CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO

GENERAL PHYSICS 1
FIRST SEMESTER – FINALS A. Y. 2024-2025

LESSON 1: Rotation
Rotation refers to the motion of a body turning about an axis, where each particle of the body moves along a circular path.
Physicists use angular quantities to describe rotation. The equations of kinematics and dynamics of rectilinear motion can
be rewritten in terms of angular quantities. Each of the rectilinear motion quantities has its rotational analog. For the
purpose of distinction, Greek letters are used to represent angular quantities.
Kinematics of Rotation
Consider a rotating disk with a particle on its edge. The angular position of the particle is represented by Ɵ. When the disk
rotates from an initial position Ɵ0, its angular displacement represented by ∆Ɵ is
∆Ɵ = Ɵ - Ɵ0
The units for angular displacement may be degrees, radians, or revolutions. In this chapter, radian is used for angular
displacement. Recall from trigonometry that
1 revolution = 360° = 6.28 radians or 2π radians.
The linear distance s along an arc subtended by an angle Ɵ in radians in a circle of radius r is given by
s = rƟ Eq. (7.1)
Angular velocity is defined in analogy with linear velocity. Instead of linear displacement, angular displacement is used.
Angular velocity (ω) is the rate at which angular displacement changes with time. In equation form,
∆Ɵ
ω= Eq. (7.2)
t
Angular velocity may be expressed in deg/s, rev/s, or radian/s. The linear velocity of the particle on the disk has a
magnitude of s/t. Thus, the relationship between angular velocity and linear velocity may be obtained using Eqs. (7.1) and
(7.2). Dividing both sides of Eq. (7.1) by t gives
s = r∆Ɵ
s ∆Ɵ
=r
t t
v = rω Eq. (7.3)
As in the case of linear motion, rotational motion may also be accelerated. Angular acceleration (α) is the time rate of
ω−ω0
change of angular velocity. α= Eq. (7.4)
t
Angular acceleration may be expressed in deg/s 2, rev/s2, or radian/s2. Linear acceleration (a) and angular acceleration (α)
are related as follows: a = rα Eq. (7.5)
Table 7-1
The equation of kinematics developed Kinematics Equation for Uniformly Accelerated Motion
for constant acceleration for linear Translation Rotation
motion can be rewritten in angular
1. x = vt 1. ∆Ɵ = ωt
quantities and may be used to solve
problems on rotational motion. Table v + v0 ω+ω 0
2. v = 2. ω =
7-1 shows the kinematic equations for 2 2
translational (linear) motion with their v−v 0 ω−ω 0
3. a = 3. α =
rotational motion counterparts. t t
4. 2a∆x = v2 – v02 4. 2α∆Ɵ = ω2 – ω02
Sample Problem 7.1
1 1
A rider notices that the wheels of his 5. ∆x = v0t + at2 5. ∆Ɵ = ω0t + αt2
bicycle make 12 rev in 15s. (a) What is
2 2
the average angular speed of the wheel in radian/s? (b) What distance in meters does the wheel travel if its radius is 33 cm?

Moment of Inertia
Moment of inertia, also known as rotational inertia, is the rotational analog for mass and is represented by a capital letter I.
It is defined as the property of a rotating body to resist change in its state of rotation. The larger the moment of inertia, the
greater the resistance it offers to angular acceleration. The SI unit for moment of inertia is kg-m 2.
The moment of inertia I of a particle about an axis is obtained by multiplying the mass m by the square of its distance r from
the axis. I = mr2 Eq. (7.6)
For a system made up of several particles, the moment of inertia of the system I, is the sum of the individual moments of
inertia. I= m1r12 + m2r22 + …. = Σm1r12 Eq. (7.7)
Radius of gyration (k) is the distance from an axis of rotation where the mass of a body may be assumed to be concentrated
without altering the moment of inertia of the body about that axis. Radius of gyration is analogous to the center of mass.

k=
√ l
m
Eq. (7.8)

The moments of inertia of composite bodies of simple geometric shapes about a specified axis are given in figure 7-3. The
specified axes, except for the rod, are generally taken along the axes of symmetry that is, running through the center of
mass resulting in symmetrical mass distribution.
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Sample Problem
A familiar sight during a town fiesta is a majorette twirling a baton in her hand and leading a group of musicians. Suppose
the baton consists of a metal ball of mass 0.25 kg and diameter 0.12 m at each end of a slim rod. The rod is 0.50 m long.
Find the moment of inertia and radius of gyration of the baton about an axis perpendicular to the rod and interesting it at
(a) the middle and (b) 0.4 m from one end of the rod. Assume that the rod has negligible mass.
Solution:

