ANALYSIS ANDDESIGN

OF
FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

S. R. JACOBS & ASSOCIATES, INC.

9135 N. Meridian Street
Suite B6
Indianapolis, Indiana 46260
317-844-9400
 ANALYSIS ANDDESIGN
OF
FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

BY
E.F. Bruhn, B.S., M.S., C.E., Dr. Eng.

Professor (Emeritus) of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Purdue University

Assisted by the lollowing persons and

the chapters and parts they contributed:

DK. R. J. H. BOLLARD, (Chapters A24, A25, A2G)

Head, Department oJAeronautics and Astronautics
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

LLOYD E. HACKRIAN, (Chapters C 12)

Consultunt on Composite Structures Engineering

DR. GEORGE LIANIS, (Chapter Al 8)

Pro,fc>ssor 0f~4eronautics and Astronautics
Purdue University

WILLIAhl F. nlcCOlZIBS, (Chapter ClO-Part 2, Chapter Cl l-

Part 2, Chapter D3)

DR. A. F. SCHkIITT, (Chapters A7, A8, AlG, A17, A22)

Litton Systems, Inc.

CLARENCE R. SMITH, (Chapter Cl 3)

Engineering C’ollsultant on Fatigue of Metals and Structures

DR. JOSEPII A. WOLF, JR., (Chapter A23)

Senior Research Engineer
General Motors Research Laboratories
 Copyright 1973 by E. F. Bruhn

All rights reserved, including the right of

reproduction in whole or in part in any form.

Portions previously published

under the following titles
“Analysis and Design of Aircraft Structures”
by E. F. Bruhn
“Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures”
by E. F. Bruhn

Published and Distributed by

S. R. Jacobs & Associates, Inc.

Printed in U.S.A.
 PREFACE

This 1973 edition presents 2 major changes from the 1965 edition. Chapter A23 has been
completely revised and expanded by a new co-author, namely, Dr. Joseph A. Wolf, formerly on the
faculty of UCLA and now with the General Motors Research Laboratories. Dr. Wolf had the
cooperation of Dr. A. F. Schmitt, the author of the A23 Chapter in the 1965 edition. The other
major change is the replacement of Chapter C 13 on the subject of fatigue in the 1965 edition by a
new chapter on fatigue. The Author of this new Chapter Cl3 is C. R. Smith, a widely known
authority in the broad field of fatigue of materials and structures.

This author expresses his thanks to the several co-authors for checking over their material. Only
minor corrections have resulted from this check.

A considerable amount of material in various chapters by the author made use of reports, manu-
als, drawings and photographs supplied to the author by many aerospace companies, in particular,
Boeing of Seattle; Douglas Co.; General Dynamics, Fort Worth and San Diego Divisions; Martin
in Denver; North American Aviation, Columbus and Tulsa Divisions; and the Vought Division of
LTV Corp. The author is deeply grateful for this assistance and cooperation.

As a final note, if any reference in the Chapters of this book refers to Volume 2 it should
be discarded by the reader.

June 1973
 DC-10
STRUCTURAL CUTAWAY
 TABLEOFCONTENTS

Chapter No.

Al The Work of the Aerospace Structures Engineer.

STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES

(Loads, Reactions, Stresses, Shears, Bending Moments, Deflections)

A2 Equilibrium of Force Systems. Truss Structures. Externally Braced Wings. Landing Gear.
A3 Properties of Sections - Centroids, Moments of Inertia, etc.
A4 General Loads on Aircraft.
A5 Beams - Shear and Moments. Beam - Column Moments.
A6 Torsion - Stresses and Deflections.
A7 Deflections of Structures. Castigliano’s Theorem. Virtual Work. Matrix Methods.

THEORY AND METHODS FOR SOLVING STATICALLY

INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

A8 Statically Indeterminate Structures. Theorem of Least Work. Virtual Work. Matrix Methods.
A9 Bending Moments in Frames and Rings by Elastic Center Method.
A10 Column Analogy Method.
Al 1 Continuous Structures - Moment Distribution Method.
Al2 Slope Deflection Method.

BEAM BENDING AND SHEAR STRESSES.

MEMBRANE STRESSES. COLUMN AND PLATE INSTABILITY.

Al3 Bending Stresses.

Al4 Bending Shear Stresses - Solid and Open Sections - Shear Center.
Al5 Shear Flow in Closed Thin-Walled Sections.
Al6 Membrane Stresses in Pressure Vessels.
Al7 Bending of Plates.
Al8 Theory of the Instability of Columns and Thin Sheets.

INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL AIRCRAFT STRESS ANALYSIS

A19 Introduction to Wing Stress Analysis by Modified Beam Theory.

A20 Introduction to Fuselage Stress Analysis by Modified Beam Theory.
A21 Loads and Stresses on Ribs and Frames.
A22 Analysis of Special Wing Problems. Cutouts. Shear Lag. Swept Wing.
A23 Analysis by the “Method of Displacements”.

THEORY OF ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

A24 The 3-Dimensional Equations of Thermoelasticity.

A25 The 2-Dimensional Equations of Elasticity and Thermoelasticity.
A26 Selected Problems in Elasticity and Thermoelasticity.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS Continued
Chapter No.

FLIGHT VEHICLE MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

B1 Basic Principles and Definitions.
B2 Mechanical and Physical Properties of Metallic Materials for Flight Vehicle Structures.

STRENGTH OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

C1 Combined Stresses. Theory of Yield and Ultimate Failure.
C2 Strength of Columns with Stable Cross-Sections.
C3 Yield and Ultimate Strength in Bending.
C4 Strength and Design of Round, Streamline, Oval and Square Tubing in Tension,
Compression, Bending,Torsion and Combined Loadings.
C5 Buckling Strength of Flat Sheet in Compression, Shear, Bending and Under Combined
Stress Systems.
C6 Local Buckling Stress for Composite Shapes.
C7 Crippling Strength of Composite Shapes and Sheet-Stiffener Panels in Compression.
Column Strength.
C8 Buckling Strength of Monocoque Cylinders.
C9 Buckling Strength of Curved Sheet Panels and Spherical Plates. Ultimate Strength of
Stiffened Curved Sheet Structures.
C10 Design of Metal Beams. Web Shear Resistant (Non-Buckling) Type. Part 1. Flat Sheet
Web with Vertical Stiffeners. Part 2. Other Types of Non-Buckling Webs.
C11 Diagonal Semi-Tension Field Design.
Part 1. Beams with Flat Webs. Part 2. Curved Web Systems.
C12 Sandwich Construction and Design.
C13 Fatigue.

CONNECTIONS AND DESIGN DETAILS

D1 Fittings and Connections. Bolted and Riveted.
D2 Welded Connections.
D3 Some Important Details in Structural Design.

Appendix A Elementary Arithmetical Rules of Matrices.

INDEX
 INDEX
Accelerated Motion of Rigid Airplane A4.8 Buckling of Stiffened Flat Sheets Deflection Limitations in Plate
Aircraft Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.2 under Longitudinal Compression . . C6.4 Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A17.4
Aircraft Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.2 Buckling under Bending Loads . . . . . C5.6 Deflections by Elastic Weights . . . . . A7.27
Aircraft Wing Sections – Types . . . . A19.1 Buckling under Shear Loads . . . . . . . . C5.6 Deflections by Moment Areas . . . . . . A7.30
Aircraft Wing Structure - Truss Type A2.14 Buckling under Transverse Shear . . . C8.14 Deflections for Thermal Strains . . . . . A7.17
Air Forces on Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.4 Built-Up Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C10.11 Deflections by Virtual Work . . . . . . . . A7.9
Allowable Stresses (and Delta Wing Example Problem . . . . . A23.17
Interactions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.36 Carry Over Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.4 Design for Compression . . . . . . . . . . . C4.2
Analysis of Frame with Pinned Castigliano's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7.5 Design Conditions and Design
Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A9.16 Centroid Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3.2 Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.12
Angle Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.1 Centroids - Center of Gravity . . . . . . . A3.1 Design Flight Requirements for
Application of Matrix Methods to Cladding Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . C5.5 Airplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.6
Various Structures . . . . . . . . . . . A7.23 Column Analogy Method . . . . . . . . . A10.1 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.1
Applied Load . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . A4.1 Column Curves – Non-dimensional . . . C2.2 Design for Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.1
Axis of Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A9.4 Column Curves – Solution . . . . . . . . . C2.13 Diagonal Tension, Shell
Column, Elastic Supports . . . . . . . . . . C2.9 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.29
Beaded Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C10.16 Column End Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . C2.1 Differential Equation of Deflection
Beam - Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.21 Column Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.2 Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A18.2
Beam - Column Example . . . . . . . . . C4.22 Column Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.21 Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A20.15
Beam - Column Formulas . . . . . . . . . A5.23 Column Strength with Known End Distribution of Loads to Sheet
Beam Design - Special Cases . . . . . . D3.10 Restraining Moment . . . . . . . . . . . C2.16 Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A21.2
Beam End Bay Effect . . . . . . . . . . . C11.13 Columns, Stepped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C2.10 Ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.5
Beam Fixed End Moments by Columns, Tapered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C2.10 Dummy Unit Load Method . . . . . . . . . A7.9
Method of Area Moments . . . . . A7.32 Combined Axial and Transverse Dummy Unit Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A8.6
Beam Rivet Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C10.8 Loads – General Action . . . . . . . . A5.21 Dynamic Effect of Air Forces . . . . . . A4.13
Beam Shear and Bending Moment . . . A5.1 Combined Bending and
Beams - Forces at a Section . . . . . . . . . A5.7 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.22 Effect of Axial Load on Moment
Beams - Moment Diagrams . . . . . . . . . A5.6 Combined Bending and Flexural Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.22
Beams of Multispan . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.5 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3.10 Effective Sheet Widths . . . . . A20.3, C7.10
Beams with Non-Parallel Flanges . . . C11.9 Combined Bending and Tension . . . . C4.23 Elastic Buckling Strength of Flat
Beams - Shear and Moment Diagrams A5.2 Combined Bending and Tension or Sheet in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . C5.1
Beams - Statically Determinate & Compression of Thin Plates . . . . A18.17 Elastic - Inelastic Action . . . . . . . . . . . B1.5
Indeterminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.1 Combined Bending & Torsion . . . . . . C4.23 Elastic Lateral Support Columns . . . . C2.17
Bending and Compression of Combined Stress Equations . . . . . . . . . C1.2 Elastic Stability of Column . . . . . . . . A17.2
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A18.1 Compatability Equations . . . . . . . . . . A24.7 Elastic Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1.6
Bending Moments - Elastic Center Complex Bending - Symmetrical Elastic Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7.27
Method . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . A9.1 Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3.9 Elasticity and Thermoelasticity -
Bending of Rectangular Plates . . . . . A18.13 Compressive Buckling Stress for One-Dimensional Problems . . . . . A26.1
Bending Strength - Basic Approach . . C3.1 Flanged Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . C6.1 EIasticity and Thermoelasticity -
Bending Strength – Example Conical Shells - Buckling Strength . . C8.22 Two-Dimensional Equations . . . . . A25.1
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3.4 Constant Shear Flow Webs . . . . . . . A14.10 Electric Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D2.2
Bending Strength of Round Tubes . . . C4.15 Constant Shear Flow Webs – Single End Bay Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.23
Bending Strength - Solid Round Bar C3.1 Cell - 2 Flange Beam . . . .. . . . . . A15.3 End Moments for Continuous
Bending Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13.1 Constant Shear Flow Webs – Single Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.10
Bending Stresses - Curved Beams . . A13.15 Cell - 3 Flange Beam . . . . . . . . . . A15.5 Equations of Static Equilibrium . . . . . A2.1
Bending Stresses - Elastic Range . . . A13.13 Continuous Structures – Curved Equilibrium Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . A24.2
Bending Stresses – Non-homogeneous Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.31
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13.11 Continuous Structures – Variable Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.1
Bending Stresses about Principal Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.15 Failure of Columns by Compression . A18.4
Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13.2 Core Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C12.26 Failure Modes in Curved
Bending of Thin Plates . . . . . . . . . . A18.10 Correction for Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.4 Honeycomb Panels . . . . . . . . . . . C12.20
Bolt Bending Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.9 Corrugated Core Sandwich Failure Failure of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.1
Bolt & Lug Strength Analysis Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C12.27 Fatigue Analysis – Statistical
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.5 Cozzone Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3.2 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C13.9
Bolt Shear, Tension & Bending Creep of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.8 Fatigue and Fail-Safe Design . . . . . . C13.35
Strengths . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.3 Creep Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.12 Fatigue of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.14
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . A24.8 Crippling Stress Calculations . . . . . . . . C7.7 Fatigue Problem Areas . . . . . . . . . . C13.27
Box Beam Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . A22.5 Critical Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.16 Fatigue Residual Stress Effect . . . . . C13.13
Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D2.4 Crystallization Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . C13.1 Fatigue S-N Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . C13.43
Buckling Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C5.1 Cumulative Damage Theory . . . . . . C13.26 Fatigue Testing Machines . . . . . . . . .. C13.7
Buckling of Composite Shapes . . . . . . C6.1 Curved Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.8, D3.10 Fillers, Joint Strength Effects . . . . . . . D3.5
Buckling of Flat Sheets under Curved Sheet Panels - Buckling Fitting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.1
Combined Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C5.6 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C9.1 Fixed End Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.3
Buckling of Flat Panels with Curved Web Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.29 Fixed End Moments Due to Support
Dissimilar Faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . C12.25 Cut-Outs in Webs or Skin Panels . . . . D3.7 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.9
Buckling of Rectangular Plates . . . . A18.20 Fixity Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C2.1
 INDEX
Flanges, Bent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D3.11 Landing Gear Units – Calculating Physical Action of Wing Section . . . A19.11
Flange Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C10.1 Reactions & Loads on Members . . A2.23 Plane Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A25.7
FIange Design Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . C10.2 Landing Impact Loads . . . . . . . . . . . C13.26 Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A25.1
Flange Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . C10.7 Large Deflections in Plates . . . . . . . . A17.6 Plastic Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3.1
Flange Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.8 Limit Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.1 Plastic Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.20
Flange Strength (Crippling) . . . . . . . . C10.4 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.5 Plate Bending Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . A17.3
Flange Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D3.11 Loaded Continuous Beam with Plate Bending Equations . . . . . . . . . . A17.1
Flat Sheet Web with Vertical Yielding Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12.5 Plate Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C5.1
Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C10.1 Loads, Dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.12 Poisson's Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.7
Flexural Shear Flow Distribution . . A15.24 Loads, Static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.12 Practical Wing Section Application . A19.24
Flexural Shear Flow – Symmetrical Longeron Type System . . . . . . . . . . C11.41 Pressure Vessels – Applications . . . . A16.2
Beam Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A14.5 Lug Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.5 Pressurized Cabin Stress Analysis . . . A16.6
Flexural Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . A14.1 Principal Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3.10
Flexural Shear Stress in the Plastic Maneuver Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C13.27 Principal Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1.5
Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3.10 Mass Moments of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . A3.2 Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . . . . A8.1
Flight Structures - Required Strength . C1.7 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.10 Product of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . A3.9, C3.9
Forces on Airplane in Flight . . . . . . . . A4.4 Matrices -Element Stiffness . . . . . . . . A23.3 Properties of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3.1
Formulation of Plane Stress Problem A25.5 Matrix Methods in Deflections . . . . . A7.18
Frame Stiffness Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . C9.11 Matrix Methods – Stress Problems . . A8.16 Radius of Gyration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3.1
Frames with Joint Displacements . . . A12.8 Maximum Shear Stresses for Simple Ramberg-Osgood Equation . . . . . . . . . C2.2
Frames with One Axis of Symmetry . A10.2 Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A14.5 Recessed Shear Panels . . . . . . . . . . . D3.13
Frames with Unknown Joint Membrane Action in Thin Plates . . . . A17.5 Redundant Problem Deflection
Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.17 Membrane Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6.3 Calculations by Matrix Methods . . A8.27
Frames with Unknown Joint Membrane Equations of Redundant Reactions by Least Work . . A8.2
Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12.8 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A16.1 Redundant Stress Calculations . . . . . A8.27
Fuselage - Balance Diagram . . . . . . . A5.13 Metallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B2.1 Redundant Stresses by Least Work . . . A8.3
Fuselage - Basic Structure . . . . . . . . A20.1 Method of Displacements . . . . . . . . . A23.3 Redundant Structure, Deflection
Fuselage - Example Problem Method of Joints – Trusses . . . . . . . . A2.10 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A8.9
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A20.9 Method of Moments - Trusses. . . . . . A2.11 Redundant Structures with Members
Fuselage Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A21.17 Method of Shears -Trusses . . . . . . . . A2.12 Subjected to Loadings . . . . . . . . . . A8.11
Fuselage Shears and Moments . . . . . . A5.12 Methods of Column Failure . . . . . . . . . C2.1 Relation -Shear and Bending
Fuselage Shears and Moments for Modulus of Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C3.3 Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.4
Landing Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . A5.18 Modulus of Rupture Stress . . . . . . . . C4.15 Restraint Produced by Lips and
Fuselage Stress Methods . . . . . . . . . . A20.3 Modulus Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A18.6 Bulbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.6
Fuselage - Ultimate Bending Mohr's Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1.3 Rib Loads from Discontinuities . . . . A21.11
Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A20.6 Moment Distribution Method . . . . . . A11.1 Rib - Multiple Stringer Beam . . . . . . A21.9
Moment of Inertia - Strength of Rib - Single Cell Beam . . . . . . . . . . . A21.6
Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D2.1 Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C2.8 Rib -Three Stringer Beam . . . . . . . . . A21.7
General Organization of Aircraft Co . . A1.1 Moments for Combinations of Rivet Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.18
General Types of Loading . . . . . . . . . . B1.1 Various Load Systems . . . . . . . . . A5.22 Rivet/Joint Edge Distance . . . . . . . . . D1.18
Gerard Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.2 Moments of Inertia – Airplane . . . . . . . A3.8 River/Joint Shear Strength . . . . . . . . D1.20
Gust Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.6 Moments of Inertia - Centroids . . . . . . A3.1 Rivet/Joint Tension Strength . . . . . . . D1.28
Gust Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C13.27 Monocoque Circular Cylinders Rivet Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.7
Buckling under External Pressure . C8.11 Riveted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.14
Honeycomb Flat Panel Failure Monocoque Circular Cylinders Rivets in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.25
Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C12.8 Buckling under Pure Bending . . . . . C8.7
Monocoque Circular Cylinders Sandwich Construction and Design . . C12.1
Impact Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.15 Problems for Finding Buckling Sandwich Structural Properties . . . . . C12.4
Impact Testing Methods . . . . . . . . . . B1.15 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C8.17 Sandwich Structures Design . . . . . . C12.33
Inelastic Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A18.6 Monocoque Cylinders - Buckling Secant Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.5
Inelastic Buckling Strength of Flat under Axial Compression . . . . . . . . C8.1 Secondary Bending Moments in
Sheet in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . C5.3 Monocoque Cylinders -Buckling Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.28
Inelastic Buckling of Thin Sheets . . A18.23 under AxiaI Load and Internal Section of Maximum Bending
Inertia Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.2 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C8.3 Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.4
Interaction Curves . . . . . . . . . . C4.22, C5.8 Multispan Beam Analysis . . . . . . . . . A11.5 Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3.2
Inertia Loads Due to Angular Shear Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A14.1
Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.18 NACA Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.14 Shear Center Location - Neutral
Inertia Loads Due to Unit 100,000 Needham Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.1 Axis Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A14.15
in. lbs. Pitching Moment . . . . . . . . A5.19 Neutral Axis Location . . . . . . . . . . . . A13.1 Shear Center of Single Cell - Three
Initial Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A8.13 Neutral Axis Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . A13.3 Flange Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A15.6
Internal Shear Flow Systems . . . . . . . . A6.6 Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.2 Shear Center of Single Cell – Two
Inter-Rivet Buckling Stress . . . . . . . . C7.12 Flange Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A15.4
Octahedral Shear Stress Theory . . . . . . C1.8 Shear Clips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D3.1
Joggled Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D3.4 Shear Flow in Cellular Beams . . . . . A15.24
Johnson-Euler Equation . . . . . . . . . . . C7.22 Parallel Axis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3.1 Shear Flow - Multiple Cells . . . . . . . A15.16
Joints -Method of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2.10 A3.9 Shear Flow in Tapered Sheet Panel . A15.27
 INDEX
Shear Lag Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . A19.24 Stringer Systems in Diagonal Type of Wing Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A21.1
Shear Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.5 Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.32
Shear Stresses & Shear Center - Structural Design Philosophy . . . . . . . C1.6 Ultimate Strength tn Combined
Beam Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A14.6 Structural Detail Design Guides . . . . D3.14 Bending & Flexural Shear . . . . . . C4.25
Shear Stresses - Unsymmetrical Structural Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2.2 Ultimate Strength in Combined
Beam Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A14.8 Structural Skin Panel Details . . . . . . D3.12 Compression, Bending, Flexural
Shearing Stresses from Principal Structures Department Organization . . A1.1 Shear & Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.26
Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1.1 Structures with Curved Members . . A11.29 Ultimate Strength in Combined
Shearing Stresses - Right Angles . . . . . C1.1 Successive Approximation Method Compression, Bending &
Sheet Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C5.1 for Multiple Cell Beams . . . . . . . A15.24 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.24
Sheet-Stiffener Panels - Failing Symbols for Reacting Fitting Units . . . A2.3 Ultimate Strength in Combined
Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C7.15 Symmetrical Sections - External Tension, Torsion and Internal
Sheet Wrinkling Failure . . . . . . . . . . . C7.15 Shear Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A14.2 Pressure p in psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.26
Shims, See Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D3.5 Uniform Stress Condition . . . . . . . . . . C1.1
Single Bolt Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1.4 Tangent Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.5 Unit Analysis for Fuselage Shears
Single Cell Beam - Symmetrical Tangent - Modulus Theory . . . . . . . . A18.8 and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.15
about One Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A15.1 Taxi Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C13.26 Unsymmetrical Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . A9.2
Single Cell - Multiple Flange – One Tension Clips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D3.2 Unsymmetrical Frames or Rings . . . . A10.4
Axis of Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . .A15.7 Tension- Field Beam Action . . . . . . C11.1 Unsymmetrical Frames using
Single Cell - Unsymmetrical - Principal Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A9.18
Tension- Field Beam Formula . . . . . C11.2
Multiple Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A15.8 Tension Field Shell Analysis . . . . . C11.29 Unsymmetrical Structures . . . . . . . . . A9.13
Single Spar - Cantilever Wing - Theorem of Castigliano . . . . . . . . . . . . A7.5
Metal Covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A19.10 Velocity - Load Factor Diagram . . . . . A4.7
Theorem of Complementary Energy . . A7.5
Slope Deflection - Hinged End . . . . . A12.3 Virtual Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7.9
Theorem of Least Work . . . . . . . . . . . A8.2
Slope Deflection Method . . . . . . . . . . A12.1 Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7.14
Theorems of Virtual Work and
Spot Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D2.7 Minimum Potential Energy . . . . . . A7.5 V-n Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.8
Spotwelds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D3.13 Thermal Deflections by Matrix
Static Compression Stress-Strain Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A8.39 Wagner Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.4
Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.4 Thermal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . A8.14, A8.33 Web Bending & Shear Stresses . . . . . C10.5
Static Tension Stress-Strain Diagram . B1.2 Thermoelasticity – Three-Dimension Web Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.18
Statically Determinate Coplanar Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A24.1 Web Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C10.10
Structures and Loadings . . . . . . . . . A2.7 Thin Walled Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A16.5 Web Strength. Stable Webs . . . . . . . . C10.5
Statically Determinate and Three Cell - Multiple Flange Beam - Webs with Round Lightening
Indeterminate Structures . . . . . . . . . A2.4 Symmetrical about One Axis . . . A15.15 Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C10.17
Statically Indeterminate Frames - Three Flange - Single Cell Wing . . . A19.5 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D2.1
Joint Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A12.7 Torsion - Circular Sections . . . . . . . . . A6.1 Wing Analysis Problems . . . . . . . . . . A19.2
Statically Indeterminate Problem . . . . . A8.1 Torsion - Effect of End Restraint . . . A6.16 Wing Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A19.1
Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2.1 Torsion - Non-circular Sections . . . . . A6.3 Wing Effective Section . . . . . . . . . . A19.12
Stepped Column – Strength . . . . . . . . C2.14 Torsion - Open Sections . . . . . . . . . . . A6.4 Wing InternaI Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . A23.9
Stiffened Cylindrical Structures - Torsion of Thin-Walled Cylinder Wing Shear and Bending -
Ultimate Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C9.8 having Closed Type Stiffeners . . . A6.15 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A19.14
Stiffness & Carry-over Factors for Torsion Thin Walled Sections . . . . . . . A6.5 Wing Shear and Bending
Curved Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.30 Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.9
Torsional Moments – Beams . . . . . . . A5.9
Stiffness Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A11.4 Wing -Shear Lag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A19.25
Torsional Modulus of Rupture . . . . . C4.17
Strain - Displacement Relations . . . . A24.5 Wing Shears and Moments . . . . . . . . A5.10
Torsional Shear Flow in Multiple Cell
Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7.1 Beams by Method of Successive Wing Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . A23.23
Strain Energy of Plates Due to Edge Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6.10 Wing Strength Requirements . . . . . . . A19.5
Compression and Bending . . . . . A18.19 Torsional Shear Stresses in Wing Stress Analysis Methods . . . . . .A19.5
Strain Energy in Pure Bending of Multiple-Cell Thin-Wall Closed Wing - Ultimate Strength . . . . . . . . . A19.11
Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A18.12 Section - Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . A6.7 Work of Structures Group . . . . . . . . . . A1.2
Streamline Tubing - Strength . . . . . . . C4.12 Torsional Strength of Round Tubes . . C4.17 Wrinkling Failure of Sheet . . . . . . . . C7.15
Strength Checking and. Design – Torsional stresses in Multiple-Cell
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.5 Thin Walled Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6.8 Y Stiffened Sheet Panels . . . . . . . . . C7.20
Strength of Round Tubes under Transmission of Power by Cylindrical
Combined Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . C4.22 Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6.2
Stress Analysis Formulas . . . . . . . . . C11.15 Triaxial Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1.5
Stress Analysis of Thin Skin - Truss DefIectlon by Method of Elastic
Multiple Stringer Cantilever Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7.33
Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A19.10 Truss Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2.9
Stress Concentration Factors . . . . . . . C13.2 Trusses with Double Redundancy . . . A8.10
Stress Distribution & Angle of Trusses with Multiple Redundancy . . A8.11
Twist for 2-CelI Thin-Wall Trusses with Single Redundancy . . . . A8.7
Closed Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6.7
Tubing Design Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4.5
Stress-Strain Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1.7 Two-Dimensional Problems . . . . . . . A26.5
Stress-Strain Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . A24.6
Two-Cell Multiple Flange Beam –
Stresses around Panel Cutout . . . . . . A22.1 One Axis of Symmetry . . . . . . . . A15.11
Stresses in Uprights . . . . . . . . . . . . . C11.17
 ANALYSISANDDESIGN
OF
MISSILESTRUCTURES

J. I. ORLANDO, Bra,zc/z Chief

:\Ii.ssilc and Sfiacc Di/lision
l)ouglas Aircraft Company

And

This section represents an elaboration for Prof. E. F. Bruhn’s hook, “Analysis and Design of
Flight Vehicle Structures.” It has been designed to introduce the student and beginning engineer to
the general field of missile structures and to give a limited presentation of the preliminary load,
stress analysis, and structural design practices of typical boost missiles.

The fir-st portion is both analytical and descriptive in nature and serves to acquaint the reader
with current practices in configuration, material usage, structural techniques, and design factors.
The main body, or Parts E 1.7 and El.8, takes a hypothetical multistage vehicle, derives the critical
flight load conditions, and indicates analysis for these loads. The analysis techniques derive directly
from the body- of Professor Brulm’s book, “Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures”; hence
giving the reader examples of practical ~lsage of that data for missile design.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part 1: I . 1 IIISTORY, TEIL\llNOI,OGY, WEICIIT 1~1STRIBUTION

Part El.2 PROPULSlON SYS’I’EAI FIJNI~AiVlENTALS

Part 1~1.3 ;2lISSILE AN11 SPACI+; VEIIICLE SPECIFICATIONS

Part El .1 hlISSILF, AND SPACE VEIIICLE TYPICAL STRUCTURES

Par1 E 1 .5 ;\IATERIALS FOR RlISSILES

Part E 1.6 S’TRUCTURAL DESIGN FACTORS

Part E 1.7 ;2lISSII,E LO.4DS ANrZLYSIS

Part F. 1.8 hIlSSII,E STRESS ANALYSIS

Part E 1.9 CONCLUSIONS

APPENDIX: Reference I)esign Charts and hlaterirtl Taken from

“Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures” b;; Bruhn.
S. R. Jacobs & Associates, Inc. $7.50
 Launch Escape
Sys tern

Command Module APOLLO

Service Module SPACECRAFT
LEM Adapter
Lunar Excursion
Module

- S-IVB Stage

Space exploration requires

- S-II Stage
a tremendous launch vehi-

cle, as illustrated, by the

SATURN V Appollo/Saturn ve h i c I e.
LAUNCH VEHICLE
Note size of vehicle when

compared to size of a man.

- S-IC Stage Such large vehicles present

many challenging problems

to the structures engineer.

(Drawing - Courtesy of N.

American Aviation Co .)

APOLLO/SATURN VEHICLE
r--- 1959 - 60 BEGINNING OF THE "JET" AGE OF AIR TRANSPORTATION - 550-650 MPH -

BOEING ‘70’7 STRATOLINER FIRST FLIGHT OF DOUGLAS DC - 8 CONVAIR 880 AIRLINER

MAY 30. 1958

r----- MODERN TRANSPORTS PRODUCED DURING PERIOD - 1940 - 1956 - 250 -400 MPH -

DOUGLAS DC - 6B LOCKHEED SUPER CONSTELLATION DOUGLAS DC -7C

I MARTIN “404” TRANSPORT CONVAIR “340” TRANSPORT BOEING “STATOCRUISER”

1933 SIKORSKY S-42 1934 MARTIN BOAT 1935 DOUGLAS DC-3

1928 ROEING MODEL 80-A 1930 FORD TRI-MOTOR 1931 BOEING “MONOMAIL” 1933 LOCKHEED “ELECTRA”

1903 FIRST FLIGHT BY 1912 GLEN. L. MARTIN 1918 STANDARD AIRCRAFT” 1926 FOKKER TRANSPORT
WRIGHT BROTHERS IN HIS BIPLANE CORP BIPLANE
--- -
Ptir!TO[;RAPHS ILLUSTRATING PROGRESSOF AIRCRAFT DESIGN FOR AIRTRANSPORTATION -4OTO175MPH -
 GENERAL DYNAMICS F-111 AIR FORCE/NAVY
TACTICAL FIGHTER. SPEED 2000 M. P. H.
VARIABLE POSITION WING (1965)

SIX AIR FORCE SUPERSONIC FIGHTERS 1959 N. AMERICAN (1964) N. AMERICAN

SHOWING VARIOUS WING SHAPES AVIATION AVIATION
(Picture from United Aircraft Publication “BEEHIVE” Spring 1958) X-l 5 HYPERSONIC B-70. SPEED
RESEARCH AIRPLANE 2000 M. P.H. (PLUS)

, T-8
i ip
+-w”. .
.G
_I I

DOUGLAS “BOSTON” BOEING B-29

BOMBER “SUPERFORTRESS
NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION CONSOLIDATED B-24
“MUSTANG” “LIBERATOR”

CURTIS P-40 “WAR HAWK” GRUMMAN F4F-4 “WILDCAT” VOUGHT “CORSAIR” REP. P-47 “THUNDERBOLT’*

SOME OUTSTANDING WORLD WAR II AIRCRAFT

1930 MARTIN P3M-1 NAVY 1933 VOUGHT-NAVY SU-4 1936 GRUMMAN-NAVY SF-l 1939 VOUGHT-SIKORSKY SOZU

1908 “WRIGHT” AIRPLANE 1918 CURTIS “JENNY” 1921 BOEING-ARMY 1929 CURTIS P-6 “HAWK”
FIRST ARMY AIRPLANE ARMORED ATTACK AIRPLANE

SOME PRE-WORLD WAR II AIRCRAFT

-PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATING TREMENDOUS PROGRESS OF MILITARY AVIATION-
 LUNAR ORBITER. Will orbit the moon taking
pictures (1966)

PIONEER. Interplanetary Probing

up to 90 million miles (1965)

MARINER. To obtain scientific information

on Mars and Venus (1964-65)

PROJECT GEMINI. Two-man Spacecraft. RANGER. Photographed the Lunar Surface.

(1965) (1964)

The Age for Spacecraft is just dawning. Regardless of the type of Spacecraft,
its creation will involve the work of the structural designer.
2 \
A;
-.
.>
3
‘“..
--rr
 15

In the tremendous task of landing on and returning

mcln from the moon, the structures engineer is

faced with many new and challenging design

requirements.

Appollo II with Astronauts Armstrong, Aldrin and

Collins landed on the moon on July 20, 1969.

(Photos - Courtesy of N. American Aviation Co.)

