivers can be directly imported
to most commonly used GIS software packages. Most of these receivers can also be used in
DGNSS mode.

(c) Geodetic receivers

The geodetic receivers are multi-channel, dual-frequency receivers, generally with the
capability of receiving and decoding the P-code. They are heavier and more expensive than the
navigation and surveying receivers. They are capable of giving accuracies of few cm in
absolute positioning with precise post-processed satellite orbit information and of few mm in
relative positioning. These receivers are useable for applications related to geodetic,
geodynamic, detailed GIS and topographic engineering survey, etc. A modern geodetic
receiver should be able to measure accurately and reliably anywhere under any condition.
GAGAN SYSTEM in India:
The GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation) is a SBAS, jointly developed by ISRO
and AAI to provide the best possible navigational services over Indian FIR (Flight Information
Region) with the capability of expanding to neighbouring FIRs. It has is a system of
geostationary satellites and ground stations that provide signal corrections to give better
position accuracy for several services, such as aviation, forest management, railways
signalling, scientific research for atmospheric studies, natural resource and land management,
Location based services, Mobile, Tourism. The GAGAN corrects for GPS signal errors caused
by ionospheric disturbances, timing and satellite orbit errors and also it provides vital
information regarding the health of each satellite (https://gagan.aai.aero/gagan/). The GAGAN
consists of set of ground reference stations positioned across India, called Indian Reference
Station (INRES), which collect GNSS satellite data. A master station collects the data from
reference stations and creates GNSS correction messages. The corrected differential messages
are broadcasted on a signal from three geostationary satellites (GSAT-8, GSAT-10 and GSAT-
15). The information on this signal is compatible with basic GPS signal structure, which means
any SBAS enabled GNSS receiver can read this signal (https://www.asimindia.in/what-is-
gagan-waas/). The system is interoperable with other international SBAS systems, such as the
WAAS, EGNOS), and MSAS, and provides seamless air navigation across regional
boundaries.
 2. PHOTOGRAMMETRY

Applications of Photogrammetry:
Photogrammetry has been used in several areas. Some applications are given below.
Mapping: The biggest and largest application of photogrammetry is in the field of mapping
various features and preparation of various thematic maps, including topographic maps. The
3D maps can easily be created with stereo-photographs. Photographs have also been used as
ground reference data for the analysis of remote sensing images.
Geology: They are used for mapping structural geology, faults, folds, lineaments, analysis of
thermal patterns on Earth's surface, geomorphological investigations.
Forestry: Forest cover mapping can be carried out using the aerial photographs. Timber
inventories, biomass estimation and forest types mapping have also been undertaken by these
photographs.
Agriculture: Mapping soil type, soil conservation, crop planting, crop types, crop disease,
crop-acreage estimation have become easy with the aerial photographs. Landuse mapping has
been the most popular applications of photogrammetry so far.
Design and construction: Site planning and route alignment studies can be undertaken using
photogrammetry. Photographs have been used in design and construction of dams, bridges,
transmission lines, railway lines, roads, etc. They are very much useful in planning the growth
of cities, new highway locations, detailed design of construction, planning of civic amenities,
etc.
Cadastre: Aerial photographs have been successfully used for the determination of land
boundaries for assessment of area and associated taxes. Large scale cadastral maps are prepared
for re-appropriation of land.
Exploration: They are used for various exploratory jobs, such as oil or mineral exploration.
Military intelligence: The photographs are being used for reconnaissance survey, study of
terrain conditions and topography, deployment of forces, planning manoeuvres, planning of
operation, etc.
Medicine and surgery: Photogrammetry is used in stereoscopic measurements of human
body, x-ray photogrammetry in location of foreign material in body and location and
examinations of fractures and grooves, bio-stereometrics, etc.
Miscellaneous: Crime detection, traffic studies, oceanography, meteorological observations,
architectural and archaeological surveys, planning new infrastructure, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Photogrammetry

The advantages of photogrammetry over the traditional ground surveying are numerous. The
photographs provide an economical and efficient way of mapping a large area, no site access
issues, provide a permanent record of features at that instant of time; this is especially useful
in rapidly changing sites, such as mines, quarries and landfills. However, there are some
disadvantages also (Garg, 2019). A summary of the advantages and disadvantages is given
below:

Advantages:
1. It provides a permanent pictorial record of the area that existed at the time of aerial
photography.
2. It covers a large area; hence mapping is economical than the traditional survey methods.
3. It is cost-effective, providing high level of accuracy.
4. It provides a bird’s eye view of the area, and thus helps in easy identification of both
topographic and cultural features.
5. It is particularly suitable for areas that are unsafe, hazardous, and difficult access.
Photogrammetry is an ideal surveying method for toxic areas where the safety of ground
surveying staff is important.
6. It can effectively be used in the office for detail mapping of several features, thus minimizes
the field work.
7. The sequential photographs of the same area may be used for monitoring the area.
8. If area has to be updated after some time, the latest photographs can be used to update new
or missing information, and therefore there is no need to map the entire area again.
9. The use of digital photographs ensures total flexibility of scale of mapping.
10. The coordinates of every point in the mapped area can be determined with no extra cost.
11. It requires less manual effort for mapping the area.