Parallel Axes Theorem

Oftentimes, we know the moment of inertia of a body about a certain axis and we want to know its moment of inertia
about another axis that is parallel to the first axis. The moment of inertia I at any axis is equal to the moment of inertia Ic
about a parallel axis passing through the center of mass and the product of mass of the body and the square of the
perpendicular distance r1 between the two axes. Refer to figure 7-4.
I = Ic + mr12
Sample Problem
Consider the compact disc as a thick-walled cylinder of mass 16.0 g, and with an outer diameter of 11.6 cm and inner
diameter of 4.6 cm. Find the (a) moment of inertia of the compact disc about an axis passing through its center and (b)
moment of inertia about an axis passing through its edge parallel to the previous axis.

Torque
To understand the concept of torque, we begin by investigating the rotation of a door hinged at one edge. Try pulling the
door with a constant force applied at different point (figure 7-5a) and at varying angles (b). This simple activity shows that it
is easiest to rotate the door when the force is applied farthest from the hinge. That is the reason why doorknobs are placed
at the other edge of the door, farthest from the hinge. Furthermore, rotation is greatest when force is applied
perpendicularly to the door.
The effectiveness of a force in rotating a body on which it acts is called torque or moment of force. The Greek letter tau (Ƭ) is
usually used to represent torque. Torque can be determined by multiplying the force applied F by the perpendicular
displacement of its line of action from the pivot point. This perpendicular displacement is called moment arm or lever arm,
represented by r. In symbols, Ƭ=rxF Eq. (7.9)
To find the lever arm, the line of action of force should be extended by drawing a line from the axis of rotation
perpendicular to the line of action of force. A right triangle is then obtained. The lever arm is found to be (rsin Ɵ) (figure7-
6a), Ƭ = (r sin Ɵ ¿F Eq. (7.10)
where Ɵ is the angle between the line of action of force and the distance from axis of rotation. Maximum torque can be
obtained if Ɵ is 90°.
An equivalent way of finding the torque associated with the given force F is to resolve the force into components parallel
and perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The parallel component F ∥ exerts no torque because its lever arm is zero. The
perpendicular component of the force F ⟘= Fsin Ɵ produces torque (figure 7-6b).
Thus, we can generalize that the magnitude of the torque produced by a force F at a distance r from the axis of rotation is
given by Ƭ = r(Fsin Ɵ )
This formula is consistent with the definition of torque as a cross product of force and displacement.
The SI unit of torque is meter-newton (m-N). Torque is a vector quantity. Torque may also be positive or negative,
depending on the sense of rotation. By convention, torque is positive if it tends to produce a counterclockwise rotation, and
is negative if it tends to produce a clockwise rotation. The greater torque applied to an object, the greater its tendency to
rotate.
Sample Problem 7.4
1. Find the resultant torque about A and C when the forces shown in the figure act on a 5.0 N rod. The rod is 6m long, and
its weight is acting at its center.
Solution:
a. When the axis of rotation is at A:
Because several forces are acting at different points along the rod, we need to get the summation of
torques Σ Ƭ Aabout an axis passing through point A. Because the 2.0 N force passes through point A, this force cannot
produce rotation with respect to A. Similarly, the 6.0N force acting at point E will not produce rotation with respect to the
axis passing through point A because the angle between it and the distance from axis of rotation is zero. Therefore, the only
forces that could rotate the rod at A where Ƭ A ≠ 0 are forces at points B, C, and D. Solving for total the total torque about A,
Σ Ƭ A = (1.5 m)(-3.0N) sin60° + (3.0m)(-5.0N) sin90° + (4.5 m)(-4.0N) sin 30°
= -3.9 m-N – 15.0 m-N – 9.0 m-N = -27.9 m-N

