Unit III

1. Define active power reactive power and apparent power with units, and draw
power triangle.
Active Power:
The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit is called True power or Active
Power or real power.
Active Power Formulas:
P=V×I ( DC Circuit)
P = V × I × cos ɸ ( single Phase AC Circuit )
Unit :- Watt
Reactive Power:
The powers that continuously bounce back and forth between source and load is known as
reactive Power (Q), this Power merely absorbed and returned in load due to its reactive properties
is referred to as reactive power.
Reactive Power Formulas:
Q= V × I × sin ɸ ( single Phase AC Circuit )
Unit :- VAr
Apparent Power: .
The combination of both Active and reactive power is called apparent power. OR
The Product of voltage and current when the phase angle differences between current and voltage
is not considered.. Apparent Power Formulas:
S=V×I
Unit :- VA
Power Triangle:
2. Define admittance, conductance, and susceptance. with units and draw
admittance triangle.
Admittance (Y):-
The reciprocal of the impedance of an AC circuit is known as Admittance of the circuit.
( Since impedance is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current in an AC circuit.
Therefore, Admittance is defined as the effective ability of the circuit due to which it allows the
alternating current to flow through it )
It is represented by (Y). The old unit of admittance is mho (Ʊ). Its new unit is Siemens.
Y = 1/ Z
Y = G ± jB
Conductance (G) :- It is the ratio of Resistance to the square of Impedance
Unit :- Simense
𝑅
𝐺 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = = 𝑌 cos ɸ
𝑍2
Susceptance (B):- It is the ratio of reactance to the square of Impedance
Unit :- Simense
𝑋
𝐵 = 𝑆𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = = = 𝑌 sin ɸ
𝑍2

3. Calculate power factor angle and power Factor in Following

cases. i] Z=10+j10 ii] Z= 30-j20.

i] Z=10+j10
Z= R+jXL Rectangular form R = 10 , XL = 10 convert it to polar form
r = 14.14
ɵ = 450
cos ɵ = 0.707
ii] Z= 30-j20.
Z= R+jXL Rectangular form R = 30 , XL = -20 convert it to polar form
r = 36.05
ɵ = -33.69
cos ɵ = 0.83
1. Obtain the expression for current and power when voltage V = Vm sin(wt ) is
applied across purely resistive/inductive/ capacitive circuit
2. Derive the equation for power when voltage V=Vm sin(wt ) is applied across RL
Series/ RC/RLC circuit
3. Define Series resonance and derive the expression for resonant frequency.
In the RLC series circuit, when the circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage, the
circuit is said to be in Series Resonance.
The resonance condition arises in the series RLC Circuit when the inductive reactance is equal
to the capacitive reactance XL = XC or (XL – XC = 0). A series resonant circuit has the
capability to draw heavy current and power from the mains; it is also called as Acceptor
Circuit.

Effects of Series Resonance: -

1. At Resonance condition, XL = XC the impedance of the circuit is minimum and is reduced to

the resistance of the circuit. i.e Zr = R
2. At the resonance condition, as the impedance of the circuit is minimum, the current in the
circuit is maximum. i.e Ir = V/R
3. As the value of resonant current Ir is maximum hence, the power drawn by the circuit is also
maximized. i.e Pr = I2Rr
4. At the resonant condition, the current drawn by the circuit is very large or we can say that the
maximum current is drawn. Therefore, the voltage drop across the inductance L i.e (VL =
IXL = I x 2πfrL) and the capacitance C i.e (VC = IXC = I x I/2πfrC) will also be very large.
 Unit IV
1. Define i] Balance load ii] Unbalance load iii] Phase sequence.
Balance load: -
When the all three Impedances of 3 phase load are same & that draws the balance phase or
line current from the constant voltage source is called the balanced load.
Unbalance load: -
When there is variation in impedance then the load draws unbalance current. The load is said
to be an unbalance load and the circuit is called unbalance circuit.

Phase sequence:
The sequence in which the voltages in three phases reach their maximum positive value is
called as phase sequence.

