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Note 2

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13 views7 pages

Note 2

Uploaded by

yasirupramodya536
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lagrange’s Theorem

Recall
A relation on called an equivalence relation if it satisfies,
i. for any (reflexive)
ii. (symmetric)
iii. (transitive)

Examples:

1. Let be fixed integer. Define on


|
is an equivalence relation.
This relation is called congruence modulo and write .

2. Let be a group and be a subgroup of . For define


.
Show that is an equivalence relation.

Definition:
If is an e uiva en e re ation on set then ̅ the class of is defined by,
̅ { | }

Example:
Define an equivalence relation on as follows.
|

̅ { | } { | | }
̅ { | } { | | } { | } set of all odd
integers
̅ { | } { | | }
̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅̅̅𝑛̅
𝑛

Example:
be any group and be a subgroup of . . Find ̅
̅ { | }=

Theorem:
If is an equivalence relation on then
̅
where the union runs over one element from each class and
̅ ̅ implies that ̅ ̅

Proof:
Let . Then ̅ ̅.
̅
Also, ̅
̅

Let . Suppose ̅ ̅ . Then there exists ̅ ̅ . Thus ̅


and ̅.
i.e., an . Since is symmetric , we have . Now
and and so
transitivity of , . This implies that ̅. Hence ̅ ̅ .

Theorem: (Lagrange’s Theorem)


If is a finite group and is a subgroup of , then order of divides order of
.
Theorem:
If is a group of prime order then has only trivial subgroups { } and .
Proof:
| | – prime
Let , then
| | { }

Exercise:
Let be a fixed integer. . Define
|

i. Find ̅.
ii. Show ̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ are disjoint and ̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅.
iii. Let {̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅}. Show that forms a group under the binary
operation
̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ .

Let ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ . Suppose ̅ ̅ and ̅ ̅.


Then | an | .
i.e., an such that an
hence and
|
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Hence + is well defined.

Since ( ̅ ̅ ) ̅ ̅ (̅ ̅), + is associative.


Now ̅ and for all ̅
̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅
This shows that ̅ is the identity element.
Also, for all ̅ , ̅̅̅̅ and
̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅
Thus ̅̅̅̅ is the inverse of ̅.
Hence ( ) is a group.

Is it commutative?
Yes, ̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅

Define multiplication in as
̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅

Let ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ . Suppose ̅ ̅ and ̅ ̅


Then | an |
i.e., an such that an

By and ,

|
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
Hence is well defined.
Since ( ̅ ̅ ) ̅ ̅ ( ̅ ̅), is associative.
Now ̅ and for all ̅
̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅
This implies that ̅ is the identity element.

Does ̅ has an inverse in for any ̅ ?


No.
If ̅ and ̅ ̅ , then ̅ has an inverse if and only if gcd( ) = 1.

Proof:

Let ̅ and ̅ ̅ . Suppose gcd( ) = 1.


Then there exists such that .
This implies that ̅̅̅ ̅ or ̅ ̅ ̅
Since , ̅ ̅ ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅ ̅
Thus ̅ such that ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and so ̅ has an inverse.

Conversely suppose ̅ , ̅ ̅ and ̅ has an inverse.


Then there exists ̅ such that ̅ ̅ ̅ .
This implies that |
Hence for some .
Thus g .

Let be the set of all elements of { ̅ } that have an inverse in { ̅ }.


i.e., {̅ { ̅ }| g }
Then is a group.
Example:

If ,
{̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅}
{ ̅ ̅}
{̅ ̅ ̅ ̅}
{̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅}

Let ( ) be a group, and . We now define the integral power


of as follows.

if
if
Note that if .

Definition:
Let ( ) be a group and . If there exists a positive integer such that
, then the smallest such positive integer is called the order of . If no
such positive integer exists, then we say that is of infinite order. We
denote the order of an element by .
Example:

Consider , has order 6.


̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ have orders 1, 6, 3, 2, 3, 6 respectively.
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ and 2 is the smallest positive such that ̅ ̅.

Theorem:
Let ( ) be a group and be an element of such that
i. If for some positive integer , then divides .
ii. For every positive integer ,

Proof:

i. By the division algorithm, such that .


Now
Since is the smallest positive integer such that and , it
follows that .
Thus .
This implies that divides .

ii. Let .
Then
By (i.) divides .
Thus such that .
Let g .
Then such that and g
Now

Thus divides .
Since g , divides .
Thus divides .
Now .
Since , divides .
Since and are positive integers,
Hence .

Lemma:
Let be a group. If and then
{ }
is a subgroup of .

Proof: HW

Theorem:
Let be a finite group. Then || |

Proof:
Let
Take { }
We have seen that and | |
By Lagrange’s theorem
| ||| | || |
Since | | |, we have
| |
( )
Hence we have proved that if is a finite group of order then
for any .
Hence the order of any element of a finite group is finite.

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