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12 views6 pages

Science V

Uploaded by

mansoor
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Summary of Chapters 1 to 3 - Class XI Chemistry

Chapter 1: Stoichiometry
This chapter introduces the fundamental principles of stoichiometry, which is the calcu-
lation of reactants and products in chemical reactions.

1.1 Introduction
Stoichiometry refers to the study of the quantitative relationships between the amounts
of reactants and products in a chemical reaction. The chapter explains the importance
of stoichiometry for predicting reaction outcomes, calculating product yields, and under-
standing chemical processes in both theoretical and practical terms.

1.2 Mole Concept


• Mole: A unit used to count entities at the atomic or molecular scale. One mole is
equal to 6.022 × 1023 particles, known as Avogadro’s number.

• The mole concept allows chemists to count atoms, ions, and molecules by weighing
them.

• Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance, measured in grams per mole
(g/mol). It is numerically equal to the atomic or molecular mass.

• The relationship between mass, moles, and number of entities is central to stoichio-
metric calculations.

1.3 Empirical and Molecular Formulas


• Empirical Formula: The simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound
(e.g., CH for benzene, C6 H6 ).

• Molecular Formula: The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule


(e.g., C6 H12 O6 for glucose).

• To determine the empirical formula, you calculate the mole ratio of the elements and
then simplify it to the smallest whole number. The molecular formula is determined
by comparing the molar mass of the empirical formula to the actual molar mass.

1
1.4 Chemical Equations
• Chemical Equation: A symbolic representation of a chemical reaction. The
reactants are written on the left, and the products are on the right, separated by
an arrow.

• Balancing Equations: Ensure the law of conservation of mass is followed, i.e., the
number of atoms of each element remains constant before and after the reaction.

• Types of Reactions:

– Combination: Two or more substances combine to form a new compound


(e.g., A + B → AB).
– Decomposition: A single compound breaks into two or more simpler sub-
stances (e.g., AB → A + B).
– Displacement: One element displaces another in a compound (e.g., A +
BC → AC + B).
– Combustion: A substance reacts with oxygen to release energy, usually pro-
ducing carbon dioxide and water.

1.5 Stoichiometric Calculations


Stoichiometric calculations involve using the mole concept to calculate the amounts of
reactants and products in a reaction.

• The limiting reactant is the substance that determines the maximum amount of
product that can be formed in a reaction.

• The theoretical yield is the calculated amount of product expected based on the
limiting reactant, while the actual yield is the amount obtained in practice. The
percentage yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield, expressed
as a percentage.

1.6 Gases in Stoichiometry


The behavior of gases in stoichiometric calculations is described using the gas laws:

• Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely propor-


tional to its volume.

• Charles’s Law: At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional


to its absolute temperature.

• Ideal Gas Law: P V = nRT , relating pressure, volume, temperature, and the
number of moles of a gas.

2
1.7 Concentration Units
• Molarity (M ): The number of moles of solute in one liter of solution.

• Molality (m): The number of moles of solute in one kilogram of solvent.

• Mole Fraction: The ratio of the number of moles of a component to the total
number of moles in the mixture.

• Percent Composition: The mass percentage of each element in a compound.

3
Chapter 2: Atomic Structure
This chapter focuses on the structure of atoms, the components within them, and the
models that explain atomic behavior.

2.1 Early Atomic Theories


• Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1803): Proposed that matter is composed of indivisible
atoms, atoms of the same element are identical, and chemical reactions involve
rearrangements of atoms.

• This theory was foundational but had limitations, as it could not explain the pres-
ence of subatomic particles or isotopes.

2.2 Discovery of Subatomic Particles


• Electron: Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897 using the cathode ray tube exper-
iment. The electron has a negative charge and is much lighter than the hydrogen
atom.

• Proton: Discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1917, using experiments with alpha


particles. The proton is positively charged and much heavier than the electron.

• Neutron: Discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. Neutrons are electrically neutral


particles found in the nucleus of the atom and have a mass similar to protons.

2.3 Rutherford’s Atomic Model


Rutherford’s gold foil experiment (1911) showed that atoms have a dense, positively
charged nucleus with electrons orbiting around it. His model was revolutionary but
couldn’t explain the stability of atoms or the discrete spectral lines of elements.

2.4 Bohr’s Atomic Model


Niels Bohr (1913) proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed, quantized energy
levels, explaining the discrete spectral lines of hydrogen. Bohr’s model introduced the
idea of quantization of energy, where electrons can only occupy specific orbits with fixed
energies. The model worked well for hydrogen but failed for more complex atoms.

2.5 Quantum Mechanical Model


• Wave-particle duality: Proposed by Louis de Broglie, suggesting that electrons
exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behavior.

• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to simultaneously know


both the exact position and momentum of an electron.

• Schrödinger’s Wave Equation: Describes the behavior of electrons as waves


rather than particles, leading to the modern quantum mechanical model of the
atom.

4
2.6 Atomic Orbitals
• Orbitals: Regions in space where there is a high probability of finding an electron.
The different shapes (s, p, d, f) correspond to different energy levels.

• Electron Cloud Model: This model visualizes the regions where electrons are
likely to be found rather than specific orbits, emphasizing the probabilistic nature
of electron locations.

2.7 Quantum Numbers


• Principal Quantum Number (n): Indicates the main energy level of an electron.

• Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): Defines the shape of the orbital.

• Magnetic Quantum Number (ml ): Indicates the orientation of the orbital.

• Spin Quantum Number (ms ): Specifies the spin of the electron (either +1/2 or
-1/2).

2.8 Electronic Configuration


• Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill orbitals in order of increasing energy, starting
with the lowest energy level.

• Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set
of quantum numbers.

• Hund’s Rule: Electrons will occupy degenerate orbitals singly before pairing up.

5
Chapter 3: Theories of Covalent Bonding and Shapes
of Molecules
This chapter discusses the theory behind covalent bonds and the geometry of molecules.

3.1 Covalent Bonding


Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electron pairs between
atoms. The chapter explains how atoms achieve stable electron configurations by sharing
electrons, leading to the formation of molecules.

3.2 Lewis Structure


• Lewis Dot Structures: A diagrammatic representation showing the bonding be-
tween atoms and the lone pairs of electrons.

• Steps for drawing Lewis structures:

1. Count the total valence electrons.


2. Place the atoms in the appropriate arrangement.
3. Connect atoms with single bonds and distribute electrons to satisfy the octet
rule.

3.3 VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion)


VSEPR theory explains the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It
is based on the principle that electron pairs around a central atom repel each other and
will position themselves as far apart as possible to minimize repulsion.

• Electron Cloud Geometry: Describes the arrangement of electron pairs (bonding


and lone pairs).

• Molecular Geometry: Describes the arrangement of atoms, ignoring lone pairs.

• Examples of molecular shapes: linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral.

3.4 Hybridization
The concept of hybrid orbitals explains the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals
that are better suited for bonding. Examples include sp, sp2 , and sp3 hybridization.

3.5 Molecular Orbitals


Molecular Orbital Theory: Describes the bonding and anti-bonding interactions of
atomic orbitals when atoms combine to form molecules. The theory helps explain bond
order and magnetic properties of molecules.

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