BCA-503 Computer Network

UNIT-I Basic Concepts:

Components of data communication, distributed processing, standards and organizations.

Line configuration, topology, Transmission mode, and categories of networks. OSI and
TCP/IP Models: Layers and their functions, comparison of models. Digital Transmission:
Interfaces and Modems: DTE-DCE Interface, Modems, Cable modems.

UNIT-II Transmission Media:

Guided and unguided, Attenuation, distortion, noise, throughput, propagation speed and
time, wavelength, Shannon capacity, comparison of media

UNIT-III Telephony:

Multiplexing, error detection and correction: Many to one, One to many, WDM, TDM, FDM,
Circuit switching, packet switching and message switching. Data link control protocols: Line
discipline, flow control, error control, synchronous and asynchronous protocols, character
and bit oriented protocols, Link access procedures. Point to point controls: Transmission
states, PPP layers, LCP, Authentication, NCP. ISDN: Services, Historical outline,
subscriber’s access, ISDN Layers and broadcast ISDN.

UNIT-IV Devices:

Repeaters, bridges, gateways, routers, The Network Layer; Design issues, Routing
algorithms, Congestion control Algorithms, Quality of service, Internetworking,
Network-Layer in the internet.

UNIT-V Transport and upper layers in OSI Model:

Transport layer functions, connection management, functions of session layers,

presentation layer and application layer.
 UNIT-I: Basic Concepts

1. Components of Data Communication

The 5 major components of data communication:

1. Message:
○ The data to be communicated. It can be text, numbers, images, audio, or
video.
○ Example: Sending an image via WhatsApp.
2. Sender:
○ The device that originates the message.
○ Example: A laptop, smartphone, or workstation.
3. Receiver:
○ The device that accepts the message.
○ Example: Receiving an email on a smartphone.
4. Transmission Medium:
○ The physical path or channel through which data is transmitted.
■ Examples:
■ Guided Medium: Copper wires, fiber optic cables.
■ Unguided Medium: Radio waves, microwaves.
5. Protocol:
○ A set of rules governing data communication, ensuring proper transmission
and understanding.
○ Examples: HTTP (web browsing), FTP (file transfer), TCP/IP (internet).

2. Distributed Processing

Distributed processing involves splitting tasks among multiple devices instead of relying
on a single computer. This ensures faster processing and reduced workload.

Advantages:

● Scalability: Can easily add more devices.

 ● Fault Tolerance: Failure of one device won’t stop the system.
● Performance: Parallel execution improves speed.

Example:

Google Search uses distributed processing. When you search something, your query is
sent to multiple servers, which process parts of the data simultaneously, returning results
quickly.

3. Standards and Organizations

Standards are essential to ensure compatibility between devices and networks.

Major Standards and Organizations:

1. ISO (International Organization for Standardization):

○ Developed the OSI model, which standardizes how systems communicate.
2. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers):
○ Develops standards like IEEE 802 for LANs (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
3. IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force):
○ Responsible for internet protocols, such as TCP/IP and HTTP.
4. ANSI (American National Standards Institute):
○ Oversees U.S. technology and communication standards.

Example:

The IEEE 802.11 standard defines Wi-Fi communication rules. If you connect your phone to
a Wi-Fi network, it follows this standard to ensure compatibility.

4. Line Configuration

Line configuration describes how devices are physically connected.

Types:

1. Point-to-Point:
○ Direct link between two devices.
 ○ Example: A printer directly connected to a computer with a USB cable.
2. Multipoint:
○ A single communication line is shared by multiple devices.
○ Example: A bus topology in a LAN where multiple computers connect to the
same cable.

5. Topology

Topology refers to the structure of the network.