2|GENERAL PHYSICS 1
Therefore, the total torque about point A is -27.9m-N. The negative sign indicates that the rotation produced by the torque
is clockwise.
b. When the axis of rotation is at C:
At point C, the only points of action where Ƭ C ≠ 0 are at points A, B, and D. Using Eq. (7.11), we can solve
for the total torque. Note that all torques causing clockwise rotation are taken as negative and positive for those causing
counterclockwise rotations.
Σ Ƭ C = (3.0 m)(2.0 N) sin90° + (1.5 M)(3.0 N) sin60° + (1.5 m)(-4.0N) sin30°
= 6.0 m-N + 3.9 m-N – 3.0 m-N = 6.9 m-N
The total torque about point C is equal to 6.9mN directed counter clockwise.
Dynamics of Rotation
With slight modifications, Newton’s laws of motion are also applicable to rotating bodies. Rotational quantities
replace their linear counterparts. Thus, the first law of motion states that a body at rest will not rotate and a rotating body
will not change its angular velocity unless acted upon by an external unbalanced torque.
The second law of motion sates that unbalanced torque acting on a rigid body produces angular acceleration. This
angular acceleration α is directly proportional to and in the same direction as the unbalanced torque Ƭ and inversely
proportional to the body’s moment of inertia I about axis of rotation. In equation,
Ƭ = Iα
Finally, Newton’s third law of motion applied to rotation states that to every action torque, there is equal but opposite
reaction torque.
Sample Problem 7.5
1. What torque is needed to accelerate a Ferris wheel from rest to 3.25 radian/s in 15 s. Approximate the Ferris wheel to be
a disk of radius 12.5 m and of mass 825 kg.
Solution:

2. A 1.20 kg object is suspended by means of a string of negligible mass. The string passes over a pulley of radius 0.32 m and
moment of inertia of 1.45 kg∙m2. Find the (a) torque produced by the hanging object on the pulley, (b) angular acceleration
of the pulley, and (c) acceleration of the object.
Solution:

Angular Momentum
By analogy to the definition of linear momentum (as the product of mass and velocity of a body), angular momentum(L) of a
body rotating about a fixed axis is defined as the product of its moment of inertia (I) about this axis and its angular velocity
(ω). In equation, L = Iω Eq. (7.12)
2
The SI unit of angular momentum is kg∙m /s. Note that the unit radian is omitted.
In the absence of a net external torque, the total angular momentum of a system is conserve. The initial angular
momentum (L0) of the system is equal to its final angular momentum (L), In symbols,
I0ω0 = Iω Eq. (7.13)
Sample Problem
A physics teacher sits on a rotating stool to demonstrate the conservation of angular momentum. With her arms
outstretched, she rotates at 0.75 rev/s. When the teacher’s arms are tucked in close to her chest, she rotates at 1.50 rev/s.
What is the ratio of her moment of inertia with outstretched arms to the moment of inertia with arms tucked in close to her
chest?
Solution:

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 1: ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM
General Instructions:
1. Read and understand the instructions in each activity before answering.
2. Use a whole sheet of pad paper in solving the problems.
3. Make sure you have written your name and section in your paper before you submit.
Read the following problems carefully and solve for the unknown. Show your complete solution.
1. You roll a ball on a straight path to your friend who is 6.0 m away. If the ball makes 30.0 revolutions to reach your friend,
what is the diameter of the ball?
2. A wheel with a diameter of 60.0cm accelerates uniformly from 250rpm to 500rpm in 10.0s. What is the angular
acceleration of the wheel?
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Gravity
Isaac Newton
He was the one who first discovered that the laws of motion of objects on Earth are the same laws that govern the rotational motion of
celestial bodies (e.g. the moon around Earth and Earth around the sun).
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
“Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the
masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.”
Mathematically, this law, and the magnitude of the force due to the gravitational interaction between two particles, is expressed with
G m1 m2
F grav=
where G=6.67×10−11 N⋅m2/kg2 is the universal gravitational constant, m 1 and m2 the particles’ masses, and r the distance
r2

between them.
Henry Cavendish
An English physicist who first measured the value of G during the 18th century.
Example 1: Using the radius of Earth, r = 6.4 x 106 m, calculate its mass.
Solution:
Consider a 1-kg ball on the floor. Using Newton’s second law, its weight (the gravitational force exerted by earth on the ball)
is F = mg = (1kg) (9.8m/s2)= 9.8 N. the distance between this ball and the center of Earth is approximately Earth’s radius r =
6.4 x 106 m.