 CHAPTER Al

THE WORK OF THE

AEROSPACE STRUCTURES ENGINEER

Al. 1 Introduction. scientific machine and the combined knowledge

and experience of hundreds of engineers and
The first controllable human flight in a scientists working in close COOperatiOn IS
h?:lvior thrn air maohine was made by Orville necessary to insure a sucCessfu1 product. Thus
Wright on De:emb-r 17, 1903, at Kitty Ha,tik, the engineering division of an aerospace company
North Carolina. It covered a distance of 120 consists of m,any groups of specialists whose
feet and the duration of flight ‘.vas twenty specialized training covers all fields of
seconds. Toddy, t:iis initial fliqht appears engineering education su?h as Physics, Chemical
very unimpressive, but it comes into its true and Metallurgical, Mechanical, Electrical and,
p~~rs?e:tive
.d :- of importance when we realize that of course, Aeronautical Engineering.
mankind f 0: centuries has dreamed about doing
or tried to do what the Wright Brothers It so happens that practically all the
arcomqlish’ad in 1903. aerospace companies publish extensive pamphlets
or brochures explaining the organization of the
The tremendous progress accomplished in the engineerinq division and the duties and
first 50 years of aviation history, with most responsibilities of the many sections and groups
of it oc:urring in the last 25 years, is almost and illustratinq the tremendous laboratory and
unbzlievable, but ,:dithout doubt, the progress test facilities which the aerospace industry
in t’!i- second SO year period will still be more possesses. It is highly recommended that the
u.?believable an3 fantastic. As this is written student read and study these free publications
In 1964 ’ > jet airline transnortstion at 600 MPH in order to obtain an early general under-
is well established and several types of standing of how the modern flight vehicle Is
military aircraft nave speeds in the ZOO to conceived, designed and then produced.
2000 YPH range. Preliminary designs of a
s.lparsonic. airliner with Mach 3 speed have been In general, the engineering department of
completed and the government is on the verge of an aerospace company can be broken down into six
sponsoring the development of such a flight large rather distinct sections, which in turn
vehicle, thus supersonic air transportation are further divided into specialized groups,
should bscome comr~n in We early 1970’s. The which in turn are further divided into Sinaller
rapid progress in missile design has ushered ‘working groups of engineers. To illustrate, the
in the Space Age. Already many space vehicles six sections will be listed together with some
have been flown in search of new knowledse of the various groups. This is not a complete
which is needed before successful exploration list, but it shou&l give an idea of the broad
of spa:e such as landings on several planets ent:ineering set-up that is necessary.
can tiite place. Unfortunately, the rapid
development of the missile and rocket power I. Preliminary Design Section.
has given mankind a flight vehicle which, when
com.‘in?d with the nuclear bomb, has the awesome II. Technical Analysis Section.
potential to quicitly destroy vast regions of
the: earth. ‘Chile no person at present knows (1) Aerodynamics Group
where or what space exploration will lead to, (2) Structures Group
relative to benefits to mankind, we do know that (3) ‘Jeight and Balance Control Group
the next great aviation expansion besides (4) Power Plant Analysis Group
supersonic airline transportation will be the (5) Materials and Processes Group
ful.1 development and use of vertical take-off (6) Controls Analysis Group
and landing aircraft. Thus persons )who will be
living through the second half century of III. Component Design Section.
aviation progress will no doubt witness even
more fantastic progress than occurred in the (1) Structural Design Group
first 50 years of aviation history. (-ding, Body and Control Surfaces)
(2) Systems Design Grnup
Al. 2 General Organization of an Aircraft Company (All mechanical, hydraulic, electrical
Engineering Division. and thermal installations)

The modern commercial airliner, military IV. Laboratory Tests Section.

airplane, missile and space vehicle is a hi$llY
Al. 1
Al. 2 THE WORK OF THE AEROSP CE STRUCTURES ENGINEER

(I.) Wind Tunnel and Fluid Mechanics Test The final results of the work of this
Labs. group are formal reports giving complete applied
(2) Structural vest Labs, load design cri.teria, with many graphs and sum-
(3) Propulsion Test Labs. mary tables. The final results may give com-
(4) Electronics Test Labs. plete shear, moment and normal forces referred
(5) Electra-Mechanical Test Labs. to a convenient set of XYZ axes for major air-
(6) Weanons and Controls Test Labs. craft units such as the wing, fuselage, etc.
(7) Analog and Digital Computer Labs.
THE W3RK OF STRESS A.NALYSIS AND STRENGTHGROUP
V. Flight Test Section.
Essentially the primary job of the stress
VI * Engineering Field Service Section. group is to hel;) specify or determine the kind
of material to use and the thickness, size and
Since this textbook deals with the subject cross-sectional shape of every structural mem-
of structures, it se\:ms appropriate to discuss ber or unit on the airplane or missile, and
in Tome detail the ‘work of the Structures Group. also to assist in the design of all joints and
For the detailed discussion of the other groups, connections for such members. Safety with light
the student shoul~d refer to the various air- weight are the paramount structural design re-
craft company publicaticns. quirements. The stress group must cons+a.ntly
work cl.osely with the Structural Design Section
Al. 3 The Work of the Structures Group in order to evolve the best structural over-all
arrangement. Such factors as polwer plants,
The structures group, relative to number of built-in fuel tanks, landing gear retracting
engineers, is one of the largest of the many wells, and other large cut-outs can dictate the
groups of engineers that make up Section II, type of wing structure, as for example, a two
the technical analysts section. The structures spar single cell wing, or a multiple spar
group is primarily responsible for the multiple cell wing.
structural integrity (safety) of the airplane.
Safety may depend on sufficient strength or To expedite the initial structural design
sufficient rigidity. This structural integrity studies, the stress group must supply initial
must be accompani?d with lightest possible structural sizes based on approximate loads.
weight, because any excess weight has detri- The final results of the work by the stress
mental effect upon the performance of aircraft. group are recorded in elaborate reports which
For example, in a large, long range missile, show how the stresses were calculated and how
one pound of unnecessary structural wei,ght may the required member sizes were obtained to carry
add more than 200 lbs. to the overall weight of these stresses efficiently. The final size of
the missile. a ,nember may be dictated by one or more fa,ctors
such as elastic action, inelastic action, ele-
The structures group is usually divided vated temperatures, fatigue, etc D To insure
into sub-groups as follows :- the accuracy of theoretical calculations, the
stress group must have the assistance of the
(1) Applied Lords Cslcul-tion Group structures test laboratory in order to obtain
(2) Stress Analysis and Strength Group information on which to base allowable design
(3) Dynamics Analysis Group stresses.
(4) Special Projects and Research Group
THE WORKOF THE DYNAMICS ANALYSIS GROUP
THE WORKOE’THE APPLJED LOADS GROUP
The Dynamics Analysis Group has rapidly
Before any part of the structure can be expanded in recent years relative to number of
finally prcportloned relative to strength or engineers required because supersonic airplanes,
rigidity, the true external loads on the air- missiles and vertical rising aircraft have pre-
craft must be determined. Since critical loads sented many nelv and complex problems in the
come fro,n many sources, the Loads Group must general field of dynamics. In some aircraft
analyze loads from aerodynamic forces, as well companies the dynamics group is set up as a
as those forces from power plants, aircraft separate group outside the Structures Group.
inertia; control system actuators; launching,
landing and recovery gear; armament, etc. The The engineers in’the dynamics group are
effects of the aerodynamic forces are initially responsible for the investigation of vibration
calculate6 on the assumption that the airplane and shock, aircraft flutter and the establish-
structure is a rigid body. After the aircraft ment of design requirements or changes for its
structure is obtained, its true rigidity can control or correction. Aircraft contain dozens
be used to obtain dynamic effects. Results of cf mechanical installations. Vibration of any
wind tunnel model tests are usually necessary part of these installations or systems may be
in the applicati::n o? aerodynamic principles to of such character as to cause faulty operation
load and pressure analysis. or danger of fa;lure and therefore the dynamic
 Al. 3

:;lar;-‘teristics must be cb~ngetl or modified in gro:Ans h3ve a spe’alal sub-group which is work-
order to insure reliable and safe operation. ing on design problems thit ,vill be encountered
in the near or distant future as aviation DTQ-
Tne mi?or structural units of :tircraft s.J,:h gresses. For example, in the Struf:tures Croup,
as the !ving ant3 fuselage are not rigid bodies. this sub-group mi,ght be stuiiyine su?h problems
Thlus &en a sharp air gust strikes a flexible as: (1) hoiv to calculate the therm;?1 stresses
wins in high speed flight, we have a dynamic, in the win\: stru-tllre at supers,3nic s>eads;
lo’id situation and the wing will vibrate. The (2) how to stress-analyze a ne’): type of bving
dynimi-isf must dstermtne whether this vibration stru,ture; (.3j what tyne of body structure is
is serious relxtive to induced s';rasses on the best for future spa-e travel acd ?!hat kind of
wing stru’:ture. The dynamiss grou;] is also materials v/i11 be needed, et?.
res;?onslble for the determination of the
st:lbility r~! xerforman’:e of missile and flight i:hart 1 illustrates in ::er~eral a typirdl
vehicle giii~dln:s and -ontrol systems. The make-up of t!:e Stril:tures 5e:tion of a large
dyn::mi?s pro1;? must :ygrk f>onstantly ,with the aerosnace corn:3 iy . t:h,irt 2 lis;“,s the m?ny
various test L:ib3rstories in order to obtain items which the struc:tures enqinser m’ust be
reliable v,ilues of certain f:i”tors that are concerned with in insuring the structur&l
ne,-esszry in many theoret?% cal :ulations. intnqrity of the flight vehicle. Both 1?hdrts
1 and 2 are f ram Chance-Vought Structures
Design Manual an9 are reprociu:eci Ath their
permission.

Chart 1. Structures Section Organization

Chance-Vought Corp.
Al.4 THE WORK OF THE AEROSPACE STRUCTURES ENGINEER

THE LINKS TO STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

. . . . . ARE NO BETTER THAN THE WEAKEST LINK

MATERIALS OF
CONSTRUCTION
FASTENERS
WELDING
BONDING r
PLATE AND BAR
FORGINGS
STIFFNESS CASTINGS
CRITERIA EXTRUSIONS STRESS
SHEETMETAL
FLUTTER SANDWICH
ANALYSIS
PLASTIC LAMINATE SKIN PANELS
CONTROL SYSTEM STABILITY
BEARINGS BEAM ANALYSIS
PANEL FLUTTER-SKIN CONTOURS STRAIN COMPATIBILITY
STRAIN CONCENTRATION
CONTROL SYSTEM DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ANALYSIS
THERMAL EFFECT5 BEARING ANALYSIS
BULKHEADANALYSIS
MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
FITTING ANALYSIS
ROLL POWER-DIVERGENCE THERh1ALSTRESS
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
AERODYNAMIC CENTERSHIFT
EXPERIMENTALSTRESSANALYSIS
DYNAh\IC RESPONSL

LOADS AND
ENVIROMENT MATERIALS AND
FLIGHT LOAD CRITERIA
GROUND LOAD CRITERIA
QUALITY CONTROL
FLIGHT LOAD DYNAMICS DUCTILITY
LAUNCHING DYNAMICS
LANDING DYNAMICS
I STRESS-STRAIN
DYNAMIC RESPONSE HOMOGENEOUSMATERIAL
RECOVERYDYNAMICS RESIDUAL STRESS
FLIGHT LOAD DISTRIBUTIONS
COMPONENT ALLOWABLES HEAT TREAT CONTROI
INERTIAL LOAD DISTRIBUTIONS
YIELDING
;tEXIBILITY EFFECTS
GROUND LOAD DISTRIBUTIONS
ANALYSIS STRESS CORROSION
FRACTURE
REPEATEDLOAD SPECTRUMS UNIT SOLUTIONS STABILITY AT TEMPERATURE
FATIGUE
IEMPERATUREDISTRIBUTIONS INDETERMINATESTRUCTURES SPECIFICATION CONFORMANCE
LOADS FROM THERMAL WEAR, BRINELLING
DEFORMATIONS WING ANALYSIS BLUE PRINT CONfORMANCE
CREEP
PRESSURES-IllrPACT TAIL ANALYSIS
DEFLECTIONS
FUSELAGESHELL ANALYSIS
THERMALEFFECTS
THERMALANALYSIS
STIFFNESS
DEFLECTIONANALYSIS
COMBINED LOADINGS
STIFFNESS
BUCKLING

Chart 2
From Chance-Vought Structures Design Manual
 CHAPTER A2
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES

AZ. 1 Introduction. The equations of static force system pass through a common polnt. The
equilibrium must constantly be used by the resultant, if any, must therefore be a force
stress analyst and structural designer in ob- and not a moment and thus only 3 equatlons are
taining unknown forces and reactions or unknO,/;n necessary to completely define the condltlon
Internal stresses. They are necessary whether that the resultant must be zero. The equations
the structure or machine be simple or complex. of equilibrium available are therefore:-
The ability to apply these equations is no
doubt best developed by solving many problems. ZFx = 0 ZM1 q 0
This chapter initiates the application of these ZFy = 0 or ZM, = 0 ---- -(Z.Z)
important physical laws to the force and stress ZFz = 0 M, = 0 I
analysis of structures D It is assumed that a
student has completed the usual college course A combination OL force and moment equations
in engineering mechanics called statics. to make a total of not more than 3 can be used.
For the moment equations, axes through the point
A2. 2 Equations of Static Equilibrium. of concurrency cannot be used since all forces
of the system pass throu!:h this point. The
To completely define a force, we must know
its magnitude, direction, and point of applica- moment axes need not be the same direction as
tion. These facts regarding the force are the directions used in the force equations but
generally referred to as the characteristics of of course, they could be.
the force. Sometimes the more general term of
EQUILIBRIUM OF SPACE PARALLEL-FORCE SYSTEM
line of action or location is used as a force
charactcrlstic in place of polnt of application
designation. In a parallel force system the direction of
all forces is known, but the magnitude and
A force acting in space Is completely location of each is unknown. Thus to determine
defined if we know Its components in three magnitude, one equation is required and for
locatlon two equations are necessary since the
directions and Its moments about 3 axes, for
force is not confined to one plane. In general
example Fx, F , Fz and Mx, My and Mz. For
equilibrium oT a force system there can be no the 3 equations commonly used to make the re-
resultant force and thus the equations of sultant zero for this type of force system are
one force equatlon and Wo moment equations.
equilibrium are obtained by equating the force
and moment components to zero. The equations For example, for a space parallel-force system
of static equilibrium for the various types of acting in the y direction, the equations of
equilibrium would be:
force systems will now be smmarlzed.

EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS FOR GDT\IEML ZFy = 0, ZM, = 0, ZM, = 0 - - - - -(2.3)

SPACE (?;ON-COPL4NAR) FORCE SYSTEM
EQUILIBRIUM OF GENERALCO-PLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
ZF, = 0 M, = 0
ZFy = 0 EM, = 0 - - - - -(2.1) In this type of force system all forces lie
in one plane and it takes only 3 equations to
ZFZ = 0 zMM, q 0
determine the magnitude, direction and location
Thus for a general space force system, of the resultant of such a force system. Elther
force or moment equations can be used, except
there are 6 equations of static equilibrium
available. Three of these and no more can be that a maximum of 2 force equations can be used.
For example, for a force system acting In the
force equations. It is often more convenient
to take the moment axes, 1, 2 and 3, as any set xy plane, the following combination of equili-
All 6 equations could be brium equations could be used.
of x, y and 2 axes.
moment equations about 6 different axes. The
force equations are written for 3 mutually ZF, q 0 ZF, = 0 ZFy = 0
ZM,, = 0
perpendicular axes and need not be the x, y =FY = 0 or ZMzr= 0 or ZMzl= 0 or Mzs = 0 2.4
and z axes.
ZMz = 0 ZMZz= 0 ZMz,= 0 ZMzJ = 0
!jQUILIBRIUM OF SPACE COFJCURREP!I-FORCE
SYSTEM
(The subscripts 1, 2 and 3 refer to different
Concurre:-,t means that all forces of the locations for z axes or moment centers. )
A2. 1
A2. 2 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYE EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

EQUILIB? IUM OF COPL4NAR-CONCURRENT-FORCE

SYSTEM reacted by oth’or external forces, CCmL’nOnly
referred to as react if?ns which hold the knc:wl!
since all forces lie in the same plane and forces on the structure in equilibrium D Si,li:e
also pass t’:rouTh a common r)oint, the magnitude, the stat,ic equations G’ equilibrium ?v?il‘i !P
and direction of the rcsultsnt of this tyne of for the various types of force systems are
force system is unl:nown but the location is limtted, the structural en,;ineer resorts to the
knol:n since the point of concurrency is on the use of fittina -nits >.vhich F:EtabliSh thz
line of action nf the resultant. Thus only two direction of an iW:n?lvn force or it? yol?:. rf
equations of equilibrium are necessary to define application or both, thus decreasing the nllmber
the resultant and make It zero. The combin- of unltnowns to be determined. The f ir-urcs
ations available are, which follow illllstrate the type of fitti.ng
units employed or other general methods :‘or
ZF, = 0 or ZFx = 0 or CFy = 0 or ZM,l q 0 establishing the force characteristics of
2.5
direction and point of application.
ZFy = 0 ZM, = 0 ZM,=O ZM,z=O I
Ball and Socket Fitting
(The z axis or moment center locations must be
other than through the point of concurrency)

EQUILIBRIUM OF CO-PLANAR PARALLEL FORCE SYSTEM

Since the direction of all forces in this

type of force system is known and since the
forces all lie in the same plane, it only takes For any space or co;~lanar force SUC:I as ?
2 equations to define the magnitude and location and Q a,#.“‘-inrf on the bar, the line of action o:
of the resultant of such a force system. Hence, such forces must act t:irou,-h the canter of the
there are only 2 equations of equilibrium avail- ball if rotation of the bar is prev:nted. Thus
able for this type of force system, namely, a a ball and socket joint can be used to establish
force and moment equation or two moment or control the direction and line action of a
equatlons. For example, for forces parallel to force applied to a structure through this t);ae
the y axis and located in the xy plane the of fitting. Since the Joint has no rotational
equilibrium equations available would be: - resistance, no counl~?s in any plane can be
applied to it.
ZFy = 0 ZM, I = 0
01 _---- 2.6 Single Pin Fitting
ZMZ = 0 ZMZ e q 0 i
(The moment centers 1 and 2 cannot be on the
same y axis)

EQUILIBRIUM OF COLINEAR FORCE SYSTEM Ix

A colinear force system is one where all For any force such as P and Q actin; in t!~?
forces act along the same line or, in other xy plane, the line of action of such a for,ce
words, the direction and location of the forces must oass through the pin center since the
are known but their magnitudes are unknown; fitting unit cannot resist a moment about a z
thus only magnitude needs to be found to define axis through the pin center. Therefore, I’or
the resultant of a colinear force system. Thus forces actin,? in the xy plane, the direction
only one equation of equilibrium is available, and line of action are established by th? bin
namely joint as illustrated in the figure. Since R
single pin fittini< can resist moments about :?xes
ZF = 0 or M, = 0 - _ _ - - _ - - 2.7 perpendicular to the pin axis, the direction an?
line of action of out-of-plane forces is there-
where moment center 1 is not on the line of fore not established by single pin fitting unit?.
action of the force system

A2. 3 Structural Fitting Units for Establishing the Force

Characteristics of Direction and Point of Application.
If a bar AB has single pin fittings at
To completely define a force In soace re- each end, then any force P lying in the xy
quires 6 equations, or 3 equations if the force plane and applied to end B must have a dir+?ctic>ri
is limited to one plane. In yenera a structure and line of action coinciding r$ith a Iin. ,Join-
is loaded by known forces and these forces are ing the pin centers at end fitlinl:s A an:: H,
trarsferri:i through the structure in some since the f itt ings cannot resist a mo’fi-nt ci.??:t
mann-r of internal stress <Distribution and then the z axis.
 A2.3

Double Pin - Universal Joint Fittings Another general fittiny type that is used
to establish the direction of a force or reaction
is illustrated in the firrure at the bottom of the
first rolumn. Any reacting force at joint (A)
must be horizontal since the support at (A) is
so desil-ned to rrovide no vertical resistance.
\
A C?Slr:S - Tie Rods
P---Q

Since sin,512 Tlin fitting units can resist

applied moments about axes normal to the pln
axis, a double pin joint as illustrated above Since a cable or tie rod has negli-ible
is often used. This fitting unit cannot resist bending resistance, the reaction at joint 3 on
moments about y or z axes and thus applied the crane structure from the cable m-ust be
forces such as P and Q must have a line of colinear with the cable axis, hence the cable
action and direction such as to pass throu,gh establishes the force characteristics of direc-
the center of the fitting unit as illustrated tion and point of application of the reaction
in the figure. The fitting unit can, however, on the truss at polnt B.
resist a moment about the x axis or in other
worus, a universal type of fitting unit can A2.4 Symbols for Reacting Fitting Units as Used in
resist a torsional moment. Problem Solution.

In sol.” ir,,; 2 k;! .*c’iL;r-- 131 r+2ctl~~~n~,

Rmollers
member stresses, etc., one must know what force
characteristics are unknown and it is common
practice to use simple symbols to indicate what
fitting support or attachment units are to be
used or are assumed to be used in the final
design. The following sketch symbols are com-
monly used for coplanar force systems.

Pin
In order to permit structures to move at 4-I (0) Pin
l-
support points, a fitting unit involving the b1,110
Idea of rollers is often used. For example, thf
truss in the figure above is supported by a pin A small circle at the end of a member or on
fitting at (A) which Is further attached to a a triangle represents a single pin connectlon
fitting portion that prevents any horizontal and fixes the point of application of forces
movement of the truss at end (A); however, acting between this unit and a connecting member
the other end (B) is supported by a nest of or structure e
rollers which provide no horizontal resistaace
to a horizontal movement of the truss at end (B:
The rollers fix the directlon of the reaction -
Rx
at (B) as perpendicular to the roller bed.
Since the fitting unit is joined to the truss
joint by a pin, the point of appllcatlon of the
reaction is also known, hence only one force
characteristic, namely magnitude, is unknown
for a roller-pin type of fltting. For the
fitting unit at (A), point of application of the
reaction to the truss is known because of the The above graphical symbols represent a
pin, but direction and magnitude are unknown. reaction in which translation of the attach-
ment point (b) is prevented but rotation of the
Lubricated Slot or Double Roller Type of Fitting attached structure about (b) can take place.
Unit. Thus the reaction Is unknown in direction and
magnitude but the point of application is known,
namely throu-;h point (b). Instead of using
dlrectlon as an unknown, it is more convenient
Lubricated Slot to replace the resultant reaction by two com-
ponents at right angles to each other as indi-
h? cated In the sketches,
AZ. 4 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYS’I iEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.
r
minute, and th? degree of redundancy depends on
th’s number cf unkno:ins beyond that number which
can be found by ths equations of static equili-
brium. A structure can be statically indeter-
Rollers
minate with respect to external reactions alone
or to internal stresses alon: 0:’ to both.

The additicnal equation:: that are needed

to solve a statically Indeterminate structure
are obtainm?d by considering the distortion of
The abo.J: fittin,; units usin,-: rollers fix the structure. This means that the size of all
the ii;,e,:tion 3i' th,a reaction as nornal to th,:: members and the material from ‘which members are
roller bed sin!~ the fitting unit cmnot r>sist made must be known since distortions ,nuSt be
a hcrizontal fo~o 1 u throu!;h2 .point (b) 0 H?nce c%lculatod. In a statically determinate
the direction and point of application of the structure this information on sizes and material
reaction are established and only mao;nitude Is is not required but only the con:iWration of
Llmn 2 gal. the structure as a whole. Thus design analysis
for statically determinate structures is
straiphtforUh!ard
.> , whereas a general trial and
fixed error procedure is required for design analysis
/III I I cl ‘? Mz of statically indeterminate structures.
=Rx------~rll\\\
1
RY A2. 6 Examples of Statically Determinate and Statically
R
Indeterminate Structures.

The first step in analyzing a structure is

to determine I.*lhethnr the structure as presented
The gr?.7:hical symbol. above is used to
is statically determinate. If so, the reactions
represent a r,i,;id sLip?ort ,ithi-,h is attached
The r-B- and internal stresses can be foun? ?$ithout know-
rigidly to 2 rnntlactin,: :tructuX. ing sizes of members or kind of IIi.?tcll.i~l. Ii‘
a8:.tion is coa~letely unkno:~m since nil 3 force
not statically determinate, t,h? elastic theory
characteristics are unkns7wn, namely, man;nituda, must be aoplied to obt,aln ar!ditional equations.
direction and point of application. It i: con-
The elastic theory is trea%ed in considerable
venient to replace th e reaction R by t:vo force
detail in Chapters A~‘7to /512 inclu: i-:0.
com?oncn+,s referred t? some :Toint (5) plus the
unkno ;n moment M ‘.vhich the resultant reaction R To help the student become fr!allisr ‘with
caused about point (b) as indicated in the the problem of determining whether a structure
above sketch. This discussion applies to a i :: statically det2rminatN2, several example
co?lanar Lctruct’ura with 2.11 forces in the Same problems ‘will be presented.
*lLirE . For a space structure the reaction
wo.~ld have 3 further unknowns, namely, R,, M,
Examole Problem 1.
and MY’
w = 10 lb./in.
AZ. 5 Statically Determinate and Statically Indeterminate
Structures. At?tt?ttl?t?t???
‘D
A statically determinate structure IS one
in which all external reactions and internal
stresses for a given load system can be found
by USe Of the equations of static equilibrium,
and a statically indeterminate structure is Fig. AZ. 1
one in :vhich all reactions and internal stresses
cannot be found by using only the equations of
equilibrium. In the structure sho$?Jnin Fig. 2.1, the
known forces or loads are the distributed loads
A statically determinate structure is one of 10 lb. per inch on member ABDD The reactions
that has just enough external reactions, or at points A and C arc unknown. The reaction at
just enough internal members, to make the C has only one unknown characteristic, namely,
structure stable under a load system, and if magnitude, because the point of application of Rf
one reaction or member is removed, the structure ic throi:.~~:h t;~ : r: c ;r.L .I- at il and the direction
is reduced to a linkage or a mechanism and is of RC must be parallel to line CB because there
therefore not further capable of resisting the is a pin at the B end of member CB. At
load system. If the structure has more ex- point A the reaction is un’known in direction
ternal reactions or internal members than is and magnitude but the point of application must
necessary for stability of the structure under bc: through the pin center at AL. Thus there are
a given load system it is statically indeter- 2 unltno,>ms at A and one unknown at C or a total
of 3. >;ith 5 equations of equilibrium avail- attached to reaction points ABCD.
Xble for a co:llanar force system the structure
is sta’ ic?lly determinate. Instead of using an At reaction points A, B and D, the reactlon
a r I’:12 ? ;i ::n 1inkrlov.n at A to find the direction is known in direction and point of application
0: th? raa.ction, it is iiSUal1JJ more conveni ent but the magnitude is unknown as indicated by the
to replace the reaction by coayonents at ri;Sht vector at each support. At bolnt C, the re-
ar, ,les to each ot,h?r a~ H,: and VA in the figure, action is unknorJn in direction because 2 struts
ail:: till1s the 3 unknowns for the structure are 3 enter joint C. Ma,gnitude is also unknown but
rraL<riitutles . point of application is known since the reaction
must pass through C. Thus we have 5 unkno::n::,
namely, HA, RB, RD, VC and HC. For a coI,lan?lr
force system we have 3 equilib: ilrr equations
P ,P (known) available and thus the first conclusion might

I.-i
Pin
be that we have a statically indeterminate
C
structure to (5-3) = 2 degrees redundarlt. How-
ever, observation of the structure shows two
internal pins at points E and F which means
A that the bending moment at these two points is
HA- I B zero, thiis giving us 2 more equations to use
4 -HE3 HA-
t vA with the 3 equations of equilibrium. Thus
Fig. AZ. 2 23 drawing free bodies of the structure to left of
pin E and to right of pin F and equating moments
Fi:. 2.2 shows a structural frame carrying about each pin to zero, Iwe obtain 2 equations
a known load system P. Due to the pins at which do not include unknowns other than the 5
r,ention points A ano B the coint of applicatior unknowns listed above. The structure is there-
is known i’or each reaction; howover, the ma!gni- fore statically determinate,
tude and direction of each is unkno’,vn, making a
total of 4 un!tno\vns ,:.‘ith only 3 equations of mamole Problem 4.
equilibrium available for a coplanar force
system. At, first we might c~~nclude that the IP ,P
structure is statically indeterminate but we
must realize this structure has an internal pin
at C which mean? the benging moment at this
point is zero since the pin has no resistance
tc rotation.
equilihl.ium,
If the entire structure
t;hen each part must likewise
is in
be
l&HE b &&
A
f RD
in eql.lilibriLm and ,ve can cut out any portion B VC
as a free body and apply the equilibrium Fig. A2. 5 Fig. A2.6
equations. Fio;. 2 . 3 shol,vs a free body of the
f’rame to left of ;jin at C. T&in? moments Fii;;. 2.5 shows a beam AB which carries a
about C and equ:ating to zero Fives us a fourth suner-structure CED which in turn is subjected
squztion to use in ncten.lininr; the 4 unknotins, to the known loads P and 4. The question Is
IfA, v,, VB and HB. The mom’?nt equation about C whether the structure is statically aeterminate I
doss not include the unknowns Vc and HC since The external unknown reactions for the entire
t’13y have no moment about C because of zero structure are at points A and B. At A due t0
-irYE . As in example problem 1, the reactions the roller type of action, magnitude is the only
at A and B h,?ve b:?en replaced by H and V com- unknown characteristic of the reaction Since
;:or,ents instead of using an arirle (direction) direction and point of application are known.
as ail unkno.vn characteristic. The structure is At B, marSnitude and direction are unknobvn but
statical ly cletcrminnta ~ point of application is known, hence we have 3
unknoiuns, namely, RA, VB and HB, and with 3
Example Problem 3. equations of equilibrium available we can find
these reactions and therefore the structure is
statically determinate with respect to external
(1) renctions. ‘Ye nobv investigate to see if the
(2) internal stresses can be found by statics after
havin,q found the external reactions. Obviously,
the internal stresses will be affected by the
internal reactions at C and D, so we draw a free
body of the super-structure as illustrated in
Fig. A2. 4 Fig. 2.6 and consider the internal forces that
existed at C and D as external reactions, In
Flg. 2.4 shows a straight member 1-2 carrying a the actual structure the members are rigldly
kno\nm load system P and supported by 5 struts attached together at point C such as a-welded or
A2.6 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYL EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

multiple bolt connection. This means that all Example Problem 6

three force or reaction characteristics, namely,
magnitude, directlon, and point of appliCatiOn,
are unknown; or 1n other words, 3 unknowns
exist at C. For convenience we will represent
these unknowns by three components as shown In
Fig. 2.6, namely, HC, VC and MCe At joint D in
Fig, 2.6, the only unknown regarding the re-
action lo RD, a magnitude, since the pin at eack
end of the member DE establishes the direction
and point of application of the reaction RD.
Hence we have 4 unknowns and only 3 equations f,$ Fig. AZ. 11 Fig. A2.12
of equlllbrium for the structure in Fig. 2.6, Fig. A2.10
thus the structure is statically Indeterminate
with respect to all of the internal stresses. Fig. 2.10 shows a 2 bay truss supported at
The student should observe that internal points A and B and carrying a known load system
stresses betiveen points AC, BD and FE are P, Q. All members of the truss are connected
statically determinate, and thus the StatIcally at their ends by a common pln at each jolnt.
indeterminate portion is the structural trl- The reactions at A and B are applied through
angle CEDC0 fittings as indicated. The questlon Is whether
the structure Is statically determinate or not.
Relative to external reactions at A and B the
structure is statically determinate because the
type of support produces only one unknown at A
and two unknowns at B, namely, VA, VB and HB as
shown in Fig. 2.10, and we have 3 equations of
static equilibrium available.

We now Investigate to see if we can find

the internal member stresses after having found
the values of the reactions at A and B. Suppose
we cut out joint B as indicated by section l-1
Figs. 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9 show the same In Fig. 2.10 and draw a free body as shown in
structure carrying the same known load system Flg. 2.11. Since the members of the truss have
P but with different support conditions at pins at each end, the loads in these members
points A and B. The questlon Is whether each must be axial, thus dlrectlon and line of actlon
structure is statlcally indetermlnate and If are known and only magnitude is unknown. In
so, to what degree, that is, what number of Fig. 2.11, HB and VB are known but AB, CB, and
unknowns beyond the equatlons of statics avaIl- DB are unknown in magnitude; hence we have 3 un-
able. Since we have a coplanar force system, knowns but only 2 equations of equilibrium for
only 3 equations of statics are available for a coplanar concurrent force system. If we cut
equlllbrlum of the structure as a whole. through the truss in Fig. 2.10 by the section
2-2 and draw a free body of the lower portlon
In the structure In Fig. 2.7, the reaction as shown in Fig. 2.12, we have 4 unknowns,
at A and also at B is unknown in magnitude and namely, the axial loads in CA, DA, CB, DB but
direction, although their points of application only 3 equations of equilibrium avaIlable for
are known. Hence, 4 unknowns (with only 3 a coplanar force system.
equations of statics available) make the
structure statically indetermlnate to the first Suppose we were able to find the stresses
degree. In Fig. 2.8, the reaction at A is a in CA, DA, CB, DB in some manner, and we would
rlgid one, thus all 3 characteristics of magnl- now proceed to jolnt D and treat It as a free
tude, direction, and point of application of body or cut through the upper panel along
the reaction, are unknown. At point B, due to section 4-4 and use the lower portion as a free
pin only 2 unknowns, namely, magnitude and di- body. The same reasoning as used above would
rection, thus making a total of 5 unknowns show us we have one more unknown than the number
with only 3 equations of statics available or of equilibrium equations available and thus
the structure is statically indeterminate to we have the truss statlcally indetermlnate to
the second degree. In the structure of Fig. the second degree relative to internal member
2.9, both supports at A and B are rigid. Thus, stresses.
all 3 force characteristics are unknown at each
support or a total of 6 unknowns which makes Physically, the structure has two more
the structure statically indeterminate to the members than Is necessary for the stability of
third degree. the structure under load, as we could leave
out one diagonal member in each truss panel and
 A2.7

the structure would be still stable and all mine the axial loads in the members and the re-
member axial stresses could be found by the actions on the spar.
equations of static equilibrium without regard
to their size of cross-section or the kind of Solution: The first thing to decide is whether
material. Adding the second diagonal member the structure Is statically determinate. From
in each panel would necessitate knowing the the figure It is observed that the wing spar Is
size of all truss members and the kind of supported by five struts. Due to the pins at
material used before member stresses could be each end of all struts, we have five unknowns,
found, as the addltional equations needed must namely, the magnitude of the load in each strut.
come from a consideration involving distortion Direction and location of each strut load is
of the truss. Assume for example, that one known because of the pin at each end of the
diagonal in the upper panel was left out. We struts. We have 3 equations of equilibrium for
would then be able to find the stresses In the the wing spar as a single unit supported by the
members of the upper panel by statics but the 5 struts, thus two more equations are necessary
lower panel would still be statically inde- if the 5 unknown strut loads are to be found.
terminate to 1 degree because of the double It Is no+lced that the wing spar includes 2 ln-
diagonal system and thus one additional equatior ternal single pin connections at points 0 and 0’.
is necessary and would involve a conslderatlon This establishes the fact that the moment of all
of truss distortion. (The solution of static- forces located to one side of the pln must be
ally indeterminate trusses Is covered in equal to zero since the single p1n fitting can-
Chapter A8.) not resist a moment. Thus we obtain two addi-
tional equations because of the two Internal pin
AZ. 7 Example Problem Solutions of Statically Determinate fittings and thus we have 5 equations to find 5
Coplanar Structures and Coplanar Loadings. unknowns.
Although a student has taken a course in
Fig. 2.15 shows a free body of the wing
statics before taking a beglnning course in spar to the right of hinge fitting at 0.
alrcraft structures, It is felt that a limIted
review of problems involving the appllcatlon
of the equations of static equilibrium is quite
justified, particularly if the problems are
possibly somewhat more difficult than most of 6 I
the problems 1n the usual beglnning course in -:, ,f>
statics. Since one must use the equations of ,-ii7 I
E* YA Fig. A2. 15
static equlllbrlum as part of the necessary
equatlons in solving statlcally indetermlnate
structures and since statically indeterminate In order to take moments, the dlstrlbuted
structures are covered in rather complete detail load on the spar has been replaced by the re-
in other chapters of this book, only limlted sultant load on each spar portlon, namely, the
space will be given to problems involving total load on the portion acting through the
statics in this chapter. centroid of the distributed load system. The
strut reaction EA at A has been shown in phantom
Example Problem 8. as it is more convenient to deal with its com-
ponents YA and XA. The reactlon at 0 Is un-
Fig. AZ.14 shows a much simplified wing known 1n magnitude and dlrectlon and for con-
structure, conslstlng of a wing spar supported venience we will deal with its components X0
by lift and cabane struts which tie the wing and YO. The sense assumed is Indicated on the
spar to the fuselage structure. The distributec figure.
alr load on the Wing spar Is unsymmetrical about
the center line of the airframe. The wing spar The sense of a force Is represented
is made in three units, readily disassembled by graphically by an arrow head on the end of a
using pin fittings at points 0 and 0’ . All vector. The correct sense is obtained from the
supporting wing struts have single pin flttlng solution of the equations of equilibrium since
units at each end. The problem is to deter- a force or moment must be given a plus or minus
sign In writing the equatlons. Since the sense
20#/in.
of a force or moment is unknown, It is assumed,
4O#/in.
Afl 7 f f 7 7 f 771 ’ f f39#/in.
f f 7 t f ,t+- 15#/in. and if the algebraic solution of the equilibrium
equatfons gives a plus value to the magnitude
then the true sense Is as assumed, and opposite
to that assumed if the solution gives a minus
Sign. If the unknown forces are axial loads In
members it Is common practice to call tensile
stress plus and compressive stress minus, thus
if we assume the sense of an unknown axial load
as tension, the solutlon of the equilibrium
A2.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYS 1MS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

equations will give a plus value for the magni- To find strut load B’C’ take moments about
tude of the unknown if the true Stress iS joint C.
tension and a minus sign will indicate the
assumed tension stresses should be reversed or Zk = 1325 x 65 + 2000 x 40 + (5880 - 4400)
compresslon, thus giving a consistency of slgns. 30 - 1500 x 10 - 993 x 35 - 30 (B’C’ )
30/33.6 = 0
To find the unknown YA we take moments
about point 0 and equate to zero for equilibrium whence, B’ C’ = 6000 lb. with sense as shown.