Types:

1. Bus Topology:
○ All devices share a single backbone cable.
○ Example: Older Ethernet networks.
○ Advantage: Cost-effective.
○ Disadvantage: Single point of failure.
2. Star Topology:
○ All devices connect to a central hub or switch.
○ Example: Home Wi-Fi networks.
○ Advantage: Easy to troubleshoot.
○ Disadvantage: Failure of the hub affects all connections.
3. Ring Topology:
○ Devices form a closed loop. Data flows in one direction.
○ Example: Token Ring networks.
4. Mesh Topology:
○ Every device connects to every other device.
○ Example: Internet backbone.
○ Advantage: Redundancy ensures fault tolerance.
5. Hybrid Topology:
○ Combination of two or more topologies.
○ Example: A corporate network using both star and mesh configurations.

6. Transmission Modes
Transmission modes describe the direction of data flow.

Types:

1. Simplex:
○ Data flows in one direction only.
○ Example: TV broadcast.
2. Half-Duplex:
○ Data flows in both directions but one at a time.
○ Example: Walkie-talkie communication.
3. Full-Duplex:
○ Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
○ Example: Phone calls.

7. Categories of Networks

Based on geographical size:

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

○ Covers a small area like an office or home.
○ Example: Office Ethernet network.
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
○ Covers a city or town.
○ Example: City-wide broadband network.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network):
○ Covers large geographical areas, such as countries.
○ Example: The Internet.

8. OSI and TCP/IP Models

OSI Model (7 Layers):

1. Physical: Hardware connections (e.g., cables, hubs).

2. Data Link: Ensures error-free data transfer (e.g., MAC address).
3. Network: Handles routing (e.g., IP address).
4. Transport: Reliable data delivery (e.g., TCP).
 5. Session: Manages sessions between devices.
6. Presentation: Data encryption and format conversion.
7. Application: User interface (e.g., browsers).

TCP/IP Model (4 Layers):

1. Network Interface: Combines Physical and Data Link layers.

2. Internet: Handles routing (IP protocol).
3. Transport: Ensures reliable delivery (TCP).
4. Application: Provides services like email, FTP, and web browsing.

Comparison:

● OSI is theoretical and has 7 layers.

● TCP/IP is practical and widely used.

9. Digital Transmission

DTE-DCE Interface:

● DTE (Data Terminal Equipment): End devices like computers.

● DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment): Devices like modems that connect
DTE to the network.

Modems:

● Converts digital signals to analog (modulation) for transmission over telephone lines.
● Example: Dial-up internet connection.

Cable Modems:

● Use coaxial cables for high-speed internet.

 UNIT-II: Transmission Media

Transmission media are the physical pathways used to transmit data from one device to
another.

1. Types of Transmission Media

Transmission media can be divided into two main types:

1.1 Guided Media (Wired)

Guided media use physical cables to transmit signals.

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

○ Consists of pairs of copper wires twisted together.
○ Types:
■ UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): Used in LANs, less expensive.
■ STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): Has shielding to reduce interference.
○ Example: Ethernet cables (Cat-5, Cat-6).
○ Use Case: Office and home LAN connections.
2. Coaxial Cable:
○ A central copper conductor surrounded by insulation, shielding, and an outer
cover.
○ Example: Used in cable TV and older Ethernet networks.
○ Advantage: Better shielding than twisted pair, supports higher bandwidth.
3. Fiber Optic Cable:
○ Transmits data using light signals through glass fibers.
○ Advantages:
■ High speed (Gbps-level data transfer).
■ Immune to electromagnetic interference.
■ Supports long distances.
○ Example: Internet backbone, undersea cables.
1.2 Unguided Media (Wireless)

Wireless communication does not use physical cables.

1. Radio Waves:
○ Low-frequency signals for wireless transmission.
○ Used in broadcasting (FM/AM), Wi-Fi, and mobile communication.
○ Example: Home Wi-Fi router.
2. Microwaves:
○ Higher frequency signals, requiring line of sight.
○ Used in satellite communication and telephone systems.
○ Example: Satellite TV (DTH).
3. Infrared:
○ Short-range communication using infrared light signals.
○ Example: Remote controls and IR data transfer.
4. Bluetooth:
○ Wireless technology for short-distance data transfer.
○ Example: Wireless earphones and mobile-to-laptop data transfer.