2
−11 m
*G is the universal gravitational constant with the value of 6.67 x 10 N. 2
kg
Example 2:
The force exerted by a planet due to gravity near the surface of Earth is 9.8 m/s 2. Using the law of universal gravitation,
compute the acceleration due to gravity for any given planet.
Solution:

Gravitational Potential Energy

The energy stored as the result of the gravitational attraction of the earth for the object.
Gm E m
It can be expressed mathematically as U=- where U is the gravitational potential energy
r
The equation is derived using the concept: “The gravitational acceleration and force exerted by the earth vary with the
position of the particle above the surface of the earth; they both decrease as the particle is located further away from the
surface (or the center) of the earth. ”
Gm E m Gm E m
Wgrav = - where, Wgrav is the work done by gravitational force
r2 r1
W = -ΔU = U1- U2 where W is the work done by a conservative force
Gm E m Gm E m
W = U1- U2 = -
r2 r1
Gm E m
U=-
r
Escape speed
The initial speed required for an object to escape completely from a planet.

4|GENERAL PHYSICS 1
Expressed mathematically as

and r is its radius.

vesc =
√ 2 Gm
r
where G is for gravitational acceleration, m is for the mass of the planet,

For planet Earth, the equation is used

Satellite Motion
vesc =
√ 2 G mE
RE

A satellite is an object that “falls” around a planet. The motion of the satellite is determined by the gravity of a planet.
The only force that acts on a satellite is the gravitational force directed toward the center of the circular path, which makes
the satellite in uniform circular motion
Radial acceleration (arad)- the acceleration of an object along the radius directed towards the center of the object
2
v
arad =
r
Speed of the satellite (v)- the ratio of the distance 2πr travelled in one revolution. It is mathematically expressed as:
2 πr
v= where T is the time or period it took for one revolution.
T
Time or period is mathematically expressed as
3
2
T = 2π r
√G mE
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Johannes Kepler- a German astronomer who discovered some laws of planetary motion.
Planets move on elliptical orbits about the sun with the sun at one focus.
The area per unit time swept out by a radius vector from the Sun to a planet is constant.
The square of a planet’s orbital period is proportional to the cube of the major axis of the planet’s orbit.
Major axis- the horizontal axis that gives the longest distance between two points along the ellipse
Semi-major (s) – half of the major axis
Perihelion- the closest point of the ellipse from the sun
Aphelion- the farthest point of the ellipse from the sun
For the third law, the period of a satellite is described through the following equation:
3
2
T = 2π r
√G m p
Using the using the semi-major axis (s), the period is described as:
3

( )
2
2 4π
T = 2π s T2 = s2 where the mass of the planet (m p) was replaced by the mass of the sun (m s)
√G ms √ Gms
because the planets are now orbiting the sun.
Sample Problem
Perhaps the first direct confirmation of Newton’s law of gravitation is the reappearance of Halley’s Comet. This comet
moves in an elliptical orbit around the sun as predicted by Newton. It is at 8.75 x 10 7 km and 5.26 x 109 km from the sun at
the perihelion and aphelion, respectively. Find the period of the orbit of Halley’s Comet. The mass of the sun is 1.99 x 10 30
kg.

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2: GRAVITY
Instruction: Solve the following problems accurately and SHOW YOUR COMPLETE SOLUTIONS.
1. The acceleration due to gravity near the surface of the Earth is 9.80 m/s 2. From what distance from the surface of Earth is
acceleration due to gravity half of this value?
2. Ceres is considered to be the largest asteroid belt between the orbits Mars and Jupiter. Ceres’ diameter is approximately
945 km, and its mass is 8.96 x 1020 kg. Find the acceleration due to gravity and the asteroid’s escape speed.
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LESSON 3: PERIODIC MOTION
PERIODIC MOTION – otherwise known as OSCILLATION
A repeated motion that occurs back and forth over the same path at regular intervals; such as the swinging of a pendulum of the
grandfather’s clock, the to and from motion of a wrecking ball, an acrobat swinging on a trapeze, a child on a swing and a vibrating
guitar string.
A body that undergoes periodic motion has a stable equilibrium
EQULIBRIUM POSITION – also known as the RESTING POSITION
- the position assumed by the body when it is not vibrating. Is describe by amplitude, period and frequency