2. Define: Efficiency and voltage regulation of transformer with formulas.

Transformer Efficiency: -
The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the input
power. It is denoted by Ƞ.
Where,
V2 – Secondary terminal voltage
I2 – Full load secondary current
Cosϕ2 – power factor of the load
Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current
losses
Pc – Full load copper losses = I22Res
Voltage regulation:-

It is defined as the change in the magnitude of voltage from no load to fully loaded
transformer.
Mathematically,
𝐸2 − 𝑉2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐸2
𝐸2 − 𝑉2
% 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝐸2
where, E2 – secondary voltage at no load
V2 – secondary voltage at full load
 3. Define different Types of losses in transformer and how to minimize these
losses.
There Two main types of losses happen in the transformer
I. Iron Losses II. Copper Losses
I. Iron Losses: -
Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss occurs
in the core it is also known as Core loss.
Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis and eddy current loss.
1. Hysteresis Loss
Power is dissipated in the form of heat due to magnetising properties (hysteresis loop) of core
is known as hysteresis loss and given by the equation shown

Where, KȠ is a proportionality constant f is the supply frequency,

Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density.
This loss can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction of the core of
the transformer.
2. Eddy Current Loss
When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit and the current flows.
Since the core is made of conducting material, these EMFs circulate currents within the body
of the material. These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents.
The equation of the eddy current loss is given as:

Where,
Ke – coefficient of eddy current. Bm – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2
T – thickness of lamination in meters F – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz
V – volume of magnetic material in m3

The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations.
II. Copper Loss Or Ohmic Loss
These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.
If I1 and I2 are the primary and the secondary current. R1 and R2 are the resistance of primary
and secondary winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary winding
will be I12R1 and I22R2 respectively.

Therefore, the total copper losses will be

 4. Difference between transformer Core type and shell type

Comparison Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

Definition The winding surrounds the core. The core surrounds the winding.

Cross Section Cross-section may be square, cruciformThe

and cross section is rectangular in shape.
three stepped

Limb Two Three

Flux The flux is equally distributed on the Central

side limb carries the whole flux and side
limbs of the core. limbs carries the half of the flux.

Winding The primary and secondary winding Primary

are and secondary windings are placed on
placed on the side limbs. the central limb

Magnetic Circuit One two

Losses More Less

Maintenance Easy Difficult

5. Write short note on Autotransformer

Auto Transformer: -
An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound on a laminated core. An
auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but a part of the winding is common
to both primary and secondary sides.
An Auto transformer works as a voltage regulator.

The primary winding AB from which a tapping at C is taken, such

that CB acts as a secondary winding. The supply voltage is applied
across AB, and the load is connected across CB. The tapping may be
fixed or variable. When an AC voltage V1 is applied across AB, an
alternating flux is set up in the core, as a result, an emf E1 is induced in
the winding AB. A part of this induced emf is taken in the secondary circuit.
 1. Derive the relation between phase voltage, line Voltage. phase current and
line current in case of balance star / delta connected 3-phase inductive
load. with circuit diagram and phasor diagram.
A. Relation Between Phase Current, Line Current, Phase Voltage and Line Voltage in Star
Connection
Consider the three Phase (R,Y,B) star connected
balanced load. Therefore, the three voltages ENR,
ENY and ENB are equal in magnitude but displaced
from one another by 120 degrees electrical.
In case of Star connection
Where the phase current will be

𝐼𝑁𝑅 = 𝐼𝑁𝑌 = 𝐼𝑁𝐵 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ

The line current will be 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑌 = 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿

The phase Voltages will be 𝐸𝑁𝑅 = 𝐸𝑁𝑌 = 𝐸𝑁𝐵 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ

The line Voltages will be 𝐸𝑅𝑌 = 𝐸𝑌𝐵 = 𝐸𝐵𝑅 = 𝐸𝐿

The same current flows through phase winding as well as in the line conductor so

and 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ

Hence, in a 3 Phase system of Star Connections, the Line Current is equal to Phase Current.
The Phasor Diagram of Star Connection is shown below.
To find the vector sum of ENY and –ENR, we have to reverse
the vector ENR and add it with ENY as shown in the phasor
diagram above.
In above Phaser diagram consider right angle triangle OAB
𝐸𝐵𝑅 𝑉𝐿
𝑂𝐵 2
cos(30 0)
= = = 2
𝑂𝐴 𝐸𝑁𝑅 𝑉𝑃ℎ
𝑉𝐿
√3
= 2
2 𝑉𝑃ℎ