2. Attenuation, Distortion, and Noise

These factors affect the quality of data transmission:

1. Attenuation:
○ The loss of signal strength over distance.
○ Example: In wired networks, signals weaken as they travel over long cables.
○ Solution: Use amplifiers or repeaters to boost signals.
2. Distortion:
○ Changes in the shape of the signal during transmission.
○ Cause: Different frequency components travel at different speeds.
3. Noise:
○ Unwanted electrical signals that interfere with data transmission.
○ Types of Noise:
■ Thermal noise (due to heat).
■ Crosstalk (interference between two signals).
○ Example: Crackling sound during phone calls.
3. Throughput, Propagation Speed, and Time

1. Throughput:
○ The amount of data transmitted successfully over a medium in a given time.
○ Example: If 10 MB of data is transmitted in 5 seconds, the throughput is 2
MB/s.
2. Propagation Speed:
○ The speed at which signals travel through a medium.
○ Example: Light signals in fiber optics travel at nearly the speed of light.
3. Propagation Time:
○ The time it takes for a signal to travel from sender to receiver.
○ Formula: Propagation Time=DistancePropagation Speed\text{Propagation
Time} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Propagation Speed}}Propagation
Time=Propagation SpeedDistance​

4. Wavelength and Shannon Capacity

1. Wavelength:
○ The distance between two consecutive peaks of a signal.
○ Wavelength and frequency are inversely related: Wavelength=Speed of
LightFrequency\text{Wavelength} = \frac{\text{Speed of
Light}}{\text{Frequency}}Wavelength=FrequencySpeed of Light​
2. Shannon Capacity:
○ Defines the maximum data rate a channel can support without errors.
○ Formula:
C=Blog⁡2(1+S/N)C = B \log_2(1 + S/N)C=Blog2​(1+S/N)
■ C: Channel capacity (bps).
■ B: Bandwidth (Hz).
■ S/N: Signal-to-noise ratio.
○ Example: If bandwidth is 1 MHz and signal-to-noise ratio is 10, the channel
capacity can be calculated.

5. Comparison of Media
Property Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Wireless

Bandwidth Low Medium Very High Medium

Distance Short (100m) Medium Very Long (Km) Depends on

(500m) frequency

Cost Low Medium High Low to Medium

Noise Low Medium Very High Low

Immunity

Example Ethernet Cable TV Internet Wi-Fi, Bluetooth

cable backbone
 UNIT-III: Telephony, Multiplexing, Error Detection,
Switching, and Protocols

1. Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one channel for transmission.
It maximizes the use of bandwidth.

Types of Multiplexing:

1. FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing):

○ Divides the bandwidth into multiple frequency ranges, each assigned to a
signal.
○ Example: FM radio stations operate on different frequencies.
■ 93.5 MHz, 98.3 MHz, etc., allow simultaneous transmission.
2. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing):
○ Divides time into slots and assigns each signal a time slot in a cycle.
○ Example: Digital telephone systems use TDM to send multiple calls over the
same line.
3. WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing):
○ Used in fiber optics. Different light wavelengths (colors) carry separate data
streams.
○ Example: Internet backbone lines using fiber-optic cables.
4. Statistical TDM:
○ Assigns time slots dynamically based on demand instead of fixed slots.

2. Error Detection and Correction

Errors occur during data transmission due to noise or interference. These errors need to be
detected and corrected.
Error Detection Methods:

1. Parity Check:
○ Adds a parity bit (even or odd) to ensure data integrity.
○ Example:
■ Data: 1010 → Parity bit added: 10101.
2. Checksum:
○ Data blocks are summed, and the sum is sent with the data. The receiver
verifies it.
3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
○ A more complex method using division and polynomial coding.
○ Used in Ethernet and communication protocols.

Error Correction:

1. Forward Error Correction (FEC):

○ Adds redundancy so errors can be corrected without retransmission.
2. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):
○ Errors are detected, and the sender retransmits the data.

3. Switching Techniques

Switching connects devices in a network and routes data efficiently.