MO = - 2460 x 41 - 1013 x 102 + 82Y~ = 0 To find load in member B’ C use equation

Hence YA = 204000/82 = 2480 lb. The plus Sign ZFY = 0 = 1325 + 2000 + 1500 + 993 - 6000
(30/33.6) - 2720 (30/33.6) - B’C (30/54)
means that the sense as assumed In the figure =o
is correct. By geometry XA = 2480 x 117/66 =
4400 lb. and the load in strut EA equals whence, B’C = - 3535 lb. The minus slgn
x/4400 ’ + 2480 ’ = 5050 lb. tenslon or as neans it acts opposite to that shown in figure
assumed In the figure. or is compression instead of tension.
To find XC we use the equilibrium equatlon The reactions on the spar can now be
ZFX q 0 = X0 - 4400 = 0, whence XC = 4400 lb. determined and shears, bending moments and
axial loads on the spar could be found. The
To find YO we use, numerical results should be checked for equili-
CFy = 0 = 2460 + 1013 - 2480 - YO = 0, whence brium of the spar as a whole by taking moments
Yo = 993 lb. of all forces about a different moment center
to see If the result Is zero.
To check our results for equilibrium we
will take moments of all forces about A to see Example Problem 9.
if they equal zero.
ZMA = 2460 x 41 - 1013 x 20 - 993 x 82 = 0 check
On the spar portlon O’A’ , the reactions
are obviously equal to 40/30 times those found
for portion OA since the external loading Is 40
as compared to 30.

Hence A’E’ = 6750, X0’ q 5880, Yol = 1325

Fig. 2.16 shows a free body of the center +

spar portion with the reactions at 0 and 0’ as t
found previously. The unknown loads in the
struts have been assumed tenslon as shown by
the arrows.
Fig.A2.17
2000=50x40 1500=50x30 A

5a8?2L~c~oo

Fig. 2.17 shows a simplified alrplane

Lx c‘., “b" landing gear unit with all members and loads
lo- - - - - IC conflned to one plane. The brace struts are
I , Fig.A2.16
I I plnned at each end and the support at C Is of
I_ - - -1 the roller type, thus no vertical reaction can
be produced by the support fitting at point C.
The member at C can rotate on the roller but
To find the load in strut BC take moments horizontal movement Is prevented. A known load
about B’ of 10,000 lb. is applied to axle unit at A. The
problem is to find the load In the brace struts
MB’ = 1325 x 20 - 2000 x 5 - 1500 x 55 and the reaction at C.
- 993 x 80 + 60 (BC) 30/33.6 = 0
Solution:
Whence, BC = 2720 lb. with sense as Due to the single pin fitting at each end
assumed. of the brace struts, the reactlons at B and D
 A2.9
I
are colinear with the strut axis, thus direction the aluminum alloy tubular truss. Trussed type
and point of application are known for reaction beams composed of closed and open type sections
RB and RD leavlng only the magnitude of each as are also frequently used in ‘:;ing beam construc-
unknown e The roller type fitting at C fixes tion. The stresses or loads in the meabers of
the direction and point of application of the a truss are commonly referred to as “primary”
reaction RC, leaving magnitude as the only and “secondary” stresses 0 The stresses which
unknown . Thus there are 3 unknowns RB, RC and are found under the following assumptions are
RD and with 3 equations of static equilibrium referred to as primary stresses.
available, the structure Is statically determi-
nate with respect to external reactions. The (1) The members of the truss are straight,
sense 0: each of the 3 unknown reactions has weightless and lie in one plane.
been assumed as indicated by the vector.
(2) The members of a truss meeting at a
point are considered as joined together by a
To find RD take moments about point B:- common frictionless pin and all member axes in-
ZMB = - 10000 sin 30° x 36 - 10000 cos 30° x 12 tersect at the pin center.
- RD (12/17) 24 = 0
(3) All external loads are applied to the
~‘ii;enC“>
:- RD = - 16750 lb. Since the result truss only at the joints and in the plane of
comes out wit!: a minus sign, the reaction RD the truss. Thus all loads or stresses produced
has a sense opposite to that shown by the in members are either axial tension or compres-
vector in Fig. 2.17. Since the reaction RD is sion without bending or torsion.
colinear with the line DE because of the pin
ends, the load in the brace strut DE is 16750 Those stresses produ?ed in the truss mem-
lb. compression. In the above moment equation bers due to the non-fulfillment of the above
about B, the reaction RD was resolved into assumptions arc referred to a? secondary
vertical and horizontal components at point D, st,resses. Most steel tubular trusses are welded
and thus only the vertical component which tor‘,?ther at t>?eir ‘ends and in other truss types,
equals (12/l:) RD enters into the equation the members ere riv3t,o-l or’ bolted toyet:;-r.
since the horizontal component has a line of This rostrriirit at the joints may c,ause second-
action through point B and therefore no moment. ary stresses in some members r;reatzr than the
RC does not enter in equation as it has zero primary stresses. Likewise it is common in
moment about B. actual practical design to apply forces to the
truss members bet,;deen their ends by supporting
Tc find RB take CFV = 0 many equipm.,nt installatiorls on these truss
members. However, regardlesc of the magnitude
ZFV = 10000 x COS 30’ + (- 16750)(12/17) + RB of these so-called secondar,y loads, it is
(zM26.8) = 0 common practice to first find the ?ri:,:,lry
whence, RB q 3540 lb. Since sign comes stresses under the assilm?tion oi;tlirled above.
out plus, the sense is the same as assumed in
the figure. The strut load BF is therefore GENERAL CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING JHETHER
3540 lb. tension, since reaction RB is collnear TRUSS STRUCT’>RESARE STATICALLY DETERMINATE
with line BF. WITH RESPECT TO INTERNAL STRESSES.

To find RC take ZH = 0 I The simplest truss that can be constructed

ZH = 10000 sin 30” - 3540 (12/26.8) + (- 16750) is the triangle which has three members m and
(12/17) + RC = 0 three joints j. A more elaborate truss consists
of additional triangular frames, so arranged
whence, RC = 8407 lb. Result is plus and that each triangle adds one joint and two mem-
therefore assumed sense was correct. bers. Hence the number of members to insure
stability under any loading is:
To check the numerical results take m=;?j - 3- - - - - - - - --- - - (2.8)
moments about point A for equilibrium.
A trilss having fewer members than required
ZMA = 8407 x 36 + 3540 (24/26.8) 12 - 3540 by Eq. (2.8) is in a state of unstable equili-
(l&%.8) 36 + 16750 (12/17) 12 - 16750 (12/17) brium and will collapse except under certain
36 = 303000 + 38100 - 57100 + 142000 - 426000 conditions of loading. The loads in the members
= 0 (check) of a truss with the number of members shown in
equation (2.8) can be found with the available
A2.8 Stresses in Coplanar Truss Structures Under equatlons of statics, since the forces In the
Coplanar Loading. members acting at a point intersect at a common
In aircraft construction, the truss ty?e point or form a concurrent force system. For
this type of force system there are two static
of construction is quite common. T’he most
common is the tubular steel welded trusses th?t equilibrium equations available.
make up the fuselage frame, and less fr‘<;e.11*‘1?tl:~, Thus for j number of joints there are 2j
A2.10 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SY: EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

equations available. However three independent

equations are necessary to determlne the exter-
nal reactions, thus the number of equations
necessary to solve for all the loads in the
members is 2j - 3. Hence if the number of truss
members is that given by equation (2.8) the
1
40”
truss Is statically determinate relative to the
primary loads in the truss members and the
truss is also stable.

If the truss has more members than lndi-

cated by equation (2.8) the truss Is considered
red::ridant and statlcally indeterminate since
the member loads cannot be found in all the
members by the laws of statics. Such redundant
/’ 1’““”
Lz 6 h4---500 +qH
structures if the members are properly placed Fig. A2.19 i 3
are stable and will support loads of any d 1
UE
arrangement.
or tension. In equation (b) the load of 1250
ANALYTICAL METHODSFOR DETEMINING in LsLz was substituted as a minus value since
PRIMARY STRESSESIN TRUSS STRUCTURES it was found to act opposite to that shown in
Fig. A2.19. Possibly a better procedure would
In general there are three rather distinct be to change the sense of the arrow In the free
methods or procedures in applying the equations body diagram for any solved members before writ-
of static equilibrium to findlng the primary ing further equilibrium equatlons. We must
stresses in truss type structures. They are proceed to joint L, instead of jolnt Uz, as
often referred to as the method of joints, three unknown members still exist at joint U,
moments , and shears. whereas only two at joint Le. Fig. A2.20 shows
free body of joint L, cut out by section 2-2
A2.9 Method of Joints. (see Fig. A2.18). The sense of the unknown
member stress L,U, has been assumed as com-
If the truss as a whole is in equilibrium
presslon (pushing toward joint) as It Is ob-
then each member or joint In the truss must
viously acting thls way to balance the 500 lb.
likewise be In equilibrium. The forces In the
members at a truss joint intersect in a common load.
polnt, thus the forces on each joint form a 500
concurrent-coplanar force system. The method
I
of joints consists In cutting out or isolating 250
Ll-*
a joint as a free body and applying the laws of L,
equilibrium for a concurrent force system. i
Since only two independent equations are avail- ‘US Fig. A2.20
able for this type of system only two unknowns
can exist at any joint. Thus the procedure is For equilibrium of joint LB, ZH and ZV = 0
to start at the joint where only two unknowns zv = - 500 + LBUa = 0, whence, L,U2 = 500 lb.
exist and continue progressively throughout the Slnce the sign came out plus, the assumed sense
truss jolnt by joint. To illustrate the method in Fig. AZ.20 was correct or compression.
consider the cantilever truss of Fig. A2.18.
From observatlon there are only two members ZH = 250 - LaL1= 0, whence L,L, = 250 lb.
with internal stresses unknown at joint L,.
Fig. A2.19 shows a free body of joint L,. The Next consider joint U, as a free body cut
stresses in the members L, L, and L, U, have out by section 3-3 in Fig. A2.18 and drawn as
been assumed as tension, as indicated by the Fig. A2.21. The known member stresses are shown
arrows pulling away from the joint L,. with their true sense as previously found. The
two unknown member stresses U,L, and U,U, have
been assumed as tenslon.
The static equatlons of equilibrium for
the forces acting on joint L, are ZH and ZV = 0.
500
1250
zv = - 1000 - LJJ, (40/50) = 0 - - - - - - -(a)
whence, L,U, = - 1250 lb. Slnce the sign Fig. A2.21
came out minus the stress is opposite to that
assumed In Flg. A2.19 or compresslon.
m=- 500 - (- 1250)(30/50) - LaLs = 0 - -(b) zv = -500 - 1250 (40/50) + U,L1 (40/50) = 0
whence, L,L, = 250 lb. Since the sign comes whence, U,LI = 1875 lb. (tension as
out plus, sense Is same as assumed in figure assumed. )
 A2.11

,?,H q (-1250)(3@/50)- 1875 (30/50) - U&U. q 0 The algebraic sign of all unknowns came out
posltlve, thus the assumed direction as shown
whence, U,U 2 = - 1875 lb. or opposite In
on Fig. A2.22 was correct.
sense to that assumed and therefore COaPreSSlOn.

Check results by taking ZMS = 0

Note: The student should continue with succeed-
lng joints e In this example lnvolvlng a Cantl- mB = 1400 x 150 + 500 x 30 - 500 x 120 - 500 x
lever truss it was not necessary to flnd the 30 - 1000 x 90 - 1000 x 60 = 0 (Check)
reactions, as it was possible to select .jolnt
To determine the stress in member F,, F, and F,
L, as a joint involving only two unknowns. In
we cut the section 1-l thru the truss (Fig.
trusses such as Illustrated in Flg. A2.22 It Is
necessary to first find reactlons R, or R, which A2.22. Flg. A2.23 shows a free body diagram of
then provides a joint at the reaction point in- the portion of the truss to the left of this
volvlnp; only two unknown forces. sectlon.

+m
,'

a b I Fa
500 0 FL /
‘1
&
1400 500

A2.10 Method of Moments. Fig. A2.23 F-i& A2. 24

For a coplanar-non-concurrent force system The truss as a whole is In equilibrium.

there are three equations of statics avallable. Therefore any Portion must be In equilibrium.
These three equatlons may be taken as moment In Fig. A2.23 the internal stresses In the mem-
equatlons about three different points. Fig. bers F,, F, and F3 which exlsted In the truss as
AZ.22 shows a typical truss. Let it be re- a whole now are consldered external forces In
quired to find the loads In the members F,, F,, holding the portlon of the truss to the left of
F 3) F,, F, and F,. section 1-l In equllibrlum in combination with
the other loads and reactions. Since the mem-
bers a and b In Fig. A2.23 have not been cut the
loads In these members remain as internal
stresses and have no influence on the equSlib-
rium of the portlon of the truss shown. Thus
the portlon of the truss to left of section l-1
could be considered as a SolYd block as shown
in Fig. A2.24 wlthout affecting the values of
F l, F. and F,. The method of moments, as the
name Implles, involves the operation of taking
moments about a point to find the load in a
The first step in the solution is to find the particular member. Since there are three un-
reactions at points A and B. Due to the roller knowns a moment center must be selected such
type of support at B the only unknown element of that the moment of each of the two unknown
the reaction force at B Is magnltude. At point stresses will have zero moment about the selected
A, magnitude and dlrection of the reaction are moment center, thus leaving only one unknown
unknown giving a total of three unknowns with force or stress to enter into the equation for
three equations of statics available. For con- moments . For example, to determlne load F, In
venlence the unknown reaction at A has been re- Flg. A2.24 we take moments about the Inter-
placed by its unknown H and V components. sectlon of forces F, and F, or point 0.

Taking moments about polnt A, Thus ZMO = 1400 x 30 - 18.97 F, = 0

~MA = 500 x 30 + 1000 x 60 + 1000 x 90 + 500 x 42000
30 + 500 x 120 - 150 VB q 0 Hence F, = - = 2215 lb. compression (or
18.97
acting as assumed)
Hence VB = 1600 lb.
Take ZV = 0 To find the arm of the force F, from the
moment center 0 Involves a small amount 0r cal-
zv = VA - 1000-1000-500-500 + 1600 = 0 there- culatlon, thus In general It is simpler to re-
fore VA = 1400 lb. solve the unknown force lnto H and V components
at a polnt on its line of action such that one
Take ZH = 0
of these components passes thru the moment
M q 500 - HA = 0, therefore HA = 500 lb. center and the arm of the other component can
usually be datermIned by inspectlon. Thus In
A2.12 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.
I
Fig. A2.25 the force FB is resolved into Its the other two unknowns Fg and Fa lies at Infini-
component F,V and FsH at point 0’ . Then taking ty. Thus for conditions where two of the 3 cut
members are parallel we have a method of solving
for the web member of the truss commonly re-
ferred to as the method of shears, or the sum-
mation of all the forces normal to the two
parallel unknown chord members must equal zero.
5oo~ ,,,,,/fr Fig. A2.25
Since the parallel chord members have no com-
ponent in a directlon normal to their line of
foe action, they do not enter the above equation Of
k400
equilibrium.

Fig. A2.26

Fig. A2. 27
500
moments about point 0 as before:-
Fig. A2. 28
ZMo = 1400 X 30 - 20F,~ = 0
Referring to Flg. AZ.27
whence, F,H = 2100 lb. and therefore
zv = 1400 - 500 - 1000 - F,(l/fl) = 0
F, = 2100 (31.6/30) = 2215 lb. as pre-
viously obtalned. whence F, = - 141 lb. (tenslon or opposite
to that assumed in the figure.
The load F, can be found by taking moments
about point m, the intersection of forces F, To find the stress in member F, . we cut
and F, (See Fig. A2.23). section 3-3 in Flg. A2.22 and draw a free body
diagram of the left portion In Fig. A2.28.
q = 1400 x 60 + 500 x 30 - 500 X 30 Since F, and F, are horizontal, the member F,
- 30F, = 0 must carry the shear on the truss on this section
3-3, hence the name method of shears.
whence, F, = 2800 lb. (Tension as assumed)
zv = 1400 - 500 - 1000 + F, = 0
To find force Fs by using a moment equatioi
we take moments about point (r) the inter- Whence F, = 100 lb. (compression as assumed)
section of forces FL and FS (See Fig. A2.26).
To eliminate solving for the perpendicular Note : The student should solve this example ll-
distance from point (r) to line of action of lustrating the methods of moments and shears
F =, we resolve Fg into its H and V components using as a free body the portion of the truss to
at point 0 on Its line of action as shown In the right of the cut sections instead of the
Fig. A2.26. left portion as used In these illustrative ex-
amples. In order to solve for the stresses in
m, = - 1400 x 30 + 500 x 60 + 60 FsV = 0 the members of a truss most advantageously, one
usually makes use of more than one of the above
whence, F.V = lZOOO/SO = 200 lb. three methods, as each has its advantages for
certain cases or members. It is important to
Therefore F8= 200 x fl = 282 lb. com- realize that each is a method of sections and in
pression a great many cases, such as trusses with paral-
lel chords, the stresses can practically be
A2.11 Method of Shears found mentally without wrltlng down equatlons of
equilibrium. The following statements In gen-
In Fig. A2.22 to find the stress in member eral are true for parallel chord trusses:
F, We cut the section 2-2 giving the free body
for the left portion as shown in Fig. A2.27. (1) The vertical component of the stress in
the panel diagonal members equals the vertical
The method of moments is not sufficient to shear (algebraic sum of external forces to one
solve for member F, because the intersection of side of the panel) on the panel, since the chord
 AZ. 13

members are horizontal and thus have zero vertl- since no external vertical load exists at joint
cal component D E. Similarly, by the same reasoning for ZH = 0,
load in DE = 0. The load In the diagonal FD
(2) The truss verticals in general resist equals the value on the diagonal of the panel
the verticals component of the diagonals plus index triangle or 167 lb. It is tension by
any external loads applied to the end joints of observation since the shear in the panel to the
the vertical D right is up and the vertical component of the
diagonal FD must pull down for equilibrium.
(3) The load in the chord members is due
to the horizontal components of the diagonal Considerlng Joint F. ZH = - FG - FDH = 0,
members and in general equals the summatlon of which means that the horizontal component of the
these horizontal components. load in the diagonal DF equals the load in FG,
or Is equal to the value of the horizontal side
To illustrate the simplicity of determining in the index triangle or - 133 lb. It Is nega-
stresses In the members of a parallel chord tlve because the horizontal component of DF
truss, consider the cantilever truss of Fig. pulls on Joint F and therefore FG must push
A2.29 with supporting reactions at points A and against the joint for equilibrium.
J.
Considering Joint D:-
150 150 150 100
ZV = DFV + DG = 0. But DFV = 100 (vertical side
of lndex triangle)
. ’ . DG = - 100
ZH = DE + DFB - DC = 0, but DE = 0 and DFB =
133 (from index triangle)
.
. . DC = 133
550 /-36” j-- 36” -f- 36” -+ 40” + Considering Joint G:-
Fig. AZ. 29
ZH=- GH •t GF - GCH = 0. But GF = - 133, and GCH
= 300 from index triangle in the second panel.
First, compute the length triangles in Hence GH = - 433 lb. Proceeding in this manner,
each panel of the truss as shcwn by the dashed we obtain the stress in all the members as shown
triangles in each panel. The other triangles In Fig. A2.29. All the equilibrium equations
In each panel are referred to as load or index can be solved mentally and with the calculations
trlangles and their sides are directly pro- being done on the slide rule, all member loads
portional to the length triangles. can be written directly on the truss aiagram.

The shear load in each panel is first writ- Observation of the results of Fig. A2.29
ten on the vertical side of each index triangle. show that the loads In the truss verticals equal
Thus, In panol EFGD, considering forces to the the values of the vertical sides of the Index
right of a vertical section cut thru the panel, load triangle, and the loads in the truss di-
the shear is 100 lb., which is recorded on the agonals equal the values of the index triangle
vertical side of the index triangle. diagonal side and in general the loads in the
top and bottom horizontal truss members equal
For the second panel from the free end, the the summation of the values of the horizontal
shear is 100 + 150 = 250 and for the third panel sides of the index triangles.
100 + 150 + 150 = 400 lb., and in like manner
550 for fourth panel. The reactions at A and J are found when
the above general procedure reaches joints A
The loads in the diagonals as well as their and J. As a check on the work the reactlons
horizontal components are directly proportional should be determined treating the truss as a
to the lengths of the diagonal and horizontal whole 0
side of the length triangles. ‘Thus the load in
diagonal member DF = 100 (50/30) = 167 and for Fig. AZ.30 shows the coliition for the
member CG = 250 (46.8/30) q 390. The hori- stresses In the members of a simply supported
zontal component of the load in DF q 100 (40/30: Pratt Truss, s-ymrnetrically loaded 0 Since all
= 133 and for CG = 250 (36/30) q 300. These panels have the same width and height, only one
values are sho,wn on the index triangles for length triangle Is drawn as shown. Due to
each truss panel as shown in Fig. A2.29. We symmetry, the index triangles are drawn for
start our analysis for the loads in the members panels to only one side of the truss center
of tha truss by considering joint E first. line. First, the vertical shear in each -lane1
Is written on the vertical side of each Index
Using ZV = 0 gives EF = 0 by observatlon, triangle. Due to the sUymmetry of the truss and
A2.14 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYZ EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

loading, we know that one half of the external horizontal components of ciiaj;onal msmbars =
loads at joints U, and Ls is supported at re- 312 + 1x.2 = 409.5. Tl;erefor?, load in UIUe =
action R1 and l/2 at reaction R,, or shear in - 495.5. Similarl:: at joint L,, L.LJ3 = 312 +
lE7.5 q 499 . 5 . /;t ;io:nt LJe, the horizontal
comaonents of U,U, and UZUJ = 4Y9.Cj + 62.b = 56%
which must be balanced by - ,562 In member U2UJ.

The reaction R 2 eq’uals the value on the

vertical side of our index trlancle In the end
panel, or 375. This should be checked using
the truss as a whole and taking moments about
R 2.

of a truss is loaded unsymmetrically, the

reactions should be determined first, after
6 Panels @ 25” = 150” which the index triangles can be drawn, start-
ing with the end panels, since the panel shear
is then readily calculated.
center panel = (100 + 50) l/2 = 75. The verti-
cal shear In panel U,LJ,L,L, equals 75 plus the A2.12 Aircraft Wing Structure. Truss Type with Fabric
or Plastic Cover
external loads at UZ and LZ or a total of 225
and similarly :or the end panel shear = 225 + The metal covered cantilever ruing with its
50 + 100 q 373. With these values known, the better overall aerodynamic efficiency and suf-
other two sides of the index triangles are di- ficient torsional ri?‘idity has practically re-
rectly proportional to the sides of the length placed the externally braced wing except for low
triangles for each panel, and the results are as speed commercial or I)rivate q,ilnt aircraft as
sho’.m in Fig. A2.30. illustrated by the aircraft in Fic:s. AZ.31 and
32. The wing covering is usually fabric and
The general procedure from this point is tc therefcre a drag truss inside the j;ing is
find the loads in the dia::onals, then in the necessary to resist loads in the tirar: trUSS
verticals, and finally in the horizonta.1 chord direction. Figs. A2.33 an,j 34 shows the f;en-
members e era1 structural layout of such wings. The two
spars or oeams are metal cr wood. Instead of
The loads in the diagonals are equal to the usin? double wires in each dram truss bay, a
values on the hypotenuse of the index triangles, single diai:onal strut capable of talking either
The sense, whether tension or compression, is tenslo!: or comprerL“<>ive loads cculd be used.
determinea by Inspection by cutting mental T’he external brace struts are stream line tubes.
sections thru the truss and noting the directior
of the external shear load which must be bal-
anced by the vertical component of the diagon-
als.

The loads in the verticals are determined

by the method of joints and the sequence of
jolnts is so selected that the stress in the
vertical member is the only unknown in the
equation ZV = 0 for the joint In question.

Thus for joint U,, ZV = - 50 - U,L, = 0

or UJL, = - 50.

For joint U,, CV = - 50 - U,L,V - U,L, = 0,

Fig. A2. 31 Piper Tri-Pacer
but U,LBV q 75, the vertical component of IJ,L,
from index triangle. .‘. U,L, = - 50 - 75 =
- 125. For joint L,, ZV = - 100 + LIU, q 0,
hence LIU, = 100.

Since the horizontal chord members receive

their loads at the joints due to horizontal
Components of the diagonal members of the truss,
we can start at Lo and add u? these horizontal
components to obtain the chord stresree, Th!l? ,
LOLL = 312 (from index triangle), L,L, = 312
from ZH = 0 for joint L,. At joint U,, the Fig. AZ,. 32 Champion Traveler
 A2.15

Wing Tip (End) Bow in all members of the lift and drag trusses will
--4
Tip
/-’ -.
Plywood Tip Fairing
be determined D A simplified air loadin
assumed, as the purpose of this problem Is to
will be
Fig. AZ. 33 give the student practice in solvlnq statically
determinate space truss structures.
./Aileron Spar
Compression Rib ASSUMEDAIR LOADING:-
Plywood Leading
Edge Fairing
(1) A constant spanwise lift load of 45
lb/in from hinge to strut point and then taper-
Dragwire
Fitting Anti-Drag Wire
ing to 22.5 lb/in at the wing tip.
Aileron Rib (2) A forward uniform distributed drag
Aileron Hinge load of 6 lb/in.
Drag Strut or
Leading Compression Tube
Edge The above airloads represent a high angle
Forming or Plain Rib of attack condition. In this condition a for-
Trailing Edge ward load can be placed on the drag truss as
illustrated in Fig. A2.36. Projecting the air

Wing Hinge Butt Rib

Fitting Beam or Spar ,“Lift
Airstream Fig. A2.36

Pressure

lift and drag forces on the drag truss direction,

the forward projection due to the lift is great-
er than the rearward projection due to the air
drag, which difference in our example problem
Fig. A2.34 has been assumed as 6 lb/in. In a low angle of
attack the load in the drag truss direction
Example Problem 10. Externally Braced Mono- would act rearward.
plane Wing Structure
S OLUTI ON:
Fig. A2.35 shows the structural dimensional
diagram of an externally braced monoplane wing. The running loads on the front and rear
The wing IS fabric covered between wing beams, beams will be calculated as the first step in
and thus a drag truss composed of struts and the solution. For our flight condition, the
tie rods is necessary to provide strength and center of pressure of the airforces will be
rigidity in the drag direction. The axial loads assumed as shown in Fig. A2.37.
DRAG TRUSS
- ,Rear
; Beam

12c Beam

l.l%= 1 24.21”
22. 52” Fig. A2.37

The running load on the front beam will be 45 x

24.2/36 = 30.26 lb/in., and the remainder or
45 - 30.26 = 14.74 lb/in gives the load on the
rear beam.
A2.16 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYE <MS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

To solve for loads in a truss system by a

method of joints, all loads must hs transferrad
to the truss Joints. The win!: beavs are cup- Drag Truss
ported at on? end SJJ the fuseia?;e and outboard
by the tlvo lift struts. Thus we calculate the
reaction:: on each beam at the strut and hinge 2o F. B. /+-
points due to the runnln? lift load on each
beam.
Front Lift Rear
Truss Lift
Front Beam Truss

/w = 30.26%/h.
I 15.13#/in.
ember 1enTths L and th- cc,myor:ent ratios then
allow by simple calculation.

Table A2.1

Taking; moments about point (2)

ll&:.5RI - 114.5 x 30.26 x 114.5/2 - 15.13 x
70.5 x 149.75 - 15.13 x 35.25 x 138 = 0.
hence
R1 = 3770 lb.
Take ZV = 0 where V direction is taken normal to
D * drag direction,
beam
ZV = - Rz - 3770 + 30.26 x 114 . 5 +
(30.26 + 15.13) 7. j = o
2 .

hence Rz = 1295 lb. Ye start the solution of Joints by starti:!<;

0th joint (1). Fr,?e I z:1y :kc?;z11-$~ t-f jr;iI?.t, (1)
(The student should always check results by 17-e sl:ei,chod below. All mcmbcrc “i-2 cor.sidrrsd
taking moments about point (1) to see if ZM, ;wo-force m,zmbcr: cr havin:* pin? at each cc’,,
= 0) ,hus mawitude is the only ltintno,:!n charecte:‘-
.stic of each mcm’ocr l&ad. Thn Cra: truss ::.x-
Rear Beam )Trs comlnr in to joint (1) are rcplaccd by a
;in::le resction callnd D,. Jftcr D1 is fo::nr:,
w = 14.74#/in. .ts influence in causin:: loads in drag truss
r”“‘tf r
iembers can then be found ‘:/hen the drag truss as
114. 5” t whole is treated. In the joijit :-qiutio?, W!e
lras truss has been ascmed parallel to drs;
llrzction which is not q;lite true fro. Fib:.
,2.35, but the error on member loads is ne::li-
The rear beam has the same span dimensions but ible.
the loading is 14.74 lb/in. Hence beam re-
actions R, and R, will be 14.74/30.26 = .4875 OINT 1 (Equations of Equillbriu:i)
times those for front beam.
hence R, = .4875 x 3770 = 1838 lb.
R, = 04075 x 1295 = 631 lb.

The next ste:~’ in the solution is the

solving for the axial loads in all the members,
We will use the method of joints and consider
the structure made up of three truss systems :V = 3770 x 09986 - .0523 FB - .-1=raOlSF = 0 - (1)
as illustrated at the to;, of the next colLU?n, :S = - 3770 x .0523 - .39&Z FI? - . 2: 7 0 SF = o- (1:)
namely , a front lift truss, a rear lift truss :D = - .0&a SF + Dl = 0 _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ - - (3)
and a drag truss. The beams are common to both
lift and drag trusses. ;olvinq equnkiow 1, 2 ?r,ri 3, wr.3 C:it:zin

Table A2.1 gives the V, D and S projectlons ‘B I- 8513 lb ~ (compr?:.::Ion)

of the lift truss members as determined from ;F = 9333 lb. (tension)
InformatIon given in Fig. A2,35. The true )L 1 79P lb. (aft)
 A2.17

Joint (3) (Equations of equilibrium) points (2) and (4). In the design of the beam
and fittings at this point, the effect of the
1838 (drag truss actual conditions of eccentricity should of
1838 reaction on
RB course be considered.
(3) J pin (3).)
9R (3) RB
V-S plane P V-D plane Ciombined Loads on Drag Truss
SR
zv = 1838 x .9986 - .0523 RB - .4486 SR = 0 -(4) Adding the two load systems of Figs. AZ.38
2s = -1838 x .0523 - .9986 RB -08930 SR = 0 -(5) and A2.39, the total drag truss loading is ob-
ZD = D, + 0 = 0 - - - - _ - - - - _ _ _ - - -(6) tained as shown in Fig. A2.40. The resulting
member axial stresses are then solved for by the
Solving equations 4, 5 and 6, we obtain nethod of index stresses (Art. A2.9). The
RB = - 4189 lb. (compression) values are indicated on the truss diagram. It
SR = 4579 lb. (tension) is customary to make one of the fittings attach-
D, = 0 ing wing to fuselage incapable of transferring
drag reaction to fuselage, so that the entire
Fig. A2.38 shows the reactions of the lift drag reactIon from wing panel on fuselage is
struts on the drag truss at joints (1) and (3) definitely confined to one point. In this ex-
as found above. ample point (2) has been assumed as point where
drag 1s resisted. Those drag wires which would
4189 be In compression are assumed out of actlon.
(4)

39.5 37.5 58.5

(2) 1118.5 231 225 281.5 254

.13~~~
Fig. A2.38

Drag Truss Panel Point

Load.

in the drag directlon

acting forward.
were 6 lb./in, of wing
Loads Due to Air

It was assumed that the air load components

Drag

- , I
2
1908 = Drag
-11,933

Reaction
-10,313 85131
‘798
-413

Fig. A2.40
The distributed load of 6 lb./in. is re-
placed by concentrated loads at the panel points Fuselage Reactions
as shown in Fig. A2.39. Each panel point takes
one half the distributed load to the adjacent As a check on the work as well as to obtain
panel point, except for the two outboard panel reference loads on fuselage from wing structure,
points which are affected by the overhang tip the fuselage reactions will be checked against
portion. the externally applied air loads. Table A2.2
gives the calculations in table form.
Thus the outboard panel point concentration
Table AZ.2
of 254 lb. is determined by taking moments about
(3) of the drag load outboard of (3) as follows:

P = 70.5 x 6 x 35.25/58.5 = 254 lb.

To simplify the drag truss solution, the dra?

strut and drag wires in the inboard drag truss
panel have been modified to intersect at hinge
6#/in.

(4)

Applied Air Loads:

V component = (3770 + 1295 + 1838 + 631)
(2) .9986 = 7523 lb. (error 3 lb.)
D component = -185 x 6 = 1110 lb.(error=O)
S component = -(3770 + 1295 + 1838 + 631)
Fig. A2.39 .0523 = 394 lb. (error 6 lb.)
 A2.18 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYI EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

The wing beams due to the distributed lift Lengths

--
& Directional components
._.-___-
of cabare struts
....-- ---
air loads acting upon them, are also subjected
to bendlng loads in addition to the axial loads.
The wing beams thus act as beam-columns. The
subject of benm-column action is treated in
another chapter of thls book.

If the wing is covered with metal skin

instead of fabric, the drag truss can be omitted
since the top and bottom skin act as webs of a
beam which has the front and rear beams as its
flange members. The wing is then consldered as The alr loads on the outer panel are taken
a box beam subjected to combined bending and identical to those in example problem 1. Like-
axial loading. Nise the dihedral and dlrection of the lift
struts SF and SR have been made the same BS In
Example Problem 11. B-Section Externally Braced example problem 1.. Therefore the an%lysls for
Wlna.
Y
the loads in the outer panel drag and lift trus
trusses is identical to that in problem 1. The
Fig. A2.41 shows a high wing externally solution will be continued assuming the running
braced wing structure. The wing outer panel has lift load on center panel of 45 lb~./ln. and a
been made Identical to the wing panel of example forward drag load of 6 lb ./in.
problem 1. This outer panel attached to the ten
ter panel by single pin fittings at points (2) Solution of Center Panel
and (4). Placing pins at these points make the
structure statically determinate, whereas if the Center Rear Beam
beams were made continuous through all 3 panels, 692#
the reactlons of the lift and cabane struts on (630 + 62) = 692#
t ,w = 14.74#/in. i
the wlng beams would be statically indeterminate
since we would have a 3-span continuous beam rittt:tttt?t!l
resting on settling supports due to strut de- (4) (4)
(8
formation. The fitting pin at points (2) and 90 2o -1
(4) can be made eccentric with the neutral axis R, = 1850# R8= 1650#
of the beams, hence very little is gained by Fig. A2.42
making beams continuous for the purpose of de-
creasing the lateral beam bending moments. For Flg. A2.42 shows the lateral loads on the center
assembly, stowage and shipplng it is convenient rear beam. The loads consist of the distributed
to build such a wing in 3 portions. If a alr load and the vertical component of the f’or-
multiple bolt fitting is used as points (2) and ces exerted by outer panel on center panel at
(4) to obtain a continuous beam, not much Is pin point (4). From Table A2.2 of example prob-
gained because the design requirements of the lem 1, this resultant V reaction equals 630 +
varlous governmental agencies specify that the 62 = 692 lb.
wlng beams must also be analyzed on the as-
sumptlon that a multiple bolt fitting provldes The vertlca.1 component of the cabane re-
Only 50 percent of the full continuity. actlon at jolnt (8) equals one half the total
beam load due to symmetry of loading or 65 x
14.74 + 692 = 1650 lb.
1. Solution of force system at Jolnt 8
36”
1650
1650
-t- t 1
&Center Panel ---jt- Outer Panel ---j

zv q 1650 - .731 CR = 0

whence

CR = l&O/.731 = 2260 lb. (tension)

ES = - CRB - 2260 x .668 = 0

Fig. A2.41
 A2.19

whence (4) are taken from Table A2.2 of problem 1. The

drag load of 336 lb. at (8) is due to the rear
CRB = - 1510 lb. compression) cabane strut, as is likewise the beam axial load
of - 1510 at (8). The axial beam load of
ZD = D, - 2260 x 1485 = 0 - 2281 lb. at (7) is due to reaction of front
cabane truss. The panel point loads are dum?to
whence the given running drag load of 6 lb./in. acting
forward.
D, = 336 lb. drag truss reaction
The reactlon which holds all these drag
Center Front Beam truss loads In equlllbrlum is supplied by the
cabane truss at point (7) since the front and
diagonal cabane struts intersect to form a rigid
triangle. Thus the drag reaction R equals one
half the total drag loads or 2634 lb.