𝑉𝐿 =
√3 𝑉𝑃ℎ
Hence, in Star Connections Line voltage is root 3 times of phase voltage.
 B. Relation Between Phase Current, Line Current, Phase Voltage and Line Voltage in Delta
Connection
Consider the three Phase (R,Y,B) Delta connected
balanced load. Therefore, the three voltages ENR,
ENY and ENB are equal in magnitude but displaced from
one another by 120 degrees electrical.
In case of Delta connection
Where the phase current will be

𝐼12 = 𝐼23 = 𝐼31 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ

The line current will be 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑌 = 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿

The phase Voltages will be 𝐸12 = 𝐸23 = 𝐸31 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ

The line Voltages will be 𝐸𝑅𝑌 = 𝐸𝑌𝐵 = 𝐸𝐵𝑅 = 𝐸𝐿

It is clear from the figure that the voltage across terminals 1 and 2 is the same as across the terminals
R and Y. Therefore E12 = ERY
Similarly E23 = EYB and E31 = EBR

Hence 𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ

Hence, in a 3 Phase system of Star Connections, the Line Voltage is equal to Phase Voltage.
The Phasor Diagram of Delta Connection is shown below.
As in the balanced system the three-phase current I12,
I23 and I31 are equal in magnitude but are displaced
from one another by 120 degrees electrical.
In above Phaser diagram consider right angle triangle
OAB
𝐼𝑌 𝐼𝐿
𝑂𝐵
cos(300 ) = = 2 = 2
𝑂𝐴 𝐼12 𝐼𝑃ℎ
𝐼𝐿
√3
= 2
2 𝐼𝑃ℎ

𝐼𝐿 = √3 𝐼𝑃ℎ
Hence, in Star Connections Line voltage is root 3 times of phase voltage.
 2. Derive the emf equation of single-phase transformer.

EMF Equation of Transformer:-

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the

primary winding of a transformer, alternating
flux ϕm sets up in the iron core of the
transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with
both primary and secondary winding.
N1 = No. of turns of primary winding
N2 = No. of turns of secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in core ( webers) = Bm x A
f= frequency of alternating current in Hz
From the figure , it has been seen that the flux Φ increases from its zero
value to maximum value Φm in one quarter of the cycle i.e in 1/4 f
second
∆∅ ∅𝑚 − 0 ∅𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = = = = 4𝑓∅𝑚
∆𝑡 1 1
−0
4𝑓 4𝑓
This is rate of change of flux per turn it indicates induced e.m.f in volts/turn.

∴ average e.m.f/ turn = 4 f Φm volt

We know
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓⁄
∴ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 1.11 × 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓/𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓⁄
∴ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 1.11 × 4𝑓∅𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓⁄
∴ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 4.44𝑓∅𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Now, r.m.s value of the induced e.m.f in the primary winding

∴ E1 = (induced e.m.f/turn) x No. of primary turns

∴ E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 (As Φm = Bm x A )

∴ E1 = 4.44 f N1Bm A .....................(i)

Similarly, r.m.s value of the e.m.f. induced in secondary is,

E2= 4.44 f Φm N2 (As Φm = Bm x A )
E2 = 4.44 f N2 Bm A .....................(ii)
1. Three identical coils, each of resistance 10ohm and inductance 42mH are
connected (a) in star and (b) in delta to a 415V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply.
Determine i] Line voltage ii] phase voltage iii] phase current and line current
iv] active, reactive, and apparent power