Disadvantages:
1. Processing and analysis of aerial photographs require experienced technical manpower.
2. Photographic coverage requires advance flight planning as well as specialised equipment
and aircraft.
3. Atmospheric conditions (winds, clouds, haze etc.) may affect the flight plan as well as quality
of aerial photographs.
4. Seasonal conditions, i.e., snow cover will affect the photographs and obstruct the features.
5. The ground information hidden by high-rise buildings or dense tree canopies, and roads
hidden by trees on both sides, cannot be mapped accurately.
6. Accuracy of contours and cross sections will depend on the accuracy of 3D models
generation from stereo-photographs which is a factor of scale of photographs and number of
ground control points (GCPs) used for creating the 3D model.
7. Aerial photography is expensive for developing countries, like India, particularly if repetitive
coverage of an area is required for large scale mapping and monitoring purposes.
8. For sensitive areas or restricted areas, aerial photography may not be allowed.
 3. REMOTE SENSING

Applications of Remote Sensing

In the present day world, here are large number of application of remote sensing. For more
applications, refer to Garg (2022). Some of the applications are given below:
1. Mapping
Mapping from remote sensing image is the most important application. Mapping applications
of remote sensing include: land surveying techniques accompanied by the use of a GPS,
generating DEMs from remotely sensed data, baseline topographic mapping, water resources
mapping, road map, damage delineation (tornadoes, flooding, volcanic, seismic, fire), mapping
boundaries for tax/property evaluation, target detection, etc. This is particularly useful in
remote and inaccessible areas.
2. Land Cover and Land Use
Land use applications of remote sensing include natural resource mapping, soils, water, urban,
wasteland mapping. The temporal data is very useful to determine the changes in the land use
and land cover which is useful in planning and management of resources and infrastructure.
3. Agriculture
Satellite images can be used as mapping tools to classify crops, examine their health and
viability, and monitor the farming practices. The remote sensing data provides field-based
information including crop identification, crop area determination and crop condition
monitoring (health and viability). These data are employed in precision agriculture to manage
and monitor the farming practices at individual field level, including crop optimization and
management of technical operations. The images can help determine the location and extent of
crop stress, and develop a treatment plan that optimizes the use of agricultural chemicals.
Remote sensing technology can be used to prepare maps of crop types and their extent, needed
for agricultural agencies. This information can be used to predict crop yield, derive crop
production statistics, facilitate crop rotation records, assess soil productivity, identification of
factors influencing crop stress, assessment of crop damage and monitoring the farming activity.
The spectral reflectance of vegetation depends on stage type, changes in the phenology
(growth), and crop health, and thus can be measured and monitored by multi-spectral sensors.
The observation of vegetation phenology requires multi-temporal images (data at frequent
intervals throughout the growing season). Remote sensing can aid in identifying crops affected
by conditions that are too dry or wet, affected by insect, weed or fungal infestations or weather
related damage. The infrared wavelength is highly sensitive to crop vigour, crop stress and crop
damage. Detecting damage and monitoring crop health requires high-resolution, multi-spectral
and multi-temporal images.
4. Environmental Study
Coastlines are environmentally sensitive interfaces between the ocean and land, and respond
to changes brought about by economic development and changing land use patterns. To
determine the impact of human activities in coastal region, there is a need to monitor changes,
such as coastal erosion, loss of natural habitat, urbanization, effluents and offshore pollution.
The dynamics of the ocean and changes in the coastal region can be mapped and monitored
using remote sensing techniques. Remote sensing can be used to study the deforestation,
degradation of fertile lands, pollution in atmosphere, desertification, eutrophication of large
water bodies and oil spillage from oil tankers. Remote sensing satellites, like MODIS, have
helped to study the climate and environment. Retrievals of the Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
and Land Surface Temperature (LST) from space provide information for interactions between
ocean/land and atmosphere, such as evaporation processes and boundary layer dynamics.
5. Remote sensing images are extensively used for weather forecasting as well as to warn
people about the impending cyclones. Forest types inventories require detailed measurements
of stand contents and characteristics (tree type, height, density). Using remote sensing data,
various forest types can be identified and delineated. For mapping differences in forest cover
(canopy texture, leaf density), multispectral images are required, and to get detailed species
identification high resolution images are needed. Multi-temporal images datasets offer
phenology information of seasonal changes of different species. Stereo-images would help in
the delineation and assessment of density, tree height and species. Hyperspectral imagery can
be used to generate signatures of vegetation species and certain stresses (e.g., infestations) on
trees. The RADAR data is valuable for monitoring the forest in the humid tropics because its
all-weather imaging capability. The LiDAR data allows capturing 3-dimensional structure of
the forest. The multiple return systems of LiDAR are capable of detecting the elevation of land
and objects on it. The LiDAR data helps estimate a tree height, a crown area and number of
trees per unit area.
6. Geology
Geology involves the study of landforms, structures, and the subsurface to understand physical
processes that create and modify the Earth's crust. Geological applications of remote sensing
include: bedrock mapping, lithological mapping, structural mapping, mineral exploration,
hydrocarbon exploration, environmental geology, sedimentation monitoring, and geo-hazard
mapping.
7. Risk mapping
One of the essential tools for risk assessment is remote sensing data of the area. Remote sensing
images can provide valuable data for mapping different types of disasters and mapping the
parameters associate with risk. The high-resolution imagery has opened new possibilities in
the process of risk estimation, mitigation, and management. This data is useful for both
effective damage estimation as well as emergency management. The post-disaster images of
event, like volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, fires, floods, hurricanes, and earthquakes have been
used globally for saving lives.
8. Hydrology
Hydrology is the study of water on the Earth's surface, whether flowing above ground, frozen
in ice or snow, or retained by soil. Examples of hydrological applications include: wetlands
monitoring, soil moisture estimation, snow pack monitoring, measuring snow thickness,
determining the snow-water equivalent, ice monitoring, flood monitoring, glacier dynamics
monitoring, river/delta change detection, drainage basin mapping, watershed modelling,
irrigation canal leakage detection, and irrigation scheduling.
9. Oceans and coastal monitoring
The oceans provide valuable food-biophysical resources, and are an important link in the
Earth's hydrological balance. Coastlines are environmentally sensitive interfaces between the
ocean and land, and they respond to changes brought about by economic development and
changing land-use patterns. Ocean applications of remote sensing include; ocean pattern
identification, storm forecasting, fish stock assessment, sea surface temperature, oil spill, and
shipping.
10. Urban growth
Remote sensing images have been found as one of the most effective tools for monitoring and
mapping the environmental changes and urban growth. The advantage of remotely sensed data
is the synoptic and repetitive coverage that can help study the growth in urban areas. It helps
create a base for urban environmental impact assessment, monitor urban growth, detect the
urban change, land cover distribution, and land use.
 4. DRONE SURVEYING