Solving the truss for the loading of Fig,

‘R, = 25351 S=i535# A2.44 we obtain the member axial loads of Fig.
Fig. A2.43 A2.45.

Fig. A2.43 shows the V loads on the Center front 1157 568 568 1157
beam and the resulting V component of the cabane
reactlon at joint (7).

Solution of force system at Joint 7 ~~

!.
t 2535 t 2535 (11)

2 iLane
cAneco
CF
Loads In Cabane Struts
Point 7
Fig. A2.45
Due to Drag Reaction at

zv = 2535 - .721 CF - .597 CD = 0

,X3 = - CFB - .648 CF - .538 CD = 0
ZD = - .240 CF + .597 CD = 0
n
2634#

&F
V-D Plane ‘CD
Solving the three equations, we obtaln
ZD = - 2634 - .240 CF + .597 CD q 0

CFB = - 2281 (compresslon) zv = - .721 CF - .597 CD = 0

CF = 2635
Solvlng for CP and CD, we obtain
CD = 1058
CF = - 2740 lb. (compression)
Solution for Loads in Drag Truss Members
CD = 3310 (tenslon)
Fig. A2.44 shows all the loads applied to
the center panel drag truss. The S and D re- adding these loads to those prev lously ca 1cu-
actions from the outer panel at joints (2) and lated for lift loads:

Panel point 336 CF = - 2740 + 2635 = - 105

for St/in.
Dran Load

a I 6 15
1336
270 I
I
60
CD = 1058 + 3310 = 4368 lb.
CR = 2260 lb.
1157
Fuselage Reactions

As a check on the work the fuselage re-

actions will be checked against the applied
loads. Table A2.3 gives the V, D and S com-
ponents of the fuselage reactlons.
m
1906 1 26341
k Fig. A2.44
AZ. 20 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYL EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

Table AZ.3
36
Point Member Load v D s t
9 I Front Strut 1 -105 1 -76 1 -25 1 -68
cF
10 Rear strut CR 2260 1650 335 1510
Dia. Stl-Ut CD 4368 2610 -2610 2356

5 Front Lift Strut 9333 4205 798 8290

SF
6 Rear Lift Strut 4579 2055 0 4090

Totals 10444 -1502 16178

Applied Air Loads

V component = 7523 (outer panel) + 65 x 45

= 10448 (check)
D component = - 1110 (outer panel) - 65 x
6 = - 1500 (error 2 lb.)

Tne total side load on a vertical plane thru

centerline 0: airplane should equal the S com-
po!!?nt Of t:;:’ a’T!ilLed loads e The applied side 0 P
losds = - 3:,.; 1;). (SE. problem 1) s The air load
on cant-r pans1 is vertical and thus has zero S
com;~on:ent a

From Table AZ:.3 for fuselage reactions

have ZS = 16178. From Fig. A2.45 the load in
the front beam at c ol’ airplane equals - 17308
and 568 for rear beam. The horizontal component
of the diagonal drafg strut at joints 11 equals T
216 x 45/57.6 = 169 lb. 9”
A
Then total S components = 16173 - 17308 + ‘7 panels @ 12” = 84”
568 + 169 = - 393 lb. which checks the side
component of the applied air loads.

Example Problem 12. Single Spar Truss Plus SOLUTION:

Torsional Truss System.
The total air load on the structure equals
In small wings or control surfaces, fabric the avsraqe intensity per square inch times the
is often used as the surface covering. Since surface area or (0.5)( .5)(36 x 84) = 756 lb. In
the fabric cannot provide reliable torsional order to solve a truss system by a method of
resistance, internal structure must be of such joints the distributed load must be replaced by
design as to nrovide torsional strength. A an equivalent load system acting at the joints
single spar plus a special type of truss system of the structure. Referring to Fig. (d), the
IS often used to give a satisfactory structure. total air load on a strip 1 inch wide and 36
Fig. A2.46 illustrates such a type of structure: inches long is 36(0.5)/2 = 9 lb. and Its c.g.
namely, a trussed single spar AEFI; plus a tri- or resultant location is 12 inches from line AE.
angular truss system between the spar and the In Fig. 46a this resultant load of 9 lb./in. is
trailing edge OS. Fig. A2.46 (a, b, c) shows imagined as acting on an imaginary beam located
the three projections and dimensions. The air alonq the line l-1. This running load applied
load on the surface covering of the structure along this line is now replaced by an equivalent
Is assumed to be 0.5 lb./in.’ intensity at spar force system actin? at joints OPJJSEDBCA. The
line and then varying linearly to zero at the results of this joint distribution are shoinm by
trailing edge (See Fig. d). the joint loads in Fig. A2.46. To illustrate
how these joint loads were cbtained, the cslcu-
The problem will be to determine the axial lations for loads at joints ESDR will be given.
loads in all the members of the structure. It
;~ill be assumed that all members are 2 force Fig. A2.48 shows a portion of the structure
members as Is usually done In flndlng the to be considered. For a running load of 9
primary loads in trussed structures. lb./in., along line l-l, reactions ‘Ml1 be for
-

AZ. 21

r,MY = (6 + 66 + 72 + 72 + 36)36 - 36 0, =0

Nhence 0, = 252 lb. acting down as assumed.

To find OY take moments about z axis through

point (A).
ZMZ = 0 + 36 OY = 0, OJF= 0

To find AY take moments about x axis through

Fig. AZ. 48 point N. The moment of the air loads was pre-
viously calculated as - 31X2, hence,
simple beams rdsting at points 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. ZM, = - 31752 + 9 Ay q 0, whence, hy =
The dist?cce bctVveen 2-3 is 8 inches. The tota 3528 lb.
load on this distance is 8 x 9 = 72 lb. One
half or 36 lb. goes to point (2) and the other To find NY take ZFy = 0
half tG point (3). The 36 lb. at (2) is then
ZFy = 3528 - NY = 0, hence NY = 3528 lb.
replaced by an equivalent force system at E and
S or (36)/3 3 12 lb. to S and (36)(2/3) = 24 to
To find N, take XF, = 0
E. The distance betihieen points (3) and (4) is
a inches and the load is 8 x 9 q 72 lb. One ZF, = - 252 + 756 - N, = 0, hence N, =
half of this or 36 yoes to point (3) and this 504 lb.
added to the previous 36 gives 72 lb. at (3).
The load of 72 is then replaced by an equivalen The reactions are all recorded on Fig.
force system at S and D, or (72)/3 = 24 lb. to A2.46.
S and (72)(2/3) = 48 to D. The final load at S
is therefore 24 + 12 = 36 lb. as shown in Fig. Solution of Truss Member Loads
A 2.46. Due to symmetry of the triangle CRD,
one half of the total load on the distance CD For simplicity, the load system on the
goes to points (4) arid (5) or (24 x 9)/2 = 108 structure will be considered separately as two
lb. The distribution to D is therefore (100) load systems. One system will Include only
(2/3) = 72 and (108)/3 = 36 to R. Adding 72 those loads acting along the line AE and the
to the previous load of 48 at D gives a total second load system will be remaining loads
load at D = 120 lb. as shown in Fig. A2.46. which act along line OS. Since no bending
The 108 lb. at point (5) also gives (lOa)/ = moment can be resisted at joint 0, the external
36 to R or a total of 72 lb. at R. The student load along spar AE will be reacted at A and N
should check the distribution to other joints entirely or in other words, the spare alcne
as shop in Fig, A2.46. resists the loads on line AE.

To check the equivalence of the derived Fig. A;?.49 shows a diagram of this spar
joint load system with the orlginal air load with its joint external loading. The axial
system, the magnitude and moments of each loads produced by this loading are written on
system must be the same. Adding up the total the truss members. (The student should check
joint loads as shown in Fig. A2.46 gives a tota these member loads.)
of 756 lb. which checks the original air load.
72 144 144
The moment of the total air load about an x Y0 241
axis at left end of structure equals 756 x 42 = -32 1 0 1
31752 in. lb. The moment of the jolnt load ‘2
system in Fig. A2.46 equals (66 x 12) + (72 x B 3 ‘JTO ~
d hl
36) + (72 X 60) + (56 X 04) + 144 (24 + 48) +
(120 x 72) + (24 x 84) = 31752 in.lb. or a N I 1760 1760 800 800 224 224 32
check. The moment of the total air load about 504 Fig. AZ. 49
line AE equals 756 x 12 = 9072 in.lb. The
moment of the distributed joint loads equals TRIANGULAR TRUSS SYSTEM
(6 f 66 + 72 + 72 + 36)36 = 9072 or a check.
The load system along the trailing edge OS
Calculation of Reactions causes stresses in both the spar truss and the
diagonal truss system. The support fitting at
The structure is supported by sing112 pin point 0 provides a reactlon in the 2 direction
fittings at points A, N and 0, wlth pin axes but no reacting moment about the x axis. Since
parallel to x axis. It ~111 be assumed that the loads on the trailing edge lie on a y axis
the fitting at N takes off the spar load in through 0, it is obvious that all these loads
Z direction. Fig. A2.46 shows the reactions flow to point 0. Since the bending strength of
OY, Oz, Ay, NY, N,. To find 0, take moments the traillng edge member Is negligible, the
about y axls along spar AEF’N.
A2.22 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SY! EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

load of 36 lb. at Joint S in order t0 be trans- reaction on the spar but does produce a couple
ferred to point 0 through the diagonal truss force on the spar in the Y direction which pro-
system must follow the path SDRCQBPAO. In like duces compression in the top chord of the spar
manner the load of 72 at R to reach 0 must take truss and tension in the bottom chord.
the path RC$BPAO, etc.
Consider Joint R
Calculation of Loads In Diagonal Truss Members:-
The load to be transferred to truss RCJR
Is equal to the 72 lb. at R plus the 36 lb. at
S which comes to joint R from truss DRQ.

Hence load in RC = (72 + 36)0.5 x (l/.118)

= - 457 lb.
Whence RJ = 457, CQ = 457 and JQ = - 457
Conslder Joint S
Joint Q
The triangular truss SEF cannot assist in Load to be transferred to truss QBL = 72 +
transferrlng any portion of the 36 lb. load at
72 + 36 = 180 lb.
S because the reaction of this truss at EF
would put torsion on the spar and the spar has Hence load in QB = (180 x 0.5)(1/.118) =
no appreciable torsional resistance. - 762.
Whence QL = 762, BP = 762, LP = - 762
Conslderlng Joint S
as a free body and wrltlng D 36
Joint P
the equilibrium equatlons:
XT----- s -
:=” J. Load = 180 + 66 = 246
ZFx q -.943 DS -.943 GS = 0 -Z
G Load in PA = (246 x 0.5)(1/.118)
whence, DS q - GS = - 1040
Whence PN = 1040
ZFZ = 36 + .118 DS - ,118 GS = 0
Consider Joint (A) as a free body.
Subt. DS = - OS and solving for GS, gives
GS = 159 lb.(tension), DS = -159 (compression) ZF, = - 1040 x .943 + ,960 A0 = 0, A0 =
1022 lb.
Consider Joint D In like manner, considering Joint N, gives NO
= - 2022 lb.
2

LY R
\ J
159 Couple Force Reactions on Spar

.,aE c As pointed out previously, the diagonal

D
Y torsion truss produces a couple reaction on the
spar in the y direction, The magnitude of the
force of this couple equals the y component of
Let Ty and T, be reactions of diagonal the load in the dlagonal truss members meeting
truss system on spar truss at Joint D. at a spar joint. Let Ty equal this reaction
load on the spar.
ZF, = - 159 x .943 + .943 DR = 0, hence DR =
159 lb. At Joint C:-
ZFZ = - 159 x .118 f 159 x .118 - T, = 0 Ty = - (457 + 457),314 = - 287 lb.

whence T, = 0, which means the diagonal Likewise at Joint J, Ty = 287

truss produces no 2 reaction or shear load on
spar truss at D. At Joint B:-
Ty = - (762 + 762).314 = - 479
ZFy = - .314 x 159 - ,314 x 159 - Ty = 0
Llkewise at Joint L, Ty =I 479
whence Ty = - 100 lb.
At Joint A:-
If joint G is Investigated in the same manner,
the results will show that Tz 2 0 &nd Ty 2 lU0, Q = a [ 1040 x ,314) f - 326

The results at joint D shows that the rear Lihwl$e at Joint N, Ty * 32.6
diagonal truss system produces no shear load
 A2.23
I
These reactlons of the torsion truss upon
the spar truss are shown in Fig. A2.50. The
loads In the spar truss members due to this
loatllng are written adjacent to each truss
member. Addlng these member loads to the loads
in Fig. A2.49, we obtain the final spar truss
member loads as shown in Fig. A2.51. Level Landing with Inclined Reactions

q-3 Line
Fig. A2. 50
Level Landing with Nose Wheel Just
Clear of Ground

Fig. A2.51
Tail Down Landing
If we add the reactions in Figs. AZ.50 and
A2.49, we obtain 3528 and 504 which check the
re,-ictions obtained in Flg. A2.46. Fig. A2. 52

AZ. 13 Landing Gear Structure

Fig. A2.53 shows photographs of typlcal
The airplane Is both a landborne and alr- main gear units and Fig. A2.54 for nose wheel
borne vehicle, and thus a means of operating gear units.
the airplane on the ground must be provlded
which means wheels and brakes. Furthermore, The successful design of landing gear for
provision must be made to control the impact present day aircraft Is no doubt one of the most
l‘r)l .:n“\, i;~volveii In landing or in taxiing over difficult problems which Is encountered in the
T<\l,,“l> /- t’o:ma.. This requirement requires a structural layout and strength design of air-
sp~-?~.~i,ilenergy absorption unlt in the landing craft. In general, the gear for aerodynamic
p:o:::’ >i*;orid that energy absorptlon provided by efficiency must be retracted Into the lnterlor
tb, j ‘; i i’\C . The landing gear thus includes a of the wing, nacelle or fuselage, thus a re-
~a-.~-:1 l:;d shock strut commonly referred to as liable, safe retracting and lowering mechanism
?:I %)I?\1 A,:‘Llt,, which is a member composed of system is necessary. The wheels must be braked
trbc ltolescoplrig cylinders. When the strut is and the nose wheel made steerable. The landing
(:“‘],;,;‘qs:;efJ 011 inside the air tight cylinders gear Is subjected to relatively large loads,
is :‘c,ri-;.*z::Through an orifice from one cylinder whose magnitudes are several times the gross
t,(J !. i: :: :)tt!::~- and .the energy due to the landing weight of the airplane and these large loads
!:ny::,‘t !s ::~b::r?rbetl by the work done in forcing must be carried into the supporting wing or
thl? 011 tilrouY,h the orifice. The orifice can fuselage structure. Since the weight of land-
i,” r c; ‘,::,l?n~;ti iis to nrovlde practically a ing gear may amount to around 6 percent of the
c:] 1 “C)r,fl : e:-:I st,;:nce over the displacement or weight of the airplane it is evident that high
1;r :: i’ +i t->: ?he 31~0 slrut. strength/weight ratio is a paramount design
requirement of landing gear, as inefficient
_, ’ I;pl:!ne
.“, , I ca,n land safely with the air- structural arrangement and conservative stress
nl’.r!,, lr~ v~:rIous at.tltudes at the Instant of analysis can add many unnecessary pounds of
grJ.iF i L'O!.t?Ct. Fig. A2.52 Illustrates the weight to the alrplane and thus decrease the
thr,ee tilil~udes of the airplane that are pay or useful load.
c I\ ,-1 “‘i c;;! by the government aviation
0: agencies
i’ ‘I ::e~!~-n 01’ 1andl.n~ gear. In addltlon to A2.14 Example Problems of Calculating Reactions and
th?:;e Y :~m~~:+~:l;!-l cnl unbraked loadings, special Loads on Members of Landing Gear Units
1o:::irr- _’ , :;l~lch as a braked condition, landing
In its simplest form, a landing gear could
Oi, ‘):lf; .;,il-:l condition, side load on wheel, etc.
consist of a single oleo strut acting as a
87.~2;,eq:tlred. In other words, a landing gear cantilever beam with its fixed end being the
c a 1/ ‘L)II t.~X,oj~~ctod
1 to a considerable number of upper end which would be rlgldly fastened to
di ;‘:‘:~r,:?::t; !~o?dl rigs under the various landing
CC)? ‘i / tiCi:iCJ ti-i?t a7.e encounterad the supporting structure. The lower cylinder
Lo In the normal of the oleo strut carries an axle at Its lower
O.-i],?+ .” ic:r, CJj :\n a irplsne .
A2.24 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYf :EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

McDonnell Aircraft
(Military Airplane)

Douglas DC-7 Air Transport

Douglas DC-8
Jet Airliner

Fig. A2. 53 Main Landing Gear Illustrations (One Side)

 A2.25

Beechcraft Twin Bonanza

Piper-Apache
Piper Tri-Pacer

F’

*q

Navy F4-J
North American Aviation Co.

Douglas DC-7 Air Transport

Fig. AZ. 54 Nose Wheel Gear Installations
A2.26 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYE EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

end for attaching the wheel and tire. This SOLUTION

cantilever beam Is subjected to bending in two
dlrections, torsion and also axial loads. Since The supportlng reactions upon the gear at
the gear is usually made retractable, it Is points F, H, and G ~111 be calculated as a
difficult to design a single fltting unit at beginning step. There are six unknowns, namely
the upper end of the oleo strut that will FS, FV, FD, HV, HD and G (See Flg. A2.56). With
resist this combination of forces and still 6 equations of static equlllbrlum available for
permit movement for a simple retracting mechan- a space force system, the reactions can be found
ISm. Furthermore, it would be difficult to by stat its . Referring to Fig. A2.56:-
provide carry-through supporting wing or fuse-
lage structure for such large concentrated To find FS take ZS = 0
load systems. FS + 0 q 0, hence FS = 0
Thus to decrease the magnitude of the
To find reaction GV take moments about an S
bending moments and also the bending flexlbllity
of the cantilever strut and also to simplify axls through polnts F, H.
the retracting problem and the carry-through w = 3119 x 50 - 24 GV = 0
structural problem, it is customary to add one
Whence, Gv = 6500 lb. with sense as assumed.
or two braces to the oleo strut. In general, (The wheel load of 15000 lb. has been resolved
effort is made to make the landing gear into V and D components as indicated in Fig.
structure statically detennlnate by using
A2.55).
specially designed fittings at member ends or
at support points In order to establish the Wlth GV known, the reaction G equals (6500)
force characterlstlcs of dlrectlon and point of (31.8/24) = 8610 lb. and similarly the compon-
application. ent GD = (6500)(21/24) = 5690 lb.

Two example problem solutions will be pre-

sented, one deallng with a gear with a single
wheel and the other with a gear involving two
wheels.

Example Problem 13

Fig. A2.55 shows the projections of the

landing gear conflguration on the VS and VII
planes. Fig. A2.56 is a space dimensional
diagram. In landing gear analysis it is common
to use V, D and S as reference axes Instead of
the symbols Z, X and Y. This gear unit is
assumed as representing one side of the main
gear on a tricycle type of landing gear system.
The loading assumed corresponds to a condition
of nose wheel up or tail down. (See lower
sketch of Fig. A2.52). The design load on the
wheel Is vertical and its magnltude for this
problem Is 15000 lb.
Rx/=15000 xc06 12O = 146b2 lb.
The gear unit is attached to the supporting
structure at points F, H and G. Retraction of I -24 4
the gear is obtalned by rotating gear rearward
and upward about axis through F and H. The
fittings at F and H are designed to resist no
bending moment. Hence, reactions at F and H arc
unknown in magnltude and direction. Instead of
using the reaction and an angle as unknowns,
the resultant reaction is replaced by its V and
D components as shown in Fig. A2.56. The re- 6500
action at G is unknown in magnltude only since 10063
the pin fitting at each end of member GC fixes 1.. PnnA t-569O
the direction and line of action of the react101
at G. For convenience In calculations, the
reaction G Is replaced by its components GV and
GD. For a side load on the landing gear, the
reaction in the S dlrectlon is taken Off at
point F by a specially designed unit. Fig. A2.56 Fig. AZ. 57
 A2.27

the structure as a whole by taking moments about

ES D and V axes through point A.

IMA = - 10063 x 14 f 6500 x 8 + 11109 x 8
= - 140882 + 52000 + 88882 2 O(check)
,ZMA(V) = 5690 x 8 - 433 X 8 - 3004 X 14
= 45520 - 3464 - 42056 = 0 (check)

The next step In the solution will be the

calculation of the forces on the oleo strut
unit. Fig. A2.58 shows a free body of the oleo-
strut-axle unit. The brace members BI and CG
are two force members due to the pin at each
end, and thus magnitude is the only unknown re-
Fig. A2. 58
action characteristic at points B and C. The
fitting at point E between the oleo strut and
the top cross member FH is designed in such a
TEdA manner as to resist torsional moments about the
oleo strut axis and to provide D, V and S force
reactions but no moment reactions about D and S
Fs--’ ~~Is~3g20 axes. The unknowns are therefore BI, CG, ES,
EV, ED and TE or a total of 6 and therefore
BIv=7840
statically determinate. The torsional moment
Ev=13332 TE Is represented in Fig. A2.58 by a vector
with a double arrow. The vector direction
represents the moment axis and the sense of
rotation of the moment Is given by the right
hand rule, namely, with the thumb of the right
hand pointing in the same directlon as the
arrows, the curled fingers give the sense of
rotation.
Fig. A2.59
J To find the reslstlng torsional moment TE
take moments about V axis through E.
To find FV, take moments about a D axis
through point H. “ME(V) = - 3119 x 8 + TE = 0, hence TE
= 24952 ln.lb.
E”H(D) = 16 GV + 14672 x 8 - 22 FV q 0
= 16 x 6500 + 1467% x 8 - 22 FV = 0 TO find CG take moments about S axis
Whence FV = 10063 lb. with sense as as- through E.
sumed. ZME(s) = 3119 x 50 - (24/31.8) CG x 3 -
24 (21/31.8) CG = 0
TO find HD, take moments about V axis
through F. Whence, CG = 8610 lb.

““F(V) = - 6 GD - 22 HD + 3119 x 14 = 0 This checks the value previously obtained

= - 6 x 5690 - 22 HD + 3119 x 14 when the reaction at G was found to be 8610.
=o The D and V components of CG thus equal,
Whence, HD = 433 lb. CGD = 8610 (21/31.8) = 5690 lb.
To find FD, take ZD = 0 CGv = 8610 (24/31.8) = 6500 lb.

ZD = - FD + HD + GD - 3119 = 0 To find load In brace Strut BI, take moments

= - FD + 433 + 5690 - 3119 = 0 about D axis through point E.
Whence, FD = 3004 lb. EME(D) = - 14672 x 8 + 3 (BI) 22/24.6 +
24 (BI) U/24.6 = 0
To find HV take ZV = 0
Whence, BI = 8775 lb.
zv = - FV + GV - HV + 14672 = 0
= - 10063 + 6500 - HV + 14672 = 0 and thus, BIV = (8775)(22/24.6) = 7840 lb.
BIS = (8775)(11,‘24.6) = 3920 lb.
Whence, HV = 11109 lb.
To find ES take ZS = 0
Fig. A2.57 summarizes the reactions as found.
The results will be checked for equilibrium of 23 = % - 3920 = 0, hence ES = 3920
A2.28 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYE EMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

To find ED take ZD = 0
ZD = 5690 - 3119 - ED = 0, hence ED q 2571

To find EV take ZV = 0
XV = - EV + 14672 - 7840 + 6500 = 0, hence
EV = 13332 lb.

Fig. A2.59 shows a free body of the top

member FH. The unknowns are Fv, FD, Fs, HV and
HD- The loads or reactions as found from the
analysis of the oleo strut unit are also re-
corded on the figure. The equations of
equilibrium for this free body are:- Fig. A2.60

Torque
2s = 0 = - 3920 + 3920 + FS = 0, or FS = 0 Link
2;173
I
“MF(D) = 22 HV - 3920 x 2 - 7840 x 20 -
13332 x 6 = 0 TE=24952 in. lb.

Whence, Hv = 11110 lb. This check value

was obtained previously, and therefore is a f+ 6” +3,,j
cneck c?fi our work.

=%‘(V) = 24952 - 2571 x 6 - 22 HD q 0 The torque to be transferred In our prob-

lem Is 24952 In.lb.
whence , HD = 433 lb.
The reaction R, between the two units of
cv = - FV + 13332 f 7840 - 11110 = 0
the torque link at point (2), see Fig. A2.60,
whence, FV = 10063 thus equals 24952/g = 2773 lb.

ZD = - FD + 2571 + 433 q 0 The reactions R, at the base of the link at

whence, FD q 3004 lb. point (3) = 2773 x 8.5/2.75 = 8560 lb. With
these reactions known, the strength design of
Thus working through the free bodies of the link units and the connections could be
the oleo strut and the top member FH, we come made.
out with same reactions at F and H as obtained
when finding these reactions by equlllbrium Example Problem 14
equation for the entire landing gear.
The landing gear as illustrated in Fig.
The strength design of the oleo strut unit A2.61 is representatlve of a main landing gear
and the top member FB could now be carried out which could be attached to the under side of a
because with all loads and reactions on each wing and retract forward and upward about line
member known, axial, bendlng and torsional AB into a space provided by the lower portion
stresses could now be found. of the power plant nacelle structure. The oleo
strut OE has a sliding attachment at E, which
The loads on the brace struts CG and BI prevents any vertical load to be taken by
are axial, namely, 8610 lb. tenslon and 8775 member AB at E. However, the fitting at E does
lb. compression respectively, and thus need no transfer shear and torque reactions between the
further calculation to obtain design stresses. oleo strut and member AB. The brace struts
GD, FD and CD are pinned at each end and will
TORQUELINK be assumed as 2 force members.

The oleo strut consists of two telescoping An alrplane level landlng condition with
unsymmetrical wheel loading has been assumed as
tubes and some means must be provided to trans-
mlt torsional moment between the two tubes and shown In Fig. A2.61.
still permit the lower cylinder to move upward
into the upper cylinder. The most common way SOLUTION
of providing this torque transfer Is to use a
double-cantilever-nut cracker type of structure The gear is attached to supportlng struc-
Flg. A2.60 Illustrates how such a torque length ture at points A, B and C. The reactions at
could be applied to the oleo strut In our these polnts will be calculated first, treating
problem. the entlre gear as a free body. Fig. A2.62
 A2.29

+- 24" + p 19” + 19” 4 ZMA(D) = - 60000 x 9 - 40000 x 29 - 66666

AIB
x 19 + 38 BIJ = 0
whence, BV = 78070 lb.

To find AV, take ,YV q @

ZV = - 78070 + 60000 + 40000 + 66666 - VA
Z 0
whence, AV = 88596 lb.

To find BD take moments about V axis throul‘h

point (A).
36" x w ZMA(v) = 57142 x 19 - 15000 x 9 -- 10000 x
29 - 38 BD = 0
whence, BD = 17336 lb.

To find AD take ZD = 0
ZD q - 57142 + 15000 + 10000 -I- 17386 +
AD q 0
whence AD = 14756 lb.

To check the results take moments about V

and D axes through point 0.

ma(v) = 5 x 10000 + 14756 x 19 - 17386 x

19 = 0 (check)
CMO(D) = 20000 x 10 - 88596 x 19 + 78070 x
19 = 0 (check)

REACTIONS ON OLEO-STRIjT OE

Fig. A2.63 shows a free body of the olno-

I 64"
strut OE. The loads applied to the wheels at

1ETE I+ 17”4.-

ATE
17”
1
Fig. A2.62

shows a space diagram with loads and reactions.

The reactions at A, B and C have been replaced
by their V and D components.
4 l/41
V
To find reaction CV take moments about an
S axls through points AB. t S
Fig. A2.63
ZMAB = - (15000 + 10000) 64 + 24 Cv = 0
Whence CV = 66666 lb. With sense as
assumed In Fig. A2.62.

The reaction at C must have C

a line of action along the 11ne 36a
28 3
CD since member CD is plnned at Yl the axle centerlines have been transferred to
each end, thus the drag compon- 24 D point (0). Thus the total V load at (0) equals
ent and the load in the strut 60000 + 40000 q 100000 and the total D load
CD follow as a matter of geometry. Hence, equals 15000 .+ 10000 = 25000. The moment of
CD q 66666 (24/28) = 57142 lb. these forces about V and D axes through (0) are
CD = 66666 (36.93/28) = 07900 lb. tension MO(V) = (15000 - 10300) 10 = 50000 in.lb. and
MO(D) = (60000 - 40000) 10 = 200000 ln.lb.
To find BV take moments about a drag axis These moments are indicated in Fig. A2.63 by
through point (A). the vectors with double arrows. The sense of
the moment Is determined by the right hand thumb
A2. SO EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SY ‘EMS: TRUSS STRUCTURES.

and finger rule.

D
The fitting at point E Is designed to
resist a moment about V axis or a torsional t S
moment on the oleo strut. It also can provide
shear reactions ES and ED but no bendlng 32143
resistance about S or D axes.

The unknowns are the forces ES, ED, DF,

DG and the moment TE.
I \ i ,‘7i451 Fig.A2.64
To find TE take moments about axis OE. 89215

ZMOE = - 50000 + TE = 0, whence TE =

50000 in.lb.
.ZMA(D) = - 89215 x 2 - 77451 x 36 - 38 BV
To find ES take moments about D axis =o
through point D. whence, BV = 78070 lb.
“MD(D) = 200000 - 28 ES = 0, whence To find AV take ZV q 0
ES = 7143 lb.
zv = 89215 + 77451 - 78070 - AV = 0
To find force DFV take moments about D whence, AV = 88596 lb.
axis through point G.
To find BD take moments V axis througb A.
%(D) = 200000 - 100000 x 17 - 66666 x
17 + 34 DFV = 0 .~Mv(D) = 50000 + 32143 X 19 - 38 BD = 0
whence, DFV = 77451 lb. whence, BD = 17386 lb.
Then DFS = 77451 (17/28) To find AD take ZD = 0
17
= 47023 lb.
28 K-q ZD = 17386 - 32143 + AD = 0, or AD =
and DF = 77451 (32.72/28) 14757 lb.
I7Q
= 90503 lb,
These four reactions check the reactions
To find DGV take ZV = 0 obtained orlginally when gear was treated as a
zv = 100000 - 77451 f 66666 - DGV = 0, free body, thus glvlng a numerical check on the
or DGV = 89215 calculations.
Then, DGS = 89215 (17/28) = 54164 1.5, With the forces on each part of the gear
DG = 89215 (32.73/28) q 104190 lb. known, the parts could be deslgned for strength
and rigidity. The oleo strut would need a
To find ED take moments about S axls torsion link as discussed In example problem 13
through point D. and Fig. A2.60.
“D(S) = - 25000 X 35 + 28 ED = 0, A2.15 Problems
ED = 32143 lb.
(1) For the structures numbered 1 to 10 deter-
The results will be checked for static mlne whether structure is statically deter-
equilibrium of strut. Take moments about D mlnate with respect to external reactions
axls through point (0). and Internal stresses.
=b(D) = 200000 + 54164 x 36 - 47023 x
36 - 7143 x 64 = 200000 + 1949904
- 1692828 - 457150 = 0 (check)
“MO(S) = 32143 x 64 - 57142 x 36 = O(check
REACTIONS ON TOP mEB AB

Fig. A2.64 shows a free body of member AB

with the known applied forces as found from
the previous reactions on the oleo strut.

The unknowns are AD, BD, A and BV. To

find BV take moments about D ax Y s through A.
 A2.31

(2) Find the horizontal and vertical components

of the reactions on the structures illus-
trated In Figs. 11 to 15.

+D’ -
Side View
Front View’ L +s

Fig. 20

(6) Fig. 21 shows the wing structure of an ex-

ternally braced monoplane. Determine the
axial loads In all members of the lift and
drag trusses for the following loads.
Front beam lift load = 30 lb./in. (upward)
Rear beam lift load = 24 lb./In. (upward)
Wlng drag load = 8 lb./in. acting aft
PLAN VIEW
(3) Find the axial loads in the members of the Wing Drag Truss
trussed structures shown in Figs. 16 to 18.

500
(16) 1 50
-7
30”
A-

(4) Determlne the axial loads in the members

of the structure In Fig. 19. The members (7)
are pinned to supports at A, B and C.

Fig. 22

) Fig. 20 shows a trl-pod frame for hoisting Fig. 22 shows a braced monoplane wing. For the
a propeller for assembly on engine. Find given air loading, find axial loads in lift and
the loads in the frame for a load of 1000 drag truss members. The drag reaction on drag
lb. on hoist. truss is taken off at point A.
A2.32 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES.

A
6” In the
laca inr; qenr
0: Fi-;. 24,
tne brace
V T;,e::I:?ers SC

I-
t S and BF are
tiN0 force
aembers. The
:‘itt;na iit E
2 r 0v 1. ti es r e -
s:xtarice to
v, D 2ld s
r,9c
VI t 1ms but
15000 10000 Fig. 24 -r,: v xment
re:-istmce
:t‘:,\,ut v axis.
Tembcrs B!: md

Cessna Aircraft Douglas DC-8 Jet Airliner

Nose Wheel Installation (Model 182) Main Landing Gear Unit
 CHAPTER A3
PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS - CENTROIDS
MOMENTS OF INERTIA ETC.