(a) Star connection

Inductive reactance, XL =2πf L =2π (50) (42×10−3) =13.19
Phase impedance, Zp =√(R2 +XL2) =√(102 +13.192) =16.55
Line voltage, VL =415 V
And phase voltage, VP =VL/√3=415/√3=240 V.
Phase current, Ip =Vp/Zp =240/16.55=14.50 A.
Line current, IL =Ip =14.50 A.
Power factor= cos φ=Rp/Zp =10/16.55 =0.6042 lagging.
Active Power,
P =√3 VLIL cos φ =√3 (415) (14.50)(0.6042) =6.3kW
Reactive Power,
Q =√3 VLIL sin φ =√3 (415) (14.50)(sin(52.82)) =8.03 VAr----------- Φ= cos-1(0.6042) =52.82
Apparent Power,
S =√3 VLIL =√3 (415) (14.50)= 10.42 VA
(b) Delta connection
VL = Vp = 415 V,
Zp = 16.55_, cos φ = 0.6042 lagging (from above). Phase current,
Ip =Vp/Zp =415/16.55=25.08A. Line current,
IL =√3Ip =√3(25.08)=43.44A.
Power dissipated,
P =√3 VLIL cos φ =√3 (415)(43.44)(0.6042) = 18.87kW
Reactive Power,
Q =√3 VLIL sin φ ==√3 (415)(43.44)(sin(52.82)) = 24.87 VAr
Apparent Power,
S =√3 VLIL = √3 (415) (43.44)= 31.222 VA
2. Three identical impedances each of 6+j82 ohm are connected in star across 3-phase, 415V, 50
Hz ac Supply Determine i] Line voltage ii] phase voltage iii] phase current and line current
iv] active, reactive, and apparent power.
 Unit V
1. Define Linear, Non-Linear, Active, Passive, Unilateral, Bilateral, Lump,
distributed Networks.
a. Linear circuits: It is a circuit whose parameters remain constant with change
in voltage or current.Examples are a resistance, inductance or capacitance.

b. Non-linear Circuits: It is a circuit whose parameters change with voltage or

current. A semi- conductor resistor is an example of this circuit.

c. Unilateral Circuit: when the direction of current is changed, the

characteristics or properties of the circuit may change. Example; diode,
transistors etc.

d. Bilateral circuit: when with change in direction of current, the characterstics

or properties of the circuit may not change, it is then called bilateral circuit..

e. Active Network: It is a network which contains one or more than one source
of e.m.f. An active network consists of an active element like a battery or
transistor.

f. Passive Network: When a network does not contain any source of e.m.f., it is
called passive network. A passive network does not contains any source of
energy.

g. Lumped and Distributed Network: physically separate network elements

like R, L, or C are knowas lumped elements. A transmission line or a cable is
an example of distributed parameter network as throughout the line they are
not physically separate.

2. Define Ideal and Practical Voltage Sources with symbol and VI

Characteristics.

Voltage Source
A voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at any instant of time is
constant and is independent of the current drawn from it. Such a voltage source is called
an Ideal Voltage Source (FigA) and have zero internal resistance.

Practically an ideal voltage source cannot be obtained.

Sources having some amount of internal resistances in series are known as Practical
Voltage Source (Fig B). Due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and
it causes the terminal voltage to reduce.
 The smaller is the internal resistance (r) of a voltage source. The symbolic
representation and i VI characteristics of the ideal and practical voltage source is shown
below.

Current Source
An Ideal current source (Fig C) is a two-terminal circuit element which supplies the
same current to anyload resistance connected across its terminals. It is important to
keep in mind that the current supplied by the current source is independent of the
voltage of source terminals. It has infinite resistance.

A practical current source (Fig D) is represented as an ideal current source connected

with the resistancein parallel.

3. Explain KCL and KVL law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that” the algebraic sum of all the currents at any node
point or a junctionof a circuit is zero”. Σ I = 0

Considering the above figure as per the Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

i1 + i2 – i3 – i4 – i5 + i6 = 0 ……… (1)
The equation (1) can also be written as:

i1 + i2 + i6 = i3 + i4 + i5
Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages (or voltage drops) in
any closed pathof network that is transverse in a single direction is zero

or

In a closed loop circuit, the algebraicsum of all the EMFs + the algebraic sum of all the
voltage drops (product of current (I) and resistance (R))is zero.
ΣE+ΣV=0

The beside figure shows closed circuit also termed as a

mesh. As per theKirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Here, the assumed current I causes a negative voltage

drop of voltagewhen flowing from the positive to
negative potential while positive
potential drop while the current flowing from negative to the positive potential.