Types of drones and sensors

Drones, or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), are equipped with various sensors to capture
data for different applications. The type of drone and the sensors it carries depend on the
specific needs of the task or industry. Here are some common types of drones and the sensors
commonly associated with them:
Types of Drones:
1. Consumer Drones:
• Purpose: Consumer drones are often used for recreational purposes, aerial
photography, and casual video recording.
• Examples: DJI Mavic series, Parrot Anafi, Autel Robotics EVO.
2. Professional Mapping and Surveying Drones:
• Purpose: These drones are designed for surveying, mapping, and creating 3D
models of terrain or structures.
• Examples: DJI Phantom 4 RTK, DJI Matrice series, senseFly eBee X.
3. Agricultural Drones:
• Purpose: Agricultural drones are equipped with sensors for monitoring crops,
assessing plant health, and optimizing farming practices.
• Examples: DJI Agras series, Parrot Bluegrass, Yamaha RMAX.
4. Industrial Inspection Drones:
• Purpose: Drones used for inspecting infrastructure, such as power lines,
pipelines, and buildings, often carry specialized sensors.
• Examples: DJI Matrice 300 RTK, senseFly Albris, Intel Falcon 8+.
5. Search and Rescue Drones:
• Purpose: Drones used in search and rescue missions are equipped with features
like thermal imaging to locate missing persons.
• Examples: DJI Mavic 2 Enterprise Dual, Autel Robotics EVO Lite+, FLIR
SkyRanger R70.
6. Fixed-Wing Drones:
• Purpose: Fixed-wing drones are designed for longer flight times and covering
large areas. They are commonly used in mapping and surveying.
• Examples: senseFly eBee X, Delair UX11, Quantum Systems Trinity F90+.
Types of Sensors:
 1. RGB Cameras:
• Purpose: Red, Green, Blue (RGB) cameras capture visual imagery and are
commonly used for mapping, surveying, and monitoring.
2. Multispectral Cameras:
• Purpose: Multispectral sensors capture data beyond the visible spectrum,
allowing for analysis of plant health and agricultural monitoring.
3. Thermal Cameras:
• Purpose: Thermal cameras detect infrared radiation, providing heat signatures.
They are used in search and rescue, building inspections, and monitoring
industrial equipment.
4. LiDAR Sensors:
• Purpose: Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) sensors use laser beams to
measure distances, creating detailed 3D maps. LiDAR is valuable for mapping
terrain and structures.
5. Hyperspectral Sensors:
• Purpose: Hyperspectral sensors capture data across a wide range of the
electromagnetic spectrum, allowing for detailed analysis of materials and
substances.
6. Gas and Chemical Sensors:
• Purpose: Drones equipped with gas and chemical sensors are used in
environmental monitoring, detecting pollutants, and assessing air quality.
7. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Receivers:
• Purpose: GNSS receivers, including GPS and other satellite systems, provide
accurate positioning data for georeferencing and mapping.
8. Radar Sensors:
• Purpose: Radar sensors can be used for terrain mapping, obstacle detection,
and navigation in challenging environments.
When choosing a drone for a specific application, it's important to consider the payload
capacity, flight time, and compatibility with the required sensors. The right combination of
drone and sensors will depend on the goals and requirements of the surveying or monitoring
project.
Process of drone surveying