A3.1 Introduction In engineering calculations, Then

two terms, center of gravity and moment of Iner-
IX =fPti, Iy =fPdA, I, =fra@
tia, are constantly being used. Thus, a brief
review of these terms Is In order. where Ix, I and 1s are moments of inertia of the
area about r he axes xx, yy and zz respectively.
A3.2 Centroids, Center of Gravity. The cen-
troid of a line, &a, .volume, or mass 1s that
point at which the whole line, area, volume, or
TESS :n?y be ccncelved to be concentrated and have
the sa!ne moment with respact to an axis as when
distributed in Its true or natural way. This
general relationship can be expressed by the
principle of moments, as follows:
Lines :- ?L = Xx, hence 1 = ZLTl =SxdL
L L Fig. A3.1
Areas :- -ti = Zax, hence X =a=fxdA A3.5 Polar Moment of Inertia In Fig. A3.1, the
A A moment of inertla Iz =f r %A about the Z axis 1s
Volumes :- XV = Xx, hence ? = ZVx = JxdV referred to as the polar moment of Inertia and
v V can be deflned as the moment of Inertia of an
area wlth respect to a point In Its surface.
Masses :- iiM=Zxm, hence?=Zmx=JxdM
- - Since ra = xB + y8 (Fig. A3.1)
M M Iz =l(ya + x2) CIA = Ix + Iy or; the polar moment
If a geometrical figure is symmetrical with re- of inertia Is equal to the sum of the moments of
spect to a line or plane, the centrold of the inertia with respect to any two axes In the plane
flgui-e lies in the given line or plane. This is of the area, at rlght angles to each other and
passlng thru the point of intersection of the po-
obvious from the fact that the moments of the
parts of the figure on the opposite sldes of the lar axis with the plane.
line or plane are numerically equal but of op-
poslte sign. If a figure is symmetrIca to two
A3.8 Radius of Gyration The radius of gyration
of a solid is the distance from the inertia axis
lines or planes, the centroid of the figure lies
at the intersection of the two lines or the two to that point in the solid at which, If Its en-
planes, and likewise, lf the figure has 3 planes tire mass could be concentrated, its moment of
Inertia would remain the same.
of symmetry, the centrold lies at the lntersec-
tlon of the 3 planes, Thus, s r*dM =eaM, where c Is the radlus of
gyration
A3.3 Moment of Inertia The term moment of ln- Since, JradM = I, then I =e=M ore= I
ertia 1s applied In mechanics to a number of v- Ti
mathematical expressions which represents sec-
ond moments of areas, volumes and masses, such By analogy, in the case of an area,
as I =e”A orf= I
S Y%i, Jr*dV, SrgdM etc. -u- A
A3.4 Moment of Inertia of a* Area As applied A3..7 Parallel Axis Theorem In Fig. A3.2 let Iy
to an area, the term moment of lnertla has no be the moment of inertia of the area referred to
physical significance, but represents a quantlty the centroidal axis y-y, and let the moment of
entering into a large number of engineering inertia about axis ylyl be required. YlYl 1s
problems or calculations. However, It may be parallel to yy. Consider the elementary area dA
considered as a factor which lndlcates the ln- wlth distance x + d from ylyl.
fluence of the area Itself In determlnlng the
Then, Iy, =J(d + x)=dA
total rotating moment of uniformly varying for-
ces applied over an area. =J x=dA + 2d s xdA + d V-dA
Let Fig. A3.1 be any plane area referred to
three coordinate axes, ox, oy and 02; ox and OY
being the plane of area.
Let d,~ represent an elementary area, with
coordinates x, y, and r as shown.
A3.1
A3.2 C ENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Y TABLE 1
IY1 Section Properties of Areas
I AA<“”

b--f d t”

+c.g.
-mdq Rectangle A_rea = bd
y=d
Fig. A3. 2 I--“--+ , 2
I 1-1 = bd”/12
-1 = bd’
I*-*
3
The first term,Jx”dA, represents the mo- -’ f,eL = .289 d
ment of Inertia of the body about its centroldal
axis y-y and will be given the symbol 7. The Area = bh
second term Is zero becausefxdA Is zero slnce -2-
yy is the centroldal axis of the body. The
last term, d2,fdA = Ada or, area of body times 7 = h/3
the square of the distance between axes yy and = bh”
IL-1
36
Thus in general,
I=T+Ad=
This expression states that the amount of
2-
inertia of an area ;vith respect to any axis In
the plane of the area is equal to the moment of
inertia of the area with respect to a parallel
centroidal axls plus the product of the area and p1el = .236 h
the square of the distance between the two axes, I Area = bh
Parallel Axis Theorem For Masses. If Instead of rriangle7 -5
area the mass of the body is considered, the
? = 2/3 h
parallel axls can be written: 1
I,-, = g
I = ‘I + Md’, where M refers to the mass of
the body.
t-----h+ fJldL = .204 h
A3.7a Mass Yoments of Inertia The product of
the mass of a particle and the square of its 1rrapezoid Area = d(b + b.)
distance from a line or plane is referred to as t bl-i 2
the moment of inertia of the mass of the parti-
cle with respect to the line or plane. Hence ,
I = mrz. If
the summation can be express-
ed by a definite integral, the expresslon may be
;Yrltten I =JrZ dM
Moments of Inertia of Airplanes. In both flying Area = t(b + c)
and landing conditions the alrplane may be sub- ; = b2 + ct y = cja + at
jected to angular accelerations. To determine igl5-g 20
the magnitude of the accelerations as well as
the dlstrlbutlon and magnitude of the mass iner-
tia resisting
the airplane
generally
forces,

required
the moment of inertia
about the three coordinate
of
axes is
In making a stress analysis
T d
Iy=i[t(b-x)
3
J+dX5-C(X-t)S
of a particular airplane. tan2@=2IXy,where Ixy=abcd
The mass moments of inertia of the airplant 4(bi(
about the coordinate X, Y and Z axes through the 1 Iy-Ix
center of gravity of the airplane can be expres- 11-l =I, sin” er+ Iy co.3 9.3 + 1,y
sed as follows : sin 2k3
= Cwyz + Zwz2 + ZAIx I 2-z Ix COSV + Iy sin2 id - Ixy
IX
srn 2lzr
I y = Em = + xwze + ZAIy

12 = Zwx2 + .Wy2 + ZAI,

 ( Elliptical ,
TABLE 1 - Continued Ring Area = n (albl- azbz)
Area = t(d + Za) = n (alab - apobs)
7 = d/2
Ix = bd' - ai; - 2t)' I_ /

IY = d(b+a)"-2aSc-Gabac I I-a-4
Area = ,215 a2
tan 2fl = (dt-t') (ba-bt)
? = .223 a
Ix - Iy
For I,-, and I,-, see equa-
tlons as given for angle.
U-section
kilr;;c&
h.3nn ti
* -- cx.lL1
r)AC 7, -ca.l, I
p-..-~~-~ , Area = xlyl
- I

? = d"t, -t .5t2a

-a A u. ‘.V"IlL
Ix = 2tld' + at3 - A? e Fillet y= .3y,
/ I 3
Area = xly,/4 I
t 1 LXli,

Circle
Area = nr a

Parabolic y=2y1
5

TABLE 2
Properties of Solids
Ring Area = n (ro8- q") Vol. = nr? (r = radius)
- Solid Circ. Cvl.
,a /wi M = '.j (Total wt.) I

I,, = M [rz + (L7'3)]'/4

Area = nr'
Semi-circle Hollow Circ. Cyl. i Vol. = n L(rla- r,?
I,-, = M(r12+ rz2)/2
12.-z = M(r12+ r,"+ ~~/3)/4
./
ex = .264 r For thin hollow clrc. cyl.
rl’outside
= ppz
radius 1, -7
Area = n (R*- re)
z vol. = abL, M = W
Semi-circular Ring Y=Q(Rg+Rr+Id),approx.7=2r
L-1 = M (a2 + b")/12
I, -a = MLa/12
L-3 = ML*/3
Ix(approx)=.3t(r+R)5when t
n
Solld Sphere “I* = t4n Ir5)i3
is small Sphere =
I aboutaxls
Area = nab 2M r*/5
I, = na5b
Thln Hollow Sphere Vol. = 4n
-

rl = radius of sphere
I about dia. =
2Mr,D
A3.4 CENTROJDS. CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA

I
= pt ($--I-- sin 2a (140s a) 8
)
INA, cl
per unit volume
TABLE 4
XX=xn2Ra"[F + (5a z/4)) Centrolds of Traplzoldal Areas
Iyy'; !nn"Ra" (4RR2+ 3a')

TABLE 3
Sectlon Properties of Lines
(t 1s small In comparison to radius) Ratio a Distance x Distance y
b I

Clrrular Arc Area = 2 n rt

1.11 0.4912 0.5088

1.12 0.4905 0.5095
1.13 0.4898 0.5102
Semi-circle Arc A=n rt 1.14 0.4890 0.5110
y' 1.15 0.4883 0.5117
.6366 r 1.16 0.4877 0.5123
1.17 0.4870 0.5130
11-1 = n r3t 1.18
1.19
0.4862
0.4855
0.5138
0.5145
2 1.20 0.4849 0.5151
1.22 0.4835 0.5165
I,-, = .2978 r3t 1.24 0.4822 0.5178
1.26 0.4809 0.5191
1.28 0.4795 0.5205
Quarter-circular Arc Area = n rt 1.30 0.4782 0.5218
1.32 0.4770 0.5230
2 1.34 0.4758 0.5242
1.36 0.4746 0.5254
7 = .6366 r 1.38 0.4733 0.5267
1.40 0.4721 0.5279
I,-, = Eq+ 1 1.45 0.4693 0.5307
‘+ 1.50 0.4667 0.5333
1.55 0.4641 0.5359

I 2 1 I,-, = .149 rat 1.60

1.65
1.70
0.4616
0.4592
0.4568
0.5384
0.5408
0.5432
1.75 0.4545 0.5455
1.80 0.4523 0.5477
CIRCULAR ARC 1.85 0.4502 0.5498
1.90 0.4482 0.5518
1.95 0.4462 0.5538
2.00 0.4443 0.5567
2.10 0.4409 0.5591
yrk-Ty 2.20 0.4375 0.5625
2.30 0.4343 0.5657
2.40 0.4312 0.5688
2.50 0.4284 0.5716
2.60 0.4259 0.5741
2.70 0.4233 0.5767
NA, 2.80 0.4209 0.5791
2.90 0.4188 0.5812
--x x 3.00 0.4168 0.5832
3.20 0.4128 0.5872
3.40 0.4090 0.5910
Y 3.60 0.4060 0.5940
3.80 0.4030 0.5970
4.00 0.4000 0.6000
Area = art a in Radians 4.20 0.3975 0.6025
4.40 0.3950 0.6050
j;= r sin a A 2 = rat sin a) 4.60 0.3926 0.6072
a , (Myy q
4.80 0.3908 0 6092
5.00 0.3889 0:6111
5.50 0.3848 0.6152
rat sln 2a 6.00 0.3810 0.6190
Iyy=2 (a f -1 2 IL50 0.3778 0.6222
7.00 0.3750 0.6250
sina a 7.50 0.3725 0.6275
INAy -----I
a
8.00 0.3702 0.6298
9.00 0.3668 0.6332
10.00 0.3636 0.6364
y=r( lvczs a), M, q A? 1 r2 t (1-cos a)

rat sin 2a
I, =2 (a ---+
 Table 4
I
Item Horizontal
eight "'";"! 7
NO. Name W#
y\ 1 Propeller 180 0 in. 0 0
2 Engine Group 820 46 3772: 0 0
3 Fuselage Group 800 182 145600 3200
4 wing Group 600 158 94800 -1: -10800
5 Bori. Tail 60 296 17760 8 480
6 Vert. Tail 40 335 13400 1040
7 Tail Wheel 50 328 16400 -2 -1000
8 Front Land.Cear 300 115 34500 -30 - 900
9 Pilot 200 165 33000 10 2000
10 Radio 100 240 24000 5 500
-
Totals 3150 1 417180 -5480
\
where Ix, Iy, and I, are generally referred to Sample Problem 2. Determine the moment of lner-
as the rolling, pitching and yawing moments of ;ia about the horizontal centroldal axis for the
inertia of the alrplane. Lrea shown in Fig. A3.4
w = weight of the Items in the airplane Solution. We first find the moment of inertia
x, y and z equal the distances from the ibout a horizontal reference axis. In this so-
axes thru the center of gravity of the airplane Lution, this arbitrary axis has been taken as
and the weights w. The last term in each equa- axis x’x’ thru the base as shown. Having this
tion is the summation of the moments of inertia soment of Inertia, a transfer to the centroldal
of the various items about their own X, Y and 2 1x1s can be made. Table 5 gives the detailed
centroidal axes. :alculations for the moment of inertia about
If w is expressed In pounds and the distan- txis x’x’ . For slmpiicity, the cross-section
ces in inches, the moment of inertia Is express- 1as been divided into the five parts, namely, A,
ed In units of pound-inches squared, which can 3,C,D, and E.
be converted Into slug feet squared by multiply- Icx is moment of inertia about centroidal
ing by l/32.16 x 144. : axis of the particular part being considered.
distance from axis x’x’ to centroidal horizontal
Example Problem 1. Determine the gross weight txis = i = ZAv = 17.97 = 2.91”
center of gravity of the airplane shown in Fig. ZA 6.182
A3.3. The airplane weight has been broken down
into the 10 items or weight groups, with their By parallel axis theorem, we transfer the
individual c.g. locations denoted by the symbol ioment of inertia from axis x’x’ to centro .dal
+. 1xis xx.
I, = I,r x1 -Ay’=79.47-6.18x2.918=
Solution. The airplane center of gravity will bt
located with respect to two rectangular axes. II 27.2 in4
this example, a vertical axls thru the center- Radius of Gyration, Pxx = =-c= 2.1”
line of the propeller ~111 be selected as a ref-
erence axis for horizontal distances, and the A 6.18
thrust line as a reference axis for vertical dis-
tances. The general expressions to be solved
are:-
? = Zwx = distance to airplane c.g. from
zw ref. axis g-3
? =x = distance to airplane c.g. from
mi ref. axis X-x
Table 4 gives the necessary calculations,
whence
x = 417180 = 133.3” aft off propeller Fig. A3.4 Fig. A3.5
3150 %ampke Problem #3. Determine the moment of ln-
7 = 5480 = -1.74” (below thrust line) lrtia of the stringer cross sectlon shown In
‘lg. A3.5 about the horizontal centroidal axis.
Ii -
3150
iolutlon. A horizontal reference axis x’x’ Is
ssumed as shown. The moment of inertia is
I’irst calculated about this axis and then
Iransferred to the centroldal axis xx. See
rable 6.
A3.6 CENTROIDS, CENTER OF CR rITY, MOMENT8 OF INERTIA

'ortion 3 + 3' (ref. Table 1)

Table 5
Nh
I I I I y=.375+3+x(.0841+.0725+.0625)= .376+
, .!%I
.172 = .547”
.- ipprox. y= .375+2 1’1 = .375+ .172=547”
5.5 2.75 15.13 l/12 x .5 x 13 - .04 15.17 ii
5.5 2.75 15.13 11 I .04 15.17 [ cx = .1098( .0841+ .0625) + .04x ,54.-
[
5.25 5.25 27.50 l/12 x 2 x .53 - .02 27.62 .283x .0841x,0625x.04 = .002376
2.875 6.10 17.56 l/12 x .5 x 4.253 = 3.19 20.75 . I
1.00 0.28 0.28 bh 3/36 = .75 4/36 m 0.01 0.29 ipprox. I,,= .3x .04x .i?? ‘= .002365 2nf
1.00 0.28 0.28 11 - 0.01 0.29

0.375 0.56 0.21 l/12 x 2 x .753. 0.07 0.28

problem #4. Determine the moment or Inertia of
I I I I 1 the flywheel in Ffg. A3.5a about exls of rotation.
Sum6.182 117.97 79.47 in'
I I rhe material is aluminum alloy casting (weight =
.l lb. per cu. inch.)
Table 6
Al Sec.AA
Portion Area y AY AY2 Icx IX'X' I 1c,+ AY2
I I I I I I

7 = ZAV = .009 = .0465”

ZA .1933
*xx= Ix’.x’- fi” = .05787 - .1933 x IA
Fig. A3.5a
P--3’-i

= .05745 in?
(.&l-65)*
Bolutlon: The spokes may be treated as slender
Radius of gyration px-x = .05745 = .55” round rod6 and the rim and hub as hollow cyllnd-
v- .1933 ers. (Refer to Table 2)
Detailed explanation of Table 6:- Rim,
weight W = n(R'-r*)x3x.l
Portion 1 * 1' = n(5’ -4’) .3=8.4&3 lb.
Icx = & bd' = (.04 ;2.'%) x 2
I = .!?.iW(RP+rP)=.5x8.48 (5'+4*) =
173.7 lb. In'
= .00281 in*.
Hub,
Portion 2 (ref. table 1) W = n(l'- .5*)X3x .l= .707#
Y' ,375 + 4 Ra+Rr+re = .375 + 4 I = .5x .707 (la + .S') = .44 lb. In?
z-ii R+r 5-E Spokes,
Length of spoke = 3"
(.6*+ .5X .54+ .%*) = .375+331= -706 Weight of spoke = 3 x n.25' x .1 =
(.5 + .54)
.588#
By approx. method see Table 1. I of one SDOke = WL*/12+W?s .588 x
rl = .375+2x(.52)=.706" 3=/12+ .580x2.6' =
y=. 375+2
ii ii 4.10 lb. ina
I for 4 spokes = 4x4.10 = 16.40
1cx=. 1098x(RS+rs)t(R+r)-.283R'+rBt Total I Of wheel = 16.40 + .44 + 173.7 = 190.54
R+r lb. In*
~1.1098(.2916+ .25)x .04x1.04- I = 190.54/32.16 X 144 = &ii Slug it?

.283 x .2916 x .25 x .04 Example Problem #5. Moment 0r Inertia of an

1.04 Airplane.
= .002475- ,000793= -001682 In'. To calculate the moment of Inertia Of an
airplane about the coordinate axes through the
Approx. IcX= .3tr,' = .3x .04x$ = .001688in*. gross weight center of gravity, a break down of
the airplane weight and its distrlbutlon is
 A3.7

necessary, which IS available in the weight and axes, the product of inertia of the weight about
j,.lC,i’”
I LCL,, <, estimate of the airplane. the reference axes Is necessary. Column (14)
gives the values about the reference axes. To
Table 6a shows the complete calculation of
the moments of Inertia of an airplane, transfer the product of inertia to the c.,g. axes
This
table is repl‘oduced from N.A.O.A. Technical note of the alrplane, ‘we make use of the parallel
#575 ( “%stlmation axis theorem. Thus
of moments of lnertla of air-
planes from Design Data.” Z’mzc .g . =ZWz(Ref. axes) -Ziu:ii =48,857,589-
Explanation of Table 5325.3x 115.9x 77.8 = 839,253 lb. lrl.2
Fig. A3.5b shows the reference of planes To reduce all values to slug ft.2 multiply 1
and axes which were selected. After the moment: 32.17
of inertia have been determined relative to X-L
these axes the values about parallel axes 144
through the center of gravity of the alrplane
are found by use of the parallel axis theorem. Hence 1x=3061, Iy=6680, 1,=9096, Ixz=181
Having the inertia properties about the co-
Column (1) of Table 6a gives breakdown of alr-
plane units or items. ordinate e.g. axes, the moments of inertia bout
Column (2) gives the weight of each Item, the principal axes are determlned in a manner as
Columns (3), (4) and (5) give the distance of explained for areas. (See A3.13).
the c.g. of the Items from the references planet The angle ti between the X and 2, axes and the
or axes. prlnc1pal axes Is given by,
Columns (6) and (7) give the first moments of tan 2 a= 21xz = 2 x 181 = .05998 henceJd=
the Item t;eights about the Y’ and X’ reference Iz- Ix 9096-3061
axes.
Columns (8), (9) and (10) give the moment of 10 43”
inertia o? the item welghts about the reference
axes.
Columns (11)) (12) and (13) give the moments of
Inertia of each item about its own centroldal
axis parallel to the reference axes. Such Items
as the fuselage skeleton, wing panels and engine
have relatively large values for their centrold-
al moments of inertia.
The last values in Columns (3) and (5) give
the distances from the reference planes to the
center of gravity of the alrplane.
617.024 (col. 6)=115.9 In.
5325.3 (col. 21
%.g. =Zwz= 414.848 (col. 7)=77.8 in.
-5 5325.3
The last values in columns (a), (9) and
(10) were obtained by use of the parallel axls
theorem, as follows:-
Zwxzabout c.g. of airplane = 97,891,595 -5325.3
x 115.g2 = 26,691,595.

The third from the last value in columns

(ll), (12) and (13) give the moments of inertia
of the airplane about the x, y and z axes
through the c.g. of alrplane. The values are
obtained as follows:
ly=Zwxa+Zwz~+ZAIy=26,691,595+999,035+
3,120,384 = 30,804,014 lb. inid
Ix=Zwy~+Zwe2+ZAIx=10,287,522+992,023+
2,899,470 = 14,179,027 lb. in.2
Iz=Zwya+Zwze+ZAIz= 10,287,522 + 26,691.,595 +
5,15?,186 = 42,136,303 lb. In.= (REF. N.A.C.A. TECH. NOTE NO. 575)
In order to determine the prlnClPa1 inerti: Fig. A3. 5b
 A3.8 CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Table 6a

- COMPUTATIONS OF MOYENTS OF INERTIA

4,.
1. - 8. 11. 12.

“X2
Item Y
- 1,131,955
a*,
261.229
AIY
renter section 57
nose aesenbly
center section 57 24,757 11,662 2,995,549 664,745 491,245
bean, etc
center section 55 12,462 4,631 1,644,317 254,705 202,164 33,660
ribs. etc.
Flap 53 3,960 1,166 712,600 61,796 48,590 46,596 209,880
outer pane1 nose 1; 35 13,963 6,799 1,153,215 2,545,646 441,935 164,514 164,514 713,895
Cuter panel beau l! 55 16,672 10,114 2,240,640 3,786,682 657,410 274,476 274,479 1,213,680
Cuter panel ribe l! 64 12,462 5,747 1,735,026 2,165,373 367,621 i58,407 1;,601 176,006 796,661
Ailcrone 31.4 172 l! %a 5,401 1,947 928) 938 764,150 120,702 55,390 55,390 334,850

Horizontal tall 87.1 367 36.: 31,966 6,423 L1,731,412 614,463 176,376 176,376 3,091,063
verttca1 tail 31.4 352 25 11,053 3,925 3,890,506 490,625 110,200 10,174 31 1,361,600

Fuselage skele- 314.0 176 El 56,264 25,434 9.726.464 2 ,06o,154 69,394 1,576,594 1,570.OOO 4.476.364
ton
Engine mount 40.5 60 2,430 3,240 145,600 259,200 5,164 5,164 5,164 194,400
Turtleback 46.5 254 12,319 3,860 3,129,026 310,400 15,161 57,661 56,648 965,520
(faring)
Firerall 11.0 70 770 080 53,900 70,400 2,200 1,100 1,100 61,600
steps 2.0 170 340 140 57,600 9,000 23,800

II A.C A. COWliO& 70.0 50 3,500 5,6W 175,000 448,000 16,940 15,470 15,470 260,000
Cabin and 66.5 146 9,709 7,182 1,417,514 775,656 2,394 106,400 106,794 1,048,572
rlndahield
Foot troughs 2.0 77 154 ii,a58 50 .9,248 10,473
?1oor, rear 9.5 210 :: 1,995 E 416,950 41,362 606 ; 366 1,976 131,670
wing fillets 10.5 142 56 2,627 1,073 373,034 ; 400 62,234 1e:944 18,944 152,366
a0tt0m ~0wling 27.0 140 75 3,760 2,025 529,200 3:267 151,675 24,300 24,300 283,500
and side frame8
nrreating door 1.3 204 63 104,653 5,160 23,260
Tail-wneel pan, 4.0 365 64 532,900 26,224 10: 10," 122,640
etc.
6lde doors 17.0 143 62 2,431 1,394 347,633 114,306 1,066 26,266 27,200 199,342
Baggage door 1.8 165 E3 297 113 49,005 7,144 720 720 16,711
Fabric end dope 13.0 254 60 3,302 1,040 638,706 63,200 4,394 15,509 15,509 264,160
Tall cone 7.5 305 91 2,666 683 1,111,666 62,106 120 120 262,763
"orling, sts- L2.0 110 35 1,320 1,140 145,200 106,300 1,200 1,200 125,400
tions l-2
cha~sie (re- 232.4 115 54 51 26,726 11,652 3,073,490 677,678 604,472 23,240 23,240 1,363,026
tracted)
Retracting mech- 26.6 110 25 67 3,146 1,916 346,060 17,675 126,365 210,762
aniem
Wheels, etc. 91.0 141 54 56 12,631 5,096 1,609,171 265,356 285,376 716,536
Tail wheel 26.0 360 74 9,380 1,924 3,369,600 142,376 26 26 692,640

Engine 049.0 33 34,617 63,920 1,142,361 6'>g;p; 253,658 253,656 253,666 2,769,3&J
Enulne
-- accea- SO.6 52 4,711 7,520 244,962 9,060 9.060 391,030
aor1es
Engine controla 11.0 103 10 76 1,133 636 116,699 1,100 63,536 66,106
Prooeller 222.0 3 80 2,065 17,766 19,201 ,420,300 177,600 89,300 89,300 165,168
Staktlng system 37.0 5:. 65 2,072 3,145 116,032 267,325 146 333 461 176,120
Lubricating Eve- 26.0 69 62 1,794 2,132 123,766 174,624 1,274 1,274 147,108
tern
Fuel Bystem 62.0 126 10,496 6,56C 1,343,468 524,300 22,056 20,008 25,666 839,660
Instruments 36.0 102 9": 3,676 3,498 395,358 321,632 2,432 80,800 63,232 366,598
Surface con- 61.5 160 71 13,040 5,767 2,066,400 410,642 123,962 130,400 254,362 325,640
trols
Furniehings 160.0 156 80 24,960 12,6OC 3,693,76C ,024,OOO 108.160 400,000 506,160 1.996.800

Electrical loo.7 126 15 61 12,690 6,157 1,649,669 22,656 660,693 1,044,056

equipment
Holet 811ng 6.0 115 02 690 1 612 79.350 / 62.424 664 864 70,360
_ - .-
AIRPLAUE wn 5667.4 106. .6 0 74.1 ,13,196 263,136 57,342,573 1 0,263,443 2,263,736 2,661,572 2,890,404 4,9eo,508 31,090,714

Pilot 200.0 105 SO 21,000 16,OOC 2.205.ooa .,620.000 33,600 20,800 5,ooo 1,690,000
Observer 200.0 205 89 41,000 17,EOC 6,405,ooa .,564,200 33,600 26,600 5,000 3,649,003
Fuel 760.0 132 65.' .02,960 66,69C 13,590,72C ~,701,995 141,160 172,360 157,560 6,803,060
011 75.0 71 65 5,325 6,37: 376,075 541,675 3,675 3,675 452,625
very Plato1 3.9 195 761 2Y: 146.298 764 21,936 57,036
Smoke candles 4.0 164 :: i6" 364 135;424 704 36,664 70.656
Float lights 9.0 190 14 l,% 64~ 324,9oc 1,764 46,666 123:12o
Radio 142.7 178 E 25,401 12,13C 4,521,307 .,031,006 5,137 5,137 2,159,051
Chart board. et< 3.7 80 -3 94 296 34E 32,693 a7,a24
Drift aigtt 1.6 222 14 a4 355 313: 11,290 29,637
First aid 4.0 165 10 57 660 E 400 12,996 37,620
34.0 136 .Ol 4,624 346,634 306 306 467.024
Llfe raft -- - 3,434 ._
USEFUL LOAD ,457.s 140 .5 C 86. !04,626 126,464 30.549.022 4.079 0,988,299 217,696 2a9,980 176,676 17,766,675
-- .
TOTALS 5325.5 517,024 414,841 97,691,59~ i I.0,267,53a 3,252,035 2,899,470 3,120,364 5,157,166 46,857,5QQ
CORRECTION 5325.3 l?5 .S C 77. 71 200 WC ) 48.016.336,
I zs%i%E i i .0,267,52: 16,691,595 Q3Q,Q63,
/ I 1 0,287,522 a 6,691,595
1 I 992.035 I
/ - 992.035 .o.zI37.5aa
2,136.303 I I
i. 4,179,027 A '),604,014 I I
I 1 7,912 I I
:2-s 1 , / I 2,662 I 5,764
I 1 I 1 51.6 ' 76.1 I
k= , *9 / I
=c.g- =c.g.
'--!I~ .g.2 il ,
IX IY 12 lrx c.g.“o.g?
(Table 6a Prom N.A.C.A. Tech. Note U575)
 A3.9

The principal moments of inertia are given by w:ll be given the symbol Ixy, hence
following equation. Ixy = / xy& - - - - - - - - - - -(I)
Ixp=IIGcosa a+ Izsln’@ - Ix, sin 2 a. (See The unit, like that of moment of inertia, is ex-
Art. A3.11) pressed as inches or feet to the 4th power.
Since x and y may be either posltlve or negat!ve,
IYP--1 Y the term Ixy may be zero or elther positive or
Iz = Ix sin’ @+ Iz ~0s’ @ + Ix, s1n 2 id negative.
Substltutlng Product of Inertia of a Solld. The product of
Ixp =3061x (0.9996)" +9096x (0.0300)" -181x Inertia of a solid is the sum of the products
obtained by multiplying the weight of each small
.0599=3056
portion in which It may be assumed to be divided
I zp =3061x (0.0SOO)2 + 5096 x (0.9996F + 181 x by the product of Its distances from two of the
.0599 = 9102 three coordinate planes through a glven polnt.
Iyp = 6680 Thus ‘with respect to planes X and Y

IXY = f xy dW
A3.7b Problems
Ix, = f xz dW
I yz = / yz dW

A3.9 Product of Inertia for Axes of Symmetry.

If an area Is symmetrical about two rec-

tangular axes, the product of inertia about these
axes Is zero. Thls follows from the fact that
symmetrical axes are centroidal x and y axes.
If an area is symmetrical about only one of
two rectangular axes, the product of Inertia,
Fig. A3.6 Fig. A3. 7 fxydp., is zero because for each product xydA for
(1) Determine the moment of inertia about an element on one side of the axis of symmetry,
the horIzonta1 centroldal axis for the beam there is an equal product of opposite slgn for
section shown In Fig. A3.6. the corresponding element dA on the opposite side
(2) For the section as shown In Fig. A3.7 of the axis, thus making the expression /ydA
calculate the moment of inertia about the cen- equal to zero.
troidal Z and X axes.
A3.10 Parallel Axis Theorem

The theorem states that, “the product of

Inertia of an area with respect to any pair of
co-planar rectangular axes is equal to the prod-
uct of inertia of the area with respect to a pair
of parallel centroldal axes plus the product of
the area and the distances of the centrold of the
Fig. A3.9 total area from the given palr.of axes”. Or, ex-
A3. 8 pressed as an equation,
Ixy .= TXJJ +Axy- ---- --...--(2)
(3) Determine the moment of inertia about This equation is rea_cily de_fivable by re-
the horizontal centroldal axis for the section ferring to Fig. A3.10. W and XX are centroldal
shown in Fig, A3.8. axes for a given area. W and XX are parallel
(4) In the beam cross-section of Fig. A3.9 axes passing through polnt 0.
assume that the four corner members are the only
effective material. Calculate the centroidal The Product of inertia about axes W and XX
moments of lnertla about the vertical and horl- 1s 1,y = /(x + X)(Y + y, dA
zontal axes. = fxydA + Ff / dA + x / y d.A + 5 / XdA
The last two integrals are each equal to
A3.8 Product of Inertia zero, since fydA and fxd.A refer to centroldal
axes. Hence, Ixy = fxydh + X7 f&i, which can be
In various englneering problems, particu-
written in the form of equation (2).
larly those lnvolvlng the calculation of the
moments of Inertia of unsymmetrical sectlons,
the expression / xy dA 1s used, This expression
Is referred to as the product of inertia of the
area with respect to the rectangular axes x and
y. The term, product of lnertla of an area,
A3.10 CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRA ITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA

ly adding equations (3) and (4), we obtain Ixl+

‘f 7 = I, + Iy- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(5)
Yl
)r the sum of the moments of inertia of an area
rlth respect to all pairs of rectangular axes,
;hru a common point of intersection, is constant.
~3.12 Location of Axes Por which Product of Inertia
is Zero.

In Fig. A3.11

Y---k--
Y Ti Fig. A3.10
=(cosaO-sin2
(y2-x2) dA
0 / xydA+cos@sln @f

= Ixy cos 2 0 + 1 (I,- Iy) sin 2 0

A3.11 Moments of Inertia with Respect of Inclined z
Axes
rherefore, I, 1y I Is zero when
Unsynunetrical beam sections are very com- tan 2 0 x 2& - _ _ - - - - - _ - - -(6)
mon in aircraft structure, because the alrfoll
shape is generally unsymmetrical. Thus, the IY-Ix
general procedure with such sectlons Is to first
find the moment of inertia about some set Of A3.13 Principal Axes.
rectangular axes and then transfer to other in-
cllned axes. Thus, in Fig. A3.11 the moment of In problems lnvolvlng unsymmetrical bending,
inertia of the area with respect to aXIs X,X, Is the moment of an area is frequently used with re-
spect to a certain axis called the principal
Ix1 =/y,” dA = /(y cos 6 - x sin I?()‘dA axis m A principal axis of an area is an axls
= cosa@/ ysdA+sin8eifxadA-2slnId cos ti about which the moment of inertia of the area Is
either greater or less than for any other axis
fwdp, passing thru the centrold of the area.
= Ixcosp f3+ Iysin* 91 - 2 IxyslnIZI cos fl (31 Axes for which the product of inertia is
zero are principal axes.
and likewise in a similar manner, the fOllOWIng Since the product of inertia Is zero about
equation can be derived: symmetrical axes, It follows that symmetrlcal
=IXsina@ + Iycos*~ + 2 Ixy sin Pr cos axes are principal axes.
IYl The angle between a set of rectangular
0 - _ _ - _ _ - -- - - ^ - - - - -(41 centroidal axes and the principal axes 1s given
by equation (6).
Example Problem 4.
Determine the moment of inertia of the ang-
le as shown In Fig. A3.12 about the prlnclpal
axes passing through the centroid. Solution:
Reference axes X and Y are assumed as shown In
Fig. A3.12 and the moment of inertia Is first
calculated about these axes. Table 8 gives the
calculations, The angle Is dlvlded Into the
two portlons (1) and (2).
yl ‘Yl Fig. A3.11

Part Area I% ICY 1, IY

A x Y AY AX Ay2 Ax2 A-V
r..R 1 - -3 I
1 ,375 .75 .125 a0469 .281 .0056 .211 .0351 +2x1. 5;5;-'.0019 ;2x;x1.5- z.070 .0077 .291

2 .500 .125 1.25 .625 .0625 .7600 .0078 .0781 1 1

12x4x2 3 = .167 ;2~2x.P53 m.0026 .9470 .OlO

.875 .6719 .3435 .7856 .2188 1 .I132 ) .9647 .291

,
 A3.11

‘I cx and Icy = moment of inertia of each portion section has been broken down Into 16 stringers
about their own X and Y centrold- as listed in column 1. For the top surface, a
al axes. width of 30 thicknesses of the -032 skin is as-
sumed to act with the stringers and a wldth of
Location of centroidal axes:- 25 thicknesses of the .04 skin (see Col. 3). On
; = ZAy = .6719 = .767” the lower surface, the skin half way to adjacent
ZA .A75 stringers is assumed acting with each stringer,
or the entlre skin is effective. c01umrl 4 gives
ii = ZAx = .3435 = .392”
the combined area of each stringer unit and is
xi .875
considered as concentrated at the centroid of
Transfer moment of Inertia and product of Iner- the stringer and effective skin. All distances,
tia from reference X and Y axes to parallel x and y, columns 5 and 8, have been scaled from
centroidal axes :- a large drawing.
Ix = Ix - Aya = .955 - .875x .-%??” = -440
Y
T,=I,-A?= .291- .875x .m2=.157 ef.
.040 Skin P
7 XY = ““y,, A!@= .1132- .875x .767x .392=

Calculate angle between centroldal X and Y axes

and prlnclpal axes through centroldal as fol- Ref.
lO’K3
1 .*- 2

tan 2 fl=& =2(-,150 =-.30 =1.06

Iy - I, .157-.&&o -I-SE
2 !a=460 - 40' @=23O - 20'
Fig. A3.13
Calculate moments of inertia about centroldal i I I
principal axes as follows:- ?p 7 Y

Txp=Tx cos2 0+T, sin2 a-2ixy sinlbcos@ Table 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
= .44x .m2+ .157x .3965'-2(-.150)x
.3965x .918 =.504 in’
lyp=Ix sin’ a+?, ~0s’ id+2ixy sin@cos@
= .44x .3965 + .157x .918'+ 2(-.150) x
.3965x .918= .092 in.’

Location of centroldal axes with respect to ref.

axes, -
Fig. A3. 12 F=ZAy=- 1.465 = - .396”
ZA 3.70
Example Problem 5.
:=&ix=- 58.238 = - 15.74"
Fig. A3.13 shows a typlcal distributed
ZA 3.70
flange - 2 cell - wing beam section. The upper
and lower surface is stiffened by 2 and bulb I,=187.04-3.70~.396~=186.5 In.’
angle sections. Determlne the moment of inertia
Ty=1348.36-3.7bxm"=.431.7 In.’
of the section about the principal axes.
Solution: i,, = -13.35 - (3.70x .396x 15.74) = 36.41 In.*
The properties of the cross-section depend tan 2 @=FjT,,= 2 (-36.41) =-.29696
upon the effective material which can develop
reslsring axial stresses. The question of ef- Iy-Ix- 431.7-186.5

fective material is taken up in later chapter. 2 a=16O-32.5', @=8O-16.25'

Table 9 shows the calculations for the moment of
Lp =Ix cos’ 0+f, s1n2 d-2 Tx, sln@cosa
inertia about the assumed rectangular reference
=186.46 x .98962 +431,7x .14382 -2
axes XX and YY (see Fig. A3.13). The cross-
E36.41~ .9896x (-.1438)] = 181.2 In.*
A3.12 CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA

T,,=i, sin2 @+T, case a+2 T,, sin 121 A3. 14 Section Properties of Typical Aircraft Structural
Sections.
cos @=186.46x .143822 +431.7x .9896’+ Table A3.10 throuf?h A3.15 and Chart 83.1
2 -36.41x ,989G x (-.143S) =437in.* give the section properties of a few structural
shapes common to aircraft. Use of these tables
will be made in later chapters of this book.