4. Three resistance each 50 are connected in delta, draw its equivalent star.

𝑹𝟏𝟐 × 𝑹𝟑𝟏 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝟏 = = = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟔 𝒐𝒉𝒎
𝑹𝟏𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑𝟏 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝟏𝟐 × 𝑹𝟐𝟑 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝟐 = = = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟔 𝒐𝒉𝒎
𝑹𝟏𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑𝟏 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝟐𝟑 × 𝑹𝟑𝟏 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝟑 = = = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟔 𝒐𝒉𝒎
𝑹𝟏𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑𝟏 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎
5. Three resistance each 50 are connected in star, draw its equivalent delta.

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 ) + (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 ) + (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 )

𝑹𝟏𝟐 = = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎
𝑹𝟑 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 ) + (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 ) + (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 )
𝑹𝟐𝟑 = = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎
𝑹𝟏 𝟓𝟎
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 ) + (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 ) + (𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 )
𝑹𝟑𝟏 = = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎
𝑹𝟐 𝟓𝟎
1. Derive the equation to convert equivalent Delta to Star / Star to Delta
Network.
 2. State & Explain Thevenin’s Theorem.

Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem is that any linear active network consisting of independent or
dependent voltage and current source, the network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
having a voltage source in series with a resistance.
The voltage source being the open circuited voltage across the open circuited load
terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source.
The Thevenin’s statement is explained with the help of a circuit shown below.

Let us consider a simple DC circuit as shown in

the figure above,where we have to find the load
current IL by the Thevenin’s theorem.
In order to find the equivalent voltage source, rL is
removed from thecircuit as shown in the figure
below and Voc or VTH is calculated

Step 1 – First of all remove the load resistance rL of the given circuit.

Step 2 – Find the Thevenin’s voltage(VTH)(Voc) by Replacing all the

impedance source by their internal resistance & If sources are ideal
then short circuit the voltage source and open the current source.

Step 3 – Now find the equivalent resistance at the load terminals know as Thevenin’s
Resistance (RTH).

Step 4 – Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting the load resistance
Step 5 – Find the load current by formula

Equivalent Circuit of Thevenin’s Theorem

The Load current IL is given as

 3. State & Explain Superposition Theorem

Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network having more than
one source, the current / Voltage across any element is the sum of the current / Voltage
obtained from each source considered separately and all other sources are replaced by their
internal resistance.

Explanation of Superposition Theorem

Let us understand the superposition theorem with the help of an example. The circuit
diagram shown belowconsists of a two voltage sources V1 and V2.

Initially, considering the source V1 alone acting and other V2 source is replaced by its
internal resistance (short circuit for voltage source and open circuit for current source)
as shown in the circuit diagram. Here, the value of current flowing in each branch, i.e.
i1’, i2’ and i3’ is calculated by the following equations.

Now, activating the voltage source V2 and deactivating the voltage source V1 by short
circuiting it, find thevarious currents, i.e. i1’’, i2’’, i3’’ flowing in the circuit diagram
shown.

As per the superposition theorem the value of current i1, i2, i3 is now calculated as
1. Calculate the Current Flowing through 10 ohm & 4 ohm resistance for the
circuit shown in fig. By KVL & Superposition theorem.

2. Find the equivalent resistance between B & C in the given network.

 Unit VI
1. Define resistivity of material and factors affecting resistivity.
Resistivity is defined as the electrical resistance of a conductor of unit cross-sectional area
and unit length.
The general formula to determine the resistivity of any conductor will be given by
𝑙
𝑅= 𝜌 Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the conductor
𝐴
The resistivity of any conductor is inversely proportional to the length of the conductor and
directly proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor.
If L is the length of the conductor and A is the area of cross-section of the conductor.

Then, the SI unit of resistivity will be given by

SI unit of resistivity = (Ω)(m2)(m)=Ωm(Ω)(m2)(m)=Ωm
SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meters.