Types of Switching:

1. Circuit Switching:
○ Establishes a dedicated path for the entire communication session.
○ Example: Traditional telephone calls.
2. Packet Switching:
○ Data is broken into packets and sent independently. Packets are
reassembled at the destination.
○ Example: Internet data transfer (TCP/IP).
3. Message Switching:
○ Entire messages are stored and forwarded node by node.
○ Example: Email transmission.
4. Data Link Control Protocols

Data link control ensures reliable communication between two directly connected nodes.

Components:

1. Line Discipline: Ensures which device can send and when.

2. Flow Control: Prevents sender from overwhelming the receiver.
○ Methods: Stop-and-Wait, Sliding Window Protocol.
3. Error Control: Ensures error-free transmission using detection and correction
techniques.

5. Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Protocols

1. Synchronous Protocols:
○ Data is sent in a continuous stream with a clock signal.
○ Example: Ethernet.
2. Asynchronous Protocols:
○ Data is sent in small chunks with start and stop bits.
○ Example: Serial communication (e.g., USB).

6. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

PPP is a data link layer protocol that establishes a direct connection between two nodes.

PPP Layers:

1. LCP (Link Control Protocol): Establishes, configures, and tests the connection.
2. Authentication:
○ Verifies the identity of devices using protocols like PAP (Password
Authentication Protocol) and CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication
Protocol).
3. NCP (Network Control Protocol): Configures network layer protocols like IP.
7. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

ISDN transmits voice and data over digital telephone lines.

Features:

1. Supports multiple devices (phones, computers, fax).

2. Faster than traditional analog connections.

Components:

● ISDN Layers: Uses physical, data link, and network layers for communication.
 UNIT-IV: Network Devices, Network Layer, and
Internet

1. Network Devices

Network devices are hardware components that connect computers and facilitate
communication.

Types of Devices:

1. Repeaters:
○ Amplify or regenerate signals to extend the range of transmission.
○ Example: Used in Ethernet to extend cable length.
2. Bridges:
○ Connect two LAN segments and filter traffic based on MAC addresses.
○ Example: A bridge can connect a wired LAN with a wireless LAN.
3. Routers:
○ Connect different networks and determine the best path for data.
○ Operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3).
○ Example: Home internet router connects devices to the internet.
4. Gateways:
○ Connect networks with different protocols.
○ Example: A gateway connects an email system to an SMS system.

2. The Network Layer

The Network Layer (Layer 3 in the OSI model) is responsible for logical addressing, routing,
and packet forwarding.

Functions of the Network Layer:

 1. Logical Addressing:
○ Assigns IP addresses to devices for unique identification.
○ Example: IPv4 (192.168.1.1), IPv6 (fe80::1).
2. Routing:
○ Determines the best path for data packets using routing tables.
○ Example: Routers use routing algorithms like Dijkstra or Bellman-Ford.
3. Packet Forwarding:
○ Transfers data packets from source to destination using IP addresses.

3. Routing Algorithms

Routing algorithms decide how packets are sent through the network.

Types of Routing:

1. Static Routing:
○ Routing tables are manually configured.
○ Example: Small networks where paths rarely change.
2. Dynamic Routing:
○ Routers update routing tables automatically based on network conditions.
○ Protocols:
■ RIP (Routing Information Protocol): Uses hop count.
■ OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): Uses link state and Dijkstra’s
algorithm.

Example:

● In a large company, routers dynamically update to avoid congested paths.

4. Congestion Control Algorithms

Congestion occurs when network traffic exceeds capacity, leading to delays or packet loss.

Congestion Control Techniques:

1. Open-Loop Control: Prevents congestion before it happens.

 ○ Example: Flow control techniques like rate limiting.
2. Closed-Loop Control: Detects and reacts to congestion.
○ Example: TCP reduces the transmission rate when congestion is detected.

5. Quality of Service (QoS)

QoS ensures reliable communication by prioritizing traffic.