NOMlNAl. DIMLNSIONS SECTION ELEMENTS

si -
A lxx WY pxx ‘PYY
k ,“ChCi Inches4 Inches
m
 A3.13

t-y Table A3. 12

r
i Properties of Extruded Aluminum
WA Alloy Equal Leg Angles. (Ref. 1938
4 -diI
It
Alcoa Handbook)

-73im ensic Area Ax is --;xx or YY .- -2ixis Z:

w t sq. m. I T
7 d I P B

5/a 3/32 1 8 111 0.004 0.183 0.187 .0015 0.117 450

3/4 l/16 118 : 089 0.004 0.220 0.199 .0018 0.142 450
3:4 3/32 1’8 132 0.006 0.219 0.214 .0026 0.141 450
314 118 l/8 ,171 0.008 0.217 0.227 .0034 0.141 450
1 1,'16 l/16 .122 0.012 0.311 0.271 .0048 0.199 450
1 3132 l/8 .178 0.016 0.301 0.276 .0066 0.193 450
1 I/ 8 l/8 ,234 0.021 0.298 0.290 .0085 0.191 450
1 3/16 1/B ,339 0.029 0.293 0.314 .0124 0.192 450
l-1/4 3132 3./32 ,230 0.033 0.38 0.34 014 0.24 450
l-1/4 l/8 3/16 30 0.042 0.37 0.35 :017 0.24 450
l-1/4 3116 3/16 :43 0.059 0.37 0.37 .025 0.24 450
l-1./4 I l/4 3116 .56 0.074 0.36 0.40 ,032 0.24 450
l-1/2 3j32 3/16 .28 0.058 0.46 0.40 024 0.30 450
l-l/Z l/8 3/16 .36 0.074 0.45 0.41 :031 0.29 450 -
l-112 3116 3/16 .53 0.107 0.45 0.44 .044 0.29 450 -
l-112 1; 4 3/16 .69 0.135 0.44 0.46 ,057 0.29 450
l-3/4 3, 32 3132 .32 0.096 0.55 0.47 039 0.35 450
l-3/4 l/8 3:16 .42 0.121 0.53 0.47 :050 0.34 450
l-3/4 3~16 3/16 .62 0.174 0.53 0.50 ,072 0.34 450
l-3/4 l/4 3:16 .81 0.223 0.52 0.52 ,093 0.34 450
2 1, 8 114 .49 0.18 0.61 0.53 .08 0.40 450
2 3;16 114 .72 0.27 0.61 0.56 . 11 0.39 450
2 l/4 1'4 .94 0.34 0.60 0.58 .14 0.39
2 I 5;16 1;4 1.16 0.41 0.60 0.61 .17 L0 39 &
A3.14 CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Table A3.16
SECTION PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL AIRCRAFT EXTRUDED SECTIONS

S‘Xt. Dimensions Are 1, Properties about X-X Properties about Y-Y

NO. A B C t t1 t2 R in. AXIS A*is
Ix, e xx e IYY @YY e'
1
1 17/32 13/16 l/8 .040 ~ 050 l/l6 .068 .00686 .317 i .319 .OOlSO .148 ,112
I
2 l/2 1 7/32 ,050 .050 .00155 .117 .llO
 A3.15

VILHBNI JO ,LNLN%yUOW- I

v3w -v
VLLH3NI JO LN3i’lOW - I
A3.16 CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA
I
A3. 15 Problems (5) For the beam section in Fig. A3.18,
calculate t!le moment of inertja about the prln-
clpal axes assuming the four stringers as the
only effective material,

Fig. A3. 14 Fig. A3. 15

(1) For the section of Flg. A3.14 determine

the moment of inertia about each of the princi- (6) FIR. A3.19 shows a wing beam section
pal axes Xp and Zp. with a cut-out on the lower surface. DetermIne
(2) Calculate the moment of inertia of the the moments of incrtla about the principal axes
section in Fig. A3.15 about the principal axes. assuming the eight stringers are the only effec-
tive material.

6 spaces @ 6” = 36” Fig. A3.20

1
Fig. A3. 1G Fig. A3.17

(7) Fir:. A3.20 shows a 3 cell multiple

(3) Fig. A3.16 illustrates a box type beam flanne beam. The 7 flan-e members on the upper
section with six lonKltudina1 strinc:ers. De- face of beams have an area of .3 sq. in. each
termine the moment of inertia of the beam sec- and those on the bottom skin 0.2 sq. in. each.
tion about the principal axes for the follow- The bottom skin is .03 inches in thickness.
ing assurnptions:- Compute the moments of inertia about the
(a) Assume the beam is bending upward principle axes assuming that the flange members
putting the top portion In comorcssion and the and the bottom skin comprise the effective
lower portion in tension. Therefore, neglect material.
sheet on the top side since it has very little
reslstance to compressive stresses. The sheet
on the bottom side is effective since It is in
tension. For simplicity neglect the vertical
webs in the talc-tilatlons.
(b) Reverse the conditions in (a) thus
placing top side In tenslon and lower side In for door
compression.
(4) For the three stringer single cell box
beam section in Fig. A3.17, calculate the mo- Fig. A3.21
ments of inertia about the princiual axes. As-
sume all web or wall material ineffective.

(8) Fit. A3.21 shows the cross-section of

a small fuselage. The dashed line represents
a cut-out in the structure due to a door. As-
sume each of the 13 stringers have an area of
0.1 sq. in. Consider fuselage skin Ineffective.
Calculate the moment of inertia of the effective
section about the principal axes.
 CHAPTEK A4
GENERAL LOADS ON AIR.CRAFT

A4.1 Introduction. engers safely, efficiently and comfortably over

Before the structural design cf an airplane various distances between airports. On the
can be made, the external loads acting on the other hand the Air Force Fighter type of air-
airplane In flight, landing and take-off con- craft has a job of shooting down enemy aircraft
dltlons must be known. The complete determin- or protecting slower friendly aircraft. To do
atlon of the air loads on an alrplane requlres a this job efficiently requires a far different
thorough theoretical knowledge of aerodynamics, configuration as compared to the DC-8 transport.
since modern aircraft fly in sub-sonic, trans- Furthermore the Fighter type airplane must be
sonic and super-sonic speed ranges. Further- maneuvered far more sharply to do its required
more, there Is a wide range of wing configur- job as compared to the DC-8 in doing its re-
ations, such as the straight tapered wlng, the quired job.
swept wing and the delta wlng, and many of In general the magnitude of the air forces
these wings often include leadlng and trailing on an airplane depend on the velocity of the
edge devices for promoting better lift or con- airplane and the rate at which this velocity Is
trol characteristics. The presence of power changed in magnitude and direction (acceleration).
plant nacelle units, external fuel tanks, etc. The magnitude of the flight acceleration factor
are units that affect the airflow around the may be governed by the capacity of the human
wing and thus affect the magnitude and dlstri- body to withstand these acceleration inertia
bution of the air forces on the wing. Llkewise, forces without Injury which is the situation In
the fuselage or airplane body itself influences a fighter type of airplane. On the other hand
the airflow over the wing. The theoretical cal- the maneuverlng accelerations for the DC-8 are
culation of the airloads on the airplane Is too not dictated by what the human body can with-
large a subject to be covered in a structures stand, but are determined by what Is necessary
book and It is customary In college aeronautical to safely transport Passengers from one airport
curricula to provide a separate course for this to another.
subject. Designing the airplane structure for loads
In most airplane companies the loads on greater than the airplane suffers In the per-
the airplane are determlned by a group of en- formance of its required job, obviously will add
gineers assigned to the Structures Analysls considerable weight to the airplane and decrease
Section and this group Is often referred to as its performance or over-all efficiency relative
the Aircraft Load Calculation group. While the to the job It Is designed to do.
work of this group is primarily based on the To Particularly insure safety in the air-
use of aerodynamics, It is that phase of aero- transportation, along with uniformity and ef-
dynamics which is concerned with determining ficienc:- of design, the government aeronautical
the magnitude and distribution of the air loads agencies (civil and military) have definite re-
on the alrplane so that the airplane structure quirements for the various types of aircraft
can be properly deslgned to support these air relative to the magnitude of loads to be used in
forces safely and efficiently. The englneerlng the structural design of aircraft. In referring
department of an airplane company has a distinct in general to these specified aircraft loads two
or separate aerodynamics section, but In general terms are used as follows:-
their responsibility Is the use of the subject
of aerodynamics to insure or guarantee the per- Limit or Applied Loads.
formance, stability and control of the airplane. The terms limit and applied refer to the
A basic general over-all knowledge of the same loads with the clvll agencies (C.A.A.)
loads on aircraft is desirable In the study of using the term llmlt and the mllltary agencies
aircraft structural theory, and hence this using the term applied.
chapter attempts to give this Information. In Limit loads are the maximum loads anticl-
a later chapter dealing wlth wing deslgn, this patedxheairplane during its llfetlme of
subject will be further expanded. service.
The alrplane structure shall be capable of
A4.2 Limit or Applied Loads. Design Loads.
supporting the limit loads without suffering
Because an airplane Is designed to carry detrlmental permanent deformations. At all loads
out a deflnlte job, there result many types of up to the limit loads the deformation of the
structure Shall be such as not to Interfere with
aircraft relative to size, configuration and
the safe operation of the airplane.
performance. For example, a commercial trans-
port like the Douglas DC-8 Is deslgned to do a Ultimate or Design Loads.
job of transportlng a certain number of pass- These two terms are used In general to mean
A4.1
A4.2 GENERAL LOAD ON AIRCRAFT

the szme thing. Ultimate or Design Loads are Thrust.

equal to the limit loads multiplied bY a factor (3) Power Plant Loads Torque
.
of safety (F.S.) or
Design Loads = Limit or Applied Loads times F.S.
;g$yrc;
In general the over-all fa, -tar of safety is (4) Take off Loads :
f / r
1.5. The government requirements also specify
thrust units.
that these design loads be carried by the
structure without failure.
Hoisting -Airplane.

I
Although aircraft are not supposed to
undergo greater loads than the specified limit Towing Airplane.
(5) Specia 1 Loads Beaching of Hull ty;je ?.iryl::7z
loads, a certain amount of reserve strength Fuselage Pressurizing.
against complete structural failure of a unit is
necessary In the design of practically any ma-
(6) Weight and Inertia Loads.
chine or structure. This is due to many factors
such as:- (1) The approximations involved in
In resolving external loads for stress
aerodynamic theory and also structural stress
analysis theory; (2) Variation in physical analysis purposes, it is convenient to have a
properties of materials; (3) Variation in fab- set of reference axes. The reference axes
XYZ passing through the center of gravity of the
rication and inspection standards. Possibly
the most important reason for the factors of airplane as illustrated in Fig. A.1.0 are those
normally used in stress analysis work as well as
safety for alrplanes is due to the fact that
for aerodynamic calculations. For cc:,ve:~ienct
practically every airplane is limited to the
the reference axes are often referred to aiiotklf.;:’
maximum velocity it can be flown and the maxi-
mum acceleration It can be subjected to in origin other than the airplane c.!‘;.
flight or landing. Since these are under the 2
control of the pilot it is possible in emerg- Y I
ency conditions that the limit loads may be
slightly exceeded but with a reserve factor of
safety against failure this exceeding of the
limit load should not prove serious from an
airplane safety standpoint, although it might
cause permanent structural deformations that
might require repair or replacements of small
units or portions of the structure.
Loads due to airplane gusts, are arbitrary
In that the gust velocity is assumed. Al- Fig. A4.0
though this gust velocity is based on years of
experience In measurlnq and recording gust A4.4 Weight and Inertia Forces.
forces in flight all over the world, it is quite The term weight is that constant force, pro-
possible that during the lifetime of an air- portional to ItSmass, which tends to draw every
plane, turbulent conditions near storm areas or physical body toward the center of the earth.
over mountains or water areas might produce air An airplane in steady flight (uniform velocity!
gust velocltles slightly greater than that is acted upon by a system of forces in equilib-
specified In the load requirements, thus the rium, namely, the weight of the airplane, the air
factor of safety insures safety against failure forces on the complete airplane, and the power
If this situation would arise. plant forces. The pilot can change this bal-
anced steady flight condition by changing the
engine power or by operating the Nrfaoe cOntr0l.s
The broad general category of external to change the direction of the airplane velocit:;.
loads on conventional aircraft can be broken These unbalanced forces thus cause the airplane
down into such classifications as follows:- to accelerate or de-accelerate.
Due to Airplane Maneuvers. (under Inertia Forces For Motion of Pure Translation
the control of the pilot). of Rigid Bodies.
(1) Air Loads Due to Air Gusts. (not under If the unbalanced forces acting on a rigid
t control of pilot). body cause only a change in the magnitude of the
velocity of the body, but not its direction, the
Landing on Land. (wheel or motion is called translation, and from basic

(2) Landlng
I ski type).
Loads i Landing on Water.
Physics, the accelerating force F = Ma, where M
is the mass of the body or W/g. In Fig. A4-.l
the unbalanced force system F causes the rigid
Arrest‘ing. (Landlng on Alr- body to accelerate to the ri;rht. Fig. A4.2 shows
craft Carriers). the effect of this unbalanced force In producing
 A4.3

= ?a, and a n = i%’ an acceleration normal to

F = unbalanced Effective Force at
external force =Zma=Ma the flight path at A and directed toward the
center of rotation (0). From Newton’s Law the
effective forces due to these accelerations
are:-
Fn = soa = Mv”/r _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ _ (4)

Ft=p@a _________-____ -__ (5)

where o = angular velocity at the point A.

a = angular acceleration at point A.
Fig. A4.1 Fig. A4.2 F = radlus of curvature of flight path
at point A.

The inertia forces are equal and opposite

a force on each mass particle of m,a, m,a, etc., to these effective forces as lndlcated in Fig.
thus the total effective force Is Zma = Ma. If A4.3. These inertia forces can then be con-
these effective forces are reversed they are re- sidered as part of the total force system on the
ferred to as inertia forces. The external airplane which is in equlllbrlum.
forces and the inertia forces therefore form a If the velocity of the airplane along the
force system in equilibrium. path is constant, then at = zero and thus the
From basic Physics, we have the following inertia force Ft = o, leaving only the normal
relationships for a motion of pure translation
if the acceleration Is constant:- inertia force Fn.
v - vo =at---------------- (1) If the angular acceleration is constant,
the following relationships hold.
s = v(-$ + lata _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2)
2
V -vo8;2as ______________ (3) I(,) - c& = at - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ _ _ _ (6)

Q = o,t + $at* _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - _ - 1 - (7)

where,
we - aoa = 2aQ _ _ _ _ - - _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ (8)
s = distance moved in time t.
where 8 = angle of rotation in time t.
VO = initial velocity = initial angular velocity in rad/sec.:
00

v = final velocity after time t. 0 = angular velocity after time t.

In Fig. A4.3 the moment To of the inertia

Inertia Forces on Rotating Rigid Bodies.
forces about the center of rotation (0) equals
A common airplane maneuver is a InOtiOn mfa(F)= *“a. The term es is the mass moment
along a curved path in a plane parallel to the of inertia of the airplane about point (0).
XZ plane of the airplane, and generally referred Since an airplane has considerable pitching
to as the pitching plane. A pull up from steady moment of inertia about its own center of grav tY
flight or a pull out from a dive causes an air- axis, it should be included. Thus by the
plane to follow a curved path, Fig. A4.3 shows parallel axis
an airplane following a curved path. If at
point A the velocity Is increasing along its To = 1,a + I c.ga _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (9)
path, the airplane is being subjected to two
where IO = ti” and I, g = moment of inertia of
accelerations, namely, at, tangential to the .
curve at point A and equal in magnitude to airplane about Y axis through c.g. of airplane.

Inertia Forces For Pitching Rotation of Airplane

Center of Curvature about Y Axis Through- C.R.
- airplane.
In flight, an air gust may strike the horl-
ZOntal tail producing a tail force which has a
moment about the airplane c.g. In some landing
conditions the ground or water forces do not
pass through the airplane c.g., thus producing
a moment about the airplane c.g. These moments
cause the airplane to rotate about the Y axis
through the c.g.
Therefore for this effect alone the center
Fig. A4.3 of rotation in Fig. A4.3 Is not at (0) but at
A4.4 GENERAL LOAD S ON AIRCRAFT
1
the c.g. of airplane, or F = 0. Thus Fn and Ft air forces on the wing. For example, consider
the two air pressure intensity diagrams in Figs.
equal zero and thus the only inertia force for
A4.6 and A4.7. These distributed force systems
the pure rotation is I (a couple) and
C.g.a’ can be replaced by their resultant (R), which
thus the moment of this inertia couple about the of course must be known in magnitude, direction
c.g. = T I a. and location. The location is specified by a
c.g. = c.g. term called the center of pressure which is the
As explained before if the inertia forces
point where the resultant R intersects the air-
are included with all other applied forces on foil chord line. As the angle of attack is
the airplane, then the airplane is in static changed the resultant air force changes in mag-
equilibrium and the problem Is handled by the
nitude, direction and center of pressure
static equations for equilibrium.
locatlon.
A4.5 Air Forces on Wing. R

&
The wing of an airplane carries the major
portion of the air forces. In level steady
flight the vertical upward force of the air on
the wing, practically equals the weight of the
airplane. The term airfoll Is used when re- c. .
ferring to the shape of the cross-section of a
wing. Figs. A4.4 and A4.5 illustrate the air
pressure intenslty diagram due to an air-
I Fig. A4.6 Fig. A4. 7

Lift and Drag Components of Resultant Air Force.

Instead of dealing with the resultant force
R, it is convenient for both aerodynamic and
stress analysis considerations to replace the
resultant by its two components perpendicular
and parallel to the airstream. Fig. A4.8 il-
lustrates this resolution into lift and drag
components.
Angle of Attack Angle of Attack
= 120 = - 60

Fig. A4.4 Fig. A4. 5

stream flowing around an airfoll shape for both

a positive and negative angle of attack. The
shape and intensity of this diagram is ln-
fluenced by many factors, such as the shape of Fig. A4.8 Fig. A4.9
the airfoil itself, as the thiclcness to chord
ratio, the camber of the top end bottom sur-
faces etc. A normal wing Is attached to a Aerodynamic Center (a.c.). Since an air-
fuselage and it may support external power plane flies at many different angles of attack,
plants, wing tip tanks etc. Furthermore the it means that the center of pressure changes for
normal wing is usually tapered in planform the many flight design condltlons. It SO hap-
and thickness and may possess leadlng and pens, that there is one point on the airfoil
trailing slots and flaps to produce high lift that the moment due to the Lift and Drag forces
or control effects. The airflow around the is constant for any angle of attack. This
Wing is affected by such factors as listed point is called the aerodynamic center (a.c.)
above and thus wind tunnel tests are usually and its approximate location is at the 25 percent
necessary to obtain a true picture of the air of chord measured from the leading edge, Thus
forces on a wing relative to their chordwlse the resultant R can be replaced by a lift and
spanwise distribution. drag force at the aerodynamic center plus a wing
moment Ma. c. as illustrated in Fig. A4.9.
Resultant Air Force. Center of Pressure.
A4.6 Forces on Airplane in Flight.
It is convenient When dealing with the Fig. A4.10 illustrates in general the main
balancing or equilibrium of the airplane as a forces on the alrplane In an accelerated flight
whole to deal with the resultant of the total condition.
 A4.5

;iplylng factor by which the forces on the alr-

plane in steady flight are multiplied to obtain
i static system of forces equivalent to the dy-
namic force system acting during the accelera-
tion of the airplane. Fig. A4.11 illustrates
n

i
LA= total lift (Wing & Tail)
i

T = engine thrust.
forces in steady horizontal flight. L repre-
L= total wlng lift plus fuselage lift.
Dq total alrplane drag. sents the total airplane lift (wing plus tail).
Ma = moment of L and D wlth reference to wing Therefore L = W. Now assume the airplane is ac-
a.c. (aerodynamic center) celerated upward along the Z axis. Fig. A4.12
shows the additional inertia force Wa=/g acting
W= welght of airplane.
= inertia force normal to flight path. downward, or opposite to the direction of
IL acceleration. The total airplane lift L for the
= inertia force parallel to flight path. Z
ID
= rotatlon lnertla moment. I
Irn
E = tail load normal to flight path.

For a horizontal constant velocity flight

condition, the inertia forces I and I
L’ ID’ In
would be zero. For an accelerated flight con-
dition involving translation but not angular T=D
Fig. A4. 12 ”
acceleration about Its own c.g. axis, the
inertia moment Im would be zero, but IL and ID + !a,
g
would have values. unaccelerated condition in Fig. A4.11 must be
multiplied by a load factor nB to produce static
Equations of Equilibrium For Steady Flight. equilibrium in the 15 direction.
From Fig. A4.10 we can wrlte:-
Thus, r&L-W-Wag=0
ZFx = o, D + W sin 6-T cos ,B = o g
Since L = W
ZF&=o, L - W cos 0+T sln B - E = 0
* Hence np, = 1 + %
lTMy = 0, - & - La - Db + Tc cos p + Ee = o is
An airplane can of course be accelerated along
Equations of Equilibrium in Accelerated Flight. the X axis as well as the Z axis. Thus in
ZFx = o, D + W sin 8 - T cos p - ID = o Fig. A4.13 the magnltude of the engine thrust T
Is greater than the airplane Drag D, which
ZFB=o, L - w cos 8 + T sin p - IL - E = o n&

my=o, -Ma - La - Db + Tc cos /3 + Ee + Im = o

8
Forces - Plus is up and toward tall [I e.g.pD -zafvq
i
Moment - Clockwise Is positive.
Signs used: W
Fig. A4.13 T is greater than D
Distances from c.g. to force -
Plus is up and toward tall. I Wa,
g
A4.7 Load Factors. causes the airplane to accelerate forward. It is
The term load factor normally given the convenient to express the inertia force in the X
symbol (n) canbedefined as the numerical mul- direction in terms of the load factor % and the
* The bar through letter 2 has no significance. Same mean-
ing without bar.
A4.6 GENERAL LOADS ON AIRCRAFT
I
weight W of the airplane, hence a definite maximum flight velocity. For com-
mercial alrplanes the velocity Is llmlted to a
nxW = W,a (See Fig. A14.13) reasonable glide speed which Is sufficient to
g x take care of reasonable flight operations.

ZFx = o, whence T-D-nxW = o A4.9 Guet Load Factors.

When a sharp edge gust strikes the airplane
T-D In a direction normal to the thrust line (X
Hence
“x =--ii- axis), a sudden change takes place in the wing
angle of attack with no sudden change In airplane
Therefore the loads on the airplane can be dis- speed. The normal force coeff lclent (Cz ) can
cussed In terms of load factors. The applied or A
limit load factors are the maximum load factors be assumed to vary linearly with the angle of
that might occur during the service of the par- attack. Thus in Fig. (a), let polnt (B) repre-
tlcular alrplane. These loads as discussed In sent th8 norm%31 airplane force coefficient Cz
Art. A4.2 must be taken by the airplane struc- A
ture without appreciable permanent deformation. necessary to maintain level flight with a
The design load factors are equal to the velocity V and point (C) the value of C after
limit load factors multiplied by the factor Of zA
safety, and these design loads must be carried a sharp edged gust KU has caused a sudden change
by the structure without rupture or collapse, or Aa in the angle of attack without change in V.
in other words, complete failure. The total increase in the airplane load In the 2
direction can therefore be expressed by the
A4.8 Design Flight Requirements for Airplane. ratio C at B.
The Civil and MIlItary Aeronautics Author- zA
ltles Issue requirements which specify the From Fig. (b) for small angles, Aa = KU/V
design condltlons for the various classiflcatlons and from Fig. (a), ACz = HI Aa, where m = the
of airplanes. Generally speaking, any airplane A
flight altltude can be defined by stating the slope of the airplane normal force curve (C
exlstlng values of load factors (acceleration) zA
and the airspeed (or more properly the dynamic per radian).
pressure).
The accelerations on the airplane are pro-
duced from two causes, namely, maneuvers and air
gusts. The accelerations due to maneuvers are
subject to the control of the pilot who can
manipulate the controls so as not to exceed a
certain acceleration. In highly maneuverable
military alrplanes, an accelerometer Is ln-
eluded in the cockpit instruments as a guide to
1ImIt the acceleration factor. For commercial Fig. b Fig. a
alrplanes the maneuver factors are made high
enough to safely take care of any maneuvers that The load factor Increment due to the gust
would be required in the necessary flight opera- KU can then be expressed
tions of the particular type of airplane. These
limltlng maneuver factors are based on years of Acz
operating experience and have given satisfactory
Ail= A= (7) (p;)=-m------ (A)
C 575 w
reSUltS from a safety standpoint without pen- zA
allZing the alrplane from a weight design con- where
slderatlon.
The accelerations due to the airplane I u = gust velocity in rt./sec.
strlkIng an air gust are not under the control K*=gust
of the pilot since it depends on the direction correction factor depending on
and velocity of the alr gust, From much ac- wing loading (Curves for K are provided
cumulated data obtained by Installing acoelero- by Civil Aeronautics Authorities).
meters in commercial and military aircraft and v= indicated air speed in miles per hour.
flying them In all types of weather and lOCa-
ti = wing area in sq. ft.
tions, it has been found that a gust velocity of
30 ft. per second appears sufflclent. w= gross weight 04 alrolane.
The speed or Velocity of the airplane like-
wise affects the loads oh the airplane. The * NACA Technical Note 2964 (June l96%), pPopoael that the
alleviation factor K should be replaced by h gu&t facto&
higher the velocity the higher the aerodyrla&Ic Kg = 0,68 Mg/5.3 + Mg). In thie expreesidn Mg Lit the
wlng moment. Furthermore the gust acceler- airplane masd ratio or ma&s par&meter,. 2 W/apt&@, in
ations increase with airplane velocity. Thus, It which c is the mean geofnetric chard In feet add g tk kc-
is customary to limit the particular airplane to celeratibn duQ to gravity.
 If U is taken as 30 ft./set. and a as the would give an acceleration less than the lim-
change In Cz with respect to angle of attack ited values given by lines AB and CD.
A The positive and negative gust accelera-
in absolute units per degree, equation (A) re- tions due to a 30 ft./set. gust normal to flight
duced to the following path are shown on Fig. A4.14. In this example
diagram, a positive gust is not crltlcalwlthln
&pmv wp----------------...
the restricted velocity of the airplane since
(B)
the gust lines Intersect the line BD below the
line AB. For a negative gust, the gust load
Therefore the gust load factor n when air- factor becomes critical at velocities between F
plane 1s flying in horizontal attitude equals and D wlth a maximum acceleration as given by
point E.
n=?_+$ _-- ___- - _____ -_ (c) For airplanes which have a relatively low
required maneuver factor the gust accelerations
may be critical for both positive and negative
and when alrplane Is in a vertical attitude accelerations. Examination of the gust equation
indicates that the most lightly loaded condition
(smallest gross weight) produces the highest
n = + -3$i ____------------ (D) gust load factor, thus involving Only partial
pay load, fuel, etc.
A4.10 Illustration of Main Flight Conditions. On the diagram, the polnts A and B corre-
Velocity-Load Factor Diagram. spond in general to what is referred to as high
As indicated before the main design flight angle of attack (H,A,A,) and low angle of attack
conditions for an airplane can be given by (L.A.A.) respectively, and points C and D the
stating the limiting values of the acceleration Inverted (H.A.A.) and (L.A.A.+ conditions re-
and speed and in addition the maxlmum value of spectively.
the applied gust velocity. As an illustration, Generally speaking, if the airplane Is de-
the design loading requirements for a certain signed for the air loads produced by the veloc-
airplane could be stated as follows: “The ity and acceleration conditions at points A, B,
proposed airplane shall be designed for applied E, F, and C, it should be safe from a structural
positive and negative accelerations of + 6.Og strength standpolnt If flown within the specified
and -3.5g respectively at all speeds from that limits regarding velocity and acceleration.
corresponding to CLmax up to 1.4 times the Basically, the flight condition require-
. ments of the Civil Aeronautics Authority, Army,
maximum level flight speed. Furthermore, the and Navy are based on consideration of specified
airplane shall withstand any applied loads due velocities and accelerations and a consideration
to a 30 ft./set. gust acting in any dlrectlon of gusts. Thus a student understanding the basic
up to the restricted speed of 1.4 times the discussion above should have no difficulty un-
maximum level flight speed. A design factor of derstanding the design requirements of these
safety of 1.5 shall be used on these applied three government agencies.
1oad.s”. For stress analysis purposes, all speeds
In graphical form these design require- are expressed as indicated air speeds. The
ments can be represented by plotting load fac- “indicated” air speed is defined as the speed
tor and velocity to obtain a diagram which 1s which would be indicated by a perfect air-speed
generally referred to as the Velocity-accelera- Indicator, that is, one that would indicate
tion dlagrsm. The results of the above speci- true air speed at sea level under standard at-
fication would be similar to that of Fig. A4.14. mospherlc conditions. The relation between the
Thus, the lines AB and CD represent the re- actual air speed Va and the indicated alr speed
stricted positive and negative maneuver load
factors which are limited to speeds inside line Vi is given by the equatlon
BD which is taken as 1.4 times the maximum -
level flight speed In this illustration. These Pa
restricted maneuver lines are terminated at VI =
polnts A and C by their intersectlon wlth the d PO va
maximum CL values of the alrplane. At speeds where
between A and B, the pilot must be careful not
to exceed the maneuver accelerations, since in Vi = indicated airspeed
general, it would be possible for him to man-
ipulate the controls to exceed these values. Va = actual airspeed
At speeds below A and C, there need be no care
of the pilot as far as loads on the airplane = standard alr density at sea level
PO
are concerned since a maneuver producing CL
IIBX. = density of air in which Va is attained
pa
A4.8 GENERAL LOAD ON AIRCRAFT

ns loads on the wing should be checked for

ases where the engines are attached to the Wing
nd are located forward of the leading edge.
In cases where the landing gear is attached
o wing or when the fuel and engines are carried
n and on the wing, the loads produced on the
lng structure in a landing condition may be
rltical for some portions of the wing structure
nboard of landing gear and engine attachment
oints.

.4.12 Example Problems Involving Accelerated Motion of

Rigid Airplane.
As prevlously explalned, it is general
ractlce to place the airplane under accelerated
ondltions of motion into a condition of static
quillbrium by adding the inertia forces to the
.pplied force system acting on the airplane. It
s usually assumed that the airplane is a rlgld
lady. Several example problems will be pre-
lented to Illustrate this general procedure.

:xample Problem 1
Fig. A4.15 illustrates an airplane landing
)n a Navy aircraft carrier and being arrested by
t cable pull T on the airplane arresting hook.
:f the alrplane weight is 12,000 lbs. and the
airplane is given a constant acceleration of 3.5g
1112.7 ft/sec’), find the hook pull T, the wheel
A4.11 Special Flight Design Conditions. eactlon R, and the distance (d) between the line
)f action of the hook pull and the airplane c.g.
There are many other flight conditions ;f the landing velocity is 60 M.P.H. what is the
which may be critlcal for certain portions of ;topplng distance.
the wing or fuselage structure. Most airplanes
are equipped with flaps, to decrease the land- W = 12000 lb.
lng speed and such flaps are lowered at speeds
at least twice that of the mlnimum landing
speed. Since the flapped alrfoil has different
values for the magnltude and location of the
airfoil characterlstlcs, the wing structure
must be checked for all possible flap condition:
within the specified requirement relative to
maximum speed at which the flaps may be oper- Fig. A4. 15
R’
ated. Generally speaking, the flap conditions
will effect only the wing portion inboard of thf
flap and It is usually only critical for the solution: -
rear beam web or shear wall and for the top and On contact of the alrplane wlth the arrest-
bottom walls of the torsion box. Thls Is due tc
the fact that the deflectlon flap moves the ing cable, the alrplane Is decelerated to the
rlght relative to Fig. A4.15. The motion Is pure
center of pressure conslderably aft thus pro- translation horlzontally. The inertia force Is
ducing more shear load on the rear shear wall a:
well as torsional moment on the conventional
cantilever box metal beam. Ma = i a = ( F) 3.5g = 42000 lb.
The airplane must likewise be Investigated
for aileron conditions. Operation of the aller. The lnertla force acts opposite to the direction
ons produce a different air load on each side of acceleration, hence to the left as shown In
of the airplane Wing which produces an angular Fig. A4.15.
rolling acceleration of the airplane. Further - The unknown forces T and R can now be solved
more, the deflected ailerons change the ma%- for by using the static equations of equilibrium.
nitude and locatlon of the airfoil character-
istics, thus calculations must be carried out t = -42000 + T cos 10’ = o
ZFx
determine whether the loads in the aileron con- hence,
dltions are more crltlcal than those for the T = 42700 lb.
normal fllght conditions.
+ R - 42700 x Sin 10’ = 0
For angular acceleration resulting
piT;chiilg moments due to air gusts on the tail,
from ZFB= -12000
hence, ience,
R = 19420 lb. Rz = 29800 lb. (up)
To find the distance (d) take moments about c.g. ZFB = 29800 - 9000 + RI = o
of airplane,
ience, RI = - 20800 lb. (acting down)
27-l = 19420 x 24 - 42700 d = o
c.g.
hence, The velocity at end of catapult track can
d = 10.9 in. )e found from the following equation
Landing velocity V0 = 60 M.P.H. = 88 ft/sec. Va - Voa = 2as
va - voa = 23s V8 - o = 2 x 96.6 x 35
or
Subt: - V = 82 ft/sec. = 56 M.P.H.
OX - 88’ = 2(-112.7) s
&ample Problem 3
hence stopping distance s = 34.4 ft. Assume that the transport airplane as il-
lustrated in Fig. A4.17 has just touched down in
Example Problem 2 landing and that a braking force of 35000 lb. on
An airplane equlpped with float is cata- the rear wheels is being applied to bring the
pulted into the air from a Navy Cruiser as il- airplane to rest. The landing horizontal veloc-
lustrated in Fig, A4.16. The Catapulting force ity is 85 M.P.H. (125 ft/sec). Neglecting air
P gives the airplane a constant horlzontal ac- forces on the airplane and assuming the propeller
celeratlon of 3g(96.6 ft/secs). The gross forces are zero, what are the ground reactions
weight of airplane 9000 lb. and the catapult s1 and R,. What is the landing run distance with
track is 35 ft. long. Find the catapulting
the constant braking force?
force P and the reactions RI and Rg from the
catapult car. The engine thrust is 900 lb.
What is airplane velocity at end of track run? W = 100,000 lb.

I
Rl R?d Fig. A4.17

Solution: -

The airplane Is being decelerated horizon-

Fig. A4.16
tally hence the inertia force through the alr-
plane c.g. acts toward the front of the airplane.
Solutlon: - Since the braking force is given we can solve
for the deceleration factor by the equll.ibrium
The forces will be determined just after equation,
the beginning of the catapult run, where the
car velocity is small, and thus the lift on the ZF, = 35000 - Max = 0
airplane wing and the airplane drag can be
hence,
neglected. Max = 35000
Horizontal inertia force acting toward the alr- or
plane tail equals, = 35000
whence
Ma = (‘7) 3.Og = 27000 lb.
ax = (m) 32.2 = 11.27 ft/sec’

From statics: - To find landing run (s),

ZFx = -900 - P + 27000 = o, hence P = 26100 lb.
VB - VoB = 2 axs
To find R, take moments about point A,
o- i%” = 2 (-11.27) s
ZMA = 9000 x 55 + 27000 x 78 - 900 x 83 - 85R, hence,
=o s = 695 ft.
A4.10 GENERAL LOADS ON AIRCRAFT

To find Rs take moments about point (A) Airplane Lift

Airplane Load Factor =
W
zMA = 100,000 x 21 - 35000 x 9 + 38 Rs = 0
= 111600 - 4100 = 7 . 7
IL, = 47000 lb. (2 wheels) 14000

CF, = 47000 - 100,000 + RI = 0 E&ample Problem 5

Assume the airplane as used in example
R,. = 53000 lb. jroblem 4 is in the same attitude as used in
: ;hat example problem. Now the airplane 1s
aample Problem 4 f Yn-ther maneuvered by the pilot suddenly push-
The airplane In Fig. A4.18 weighs 14,000 lb . 1:ng the control stick forward so as to give
It 1s flying horizontally at a velocity of 500 t ;he airplane a pitching acceleration of
M.P.H. (733 ft/sec) when the pllot pulls it up- 4L rad/sec ‘.
ward into a curved path with a radius of curva- I[a) Find the inertia forces and the tail load T,
ture of 2500 ft. Assume the engine thrust and assuming the lift force on the wing does not
airplane drag equal, opposite and collnear with change.
each other (not shown on Fig. A4.18).
/(b) Flnd the forces on the Jet engine which
Find: - welghs 1500 lb. and whose c.g. location Is
(a ) Acceleration of airplane In Z dl- show-n in Fig. A4.19.
rectlon
) Wing Lift (L) and Tall (T) forces 11ssume moment of inertia Iy (pitching) of the
) Airplane Load factor. i ilrplane equals 300,000 lb. set’. In.
Ma2
93500 lb.

