ELECTRONICS
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2020-2023
KERALA UNIVERSITY FIFTH SEMESTER
EXAMINATION
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1 Mark Questions
The "Q point" of a transistor represents its operating point, which is the
steady-state DC voltage and current level at which the transistor functions
when no input signal is applied; essentially, it's the point on the transistor's
characteristic curve where it operates under normal conditions without any
signal fluctuations, allowing for optimal amplification without distortion.
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Negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier. It also reduce distortion,
noise and instability. This feedback increases bandwidth and improves
input and output impedances. Due to these advantages, the negative
feedback is frequently used in amplifiers
To determine the modulation index, we can use the following formula:
Modulation Index (m) = Δf /fm
where:
Δf = frequency deviation (10 kHz)
fm = modulating frequency (2 kHz)
we get:
m = 10 kHz / 2 kHz= 5
Therefore, the modulation index is 5.
A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is considered a "breakdown device" because once
the emitter voltage reaches a specific threshold (called the peak point voltage), it
experiences a sudden and significant increase in current flow, essentially
"breaking down" and transitioning from a high resistance state to a low
resistance state, similar to how other breakdown devices operate when a certain
voltage is exceeded.
Transconductance: The ratio of change in drain current to change in gate-source
voltage, vital for understanding JFET performance. Dynamic Output Resistance:
The ratio of change in drain-source voltage to the change in drain current,
indicating how the JFET responds to voltage changes
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Depletion layer : The formation of a narrow region on either
side of the junction which becomes free from mobile charge
carriers is called depletion layer.
Peak inverse voltage (PIV) is the highest voltage a diode can withstand in a
reverse-biased direction before breaking down. It's also known as peak
reverse voltage (PRV) or reverse breakdown voltage.
PIV is important because it helps determine if a diode is suitable for a specific
application. If a diode is subjected to a voltage higher than its PIV rating, it
may break down, which can damage the diode and the equipment it's
connected to.
In a multistage amplifier, the output of the first stage is connected to the input of
the second stage through a coupling device. The most common type of coupling
used is resistance-capacitance coupling. This method is inexpensive and has an
acceptable frequency response. Multistage amplifiers are used in a variety of
industries for a number of applications, including: When perfect impedance
matching is required, When a correct frequency response is necessary, and For DC
isolation purposes. The overall gain of a multistage amplifier can be calculated by
multiplying each gain together.
Barkhausen criterion is a mathematical condition that predicts whether a linear
electronic circuit will oscillate. It states that a circuit will maintain steady-state
oscillations if the following two conditions are met:
• The loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude
• The phase shift around the loop is zero or an integer multiple of 2π
The Barkhausen criterion is commonly used in the design of electronic oscillators
and negative feedback circuits. When designing or analyzing an oscillator, the gain
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and phase criteria are checked. If both conditions are met, the circuit fulfills the
Barkhausen criteria for oscillation
Node
Kirchhoff's current law, also known as Kirchhoff's first law or the junction rule, states
that the total current entering a junction in an electrical circuit is equal to the total
current leaving that junction
Class B
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Positive feedback
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is a measure of an operational
amplifier's (op-amp) ability to reject a signal that is common to both inputs. It's
the ratio of the differential-mode gain to the common-mode gain
Kirchhoff's voltage law
The sum of all voltages across components that supply electrical energy
in a loop is equal to the sum of all voltages across the other components in
the same loop
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a center-tap full-wave rectifier is
(2Vm).
In a power amplifier, "distortion" refers to any unwanted change in the shape
of the output signal compared to the input signal, meaning the amplified waveform is
not an exact replica of the original signal, often manifesting as additional frequencies
not present in the input due to non-linear amplification within the circuit; essentially,
it's a deviation from a perfectly clean reproduction of the audio signal
In a common emitter (CE) transistor configuration, "phase reversal"
refers to a 180-degree phase difference between the input signal and the
output signal, meaning when the input voltage goes positive, the output
voltage goes negative, and vice versa; essentially, the output signal is
inverted compared to the input signal
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A regulated power supply has a voltage regulator that keeps the output voltage within a range
that's compatible with other electrical components. The output from a regulated power supply
can be alternating or unidirectional, but is usually DC
Feedback in an amplifier is the process of taking a portion of the output signal and feeding it back
into the input circuit. This creates a relationship between the output and the input, which allows for
more effective control of the circuit
In a unijunction transistor (UJT), "conductive modulation" refers to the phenomenon where the
resistance of the base region significantly decreases when the emitter voltage is high enough to
inject holes into the lightly doped N-type base, effectively increasing the conductivity of that section
due to the added charge carriers, leading to a negative resistance characteristic in the UJT's
operation
Output offset current in an operational amplifier (op amp) is the
difference between the two input currents, IB plus and IB minus.
