Introduction to Electrical Engineering

EE 103

Lecture 12
R e l a x !!!
 KCL holds for closed curves or surfaces
i 1 (t)

i 2(t)

i1 (t ) + i2 (t ) + i3 (t ) = 0
i (t)
3

Algebraic sum of the currents entering a closed curve or

a surface is zero at every instant of time.
Loop or Closed Path: A loop or closed path
in a circuit is a contiguous sequence of
branches which begins and ends on the
same node and touches no other node more
than once.

KVL: Algebraic sum of the voltage drops

around any closed path is zero at every
instant of time
Circuit Analysis:

Mesh or Loop analysis (application of KVL) (Maxwell 1881)

Nodal analysis (application of KCL) (1901, 1960)

Loop analysis
R1

R2 R3
I2
R4
+ +
V _
1 V2
_
R6
I1 I3
R5
Loop analysis
R1

I
1
R2 I R3
2
R4
+
+
V _
1 V2
_
R6
I
3
R5
Loop analysis
1

4 2
I2

+ + 2
28 V _ 12V
_ 8A

I1 I3
1
Nodal Analysis : Computation of all node
voltages of a ckt by applying
KCL.

• Assign a node to be the reference node

- arbitrarily ?

• Leave the node at which a voltage

source is directly connected with respect
to the reference node

• Leave also the reference node

 G5

_
Va + Vx Vb Vc

G2 G4
+
G1 G3
Is Vd
_

Reference Node

Reference node is also called ground

 v1 v2
+  iy gmvx iy
G1 G2 vx G4 G6

_ v3
+
vin
_ G5

Ref Node
Systems: Relation between its input
and output

Issue of Linearity
 IA

60 
VB 1
+ (VB − Vs 2 ) = I s 2
120 60
Is1 VB 120  Vs2
or

2
VB = 40 I s1 + Vs 2
3
 IA

60  2
VB = 40 I s1 + Vs 2
3
Is1 VB 120  Vs2

1 1 2
IA = (VB − Vs 2 ) = (40 I s1 + Vs 2 − Vs 2 )
60 60 3
2 1
= I s1 − Vs 2
2 3 180
VB = 40 I s1 + Vs 2
3
2 1
I A = I s1 − Vs 2 2 input, 2 output system
3 180
Linearity:

• For any linear circuit, any output voltage or

current, denoted by the variable y, is
related linearly to the independent sources.

y = a1u1 + a2u2 + + amum

u1 um = voltage and current values of

independent sources

a1 am = properly dimensioned constants

 iB

Linear
Vs1 circuit is1
containing
no
independ-
ent
Vsn ism
sources

VA
 iB
va = 1vs1 +  n vsn + 1is1 + +  mism

iB = 1vs1 +  n vsn +  1is1 + +  mism

Linear
Vs1 circuit is1
containing
no
independ-
ent
Vsn ism
sources

VA

2 output, m+n input system

Consequence of : y = a1u1 + a2u2 + + amum

Superposition theorem:

In any linear circuit containing more than one

independent source, any output (voltage or
current) in the circuit may be calculated by
adding together the contributions due to each
independent source acting alone, with
remaining independent sources deactivated.
 y = a1u1 + a2u2 + + amum

• Additivity property of linear networks

•If all sources are multiplied by a constant,

the response is multiplied by the same
constant – homogeneity property of linear
circuit
Example-1
Compute Vout

Compute power consumed by the o/p

resistor
+

6 12  24 

Vout
Vs1 Vs2
_
 +
8 4
6 12  24  V =
1
Vs1 = Vs 2
8+6
out
7
Vout
Vs1 Vs2
_
4.8 2
V =
2
Vs 2 = Vs 2
4.8 + 12
out
7

4 2
Vout = V + V = Vs1 + Vs 2
1
out
2
out
7 7

Vout2 1  16 16 4 2 
P= =  (Vs1 ) + (Vs1Vs 2 ) + (Vs 2 ) 
2

24 24  49 49 49 
 Example-2

50  200 

40 

Is1 Vout V3 Vs2

V3 Compute Vout
 50  200 
V31 V3 − V3
1 1

+ = is1
40 
200 40
Is1 1 V1
Vout 3
or
V31
200 I s1
V = 1

(6 − 5 )
3

Therefore, 500 − 250

V = 50 I s1 + V =
1 1
I s1
6 − 5
out 3
 50  200 
V32 − Vs 2 V32 − V32
+ =0
40  200 40
2
Vout V32 Vs2
V32
or

1
Vout = V =2
Vs 2
6 − 5
3

Therefore,

500 − 250 1
Vout = Vout1 + Vout2 = I s1 + Vs 2
6 − 5 6 − 5
Network theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem (1883) :
Thevenin’s Theorem:

A iL
Resistances
and Arbitrary
independent
VL Network
sources

Rth A iL

Arbitrary
Voc VL Network

B
Thevenin’s Theorem :

Given an arbitrary two-terminal linear network N, for almost all such

N, there exists an equivalent two-terminal network consisting of an
resistance (impedance), Rth in series with an independent voltage
source, voc (t). The voltage source, voc(t), called the open circuit voltage,
is what appears across the two terminals of N when no other network
is attached. Rth called the thevenin equivalent resistance, is the
equivalent resistance of N when all independent sources are deactivated
Norton’s Theorem:
Norton’s Theorem:

Given an arbitrary two-terminal linear network N, for almost all such

N, there exists an equivalent two-terminal network consisting of an
resistance (impedance), Rth in parallel with an independent current
source, isc(t). The current source, isc (t), called the short circuit current,
is what flows through a short circuit of the two terminals of N.
R thcalled the thevenin equivalent resistance, is the
equivalent resistance of N when all independent sources are deactivated
Neq

Resistances
and
Independent isc Rth
sources
Find Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits
seen at the terminal A-B

VA VB

i R

5 k 20 k
20 k is3

Vs1 Vs2
 VB = −20kis 3
VA VB

i Applying KCL at node - A

5 k 20 k
20 k is3
VA − Vs 2 VA − Vs1
Vs1 Vs2
+ =0
20k 5k
or,
VA − Vs 2 + 4VA − 4Vs1
=0
20k
or 4Vs1 + Vs 2
VA =
5
Therefore, 4Vs1 + Vs 2
Voc = VAB = + 20kis 3
5
 VA VB
Rth
i
5 k 20 k
20 k is3

Vs1 Vs2

5 k 20 k
A

B
20 k
A 24 k

4 k

B
20 k

B
 Thevenin and Norton’s theorem for circuits
containing active elements

• All controlling voltages and currents should be

within the two terminal network whose Thevenin
or Norton’s equivalents are sought
Find Theven equivalent circuit seen at the
terminal A-B
A i 4k 

50  Vd Vd  = 101
Rth

B
 voc = isc = 0
Applying KCL at node - A

1 1 − 101
−i + + =0 i=−
1
50 4 10 3
200

A i 4k 

50  Vd 1
Rth = = −200
1V Vd
Rth
1
−
200
B
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
R
th i
+
Any load
v + v network
oc -

pL = v  i vvoc − v 2
pL =
Rth
voc − v
i= dpL
= 0  RL = Rth
Rth dv