J&3 E!b.+j+

Thrust
c.p.
I W
Fig. A4.18 Fig. A4.19

Solution: -

Flg. A4.19 shows a free body of the alr-

Acceleration az = V8
5-E*
r =
- _- 215 ft/sec'
2500 plane with the lift and Inertia forces as found
or 214.5/32.2 = 6.68g (upward). in Problem 4.
The inertia force normal to the flight pat? 1 The addltlonal Inertia force due to the
and acting down equals angular acceleration a = 4 rad/sec’. equals,

Iya = 300000 x 4 = 1,200,OOO ln. lb.

) 6.68g = 93520 lb.
which acts clockwise or counter to the direction
Placing this force on the airplane through the of angular acceleration.
c.g. promotes static equlllbrlum, hence to find The airplane is now in static equilibrium
tall load T take moments about wlng aerody- and to find the tall load T take moments about
namic center (c.p.) airplane c.g.

M c.p. = - (14000 + 93520) 8 + 210 T = 0 ZM = 1,200,OOO - 111600 x 8 - 218 T = 0

c.g.
hence
T = 4100 lb. (down) T = 1409 lb.
To find Wing Lift (L) use To find Mae take,
ZFZ = - 4100 - 14000 - 93520 + L = 0
ZFz = 111600 - 14000 + 1409 - Maz = 0
L = 111600 lb.
Mae = 99009 lb.
hence, a = 0
g = 7.1 g ft/seca.
Find :
(a) The inertla forces on the air-
plane.
The c.g. of the engine is 50 inches aft of the (b) The resultant load on the pilot
airplane c.g. as shown in Fig. A4.19. The
whose weight is 180 lb. and whose
force on the engine will be its own weight Of
location is shown in Fig. A4.20.
1500 lb., and the inertia forces due to ae and
a.
Inertia force due to a g equals,

Inertia force due to angular acceleration Q

equals,

Mra = 1,500 -r 50 x 4 = 776 lb.

‘L (down) 319dOO lb. Fig. A4.20
32.2 x 12

Then the resultant force on the engine equals

Solution: -
1500 + 10630 + 776 = 12906 lb. (down)
The win? lift will be neglected in this
example problem.
Note if the engine had been forward of the air-
plane c.g., the inertia force of 776 lb. would The inertia forces on the airplane are
act upward instead of downward. forces Max and Ma,, and the couple I a.
c.g.
In calculating the inertia force on a To find Max take,
certain airplane Item due to angular acceler-
ation,the equation F = Mra assumes that the
particular item had negligible mass moment of ZFX
= 100,000 - Max = 0
inertia about its own centroldal Y axis. In or
the case of a large Item this centroidal mass = 100,000 lb.
moment of Inertia may be appreciable and should Max
be Included in the Iy of airplane. hence,
= 100,000 - 100,000
a g = lg +
Then to find the inertia force for such X M 100,000
an item the equation F = Mra should be modified
to be To find Mae take,

F = (I al/r- where = 300,000

ZF53 - 100,000 - MaB = 0
c.g.

r = distance or arm from airplane e.g. to c.g.

hence Ma0= 200,000 lb.
of item.
I = mass moment of inertia of item about a = 200,000 = 200,000
g = 2g t
c.g. 5 M ( 100,000 >
airplane c.g. equals I, + Mr”,
where I, is mass moment of inertia of To find the inertia couple Ic g a, take moments
Item about its own centroldal Y axis. about airplane c.g., . .
F = inertia force in lbs. normal to radius r.
M = - 100,000 x 120 - 300,000 x 84
c.65.
Example Problem 6
Fig. A4.20 shows a large transport air- + I c.g. a=0
plane whose Tress weight is-lOO,OOO-lb. The
airplane pitching mass moment of inertia I a = 37,200,OOO lb.
I = 40,000,OOO lb. se?. in. C,R,
Y
The airplane is making a level landing hence angular acceleration a = 37 200 000
Lyith nose wheel slightly off ground. The re- z$E$G =
action on the rear wheels is 319,000 lb. In- 0.93 rad/sec’.
clined at such an angle to give a drag com-
ponent of 100,000 lb. and a vertical component
of 300,000 lb.
A4.12 GENERAL LOAD ON AIRCRAFT

Calculations of resultant load on pilot: - are for design loads, which in general are 1.5
times the applied loads. It would not be correct
to say that the wing deflections under the ap-
plied loads for these two High Angle of attack
conditions would be 2/3 the deflections shown in
the photograph since under the design loads a
considerable portion of the wing would be stressed
beyond the elastic limit of the material or into
- 0.93 plane
the plastic range where the stiffness modulus is

I
w = 180’ Fig. A4.21

Fig. A4.2i shows the airplane c.g. accelerations

The forces on the pilot consist of the
pllots weight OLr i80 lb. and the various inerti.a
forces a.5 indtcated in the figure.

Max = F lg = 180#
( )
180 .
Mae = - k.Og = 360 #
( g 1
The inertia force due to the angular ac-
celeration a acts normal to the radius arm
between the airplane c.g. and the pilot. For
convenience this normal force will be replaced
by its 5 and x components.

Fx = M%I = 32.2180x 12 x 40 x 0.93 = 17 lb.

5 fia = 32 ;“x” 12 x 372 x 0.93 = 161 lb.

F0 .
Total force in x direction on pilot equals

180 - 17 = 163 lb. Fig. A4. 21

Total force in 0 direction =

considerably less than the modulus of el.aSti-
360 + 180 - 161 = 379 lb. city, hence the deflections under the applied
loads would be somewhat less than 2/3 those
Hence Resultant force R, equals shown in the photograph. This photograph thus
lndlcates very strikingly that a wing structure
J 37ga + 163a = 410% is far from being a rigid body.
Static loads are loads which are gradually
A4.13 Effect of Airplane Not Being a Rigid Body. applied and cause no appreciable shock or vi-
The example problems of Art. A4.12 as- bration of structllre. On high speed aircraft,
sume that the airplane is a rigid body (suffers air gusts, flight maneuvers and landlng re-
no structural deformation). On the basis of actions are applied quite rapidly and thus can
this assumption the applied loads on the air- be classed as dynamic loads ~ Therefore when
plane In either flight or landing conditions these dynamic loads strike a flexible (non-
are placed in equlllbrlum with the inertia rigid) airplane cantilever wing, a rather large
forces which occur due to the acceleration of wing deflection is produced and the wing tends
the airplane. It Is obvious that an airplane to vlbrate. This vibration therefore causes
structure like any other structure is not a additional accelerations of the mass units of
rigid body, particularly a cantilever wing which the wing which means additional inertia fOrCeS
undergoes rather large bendlng deflections in on the wing. Furthermore if the time rate of
both flight and landing conditions. Figure application of the external applied forces
A4.21 shows a composite photograph taken of a approaches tho natural bendlnr: frequencies Of
test wing for the Boeing B-47 airplane. The the wing, the vibration excited can produce
maxlmum upward and downward deflectlons shown large additional wing stresses.
 A4.13

Up until World War II practically all air- for applying the load on the wing when striking
planes were assumed as rigid bodies for struc- the air gust.
tural design purposes. During the war failure NACA Technical Note 2424 reports the flight
of aircraft occured under load conditions which test results on a twin-engine Martin transport
the conventional design procedure based on rigid airplane. Strain gages were placed at various
body analysis, indicated satisfactory or safe points on the wing structure, and stralns were
stresses. The failures were no doubt due to read for varl.ous gust conditions for which the
dynamic overstress because the airplane Is not normal airplane accelerations were also recorded.
a rigid body. Then slow pull-up maneuvers were run to give
Furthermore, airplane design progress has similar airplane normal accelerations. The wing
resulted In thin wings and relatively large had a natural frequency of 3.8 cps and the air-
wlng spans, and in many cases these wings carry plane speed was 250 M.P.H. Two of the con-
concentrated masses, such as, power plants, clusions given in this report are: - (1) The
bombs, wing tip fuel tanks etc,. Thus the bending strains per unit normal acceleration
flexibility of wings have Increased which means under air gusts were approximately 20 percent
the natural bending frequencies have decreased. higher than those of slow pull-ups for all mea-
This fact together wlth the fact that airplane suring posltlons and flight conditions of the
speeds have greatly increased and thus cause tests, and (2) The dynamic component of the Wing
air gust loads to be applied more rapidly, or bending strains appeared to be due prlmarlly to
the loading is becoming more dynamic In char- excitation of the fundamental wing bending mode.
acter and thus the overall load effect on the These results thus indicate that air gusts
wing structure is appreciable and cannot be apply a alr load more rapldly to a wing than a
neglected ln the strength design of the wing. maneuver load giving the same airplane normal
acceleration for a conunerclal transport type of
General Dynamic Effect of Air Forces on alrplane, and thus the dynamic strain effect on
Wing Loads. the wing is more pronounced for gust conditions.
Figs. A4.23, 24 and 25 show results of dy-
The critical alrloads on an airplane are namlc effect of air gusts on a large wing as de-
caused by maneuvering the airplane by the pllot termlned by Blsplinghoff*. The results 1n these
or In striking a transverse air gust. A trans- figures show that dynamic effects tend to con-
port alrplane does not have to be designed for siderably increase wing forces on some portIons
sharp maneuvers producing high airplane accel- of the wing and decrease it on other portions.
eratlons in its job of transporting passengers,
thus the time of applying the maneuver loads is Fig. A4.23
considerably more than a fighter type airplane -600
Comparative Shear
pulling up sharply from high speeds. Distribution
Fig. A4.22 shows the result of a pull-up 2-400
maneuver on the Douglas D.C.3 airplane at 180 a, ___ Dynamic Analysis
6
M.P.H. relative to load factor versus time of - - - Rigid Airplane
-200 Analysis
application of load. As indicated the peak
load of load factor 3.25 was obtained at the
end of one second of time.

Fig. A4.24
-30
Fig. A4. 22 Comparative Bending
Moment Distribution

Pull-up of DC-3 Airplane at 180 mph.

The author estimates the natural frequency of

the D.C.3 wing to be around 10 to 15 cycles per
second, thus a loading time of 1 second against Fig. A4.25
a time of l/10 or l/15 for half a wlng deflec- -3 a Comparative Distri-
tion cycle indicates that dynamic overstress i= bution of Torque
should not be appreciable. In general, it can -2 About Elastic Axis.
F
be said that dynamic over-stress under maneu- s -1
z g General Data:-
vering loads on transport airplanes is not as 0 0 Wing Span = 189 ft.
great as from other conditions such as air @ 1 Gross Wt. = 184000 lb.
gusts or landing. 2 Airlane Vel. =260 mph.
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 .lO
Fraction of Semi-Span
Dynamic Effect of Air Gusts.
The hlgher the air gust velocity and the * Report on an Investigation on Stresses in Aircraft &-uc-
h:gher the airplane velocity, the less the tlme tures under Dynamic Loading. M. I. T. Publication.
A4.14 GENERAL LOADS ON AIRCRAFT

It has also been found that landing loads W = 15000 lb.

applied through the conventional landing gear or
I
by water pressure on a flying boat are applied
rapid enough to be classed as dynamic loads and
such loads applied to wings of large span pro-
duce dynamic stresses which cannot be neglected
in the safe design of such structures.

A4.14 General Conclusions on Influence of Dynamic

Loading on Structural Design of Airplane.
+ 90” +j
The advent of the turbo-jet and the rocket Fig. A4. 26
type engines has opened up a range of possible
airplane alrspeeds hardly dreamed of only a few zontal deceleration and the stopping distance
years ago, and already trans.-sonic and super- for the alrplane?
sonic speed airplanes are a common development.
From an aerodynamic standpoint such speeds have (3). The flying patrol boat in Fig. A4.27
dictated a thin alrfoil section which has thus makes a water landing with the resultant bottom
promoted a high density wlng. Thus for air- water pressure of 250,000 lb. as shown In the
planes with appreciable wing spans like Mili- figure. Assume lift and tall loads as shown.
tary bombers and near future jet connnerclal The pitching moment of inertia of the airplane
transports, which usually carry large concen- is 10 million lb. sec.’ In. Determine the alr-
trated masses on the wing such as engines, fuel plane pitching acceleration. What is the total
tanks etc., the assumption that the airplane is load on the crew member who weighs 200 lb. and
a rigid body is not sufficiently accurate enough is located in a seat at the rear end. of the
because the dynamic stresses are appreciable. hull?
The calculation of the dynamic loading on
1000 lb.
the wing requires that the mass and stiffness Fig. A4. 21 25000 lb. 4
distribution of the wlng structure be known.
Since these factors are not known when the g. of Crew
structural design of a wing is started, the Member
general procedure In design would be to first
base the design on the assumption that the Wing
is a rigld body plus correction factors based on
past design experience or available research in-
formation to approximately take care of the in-
fluence of the elastic wing on the airplane
aerodynamic characteristics md the build up
dynamic inertia forces. With the wing thus in- (4). The jet-plane in Flg. A4.28 1s diving at
itlally designed by thls procedure, it then can a speed of 600 M.P.H. when pilot starts a 8g
be checked by a complete dynamic analysis and pull-out. Weight of alrplane is 16,000 lb.
modified as the results dictate and then re- Assume that engine thrust and total airplane
calculated for the modified elastic wing. This drag are equal, opposite and colinear.
procedure Is now practical because of the avail-
ability of high speed computers. (a) Find radius of flight path at start of
pull-out.
A4.15 PROBLEMS. (b) Find inertia force in Z direction.
(c) Find lift L and tail load T.
(1). The airplane In Fig. A4.26 is being
launched from the deck of an alrcraft carrier by
the cable pull T which gives the airplane a for-
ward acceleration of 3.25g. The gross welght of
the airplane is 15,000 lb.
(a) Find the tension load T In the launchIn
cable, and the wheel reactions RL and
R8.

(b) If the flying speed is 75 M.P.H., what

launching distance is required and the
launching time t?

(2). Assume the airplane of Fig. A4.26 is

landing at 75 M.P.H. on a runway and brakes are
applied to the rear wheels equal to ,4 of the
vertical rear wheel reaction. What is the hori-
 CHAPTER A5
BEAMS - SHEAR AND MOMENTS

A5.1 Introduction. p = 100 lb.

In general, a structural member that sup-
ports loads perpendicular to its longitudlonal
axis is referred to as a beam. The structure of
alrcraft provides excellent examples of beam
units, such as the wing and fuselage. Very
seldom do bending forces act alone on a major
aircraft structural unit, but are accompanied by Fig. A5. 1
axial and torsional forces. However, the bend-
ing forces and the resulting beam stresses dUe
to bending of the beam are usually of primary
importance In the design of the beam structure.
A5.2 Statically Determinate and Statically Indeterminate
Beams.
A beam can be considered as subjected to
known applied loads and unknown supporting re-
actions. If the distribution of the applied
known loads to the supporting reactions can be
determined from the conditions of static equil-
ibrium alone, namely, the summatlon of forces
and moments equal zero, then the beam Is con-
sidered as a statically determinate beam. How-
ever, if the distribution of the known applied Fig. A5.4 Fig. A5. 5
loads to the supporting beam reactions is in-
fluenced by the behavior of the beam material right side portion as a free body in equilibrium
during the loading, then the supporting reaction: as shown in Fig. A5.2. For static equilibrium,
cannot be found by the statical equilibrium ZV, ZH and ZM must equal zero for all forces and
equatlons alone, and the beam is classlfled as a moments acting on this beam portion. Consider-
statlcally indeterminate beam. To solve such a ing ZV = 0 In Fig. A5.3: -
beam, other conditions of fact based on the
beam deformations must be used In combination ZV = 75 - 100 = - 25 lb. - - - - - - (1)
with the static equillbrlum equations.
thus, under the forces shown, the force SYStem
A5.3 Shear and Bending Moment. is unbalanced in the V direction, and therefore
A given beam is subjected to a certain ap- an internal resisting force Vi equal to 25 lb.
plied bow-n loading. The beam reactions to hold must have existed on section a-a to produce
the beam in static equilibrium are then calcu- equilibrium of forces in the V directlon. Fig.
lated by the necessary equations of static equi- A5.3 shows the resisting shear force, Vi q
librium, namely: - 25 lb, which must exist for equillbrlum.
zv = 0, or the algebraic sumunatlon of all verti- Considering ZM = 0 in Fig. A5.3, take
cal forces equals zero. moments about some point 0 on section a-a,
M= 0, or the algebraic summation of all hori- mo = - 75 x 15 + 100 x 5 = - 625 in.lb.(2)
zontal forces equals zero.
ZM= 0, or the algebraic summation of all the or an unbalanced moment of - 625 tends to ro-
moments equal? zero. tate the portion of the beam about sectlon a-a.
A counteracting resisting moment M - 625 must
With the entire beam In static equilibrium, exist on section a-a to provlde equilibrium.
it follows that every portion of the beam must Fig. A5.4 shows the free body with the Vi and
likewise be In static equilibrium. Now consider
the beam In Fig. A5.1. The &own applied load Mi acting.
Now ZH must equal zero. The external
of P = 100 lb. is held In equilibrium by the two forces as well as the Internal resisting shear
reactions of 25 and 75 lbs. as shown and are
(Beam weight is Vi have no horizontal components. Therefore,
calculated from simple statics.
neglected In this problem). Now consider the the internal forces producing the resisting
beam as cut at sectlon a-a and consider the moment Ml must be such as to have no horlzontal

A5.1
A5.2 BEAMS -- SHEA AND MOMENTS

unbalanced force, which means that the resistlng

moment Mi in the form of a couple, as shown in
Fig. A5.5, or Mi = Cd or Td and T must equal C
to make ZH - 0.
The tendency of the loads and reactions
acting on a beam to shear or move one portlon of
a beam up or down relative to the adjacent por-
Fig. A5.6
tion of the beam is called the External Vertical
Shear, or commonly referred to as the beam Vert-
ical Shear and Is represented by the term V. Calculations for Shear Diagram: -
From equation (l), the Vertical Shear at We start at the left end of the beam.
any sectlon of a beam can be defined as the al- Considering a section just to the right of the
gebraic sum of all the forces and reactions 500 lb. load, or section 1-1, and conskdering
acting to one slde of the section at which the the portion to the left of the section, the
shear is desired. If the portion of the beam to Vertical Shear at l-l = ZV =-500 (negative,
the left of the section tends to move up rela- down on left.)
tive to the right portion, the sign of the + 610 lb. + 610 lb.
Vertical Shear Is taken as positive shear and
00 lb.
negatlve if the tendency is opposite. Or in
other words, if the algebraic sum of the forces
is up on the left or down on the right side,
then the Vertical Shear Is positive, and nega-
tlve for down on the left and up on the right.
Fig. A5.7 (Shear Diagram)
From equation (Z), the Bending Moment at
any section of a beam can be deflned as the al-
gebralc sum of the moments of all the forces 0 0
acting to either slde of the section about the
section. If this bending moment tends to pro-
duce compression (shortening) of the upper flb- -2000 i&lb.
ers and tension (stretching) of the lower fibers Fig. A5.8 (Bending Moment Diagram)
of the beam, the bendlng moment is classed as a Next, consider section 2-2, just to lert or
posltlve bending moment, and negatlve for the reactlon RA.
reverse condition.
ZV - - 500, or same as at section l-l.
A5.4 Shear and Moment Diagrams. Next, consider section 3-3, just to right or
In aircraft design, a large proportion of
RA.
the beams are tapered in depth and section, and
also carry a variable distributed load. Thus, zv = - 500 + 1110 = 610 (positive, up on
to design or check the various sectlons of such left side of section).
besms, it Is necessary to have a complete plc-
Next, consider section 4-4, just to left of
ture as to the value of the vertical shear and 1000 load.
bending moment at all SeCtIOnS along the beam.
If these values are plotted as ordinates from a ZV = - 500 + 1110 = 610 (same as at
base line, the resulting curves are referred to section 3-3).
as Shear and Moment diagrams. A few example Section 5-5, to right of 1000 load:
Shear and Moment diagrams will be plotted, to ‘xv = - 500 + 1110 - 1000 = - 390 (down
refresh the students howledge regarding these on left).
diagrams.
Check this shear at section 5-5 by using the
Example Problem 1. portion of the beam to the right of 5-5 as a
Draw a shear and bending moment diagram for free body.
the beam shown In Flg. A5.6. Neglect the weight zv q - 300 + 690 = 390, which checks
of the beam. (sign of shear Is minus, because ZV is up on
In general, the first step is to determlne right). Section 6-6, use the portion to right
the reactions. as a free body:
To find RB, take moments about polnt A. zv = - 300 + 690 = 390 (minus shear).
mA = - 4 x 500 + 1000 X 5 + 300 X 13 - 1ORR = 0 Section 7-7:
hence RR - 690 lb.
cv = - 500 + RA - 1000 - 300 + 690 = 0 zv = - 300 (posltlve shear, down on right)
hence RA q 1110 lb.
Section 8-8: V, = 270 - 10x, and hence, the shear de-
creases at aconstant rate of 10 lb./in. from 270
C’J = - 300 (positive shear).
at A to 180 at C.
Fi&. A5.7 shows the plotted values on the shear The vertical shear at section D, just to
diagram. the right of load is,
Calculation of the Moment Diagram. VD = ZVleft = 270 - 10 x 9 - 120 = 60 up,
Start at section l-1, and consider the or positive.
forces to the left only:
El = - 500 x 0 = 0 i- “’ _l~o#=p~ = 10 lb. /in.
I
Since sections 2-2 and 3-3 are only a differen- llrlrllllll
A ‘ri’rl
tial distance apart, assume a section just above
RA and consider the forces on the left side only
Fig. A5.9
-----i$RBiZlO
,TJl=- 500 x 4 = - 2000 in. lb. (Negative 270 lb.
moment.,, because of tension in the top fibers).
Consider, the section under the 1000 in. lb. load!
m to left q - 500 x 9 + 1110 x 5 = 1050 in.
lb. (positive moment, compressing the top -210 lb.
flbcs).
C!?eck by considering the forces to the right:
CT; right = 300 x 8 - 590 x 5 = - 1050 in.lb. Moment Diagram ’
:\ ext. , consider a section over RR:
. right = 300 x 3 = 900 in.
PA< lb. (Negative The vertical shear between points D and B, when
momer:t,, tension in top fibers). x is the distance of any section between D and
At Section 8-8: B from A:

M right = 300 x 0 = 0 VDB = 270 _ 120 _ 10~ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - (1)

r’ig. A5.8 shows the plotted values. At point B, x = 36:
From the above res;;lts it may be noticed hence VB = 270 - 120 - 10 x 36 = - 210 lb.,
that ;3ien the bendlng moment is obtained from which checks the reactlon RB.
the forces tnat lie to thz le:‘t of any section, Since the Vertical Shear decreases at a
the bend trig moment :s positive when it is clock- rate of 10 lb/in. from C to B, It will be 6”
wise * If obtained from th!? fc,r~cs to the right, from D to a point where the shear is zero, Since
it 1s positive, :ik,eri counter-cloc&vise. The the shear at D is 60 lb.
student should sketch In the apnroximate shape This point could also be located by equa-
of the deflectcd structure and cieteImine t’ne tinr: equation (1) to zero and solving for x as
signs from whether t,ension or ccxprossion exists follows:
in the upper -nd lower f Ibex.
0 = 270 - 120 - lox, or x = g = 15” from
Example Problem 2 A.
Calculcite c;nd draw the shenr and moment I If the shear dia;r,ra.m has passed through
diagrams f?r the beam and loading as shown in zero under the concentrated load, then the
Fig. A5.9. method of equating the shear equation to zero
First, determine the reactions, RA and RB: - and solving for x could not be used, thus in
general, it is best to draw a shear diagram to
ZQ = 36 X 10 X 18 + 120 x 9 - 36R~ = 0.
find when shear is zero. Fig. A5.10 shows the
hence RR = 210 lb.
plotted shear diagram.
xv = - 120 - 36 x 10 + 210 + R* = 0.
hence RA = 2’70 lb. Eoment Diagram: -
At section A just to the right of reaction
Shear Diagram: - RA the bending moment, considering the forces to
The vertical shear just to the right of the the left, is zero, since the arm of RA IS zero.
reaction at A is equal to 270 up, or positive. The bending moment at any section between
This is plotted as line AE in Fig. k5.10. The A and C, at a distance x from the I.eft reaction
vertical shear at section C just to the left of RA, is,
the load and considering the forces to the left
of the section = :YO - 9 x 10 = 180 lb. up, or MX
=RAx-g ---- - --------- (2)
positive. The ver-tic-t? shear for any section
between A and C at a distance x from A is: In equation (a), x can not be greater than
9.
A5.4 BEAMS -- SHEA

The equation for the bending moment between M* XZ

D and B (x greater than 9) is cm- VdX
Ml Xl
=RAX-p (x-9) 2I!I _-------- (3) I I
MX d
Thus, the area of the shear diagram between any
1oxa two points equals the change in bending moment
= 270 x - 120 (x-9) - 2 - - - - - -
between these two points.
To illustrate this relatlonship, consider
q 1080 + 150 x - 5x= - - - - - - - - - (4)
the shear diagram in example problem-2 (Fig.
At section C, x = 9”, substitute in equation (4) A5.10). The change in bending moment between
the left reaction RA and the load is equal to
M, = 1080 + 150 x 9 - 5 x 9’ = 2025 in.lb. the area of the shear diagram between these two
(positive, compresslon in top fibers). points, or
At the point of zero shear, x = 15”. 270 + 180
x9 = 2025 in.lb. Since the bending
M = 1980 + 150 x 15 - 5 x 15a = 2205 2
moment at the left support is zero, this change
Thus, by substituting In equation (2) and therefore equals the true moment at a section
(4) the moment diagram as plotted In Fig. A5.11 under the load P.
is obtained. Addlng to this the area of the small trl-
angle between point D and the point of zero
A5.5 Section of Maximum Bending Moment.
The general expression for the bending mo- shear, or F x 6 = 180, we obtain 2205 in.lb.
ment on the beam of example problem 2 is from as the maximum moment. This can be checked by
equation (3) : taking the area of the shear diagram between
the point of zero shear and point B =
MX = RAx - P (x-9) - T 210
2 x 21 = 2205 in. lb.
Now, the value of x that will make Mx a
maximum or minimum is the value that will make Example Problem 3.
the first derivative of M, with respect to x Fig. A5.12 Illustrates a landlng gear
._ oleo
equal to zero, or strut ADEO braced by struts BD and GE. A land-
Ing ground load of 15000 lb. is applied through
the wheel axle as shown. Let it be required to
dMX=R -p-m _____________ (5) find the axial load In all members and the shear
dx A
and bending moment diar_sram for the oleo strut.
Therefore, the value of x that will make M, a
maximum or minimum may be found from the equatioi

RA-P-WX=O

But, observation of this equation indicates

that the term Ra - P - wx is the shear for the
section at a distance x from the left reactlon.
Therefore, where the shear is zero, the bendlng
moment Is maximum. Thus, the shear diagram 16”
which shows where the shear is zero is a con-
venient medium for locating the points of maxl- Pins at Points B,
mum bendlng moment. C, E. No Vertical 15000 lb. i
Resistance at Point 16”
A5.6 Relation Between Shear and Bending Moment. A.

Equation (5) can also be wrltten g = V,

since the right hand portion of equation (5) is
equal to the shear.

Hence, m = V& _ _ - - - - _ _ _ _ - - _ - (6) SOLUTION: -

To find V, take moments about point B,

Which means that the difference dM between rsl, = - 15000 x 0.5 x 42 + 15000 x 0.866 x 5.77
the bending moments at two sections that are a + 20.77 V, = 0.
distance dx apart, is equal to the area Vdx hence, V, = 11550 lb.
under the shear curve between the two sections.
Thus, for two sections x1 and x,, The axial load In member CE therefore equals
 A5.5

11550/cos 30' or 13330 lb. :. Hc = 11550x15/26 /--=77-a Bracket ..

= 6660
To find HA take moments about point D,

mD = 11550 x 15 - 6660 x 10 - 15000 x 0.5 x 32

+ 10 HA = 0.
hence, HA = 1334-O lb.
To find VR take CFV = 0,
Fig. AS. 14
ZFV - 15000 cos 3o” + 11550 - v* - 0.
hence, VR = 24550 lb.
The axial load in member BD therefore equals
2455o/cos 3o" = 28360 lb. (compression). The SOLUTION: -
reaction HB therefore equals 28360 x sin 30 =
Calculations of rn?ctIons a% PI Ind E: -
14180 lb. To find VB take mom?r:t;s r;bout point ,“.,
Fig. A5.13 shows the oleo strut as a free
body with the reactions at A, D and E as calcu- ZIQ = - 5oc x 7 - 500 x r: + InO0 x 20 + 1LJOti x
lated. Fig. A5.13 also shows the axial load, sin 45’ x 10 + 1000 co?: 45’ x :‘ - 2;: Vn = 0.
vertical shear and bendlng moment diagrams. hence, VB = 999.Y JL,. (II!)).
The bending moments due to applied loads
without regard to bending deformation of the To find ‘Jr: take ):V = 0,
beam are usually referred to as the primary ZV = 999.3 - liJ()(i - iW0 :;iTl 4.5' - !bX + V), = 0.
bending moments. If a member carries axial hence, V!> = lZ07.:: !.b. (ill>j.
loads additional bending moments will be pro-
To find HB <Jk.? TIT il = u
duced due to the axial loads times the lateral
deflection of the beam, and these bending mo- ZH = - 500 + loo0 cr;~ 45” -‘Ii B = 0, hence
ments are usually referred to as secondary bend- HB = 207 . 1~.
ing moments. (Arts. A23-30 covers the calcula- With the exceptiSTr. of thp ;000 lb. LoaS at 45’)
tion of secondary moments). all loads are applied to bracket,s wh?:-h in
turn are fastened to the bean. There fore the
next step is to find titi- reaction Pf tl!e loaded
13340
brackets at the !:(:a~ cent+rl~inn :-:~;);~or-t points.
6660 I The load at E and t’r.~ rc?;-!CtiOt! KI; lit, R ‘8jll br:
t, &
*1155o g: L’I!JD” * also referred to h<:a”;. center:tine.
I
Fig. Jy5.15 (a,b ,c,d) show the cantilever
16 --+- 16 10 4 brackets as free bodies. The reaction:> at ti;e
base of these cantilevers will be determined.
Axial Load These reactions reversed wiI-1 t,hi::l tie the app.Lied
Diagram loads to the beam at polrlt:: C: ii, F ;ind E.
=Compression

Bending
Moment
Diagram Fig. a Fig. b Fig. c Fig. d
Fig. A5. 15
-133440 in. lb.

EXarnple Problem 4. For bracket at C, tc! f?nd HC take M = 0,

Fin. A5.14 shows a beam loaded with both or obviously HC = 500 15. In lllcfi manner use
transveFse and longitudional loads. This beam ZV = 0 to find Vr” = 500 lb. To f’ln~l 1% take
loading is typical of interior beams in the air- moments about point C. MC = - 500 x 2 + 500 x
plane fuselage which support all kinds of fixed 8 - MC = 0, hence KX
equipment. The reactions for the beam are at .I = 3000 ir! . II:. The student,
points A and B. Required: - Shear ahd bending should check the react;ions at the base of the
moment diagrams. cantilever brackets at i) and F (See F’~E. b,c).
A5.6 BEAMS -- SHEAR AND MOMENTS

The load of 1000 at 115’ and applied at. point E” have maximum peak moments without the Vertical
will be referred to goin+ E the centerline of Shear passing through zero. To illustrate
beam. Fig, d shows the reaction at E due to the this fact, consider the beam of Fig. A5.20,
load at E’ . The react?oc at B should also be namely, a simple supported beam with an ex-
referred to the beam centerline. Fig. A5.16 ternally applied couple moment of 10 in. 111.
shows the beam witi the a;>clied loads at points maignitude at point C the center point of the
C D E’ F and B’ . F’,[;s. k5.17, 1.8 and 19 show beam. The shear and bending moment diagrams
the axial load, vertical shear and bending mo- are as indicated and a maximum bondin? moment
ment diagrams under ‘;hc beam loadino: of Fig. occurs at C but the shear diaerarn Goes not pass
A5.16. through zero.

999.3
I Fig. A5. I.6
5”#
A Bending
Fig. A5.2-
-7g7.17.e$llLoad Dia. -5”# Moment Dia.
-500 lb.
Fig. A5.171~ ‘1 o I
‘707.8 lb. A couple is two equal and opposite forces
not in the same straight line. Let it’ be as-
sumed that the 10 in. lb. couple is made up of
forces equal to 100 lb. each and an arm between
them of 0.1 inch as illustrated in Fig. A5.21.