5|GENERAL PHYSICS 1
AMPLITUDE ( A ) – refers to the magnitude of the maximum displacement or the maximum distance of a mass/body from
its equilibrium position
PERIOD ( T ) – the time needed to repeat one complete cycle of motion or to complete a complete to-and-fro motion
- usually expressed in seconds (s).
* CYCLE – one complete to-and-fro motion
FREQUENCY ( f ) – the number of cycles per second. f=1/T
- expressed in hertz, abbreviated as Hz
- the reciprocal of period; ; where f – Frequency and T- Period
* Sometimes, ANGULAR FREQUENCY ( ω ), is used instead of frequency. Angular frequency is commonly expressed in
radians per second. The relationship between angular frequency and frequency is given by the following equation:
where ω – angular frequency
ω = 2 π f or Tω = 2 π π – pi ( 3.1416 )
T f – frequency Fs = -kx
T – time
TYPES OF PERIODIC MOTION
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION ( SHM ) – a type of periodic motion where the restoring force is proportional to the
displacement of the body from its equilibrium position. This restoring force acts in a direction opposite that of the
displacement
- summarized in the equation ; ; where Fs – Restoring Force or Spring Force
X – the displacement from equilibrium position
k – a proportionality constant
negative sign ( - ) – the restoring force and displacement
are oppositely directed
* it is the direct proportionality between the restoring force and displacement that distinguishes SHM from other types of
vibratory motion.
SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATORS – systems/bodies exhibiting SHM
Examples: I. MASS-SPRING SYSTEM – the simplest form of a simple harmonic oscillator
- consists of a body of mass oscillating on one end of an elastic spring.
* An external force can cause objects, like springs, to stretch or compress by a certain displacement. This force is
numerically equal to the restoring force but opposite in direction. Thus,
F = kx

Where F = Force
k = Force Constant of the spring or the force needed to
produce a unit of elongation or compression of the spring
and has the unit N/m
The Force Constant is a measure of the stiffness of the spring.
* if the k is small, it indicates that the spring can be easily stretched or compressed. In other words, spring with lesser spring
constants will have greater displacements than those with larger spring constants for the same amount of force applied.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. An oscillating body takes 0.8 s to complete 4 cycles. What is the a.) period b.) frequency c.) angular frequency?
GIVEN: the time to complete 4 cycles = 0.8 s
Required: T, f, ω

2. A force of 3.0N elongates a spring by 6.0 cm.

What is the force constant of the spring?
How much force is needed to elongate the spring an additional of 6.0 cm ?

Energy, Velocity and Acceleration of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator

The total mechanical energy of a mass-spring system is the sum of its potential and kinetic energies. In equation
form: where E = Mechanical Energy x = displacement
EM = U + K ; EM = 1 kx2 + 1mv2 U = Potential Energy m = mass
2 2 K = Kinetic Energy v = velocity
k = Force Constant
* The total mechanical energy of the system remains constant as long as there is no friction.
When an object is at its maximum displacement/amplitude, its velocity and hence the kinetic energy is zero. In this
case, displacement is replaced by Amplitude ( A ). The total mechanical energy will then be:
NOTE: The total amount of mechanical energy is conserved, therefore
EM = 1 kA2 Where A = Amplitude From this equation, we can express speed as a
2 1 kA2 = 1 kx2 + 1 mv2
function of position
2 2 2 v = √ k /m ¿ ¿)
2 6|GENERAL PHYSICS 1
NB. Speed is maximum when x=0 or at the Equilibrium position.
The acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator as a function of position may be obtained by using Newton’s
Second Law of Motion. NB. The acceleration is maximum if the displacement is maximum,
a = F/m = - kx/m which is equal to the amplitude.

SAMPLE PROBLEM. A simple harmonic oscillator consisting of a 2.5Kg body is attached to a spring with a force constant of
275 N/m. Its maximum speed is 0.65 m/s. Find its (a) Amplitude and (b) Maximum Acceleration

Period, Frequency and Angular Frequency of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator

Let us consider an oscillating body as a revolving object that makes one complete revolution equal to one
period. The speed of this body is the circumference of the circle divided by time. The maximum speed is obtained when the
radius of the circle is equal to the amplitude. Therefore,
vmax=2 πA
T
Note that the oscillating body is moving at its maximum speed when x=0, therefore from a previous equation;

vmax=A√ k /m

The period can therefore be computed by combining the above two equations; T=2 π √ m/k
And, also, since frequency is the reciprocal of Period,
f=1/2 π √ k /m

Then angular frequency can be expressed as: ω =√ k /m

SAMPLE PROBLEM
When a 2.5 Kg object is suspended from a spring, the spring stretches by 0.05 m.
What is its force constant b.) If the suspended mass is set into vibration, what will be its frequency?