QoS Parameters:

1. Bandwidth: Allocating sufficient bandwidth for critical data.

2. Latency: Reducing delays.
3. Jitter: Controlling variation in packet arrival times.
4. Packet Loss: Ensuring minimal data loss.

Example:

● In a video call, QoS prioritizes voice and video over file downloads.

6. Internetworking

Internetworking refers to connecting multiple networks to create a larger network.

Components:

1. IP Addresses: Unique addresses to identify devices across networks.

2. Subnetting: Dividing a large network into smaller sub-networks.
3. Routing: Ensures seamless data transfer between networks.

Example:

● The internet is the largest example of internetworking, connecting millions of

networks worldwide.

7. Network Layer in the Internet

In the internet, the Network Layer uses IP (Internet Protocol) for addressing and packet
delivery.

Key Protocols:

1. IPv4:
○ 32-bit addresses, written in dotted decimal format.
○ Example: 192.168.1.1.
2. IPv6:
○ 128-bit addresses, written in hexadecimal format.
○ Example: fe80::1.
3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
○ Used for error messages and diagnostic purposes.
○ Example: The ping command uses ICMP.
 UNIT-V: Transport and Upper Layers in the OSI
Model

1. Transport Layer Functions (Layer 4)

The Transport Layer is responsible for reliable data delivery between processes running on
two different devices.

Functions of the Transport Layer:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly:

○ Data from the Application Layer is divided into smaller segments for
transmission.
○ At the destination, segments are reassembled.
2. Example:
○ Large video files are segmented into smaller parts for transmission.
3. End-to-End Communication:
○ Ensures reliable data transfer between devices.
4. Error Control:
○ Detects and corrects errors during transmission.
○ Example: TCP ensures reliability by retransmitting lost packets.
5. Flow Control:
○ Prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver.
○ Techniques: Sliding Window Protocol.
6. Connection Management:
○ Establishes, maintains, and terminates communication between devices.
7. Example:
○ TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish a connection: SYN →
SYN-ACK → ACK.

2. Connection Management in the Transport Layer

Connection management ensures data is transferred reliably.

Types of Connections:

1. Connection-Oriented Communication:
○ A connection is established before data transfer.
○ Ensures reliable delivery.
○ Example: TCP.
2. Connectionless Communication:
○ Data is sent without establishing a connection.
○ Faster but less reliable.
○ Example: UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

3. Session Layer (Layer 5)

The Session Layer is responsible for managing sessions (connections) between

applications.

Functions of the Session Layer:

1. Session Establishment:
○ Starts and manages communication sessions.
2. Synchronization:
○ Adds checkpoints (synchronization points) to the data stream.
○ Example: In a large file download, checkpoints allow resuming from the last
point if interrupted.
3. Session Termination:
○ Properly closes the session once the data transfer is complete.

4. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The Presentation Layer deals with the formatting, encryption, and compression of data
for proper interpretation.

Functions of the Presentation Layer:

1. Data Translation:
○ Converts data into a format understood by the application.
 ○ Example: Converts ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Data Compression:
○ Reduces the size of data for faster transmission.
○ Example: Compressing images using JPEG or PNG.
3. Encryption and Decryption:
○ Encrypts data for security during transmission and decrypts it at the
destination.
○ Example: HTTPS uses SSL/TLS for encryption.

5. Application Layer (Layer 7)

The Application Layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model. It provides services directly to
users and applications.

Functions of the Application Layer:

1. Network Services:
○ Provides access to network services like file transfer, email, and remote login.
2. Resource Sharing:
○ Enables sharing of resources like printers or files over a network.
3. Application Access:
○ Provides access to applications like web browsers, email clients, and FTP
tools.

Examples of Application Layer Protocols:

1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):

○ Used to access web pages on the internet.
○ Example: Browsing a website using http://www.example.com.
2. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
○ Used for sending emails.
○ Example: Sending an email from Gmail.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
○ Used for transferring files over a network.
○ Example: Uploading a website to a web server.
4. DNS (Domain Name System):
○ Translates domain names into IP addresses.
○ Example: www.google.com → 142.250.182.4.