Drone surveying involves several key steps to efficiently and accurately collect, process, and
analyze geospatial data using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Here is a general overview of
the process:
1. Mission Planning:
1. Define Objectives:
• Clearly define the survey objectives, including the area to be covered, required
accuracy, and types of data to be collected.
2. Select a Suitable Drone:
• Choose a drone that meets the requirements of the survey, considering factors
such as payload capacity, flight time, and compatibility with the necessary
sensors.
3. Choose Sensors:
• Select the appropriate sensors for the mission, such as RGB cameras,
multispectral cameras, LiDAR, thermal cameras, or others, depending on the
survey goals.
4. Flight Planning:
• Use specialized flight planning software to define the drone's flight path,
altitude, and overlap between images. Flight planning tools help optimize the
survey for coverage and accuracy.
2. Pre-Flight Checks:
1. Drone Inspection:
• Conduct a thorough pre-flight check of the drone, including inspecting the
airframe, propellers, sensors, and ensuring all components are functioning
correctly.
2. Battery and Power Systems:
• Verify that the drone's batteries are fully charged and in good condition. Check
power systems, including backup systems if applicable.
3. Software Updates:
• Ensure that the drone's firmware, flight control software, and sensors are
updated to the latest versions.
3. Data Collection:
1. Takeoff and Flight:
• Launch the drone from a safe and suitable location, ensuring a clear takeoff and
landing area. Monitor the drone during flight to address any unexpected issues.
2. Data Acquisition:
• Allow the drone to follow the pre-defined flight path, capturing images or other
data at specified intervals. The choice of sensors determines the type of data
collected.
3. Check Ground Control Points (GCPs):
• If required, place ground control points on the survey area. These points serve
as reference markers to enhance the accuracy of the survey data.
4. Emergency Procedures:
• Be prepared to execute emergency procedures in case of unexpected events,
such as loss of GPS signal or low battery levels.
4. Post-Processing:
1. Data Transfer:
• Transfer the collected data from the drone to a computer or processing platform
for further analysis.
 2. Data Quality Check:
• Perform a quality check on the collected data, ensuring that images are clear,
properly georeferenced, and meet the survey requirements.
3. Georeferencing:
• Use ground control points and georeferencing techniques to ensure accurate
spatial positioning of the survey data.
4. Image Stitching:
• For surveys involving image capture, use photogrammetry software to stitch
individual images together into a seamless mosaic.
5. Data Processing:
• Process the data using specialized software for the chosen sensors (e.g.,
photogrammetry software, LiDAR processing tools). This step generates 3D
models, point clouds, or other desired outputs.
5. Analysis and Reporting:
1. Geospatial Analysis:
• Analyze the processed data to extract meaningful information relevant to the
survey objectives. This may include measuring distances, assessing terrain
characteristics, or monitoring changes over time.
2. Report Generation:
• Create reports or visualizations summarizing the survey findings. Include maps,
3D models, or other outputs as needed.
6. Data Integration:
1. GIS Integration:
• Integrate the survey data into Geographic Information System (GIS) platforms
for spatial analysis and further integration with existing datasets.
2. Decision-Making:
• Use the analyzed data to inform decision-making processes in areas such as
urban planning, agriculture, environmental monitoring, or infrastructure
management.
By following these steps, drone surveying can be conducted efficiently, providing valuable
geospatial data for a variety of applications. It's important to adhere to local regulations,
conduct thorough pre-flight checks, and utilize appropriate equipment and software for
accurate and reliable results.