Sinusoidal Nature of Simple Harmonic Motion

ω
Y This figure illustrates a particle moving in circular motion with constant angular frequency. Let point
P P represent the position of the particle at an arbitrary time. The horizontal coordinate of point P is
A
X = A cos θ , but θ = ωt and ω = 2 π f Therefore, x = A cos ωt and x = A cos (2 π ft)
Note that P’, which is the projection of point P on the x-axis, moves back and forth in SHM along the
x-axis as the particle moves around the circumference of the circle. Similarly, the vertical coordinate

7|GENERAL PHYSICS 1
 of Point P is
Y = A sin θ = A sin 2 π ft = A sin ωt
A projection of Point P on the y-axis will also result into a SHM along the vertical axis. Thus, we can say that SHM is a
projection of Uniform Circular Motion along a diameter.
The magnitude or velocity in SHM may be obtained from a previous equation in solving for speed:

v = √ k /m ¿ ¿) =
m √
k - 2
¿ ¿ A cos 2 ωt ) Simplifying v = A
m
¿¿
√
k ) but from trigonometry 1- cos2 ωt = sin2

√
m √
ω t thus, v = A k (sin2 ωt ) = k sin ωt but vmax=A√ k /m , thus v = vmax sin ωt
m
Acceleration in SHM is given by:
a = - k A cos ωt but k A = amax, thus, a = -a cos ωt
m

Note that sine and cosine functions are sinusoidal, which means that they have the shape of a sine curve. SHM is said to be
sinusoidal because position, velocity and acceleration vary as a sinusoidal function of time.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
The motion of a particle is described by: X = 0.5 cos
[ ]
5
2
πt where x is in meters and t is in s. Find the:

Frequency b.) period c.) amplitude d.) kinetic energy e.) elastic potential energy and f.) total mechanical energy of the
particle at t= 0s

II. PENDULUM – any object which can swing freely from a pivot point under the influence of gravity
- are of two kinds; simple pendulum and physical pendulum
A. SIMPLE PENDULUM – consists of a concentrated mass called
the bob suspended by a light thread and attached to a fixed support as
shown below.

When the bob is pulled to one side and released, the motion is, strictly
speaking, not SHM because the bob executes a to-and-fro motion in a
circular path. Furthermore, the restoring force is equal to the component
of the weight that is tangent to the arc, that is :
Where F = restoring force
F = mg sinθ m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
and to solve for the period T= Where L – length of the thread/string
2 π √ L/ g
* Based on the equation, the period of a simple pendulum is governed by the following laws.
1. The T of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of its length.
2. The T is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity.
3. The T is independent of the mass of the bob.
4. The T is independent of the angular amplitude if angular displacement is small, like less than or equal to 10 0
SAMPLE PROBLEM. A simple pendulum of length 50.0 cm takes 5s to make 10 complete back and forth motion.
Find its Period b.) What will be its period when its length is increased to 200.0 cm

FOR PRACTICE. A simple pendulum is found to vibrate 50 times within 200 s. When 1.5 m of its length is reduced to a
certain length, it vibrates 50 times in 175 s. Find the original length of the pendulum.
B. PHYSICAL PENDULUM – one where the hanging object is a rigid body, but it can be made to oscillate like a simple
pendulum by locating its center of mass and applying Newton’s second law for rotation. Refer to the figure below and
assuming angle θ is small, where τ = the restoring gravitational torque acting about
τ = mgLsinθ≅ mgLθ the suspension point.
m = mass of the body , g = acceleration due to gravity

8|GENERAL PHYSICS 1
 A
L = length
The period of a physical pendulum is given by:
where τ = the restoring gravitational torque acting about
the suspension point
T = 2 π √ I /mgl
I = moment of inertia
m = mass of the object
g = acceleration due to gravity
L = length
SAMPLE PROBLEM. A 1.5 Kg uniform meter stick pivoted at one end oscillates as a physical pendulum with a period of
1.25s. Find its moment of inertia with respect to the pivot point if the L is 0.5m.