2. Define: RTC and state the factors on which it depends.

The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the ratio of change of resistance per
degree change of temperature to the resistance at some definite temperature adopted as
standard

The change in resistance of a material with the increase in temperature can be expressed by
means of the temperature coefficient of resistance.
Consider a conductor having resistance Ro at 0°c and Rt at t°c. From the above discussion,
we can conclude that the change in the resistance i.e (Rt – Ro) is
1. Directly proportional to the initial resistance Ro
2. Directly proportional to the rise in temperature t°c.
3. Depends on the nature of the material
Hence (Rt – Ro) ∝ Rot i.e. (Rt – Ro) = αRot i.e. Rt = Ro(1 + αot)
Where αo is constant and called as the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°c and its
value depends upon the nature of material and temperature.
3. State the applications of lead acid battery and Lithium Iron Battery.

Lead Acid Battery Applications

• These are employed in emergency lightening to provide power for sump pumps.
• Used in electric motors
• Submarine
• Nuclear submarines
Lithium Iron Battery Applications
• power backups/UPS
• Mobile, Laptops, and other commonly used consumer electronic goods
• Electric mobility
• Energy Storage Systems
1. Define Insulation resistance and derive its formula for single core cable.
Insulation Resistance:-
The resistance offered by cable to flow of the leakage current is called an insulation
resistance.
2. If 𝜶𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜶𝟐 are the RTC of a conducting material at 𝒕𝟏 ℃ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝟐 ℃
𝛂𝟏
respectively, prove that 𝛂𝟐 = .
𝟏+𝛂𝟏 (𝐭 𝟐 −𝐭 𝟏 )

3. Explain the effect of Temperature on Resistance of different types of

material with graph
Effect of Temperature on Resistance:-
The electrical resistance changes with the change of temperature. The resistance does not only
increase with the rise in temperature but it also decreases in some cases.
1. Metal: The resistance of all pure metals increases linearly with increase in temperature
over a limited temperature range.
2. Alloy: The resistance of almost all alloys increases with increase in temperature but the rate
of change of resistance is less than that of metals. In fact, the resistance of certain alloys such
as Manganin, Eureka, and Constantan show practically no change in resistance fo a
 considerable range of temperature. Due to this property, the alloy is used to manufacture the
resistance box.
3. Semiconductor, Insulator, and Electrolyte: The resistance of semiconductor, Insulator,
and Electrolyte(silicon, Glass, Varnish etc) decrease with increase in temperature.

Examples on RTC & Electricity Bill

1. If the temperature coefficient of resistance for copper wire is 0.00393 per
degree Celsius at 20º C. Find the temperature coefficient of resistance at (i)
50º C and (ii) 70º C
Soln :- given 𝛼1 = 0.00393 /℃, t1= 20º C; α2=?, t2= 50º C; α3=?, t3= 70º C

2. Determine the current flowing at the instant of switching a 60 watt lamp

on a 230 V supply. The ambient temperature is 25º C. The filament
temperature is 2000º C and the resistance temperature coefficient is 0.005
º C at 0º C.
3. The electrical load of a bungalow is as follows.
a. Tubes 40W 06 nos 6 hrs/day
b. Fans 60W 04 nos 10 hrs/day
c. Washing machine 2 kW 01 no 01 hr/day
d. Geyser 2 kW 01 no 02 hrs/day
e. TV 100 W 01 no 06 hrs/day
Find
i. Daily energy consumption in kWh
ii. Monthly electricity bill for the month of 30 days at the rate of Rs
6/unit.

a. Tubes 40W 06 nos 6 hrs/day 1440 watt

b. Fans 60W 04 nos 10 hrs/day 2400 watt
c. Washing machine 2 kW 01 no 01 hr/day 2000 watt
d. Geyser 2 kW 01 no 02 hrs/day 4000 watt
e. TV 100 W 01 no 06 hrs/day 600 watt

Daily Energy consumption= 1440+ 2400+2000+4000+600 = 10440 watt = 10.44 Kwh

Monthly energy consumption = daily energy consumption × total days × Rate/unit
= 10.44 × 30 × 6
=1879.2 Rs