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2 Mark Questions
A Zener diode can be defined as a heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed to
operate the electric circuit in the reverse direction. It is also called a breakdown diode. It is a
heavily doped semiconductor diode that is designed to operate the electric circuit in the
reverse direction.
When some voltage passes through the terminals of a Zener diode then it gets reversed and
the potential of the circuit reaches the Zener Voltage or knee voltage, which is the forward
voltage of a flowing current. Then the junction breaks down and the current starts to flow in
the reverse direction. This effect in an electric circuit is known as the Zener Effect. The image
below represents the Zener Diode symbol
We know that transistors are used for multiple purposes. To apply transistors in certain applications we
need to study their properties like biasing and stability factors. Transistor biasing is the process of
setting the DC operating point of a transistor, which is important for ensuring the proper amplification
of AC signals.
Biasing is necessary to keep the transistor in its active region, where it can amplify signals without
distortion. A Stability factor is a measure of the stability of a transistor amplifier circuit with respect to
changes in transistor parameters like input and output current and voltages due to temperature, aging,
or other factors
A transistor's stability factor is a measure of how well it can maintain its biasing conditions when there
are changes in temperature, transistor parameters, and other factors. The stability factor is
represented by the symbol β and is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change
in base current
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Class A:
Transistor conducts for the entire input signal cycle, resulting in low distortion but low efficiency;
typically used in high-fidelity audio applications where sound quality is prioritized.
Class B:
Transistor conducts only for half of the input signal cycle, leading to higher efficiency than Class A but
introducing noticeable crossover distortion (a distortion occurring when switching between
transistors).
Class AB:
Operates between Class A and Class B, providing a balance between efficiency and low distortion,
often considered the best choice for general audio applications.
Class C:
Transistor conducts for a very small portion of the input signal cycle, resulting in high efficiency but
significant distortion; primarily used in radio frequency applications where distortion can be
controlled by tuned circuits.
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Demodulation of an AM (Amplitude Modulated) signal is the process of extracting the original
information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave, essentially "undoing" the modulation process
to recover the audio or data that was encoded onto the carrier wave by varying its amplitude. This is
achieved by using a demodulator circuit which typically rectifies the AM signal to isolate the envelope
(containing the information) and then filters out the remaining high-frequency carrier components,
leaving only the original modulating signal.
Key points about AM demodulation:
Envelope detection:
The most common method for demodulating AM signals is called "envelope detection," which uses a
diode to rectify the signal, effectively taking only the positive peaks of the waveform, which represent
the amplitude variations carrying the information.
Low-pass filter:
After rectification, a low-pass filter is used to smooth out the signal and remove the remaining carrier
frequency components, leaving only the original modulating signal.
Diode as a detector:
A simple diode circuit can act as an envelope detector, where the diode conducts during the positive
half-cycles of the AM wave, charging a capacitor that holds the peak voltage representing the envelope.
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The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that to achieve maximum power transfer from a source to a
load, the resistance of the load must be equal to the internal resistance of the source (or the Thevenin
equivalent resistance of the circuit), meaning the load resistance should match the source resistance for
optimal power delivery; this is often applied in situations where the load resistance can be adjusted to
achieve maximum power transfer.
Condition for maximum power: When the load resistance (RL) equals the source internal resistance (Rth),
the maximum power is transferred to the load.
Efficiency at maximum power transfer: At maximum power transfer, the circuit efficiency is typically 50%.
Application: This theorem is useful in designing circuits where maximizing power delivery to a load is
crucial, like in antenna systems or signal transmission
In transistor biasing, a "load line" refers to a line drawn on a transistor's characteristic curve graph,
which visually represents the relationship between the collector current and collector-emitter
voltage based on the external circuit resistance (load), essentially showing the possible operating
points of the transistor within the circuit; its significance lies in helping determine the optimal
operating point ("Q-point") of the transistor for proper amplification, where the transistor functions
within its active region without distortion.
Key points about the load line:
Graphical representation:
The load line is plotted on the transistor's output characteristic
curves, where the x-axis represents the collector-emitter voltage
(Vce) and the y-axis represents the collector current (Ic).
Determining the Q-point:
The intersection of the load line with the transistor’s
characteristic curve indicates the Q-point, which is the
desired operating point for the transistor.
Impact of load resistance:
The slope of the load line is determined by the value of the load resistor (Rc) in the circuit. A higher
load resistance results in a steeper load line, which means a smaller range of possible operating
points.
Importance for amplification:
By choosing a suitable Q-point on the load line, the transistor can effectively amplify signals without
significant distortion, as it stays within the active region where the gain is relatively constant
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Working Principle of MOSFET
The main working principle of a MOSFET is to control the voltage and the current which is flowing
between the source terminal and the drain terminals. We can also say that its work is almost similar to
that of a switch.