PRACTICE PROBLEM. A Christmas ball of a hollow sphere is hung from the tree by a piece of thread attached to the surface
of the ball. The mass and radius of the ball are 0.105 Kg and 0.12 m respectively. What will be its period of oscillation when
slightly displaced from its equilibrium position? ( hint : I = 5/3mr2 )
DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATION ( DHO ) – a form of periodic motion whereby when an object is initially set into
vibration, the amplitude will continuously decrease due to frictional effects and after which the object will eventually stop
vibrating.
Only ideal systems oscillate indefinitely
In real systems, friction retards the motion
Friction reduces the total energy of the system and the oscillation is said to be damped
Damped motion varies depending on the fluid used
With a low viscosity fluid, the vibrating motion is preserved, but the amplitude of vibration decreases in time and the
motion ultimately ceases
This is known as underdamped oscillation
UNDERDAMPED OSCILLATION – the system oscillates with decreasing amplitude
until it becomes zero
Eg. A swing pushed just once
With a higher viscosity, the object returns rapidly to equilibrium after it is released and does not oscillate
The system is said to be critically damped
CRITICALLY DAMPED OSCILLATION – the system returns to its equilibrium position a little bit faster
Eg. Door closing mechanisms and shock absorbers in cars
With an even higher viscosity, the piston returns to equilibrium without passing through the equilibrium position, but the
time required is longer.
OVERDAMPED OSCILLATION – the system returns to its equilibrium position not as fast as critically damped oscillation.
Eg. A spring mechanism that closes the door gradually
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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 3.1 : PERIODIC MOTION
A. Tabulate the differences among the three types of Damped Harmonic Oscillation. Use the format below. Write
your answers on a separate intermediate pad paper
Type of Damped Harmonic Description Example Wave Representation
Oscillation

B. PROBLEM SOLVING. Solve the following problems

1. A simple pendulum of length 30.0 cm takes 3 s to make 10 complete back and forth motion.
Find its Period b.) What will be its period when its length is increased to 300.0 cm?
2. A simple pendulum is found to vibrate 40 times within 150 s. When 1.5 m of its length is reduced to a certain length, it
vibrates 40 times in 160 s. Find the original length of the pendulum.
3. A 2.2 Kg uniform meter stick pivoted at one end oscillates as a physical pendulum with a period of 2.25s. Find its moment
of inertia with respect to the pivot point if the L is 0.9m. Solve for the moment of Inertia using the derived equation.
4. When a 3.1 Kg object is suspended from a spring, the spring stretches by 0.2 m.
a.) What is its force constant b.) If the suspended mass is set into vibration, what will be its frequency?
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FORCED VIBRATION AND RESONANCE

Forced Vibration – occurs when a system undergoing SHM is subjected to an external force thereby disturbing the natural frequency of
the system.
Resonance – occurs when the frequency of the external force matches the natural frequency of the vibrating system. When this
happens, oscillations with larger amplitudes happen.
Eg. Collapsing of buildings and other structures during earthquakes, shattering of wine goblets while singing
The periodic motion of oscillating systems generates mechanical waves.

9|GENERAL PHYSICS 1
WAVE – is a disturbance propagating in a medium or in a vacuum, carrying energy.
Wave Pulse – a single unrepeated disturbance
Wave Train – a succession of periodic disturbances.
TYPES OF WAVES
A. According on the direction of wave propagation
1. TRANSVERSE WAVES – a wave that moves perpendicularly to the direction of propagation
Eg. When a rope is moved up and down, a wave is produced that travels to the right, which is perpendicular to the wave
propagation.
*parts:
a.) CREST – the highest point of a wave
b.) TROUGH – the lowest point of a wave
2. LONGITUDINAL WAVES – one in which the vibrations are along the direction of a wave
*parts
a.) Compression-the region where the coils are pressed
together.
b.) Rarefaction – the region where the coils are spread out
3. SURFACE WAVES – a combination of transverse and
longitudinal waves like water waves
B. According to whether the wave need or do not need a
medium to propagate
1. Mechanical Waves – are waves that need a medium to propagate.
Eg. Sound Waves
2. Electromagnetic waves – do not need a medium to propagate
* Transverse and Longitudinal waves are mechanical waves
MEASURES OF A WAVE
WAVEFORM – a picture or a graph of a wave
*A wave is measured in terms of its displacement from equilibrium and the distance between neighbouring maximum
displacements.
WAVE AMPLITUDE – the height of a wave/the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from their
equilibrium position
WAVE FREQUENCY – the number of complete waves per unit time
*a complete wave is from one crest to the next crest or from one trough to the next trough.
WAVELENGTH – the distance from one crest to the next crest or from one trough to the next trough; or the distance
between two successive compressions or rarefactions in a wave train.
Symbolized by the Greek letter “lambda” λ
BASIC WAVE RELATION : v = f λ where v = speed of the wave in m/s
F = frequency of the wave in Hz
λ = wavelength
SPEED OF A TRANSVERSE WAVE IN A STRING
The speed on a wave stretched under some tension, F goes by the equation:
F m
v where  
 L Therefore v= √ F /¿ ¿ ρ π
ρA = ρ π r2
Where μ = linear mass density r2
v = speed of a wave
F = tension in Newtons ( N )
m is called the linear density
L = length of the string
The speed depends only upon the properties of the medium through which the disturbance travels
SAMPLE PROBLEM. What is the speed of the wave in a guitar string with a length of 0.65 m and a mass of 3.5 g when
subjected to a tension of 250 N?

PRACTICE PROBLEM. A rope has a density of 7.5 g/cm3 and a cross sectional area of 2 cm2 . When the rope is subjected to a
tension of 100 N, and one end is vibrated up and down with a frequency of 25 Hz, what is the:
Velocity of the transverse wave in the rope?
Wavelength in the rope?
SPEED OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE
* The speed of a longitudinal wave depends upon the density and elastic modulus of the medium through which it
propagates. (Isaac Newton)
ELASTIC MODULUS – refers to the ratio of the force applied to an object that measures the object’s resistance
From being deformed elastically

10 | G E N E R A L P H Y S I C S 1
 * The higher the elastic modulus, the faster the wave propagates because of greater force acting on the vibrating
particles of the medium. However, the denser the material, the slower the wave propagates.

The speed of a longitudinal wave is given by the equation: where v = speed of a longitudinal wave
v= √ E/ ρ E = Elastic modulus of the medium in N/m2
ρ = density of the medium in Kg/m3
If the medium is solid, this equation is used to solve for v. v= Y / ρ where Y = Young’s Modulus of the solid medium
√
Where β = Bulk’s Modulus
v= √ β / ρ
If the medium is fluid ( gases and liquids), use this equation in solving for v : of the fluid medium
For gases, β=γP, where P is the pressure in N/m2 and γ is the ratio of the specific heat of gas at a constant pressure to its
specific heat at constant volume. Thus,
v= √ γP / ρ
If the gas is ideal,
Where R = Universal gas constant which is 8.314 J/mol.K
v= √ γRT / M T = Temperature in Kelvin
M = the Molar mass in Kg/mol
Value of γ :
Air and diatomic gases ( H2 , O2 , N2 ) = 1.40
Monoatomic gases like carbon = 1.66

In general, longitudinal waves like sound waves travel fastest in solids and slowest in gases.
SAMPLE PROBLEM. A dynamite explodes and the sound produced propagated through the sea where the temperature is 25
0
C. The sound of the explosion then propagates through the air at a temperature of 25 0C. What will be the difference in the
time of arrivals between the two signals at a station that is 5 Km away. ( Bulk modulus of seawater is
2.0 X 109 N/m2; the density of seawater is 1 025 Kg/m3 and the molar mass of air is 0.029 Kg/mol )

ENERGY TRANSMISSION BY WAVES

* The following are evidences that waves carry energy
1. A strong earthquake may cause buildings and other infrastructure to collapse.
2. An intense sound may cause deafness
3. Sunlight causes photosynthesis
4. Fishing boats topple down because of strong water waves.
5. The force of water waves are felt by us when we swim
NB. Waves transfer energy but not matter.
* When a sinusoidal wave pass through a medium, each particle of the medium moves in SHM, Thereby the total energy of
the particle is represented in this equation: where E = Total Energy A = Amplitude
E = ½ kA2 K = force constant
But since k=4 π 2mf 2A2, therefore
* The energy of a mechanical wave is proportional to the square of its frequency and the square of its amplitude

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 3.2 : PROBLEM SOLVING

1. How many seconds will an echo reach your ear if you yell towards a mountain that is 78 m away when the air
temperature is 0 0C?
2. Navy ships use SONAR to detect submarines. A pulse of sound was sent by the navy ship. If the submarine is 3.8 Km away
from the ship and the speed of sound in seawater is 1500 m/s, how long will it take the sound to travel out and back?
3. What is the speed of sound in oxygen gas at a temperature of 30 0C?
4. Calculate the speed of sound in steel with an Elastic Modulus of Elasticity of 200 x 10 9 Pa ?
5. What is the speed of sound in water whose bulks modulus of elasticity is 2.18 x10 9 KPa?
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11 | G E N E R A L P H Y S I C S 1
LESSON 4: Hypothetical approaches, concepts and problems involving Rotational
Equilibrium and Rotational dynamics, Gravity and Periodic Motion.

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 4. Construct real life problems on Rotational Equilibrium and
Rotational dynamics, Gravity, Gravitational Potential Energy, Newton´s Law of
Gravitation and Periodic Motion, speed of sound waves and provide solutions to such
problems
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12 | G E N E R A L P H Y S I C S 1