The semiconductor surface which is present below the oxide layer placed between the source and
drain terminal can be reversed from a P-type to an N-type by applying either a positive or negative
gate of voltages respectively. When a repulsive force is applied for the positive gate voltage, then the
holes present beneath the oxide layer get pushed downward with the substrate present there.
The depletion region of a MOSFET is inhabited by the bounded negative charges which are linked with
an acceptor atom. When electrons reach it a channel gets developed. The positive voltage also attracts
electrons present in the n+ source and drain regions towards the channel.
So, when a voltage is applied between the drain and source, the current starts to flow freely between
the source and the drain. The flow of gate voltage controls the electrons present in the channel. But, if
a negative voltage is applied to it then a hole channel will start to form under the oxide layer of the
MOSFET.
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A dual power supply is used in op-amp circuits because it allows the op-amp to produce both positive and
negative output voltages, which is necessary for many applications where the input signal can swing both
above and below the "ground" level, enabling proper amplification and biasing of the circuit; essentially, a
dual supply provides the flexibility to swing the output voltage around a reference point, which is crucial for
op-amp functionality.
•Bipolar output: Op-amps are designed to amplify signals that can go both positive and negative, so a dual
power supply (with a positive and negative voltage rail) is needed to provide the necessary voltage range for
the output.
•Accurate signal representation: In circuits where the input signal can swing above and below the "ground"
level, a dual supply allows for a more accurate representation of the signal at the output.
•Biasing: Proper biasing of the internal transistors within the op-amp often requires a negative voltage ra
"open loop gain" refers to the gain of an amplifier without any feedback loop, meaning it's the inherent
amplification of the device itself, while "closed loop gain" is the gain of the amplifier when a feedback loop is
actively used, which allows for more precise control and stability over the overall gain, usually determined by
external components in the circuit like resistors.
Open loop gain:
•Very high in most amplifiers, especially operational amplifiers (op-amps).
•Not typically used in practical applications due to susceptibility to noise and instability.
•Represents the amplifier's raw gain without any feedback mechanism.
•Closed loop gain:
•Lower gain than open loop gain, but is more precisely controlled by the feedback network.
•Provides better stability and noise rejection.
•Can be adjusted by changing the values of feedback resistors in the circuit.
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The avalanche breakdown occurs when a high reverse voltage is applied across the diode. As we
increase the applied reverse voltage, the electric field across the junction increases. This electric field
exerts a force on the electrons at the junction and frees them from covalent bonds. These free
electrons start moving with high velocity across the junction and collide with the other atoms, thus
creating more free electrons. This results in a rapid increase in net current. Both these breakdowns
occur in Zener diodes.
A transistor is called a current-controlled device because the base current
controls the output current in a transistor:
A transistor controls the electrical current supplied to it by acting as an
amplifier or a switch. The input current at the base controls the output current
flowing between the emitter and the collector. The transistor can turn on or off
if the base current turns on or off
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In a transistor, the base region is the thinnest, and the collector region is the widest:
•Base: The base is the smallest segment of the transistor, and is kept thin so that most carriers pass to the
collector. The base is lightly doped.
•Collector: The collector is the largest segment of the transistor, and is kept large to dissipate heat produced by
the collector current. The collector has moderate doping.
•Emitter: The emitter is larger than the base, and is heavily doped.
The structure of a transistor allows it to operate efficiently. The base controls the current flow between the
emitter and collector region
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Field-effect transistors (FETs) can be classified into two types: majority carrier devices,
where the current is carried primarily by the majority carriers, and minority carrier devices,
where the current flow is primarily due to the minority carriers. In FETs, electrons flow from
the source to the drain through active channels in the device, and ohmic contacts
connect both the terminal conductors to the semiconductor material. The source terminal
and the gate have a potential between them, and the conductivity of the channel is a
function of this potential.
FETs have three terminals:
•The first terminal is the source (S), through which current enters the device, denoted by IS.
•The second terminal is the drain (D), through which current leaves the device, denoted by
ID. The voltage between drain and source is VDS.
•The third terminal is the gate (G), which modulates the channel conductivity. By applying
a voltage at the gate, ID can be controlled.
The names of the terminals are based on their functions, which are similar to real-life
gates that control when they open and close. The gate can permit the passage of
electrons or block it.
In a junction field-effect transistor (JFET), the pinch-off voltage is the voltage at which
the transistor turns off and the channel is pinched off:
•Explanation
•The pinch-off voltage is the value of Vds when the drain current reaches a constant
saturation value. At this voltage, no more carriers can move from the source to the
drain, and the current remains practically constant
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