Fig. A5. 19 -2084.4

The shear diagram is determined in the same

manner as explained before D The applied exter- The shear diagram is as shown in Fig. AS.21 and
nal couples do not enter into the vertical sheer n.ow passes through zero under each of the couple
calculations. The bending moment diagram can be forces. Thus if we assume the couple moment has
calculated by taking the algebraic sum of all a dx arm the shear to the right of C is one lb.
couples and moments of all forces lying to the and then changes to some unknown negatlve value
one side of a particular section. if it :T do- and then back to one lb. positive as the dist-
sired to use the area of the shear dingr:ir, to ance dx is covered in going to the left. Thus
obtain the bending moments, it is necessary to the shear goes to zero twice in the region of
add the couple moments to the shear areas to ob- point C.
taln the true bending moment. For example, the
bending moment just to the left of point E will A5.7 Moment Diagrams as Made up of Parts.
be equal in magnitude to the area of the shear In calculating the deflection of statically
diagram between C and E plus the sum of all ap- determinate beams (See Chapter A7) and solving
plied couple moments between C and E but not in- statlcally indeterminate structures (See Chapter
cluding that at E. A8), the area under the bendlnq moment curve is
To illustrate the calculations are: - required, thus it Is often convenient to treat
(- 500 x 5) f (707.8 x 10) = 4578 in. lb. (from each load and reaction as a separate acting
area of shear diagram). force and draw the moment diagram for each force,
(3000 - 4000) = - 1000 in. lb. (from sum of The true bending moment at a particular point
couple moments). will then equal the algebraic summation of the
Thus bending moment at E = 4578 - 1000 = ordinates of all the various moment curves at
3578 In. lb. left this particular point or adding the various
separate moment diagrams will give the true
The bending moment at Eright Will equal that at bending moment diagram. Figs. A5.22 and A5.23
Elept plus the couple moment at E or 3578 + 707 illustrate the drawing of the bending moment
diagram in parts. In these examples, we Start
= 4285 in. lb. from the left end and proceed to the right end
The student should realize that when couple and draw the moment curve for each force as
moments are applied to a beam it is possible to though the bean was a cantilever with the fixed
 A5.7

at B and thus leaving only 3 unknown elements

P=lO# of the reaction at B. Fig. A5.25 shows the
w=IO lb/in. bending moment curves for each load acting sep-
1
arately on this cant ilever- frame. Fig. 85.26
km=** shows the true benching moment as t.he summatiarl
RI= :lOO lb. R,=lOO 2
Due ti P of the various moment curves of Fig. A5.25.
Du@ to R
#../--1500 +
j-120 As another solution of this fixed ended
in. lb.
Due to F- Due to-620 .- frame, one could assume the statically deter-
p =1000 mina.to modification as a frame pinned at I. and
Due ti PZ -v500 Due to? - piraed with rollers at B as ill.&strated in Fjyp*
= wx +-500
“/, A5,27. This assumed structure is statically
500 determinate because there Pa =lO
_/--- are only 3 unknown elements,
Final Moment Dia. Final Moment CUiVe
namely the magnitude and di- P> =lO
rection of the reaction at L
Fig. A5.23 P,=lO
Fig. A5. 22 and the maaitude of the re- 1
action at B. For c onven-
support at the right end. The final bending ience the reaction at A Is A B
Pin H~=20
moment curve for the true given beam then equals resolved lnto two magnitudes
the sum of these separate diagrams as illustra- as H and V components. The ii--+ A=10 A p20
ted in the f Igures. reactions VA, HA and VB can
Fig. AS. 27
then be found by statics and
STATIC MOMENTCURVES IN SOLVING STATICALLY the results are shown on Fig. A5.27. Fig. A5.28
shows the bending moment diagram on this frame
IN!Xi’ERMINATE STRUCTURE8 due to each load or reaction acting separately,
The usual procedure in Solving a statically starting at A and going clockwise to B. Fig.
indeterminate structure is to first make the A5.29 shows the true bending moment diagram a.s
structure statically determinate by removing the the summation of the separate diagrams.
necessary redundant or unknown reactions and T-506 -Due to P,
then calculating the deflection of this assumed -COB-60
statically determinate structure as one step in ps? d=-G~-100
the overall solution of the problem (See Chapter
A8). In the solution of such structures it is -60 2:t01Due240240 -100 -60 -50
likewise convenient to treat the bending moment
diagram as made up of parts. To illustrate,
Fig. A5.24 shows a loaded rectangular frame
fixed at polnts A and B. The reactions at both

Fig. A5.28

in. lb.
Final Bending
Moment Diagram
(Tension on inside
of frame is posi-
tive moment)

Fig. A5. 29

A5.8 Forces at a Section in Terms of Forces at a

Previous Station.
STRAIGHT BEAMS.
points A and B are unknown in magnitude, di- Aircraft structures present many beams
rection and location, or each reaction has 3 un- which carry a varying distributed load. Mini-
known elements or a total of 6 unknowns for the mum structural weight is of paramount importance
two reactions. With 3 static equilibrium in aircraft structural design thus it is de-
equations available, the structure is statically sirable to have the complete bending moment
indetermlnate to the third degree. Fig. A5.25 diagram for the structure so that each portion
illustrates one manner in which the structure of the structure can be proportioned efflc-
can be made statically determinate, by freeing iently. To decrease the amount of numerical
the end A to make a bent cantilever beam fixed work required in obtaining the complete shear
A5.8 _----- BEAMS -- SHEAR AND MOMENTS
I

and bendin:‘. momelil, ~liai;r:ims it usually saves

the to e::pres:; t!;e sllenr 3ici. moment at a given
stat,lon in t,i:nms c:’ thi; she:ir and moment at a
previ 011s st:itLXI p?li:; t,hn effect of any loads
lying i)et:veen the::? two stations. To illustrate,
Fir:. A5.3) snow:: a czint I lever beam carrying a
ccnsiderahl e number -!! trznsverse loads F of dif-
ferent m:ir:nltlIdes. F?p.. A5.31 shows a free body

Fig. A5.32 Fig. A5.33

-4fik
Fig. As.30 Fig. A5. 31
Then from Fig. A5.33 we can write for the
resultant forces and moment at point (2) at
of the beam port: #,-I5etwoen stations 1 and 2. station 2: -
The Vertical Shi:::r V, at station 1 equals the
s~umlation of till? f’On%S Lo the left of station 1 V* = VL + FL--8
and M, the beI;tiin[-, :llOIIlF.llt :;t, station 1 equals
the alyebr? I c sm ,cf the; moments of all forces H, = H, + b--a
lying to 1 cf !, i, 1 static,:1 1 abo:it station 1.
Now CJII:, :,lerlri,: st:~tI on 2: - The Vertical M, = M, + V,d - H,h + FLeaa - QL-&
Shear V, = V, +- F,-,, cr stated in words, the
Shear V, equal>; thti Shear at the previous sta- Having the resultant forces and moments for a
tion 1 plus the algebraic sum of all forces F given point on a given station, It is usually
lying between st:Ftion:: 1. and 2. Again consider- necessary in finding beam stresses to resolve
ing FI:. AS.Xt, t,!!e bending moment M, at station the forces into components normal and parallel
2 can bc wri t;I~.iJ::, I?; = M, .t V,d + F+,a, or to the beam cross-section and also transfer
strit,ed in WOIX:;, t.11~ b~llriir!~ moment M, at sta- their location to a point on the neutral axis
of the beam cross-section.
tion ‘- Is. l?$K!~ ;o tile bending moment M, at a
For example Fig. A5.34 shms the resultant
previous station 1, plus the Shear V at the
prev;ous statlon 3 time:; the arm d, the dist-
ancc between stations 1 and 2 plus the moments
of ~11. forces lyl.ng be.tween stations 1 and 2
about station 2.

A5.9 Equations for Curved Beams.

Many stru? t.:ral beams carry both longitud-
ional ant! transverse loads and also the beams
may be made of str-L;:ht elements to form a frame
or all beam elements ncry be cllrved to form a Fig. A5. 34 Fig. A5.35 Fig. A5.36
curved :‘lxile or r!n[‘;. For example the airplane
fuselage ring is a. curved beam sub jetted to
forces of varying magnitude and tilrection along
Its boundary due to the action of the fuselage
skin forces on the Crami:. Sine-; the complete
bending moment dla[ram is IEUI~~~ desirable, it forces and moment at point 1 of a beam cross-
Is des:rable to minimize the amount of numerical section. They can be resolved intO a nOIWk1
work In obta in! 11): t,iie comj~lete shear and bendlng force N and a shear force S plus a moment M L as
moment values. FIcc A5.32 shows a curved beam shown in Fig. A5.35 where,
loaded with a number of different vertical loads a + V a
N = H cos Sin
F and horlzcntal lo:ids Q. Fig. A5.33 shows the
beam portion 1-C cut out ~1s a free body. H, S = V cos a - H sin a
represents the resultant horizontal force at
stat1 on 1 and equals the algebraic summation of Later on when the beam section is being de-
all the Q forces to the left of station 1. V, signed It may be found that the neutml ax18
represents the resultant vertical force at lies at point 0 instead of point 1. Fig.
station 1 and equals the sum of all F forces to AS.36 shows the forces and moments referred to
left of statldn 1, and M, equals the bending point 0, with M, being equal to MI - Ne.
moment about point (1) on station I due to the
moments of all forces lying to the left of
point 1.
A5.10 Torsional Moments.
The loads which cause only bendlng of a
beam are located so that their line of actlon
passes through the flexural axis of the beam.
Quite often, the loading on a beam does not act
through th? flexural axis of the beam and thus
the beam undergoes both bending and tWl8tlng.
The moments which cause the twisting action are
usually referred to as torsional moments. The
airplane wing is an excellent example of a beam
structure that is subjected to combined bending
and torslon. Since the center of pressure of
the airfoll forces changes with angle of attack,
and since there are many flight condltlons It Is
impossible to eliminate torsional moments under
all conditions of flight and landlng. For the
fuselage, the Vertical tall surfaces is norm-
ally located above the fuselage and thus a load
on this tall unit causes combined bending and
twisting of the fuselage.
Fig. A5.34 illustrates a cantilever tube
being subjected to a load P acting at polnt A on
a flttlng attached to the tube end. The flex-

r@f q&f
P velocity with the maneuverlng llmlted to certain
Fig. A5. 34 Fig. A5. 35 maximum accelerations. These llmltlng acceler-
ations are usually specified with reference to
ural axis colncldes wlth the tube centerline, or the X Y Z axes of the airplane. Since the dl-
axis l-1. Flg. A5.35 shows the load P being rectlons of the lift and drag forces change with
moved to the point (0) on the tube axis 1-1, angle of attack It Is simpler and convenient In
however the original force P had a moment about stress analySlS to resolve all forces with ref-
(0) equal to PI-, thus the moment Pr must be erence to the X Y Z axes which remain fixed :n
added to the load P acting at (0) if the force direction relative to the airplane.
system at polnt (0) is to be equlvalent to the As a tlme saving element in wlng stress
orlglnal force P at point A. The force P acting analysls, It is customary t 0 make unit load an-
through (0) causes bendlng wlthout twist and the alysls for wing shears and moments, The wlng
moment Pr causes twlstlng only. shears and moments for any design condltlon
For the resolution of moments into varlous then follows as a matter of simple proportion
resultant planes of action, the student should and addition. For example It is customary: -
refer to any textbook on statics.
(1) To assume a total arbitrary unit lozd act-
A5.11 Shears and Moments on Wing. lng on the winq in the: % :lirsction through i
Arts. Ah.5 and A4.6 of Chapter A4 discusses the aerodynamic csrit,er of th 1 ‘.ir!‘oil
the airloads on the wing and the equillbrlum of section and distributed spanwise accor,ding
the airplane as a whole In flight. As explaln- to that of the CL or lift coefficient.
ed, It Is customary to replace the distributed (2) A slmllar total load as in (1) but acting
air forces on an alrfoll by two resultant In the X dlrectlon.
forces, namely, lift and drag forces acting
through the aerodynamic center of the alrfoll (3) To assume a total unlt wing load acting in
plus a wing moment. The airflow around a wing the Z dlrectlon through the aerodynamic
is not uniform in the spanwlse directlon, thus center and distrlbuted spanwlse azcordlng
the alrfoll force coefficients CL, CD and CM to that of the CD or drag coefflclent.
vary spanwlse along the wlng. Flg. A5.36 shows (4) Same as (3) but acting In the X directlon.
a typical spanwlse varlatlon of the CL and CD
force coefficients In terms of a uniform span- (5) To assume a unlt total wlng moment and
wlse varlatlon CL and CD. distributed spanwlse according to that of
lJhe $.c or moment coefficient.
Any particular type of airplane Is designed
to carry out a certain job or duty and to do The above unit load condltlons are for con-
that job requlres a certain maximum airplane dltIons of acceleration In translatlon of the
 A5.10 BEAMS -- SHEAR AND MOMENTS
I
alrplane as a rigld body. Unit load analyses ratio or the spanwise variation of the lift
are also made for angular accelerations of the coefflclent C In terms of a uniform dlstribu-
airplane which can also occur In fl:ght and tion EL. In k his example we have taken this
land!ng maneuvers. rat10 as unity since we h.alie no wind Wnnel or
The subject of the calculation of loads on aerodynamic calculations for this wing relative
the airplane is far too large to cover in a to the spanwlse distribution of the lift force
structures book. This subject is usually cover- coefficient. In an actual problem involving an
ed in a separate course in most aeronautical airplane a curve such as that given In Fig.
curricula after a student has had initial A5.36 would be available and the values to
courses In aerodynamics and structures. To II- place in Column 3 of Table A5.1 would be read
lustrate the type of problem that is encountered from such a curve. column (2) gives the wing
in the calculation of the applied loads on the chord length at each statlon. Column (4)
airplane, simplified problems concerning the gives the wing running load per Inch of span
wlng and fuselage will be given. at each station polnt. Since a total unit
load of 17760 lb. was assumed acting on the
A5.12 Example Problem of Calculating Wing Shears and half wing and since the wing area is 17760 sq.
Moments for One Unit Load Condition. in., the running load per inch at any station
Fig. A5.37 shows the half wing planform of equals the wing chord length at that StatiOn.
a cantilever wing. Fig. A5.38 shows a wing In order to find shears and moments at the
section at station 0. The reference Y axis has varlnus station polnts, the distributed load Is
been taken as the 40 percent chord line which now broken down into concentrated loads which
happens to be a straight line in this particular are equal to the distributed load on a strip
wing layout. and this concentrated strip load Is taken as
acting through the center of gravity of this
distributed strip load. Columns 5, 6, and 7
show the calculations for determining the
(APs) strip loads. Column 8 shows the lo-
cation of the APs load which is at the centrold
Area = 17760 sq. in. of a trapezoidal distributed load whose end
values are given in Column (4). In determin-
g6” g d40% of chord line isstraight _ t+ 48,, Ing these centrold locations 1t is convenient
to use Table A3.4 of Chapter A3.
The values of the shear V, and the mo-
ment Mx at each station are calculated by the
method explained in Art. A5.8. Columns 9, 10,
11 and 12 of Table A5.1 give the calculations.
For example, the value of Mx = 9884 in Col-
/ IZ Ref.Axis umn (12) for station 220equals 2436, the Mx
/
moment at the previous station in Column (12)
plus 4908 in Column (10) which Is the shear
at the previous station (230) times the dlst-
ante 10 Inches plus the moment 2540 in Column
(9) due to the strip load between stations
t--kk,“,“” + Fig.AS. 38 230 and 220, which gives a total of 9884 the
value in Column (12).
The strip loads AP, act through the
The total wing area Is 17760 sq. in. For aerodynamic center (a.c.) of each airfoil Strip.
convenience a total unit distributed load of Column (13) and (14) give the x arms which iS
17760 lbs. will be assumed acting on the half the distance from the 8.c. to the reference Y
wing and acting upward In the Z dlrectlon and axis. (See Fig. A5.38). Column 15 gives the
through the alrfoil aerodynamic center. The M moment for each strip load and Column 16
spanwise distribution of this load will be ac- t ?ie My moment at the various statlons which
cording to the (CL) lift coefficient spanwise equals the summation of the strip moments as
distribution. For simplicity In this example one progresses from statlon 240 to zero.
It will be assumed constant. Flg. A5.39 shows the results at Station
Table A5.1 shows the calculations In table (0) as taken from Table A5.1.
form for determining the (V,) the wing shear In
El
the 2 direction, the bending moment Mx or mo-
ment about the X axis and My the moment about
the Y axis for a number of stations between the
wing tip station 240 and the centerllne station
0.
Column 1 of the table shows the number of
stations selected. Column 3 shows the CL/C~
<My=214071
Fig. As.39
 A5.11

TABLE A5.1

CALCULATION OF WING SHEAR V, AND WING MOMENTS Mx AND My

DUE TO TOTAL UNIT DISTRIBUTED HALF WING LOAD OF 1’7780 LB&,
ACTING UPWARD IN Z DIRECTION AND APPLIED AT AERODYNAMIC
CENTERS OF WING SECTIONS. (See Fins. A5.31. 36 for Wma Lavout)
-
I
1 2 3 4 5 16 7 8

I I I

55

40 91.62

20 96.00 1.0
I I
0 196.001 1.0

When the time comes to design the structura: forces are the major forces. For the body load
make-up of a cross-section to withstand these analysis the direct air pressures are secondary,
applied shears and moments, the structural de- the major forces being of a concentrated nature
signer may wish to refer the forces to another in the form of loads or reactions from units
Y axis as for example one that passes through attached to the body, as the power plant, wing,
the shear center of the given section. This landing gear, tail, etc. In addition, since the
transfer of a force system with reference to an- body usually serves as the load carrying medium,
other set of axes presents no difficulty. important forces are produced on the body in re-
sisting the inertia forces of the weight of the
SHEARSAND MOMENTSON AIRPLANE BODY interior equipment, installations, pay load etc.
A5.13 Introduction.
As In the case of the wing, a large part
of the load analysis can be made without much
The body of an airplane acts essentially as consideration as to the structural analysis of
a beam and in some conditions of flight or land-
the body. The load analysis of an airplane body
ing as a beam column which may be also subjected
involves a large amount of calculation, and
to twisting or torsional forces. Thus to design thus the treatment in this chapter must be of a
an airplane body requires a complete picture of simplified nature, and is presented chiefly for
the shearing, bending, twisting and axial forces the purpose of showing the student In general
which may be encountered in flight or landing. how the problem of load analysis for an air-
In the load analysis for wlngs, the direct air plane body is approached.
A5.12 BEAMS -- SHEAR AND MOMENTS _l.l__

A5. 14 Design Conditions and Design Weights. A5.15 Body Weight and Balance Distribution.
The airplane body must be designed to with- The resisting inertia fcr‘o-s iiue to the
stand all loads from specified flight conditions dead weight of the body ?nd Its contents plays
for both maneuver and gust conditions. Since an important part in the load analysis for the
accelerations due to air gusts vary inversely airplane body. !&en the lni.tlal aerodynamic
as the airplane weight, it customary to analyze and general layout and arrangement of the air-
or check the body for a light load condition for plane is made, it Is necessary that a Complete
flight conditions. In general, the design weight and balance estimate of the airplane be
weights are specified by the government agen- made. This estimate is usua1l.y made by an en-
cies. For landing conditions, however, the gineer from the weight control section of the
normal gross weight Is used since it would be engineering department who has had experience
more critical than a lightly loaded condition. in estimatin- the weight and distribution of
The general design conditions which are airplane units. This estimate which is pre-
usually investigated in the design of the body sented in report form Elves the weights and
are as follows: (e.g.) locations of all major airplane units
or installations as well as for many of the
Flight Conditions:
minor units which make up these major airplane
H.A.A. (High angle of attack) assemblies or installations. This weight and
L.A.A. (Low angle of attack) balance report forms the basis for the dead
I.L.A.A. (Inverted low angle of attack) weight Inertia load analysis which forms an
I .H.A.A. (Inverted high angle of attack ) important part in the load analysis of the air-
The above conditions generally assume Only plane body. The use of this weight and balance
estimate will be illustrated in the example
translational acceleration. In addition, it is
sometlmes specified that the forces due to a problem to follow later.
certain angular acceleration of the airplane
A5.16 Load Analysis. Unit Analysis.
about the airplane c.g. must be considered.
The body is usually required to withstand Due to the many design conditions such as
special tail loads both symmetrical and unsym- those listed in Art. A5.14, the general pro-
metrical which may be produced by air gusts, cedure in the load analysis of an airplane body
engine forces, etc. Also, the body should be is to base it on a series of unit analyses.
checked for forces due to unsymmetrical air The loads for any particular deslgn condition
loads on the wing. then follows as a certain combination of the
unlt results with the proper multiplying fac-
Landing Conditions: tors. A simplified example problem follows
In general, the body is investigated for thl 9 which Illustrates this unit method of approach.
following landing conditions. The detailed re-
A5.17 Example Problem Illustrating the Calculation of
quirements for each condition are given in the
Shears and Moments on Fuselage Due tQ Unit
government specifications for both military and
Load Conditions.
commercial airplanes.
Flg. A5.40 and A5.41 shows a layout of the
Landplanes: Level landing. airplane body tobe used in this example prob-
Level landing with side load. lem. It happens to be the body of an actual
Three point landing. airplane and the wing used in the previous ex-
Three point landing wlth ample problem was the wing that went with the
ground loop. airplane .
Nose over or turn over
condition.
Arrestlng. (Usually for only
Navy Carrier based alr-
hrust Line
planes). I ---~___ - J!c@ef~i!Lxis~~~. .I
Seaplanes or Boats: SIC. G. (gross 7irwt. LA- -qr 0 / 11’2”
Step landing with and without c=m --=-
angular acceleration. Fig. A5. 40 ,
Bow landing . I
i
Stern landing.
Two wave landing.
Beachlng conditions.
Catapulting conditions (Navy
airplanes).
Special Conditions or Forces:
Towing of airplane. Front View I
Body supercharging. Fig. A5.41
20'-0"
 Table A5.2 gives the Weight and Balance TABLE A5.3
estimate for the total alrplane. This table is
usually formulated by the Weight and Balance WEIGHT AND BALANCE OF AIRPLANE LESS WING GROUP
AND INSTALLATIONS IN AND ON WING
Section of the engineering department and it is
necessary to have this information
airplane load analysis can be made.
before the
Ref. Axes: .!( zpropeller.
equal
x is
arm
distance
from thrust line.
from z Rel. Axis
, ig aft.
l

5" forward
18 up.

of

I
I
Weight lima.
Item NDme Arm
TABLE A5.2 w
x
AIRPLANE WEIGBT AND BALANCE Powerrllant Kroup 1100 19
Fuselage group 350 113.6
Vert. (Z) arms measured from thrust line Tall ~-OUD 110 261
(+ fs UP) Surf&e c&trols 85 127
Eoriz. (X) arm8 measured from Z axis 5” ElectrIcal system 130 61
t forward prop. 1 (+ is aft) Tail Wheel group 35 306
FurnishinEs 220 116
H0rk Horlr.. 1rert. Vert. Radio - 125 161
W’ Arm 1Moment Arm Mom.
Name wt. w Weight empty = I---- 21 5
I:w h. ) wx (Z) wz
pilot 200
power Plant 1100 19 20900 0 ::. Student 200
Fuselage Group 350 113.5 39700 35: Grows weight z Z l-m- 5
Wing Group 750 97 72750 -1; -19500
Tail Group 110 287 31550 24 2640 Empty i? = ‘z . 70.7” ‘i = ‘$i - 2.00"
Surface Controle 95 127 10800 -14 - 1190
Electrical Svstem 130 61 7930 4 510 With useful load P I s = 86.0~~ H s 5920 . 2.32"
ChaBSiS Front 235 70 16450 -52 -12200 2553
Tail Wheel Group 35 306 10700 -10 - 350
Furnishings 220 116 25520 5 1100
Radio 125 101 22600 10 1250
Weight empty - 3150 258900 -21360 weight distribution should study the inboard
Pilot 200 161 30200 4 800
Student 200 99 19800 600
profile drawing of the airplane which shows the
Fuel system 760 89 87600 -2: -20500 general arrangement of all the installations and
Gross weight = 376500 -40280
4300 equipment. Furthermore, he should study the
Calculation of C. G. locations: overall structural arrangement as to its possi-
Gross wt. x = 376500/4300 = 98.5" aft of Ref. Ma ble Influence on fuselage weight distribution,
z = -40260/4300 . 9.4” below thrust line
The whole process involves considerable common
sense if a good approximation to the weight dis-
SOLUTION: tributlon is to be obtained, Fortunately the
large dead weight loads, such as the power
WEIGHT AND BALANCE OF BODY ITEMS. plant, tail, etc. are definitely located, thus
WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION. small errors in the distribution of the minor
distrlbuted weights does not change the over-
Table A5.3 gives the weight and balance all shears and moments an appreciable amount.
calculations for all items attached to fuselage In order to obtain reasonable accuracy, the
or carried in the fuselage, except the wing and fuselage or body is divided into a series of
items attached to the wing as the front landing stations or sections. In Fig. A5.42, the sec-
gear and the fuel. tions selected are designed as stations which
In order to obtain a close approximation to represent the distance from the Z reference
the true shears and moments on the fuselage due axis. The general problem is to distribute the
to the dead weight inertia loads, it Is neces- concentrated loads as shown in Fig. A5.43 into
sary to distribute the weights of the various an equivalent system acting at the various
items as given In Table A5.3. Fig. A5.42 shows fuselage station points.
a side view of the airplane with the center of Obviously, if a weight item from Table A5.3,
gravlty locatlons of the weight items of Table represents a concentrated load such as a pilot,
A5.3 indicated by the (+) signs. In the various student, radio, etc., the welght can be dls-
design conditions, the direction of the weight tributed to adjacent station points inversely
inertia forces changes, thus it is convenient as the distance of the weight (c.g.) from these
and customary to resolve the inertia forces into adjacent stations. However, for a weight item
X and 2 components. Thus, in Fig. A5.43, the such as the fuselage structure (Item 2 of Table
welghts as given in Table A5.3 are assumed act- A5.3) whose c.g. location causes it to fall be-
ing in the Z direction through their (c.g.) lo- tween stations 80 and 120 of Fig. A5.43, it
cations. The loads as shown would not give a would obviously be wrong to distribute this
true picture as to the shears and moments along weight only to the two adjacent stations since
the fuselage, thus these loads should be dis- the weight of 350# is for the entire fuselage.
tributed in a manner which should simulate the This weight item of 350# should thus be dis-
actual weight distribution. In most weight and tributed to all station points. The COntrOlling
balance reports, the weight items are broken requirement on this distribution is that the
down into considerable more detail than that moment of the distributed system about the ref-
shown in Table A5.3, which makes the weight dls- erence axes must equal the moment of the orlg-
tribution more evident. The person making the inal weight about the same axes. Fig. A5.44
 A5.14 BEAMS -- SHEAR AND MOMENTS

WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION TO FUSELAGE STATIONS

1 STATION

L ;. A5.46. Weight items from Table A5.3 acting in X direction.

Fig. A5.42. Location of weight items of Table A5. 3.

Fig. A5.43. Weight items of Table A5. 3 acting in Z direction. Fig. A5.47. Vertical distribution of fuselage dead weight.

50 80 120 170 200 230 260 299 3; 11 50 80 120 170 200 230 260 290 315
0 11
I
I I I / / I l-d

~~~~~

iI I I II I I
Fig. A5.44. Results of fuselage weight distribution to stations ?ig. A5.48. Fuselage weight referred to X axis plus couples.

0:

Fig. A5.45. Final weight distribution to station points. Fig. A5.48. Final weight distribution in X direction referred
to X axis plus proper couples.
 A5.15

shows how the dead weight of 350# was distribu- manner as to have the same resultant c.g. lo-
ted to the various station points considering cation as the original weight system which is
the weights to be acting in the Z direction. illustrated in Fig. A5.46. Fig. A5.47 illus-
Table A5.4 shows the results of this sta- trates how the fuselage weight distributed
tion point weight distribution for the weight system as shown in Fig. A5.44 is distributed
items of Table A5.3. The values in the hori- in the vertical directIon at the various
zontal rows opposite each weight Item shows the station points so that the moment of this sys-
distribution to the various fuselage stations. tem about the X axis is equal to that of the
The summation of the welghts in each vertical original fuselage weight of 350#. For con-
column at each statlon point as given in the venience, these distributed fuselage weights
third horizontal row from the bottom of the can be transferred to the X axis plus a moment
table gives the final station point weight. as shown in Fig. A5.48.
These weights are shown In Fig. A5.45 for Table A5.4 shows the vertical distrlbutlon
weights acting in the Z direction. The moment of the various items at the various station
of each total station load about the Z axis is points. The bottom horIzonta1 row gives the
given in the second horizontal row from the moment about the X axes of the loads at each
bottom of Table A5.4. The summation of the station polnt, which equals the individual
moments in this row must equal the total wx loads times their Z distances. The summation
moments of Table A5.3 or 219700”#. This check of the values In this horizontal row must equal
is shown in the last vertical column of Table the total wz moment of Table A5.3. This check
A5.4. is shown at the bottom of the last vertical
The distributed system must also be distrl- column. Flg. A5.49 shows the results as given
buted in the Z or vertical direction in such a in Table A5.4 for the weight distribution In
the X directIon.

TABLE A5.4

1
A5.18 Unit Analysis for Fuselage Shears and Moments. (1) Unit acceleration or load factor in Z
Since there are many flight and landing direction and acting up.
conditions, conslderable time can be saved if a
(2) Unlt acceleration or load factor in X
unit analysis Is made for the fuselage shears,
axial and bending forces. The design values in direction and acting forward.
general then follow as a summation of the values down (3) Unit tall load normal to X axis acting
in the unit analysis times a proper multlplica- .
tlon factor.
The loads on the fuselage in general con- Unit analyses are alSO usually carried out
sists of tail loads, engine loads, wing re- for engine thrust and engine torque, side load
actions, landing gear reactIons if attached to on tail and angular acceleration, but to keep
fuselage and inertia forces due to the alrplane the example calculations from becoming too
acceleration which may be due to both transla- lengthy only the above 3 unit conditions will
tional and angular acceleration of the airplane. be carried out in detail. The others will be
For simplicity, these loads can be resolved IntO discussed in detail In later paragraphs.
components parallel to the Z and X axes.
To illustrate the unit analysis procedure, ~ Solution for Unit Load Factor in Z Direction.
a unit analysis for our example problem will be
carried out for the following unit conditions: 1 Fig. A5.50 shows the dead welght loads
 A5.16 BEAMS -- SHEAR AND MOMENTS

acting in the Z direction as taken from Table

A5.4 or Fig. A5.45. The wing is attached to the
fuselage at stations 73 and 116 as shown on Fig.
A5.50. The fittings at these points are assumed
as designed to cause all the drag or reaction in
the X direction to be taken off entirely at the
front fitting on station 73.
To place the fuselage in equilibrium, the
wing reaction will be calculated:

ZFX = 0, RR + 0 = 0, hence RR = 0
%tatlon 0 = 219700 - 116 RR - 73 RF = 0-- (A)
(Note: 219700 from Table A5.3)
ZF, = - 2555 + RF + RR = 0 - - - - - - - -- (B)

Solving equations (A) and (B) for RF and

RR:

RF = 1780 lb., RR = 775 lb.

Table A5.5 gives the calculations for the

fuselage shears and bending moments at the var-
lous statlon points.
sta.0 11 50 60 120 170 200 230 260 290 315

Fig. A5.50
STA. 73 STA. 116

Solution for Unit Load Factor in X Direction.

Fig. A5.51 shows the panel point dead

weight distribution for loads acting in the X
direction and aft, as taken from Table A5.4 or er fuselage portion is negative bending
Fig. A5.40. To place the fuselage in equili-
brium the wing reactions at points (A) and (B) o aft side of station.
will be calculated. o forward side of station.
previous station in col. 6 plus AM in col. 5.
ZFx = 2555 - RH q 0, hence RR = 2555lb.(forward) I

Take moments about point (A)

ZMA = 2555 X 17 + 5920 - 43 RR = 0,
hence RR - 1147.8 (up)

(5920 equals the sum of the couples from Table

A5.4.

he% &1?ii718R?bI ;;OWIl) Fig. A5.51

STA. 73 STA. 116
Table A5.6 gives the CalCUlatiOnS for the shears,
moments and axial loads for the loading of Fig.
A5.51.
 A5.17

I FUSELAGE SHEARS, MOMENTS 0 AxlAL LOADS FOR

TABLE A5.6 TABLE A5.7

ONE LOAD FACTOR-____

fh’ X DIRECTION FUSELAGE SHEARS 81 MOMENTS FOR UNIT
hertm Loads Acting Aft HORIZONTAL TAIL LOAD IN Z DIRECTION
1 2 3 4 - 5 6 1 8 9- (Load Acting Down)
AX =
z AMl=
Dkd. AM2 =
M 1 2 3 4 5 6
zz;;, between VAX
Station
Load or V - shear AX r dist. a M Moment
sta. Reaction ‘ZW between = V A x in. lbs.
w lbs. lbs. stations
I
3
+ 0 0
315 _ 0 0 ” 0
25
0 0
230 ' ,; 0
3 290 ; 0o 0 0 0
3
30
12.5
200 l ,; 0
3
3
0 0
30 272.5 ! -,,; 100 0 0
’
170 - 3110 0
247
0
0 3
3
17.5
556 - 1650
50
100 - 1750
556 0 3 260 ; 8 100 - 1750 - 1750
0 0
961 i
- 662
30
5 0 100 - 4750
1116 II :I 1147.*/ Fl I -1147.6 I 0 I 5 230 ; 0 100 - 3000 - 4750
I I I I
- I I 36
80 ' 0 0 961 -1141.6 5
- 301 0 1214 -1147.6 - 158 1
1
2
1 ',a 11 255;/-114'L;! -:;;: 1 -1147': 1 -4343;j 23 I

7
9

9
0

l : 17 x (2555) = 43435
+ refers to aIt side of station
Cal. 1 - refers to forward side of station
PX is plus
for tens1on in fuselage.
36
(Col. 9) M = M at previous station in Col. 9. plus AM1 of col. 6 plus
of col. 8 AM2

Solution for Unit Horizontal Tail Load Acting Down.

The fuselage shears and moments will be

computed for a unit tail load of 100 lb. on the
tail acting in the Z direction, with balancing I I I
reactions at the wing attachment points. The
center of pressure on the horizontal
station 277.5. Fig. A5.52 shows the fuselage
tail is at 11t/ :I I
8 /
(Col. 6) = M = M at previous station in Col. 6 plus
loading. To find wing reactions at (A) 2nd (B): AM in Col. 5.
mA = 100 x (277.5 - 73) - 43 RR = 0,
hence RR = 475.6# (up)
CALCULATION OF APPLIED FUSELAGESHEARS,
ZFz - - 100 + 475.6 - RF - 0, MOMENTSAND AXIAL LOADS FOR A SPECIFIC
hence RF = 375.6# (down)
FLIGHT CONDITION.
Table A5.7 gives the detailed calculations
for the shears and moments at the various sta- Using the results in Tables A5.5, A5.6, and
tion points. A5.7, the applied shears and moments for a given
200 230 260 flight condition follow as a matter of propor-
tion and addition. To illustrate, the applied
values for one flight condition will be given.
It will be assumed that the aerodynamic
calculations for this airplane for the (H.A.A.)
high angle of attack condition gave the follow-
ing results, which the student will have to
accept wlthout knowledge of how they were
obtained.
Fig. A5. 52
I
STA. ‘73 STA. 116
A5.18 BEAMS -- SHEA ND MOMENTS

Applied load factor in Z direction = - 6.0

down
Applied load factor in X direction = 1.333 aft.

Applied tail load = 110 lb. up.

Thus with the load factors in the Z and X

directions and the tail load known, Table A5.8
can be filled in as illustrated. In a similar Fig. A5,53
manner the values for other flight conditions
can be found, the only difference being a new
set of multlplying factors since the applied
loads would be different.

r
APPLIED FUSELAGL SHEARS, MOMENTS & AXIAL LOADS FOR
The resistance to these X and Z components
2f the ground reaction R is provided by the in-
:rtla forces of the airplane in the X and Z di-
rect i ons .
Tables A5.5 and A5.6 show the fuselage
shears, moments and axial loads for Inertia
loads due to one load factor In the Z and X
jlrections respectively. Thus to obtain the
fuselage forces for this given landing condition,
it is only necessary to multiply the values in
1026 1 916 L- 57480 1 - 3090 these two tables by the proper factor and add
,nn + I 1026 I 0 I -110 I 91 mo I - 3090
the results.
Thus fuselage forces due to vertical load
factor of 7 would equal 7 times the values in
:olumns (3) of Table A5.5 to obtain shear and 7
times column 6 to obtain bending moment.
Likewlse the forces due to the 2.%3 load
.___ factor in X direction would equal (-2.98) times
3. -1666 0 the values in columns (4), (5) and (9) ‘of
- -5358 0 0 -5358 -208962
I -5358 I 0 I 0 l-53561 0 liable A5.6 to obtain axial loads, shears and
bending moments respectively.
The final or true forces would be the
co,.
Co,.
2
3
-
-
6 x values
1.333 x values
m COl”ml 3 Of Table
II, column
A5.5.
5 of Table A5.6.
slgebraic sum of these results.
Cd. 4 - -1.10 x values III column 3 of Table A5.7.
Cd. 5 - cohmn (1) + column (2) . column (3).
Co,. 6 - 6 x dues in column 6 of Table A5.6. Landing with Angular Acceleration
Co,. 7 - 1.333 x values in ~olt,mn 9 of Table A5.6.
Co,. 8 1.10 x values yl column 6 of Table A5.1. In a level landing condltlon, it 1s some-
L Cd.
Col.lO
9 _ columns
- I.333
(6) t (7) + (8).
x values in column (4) of Table A5.6. times speclfled that the horizontal
of the ground reaction must be a certain
component
pro-
A5.19 Example of Fuselage Shears and Moments for
portion of the vertical component, which causes
Landing Conditions. the line of action of the ground reaction R in
Fig, A5.53 illustrates the airplane In a Fig. A5.53 to not pass through the c.g. of the
level landing condition. The ground reactIon is airplane, which creates an external pitching
assumed to pass the center of landing gear wheel moment on the airplane. This moment is us-
and c.g. of airplane. The fuselage shears, mo- ually balanced by the Inertia forces due to
ments and axial loads are required when the the angular acceleration produced by the un-
vertical ultimate load factor is 7. (Gross balanced moment about the c.g. The shears and
we 1ght = 4300#). moments on the fuselage due to this external
moment could be found as explained In Art.
SOLUTION: A5.20.

A5.20 Inertia Loads Due to Angular Acceleration.

The vertical or Z component of the ground
reaction R Is specified as 7 load factors which In some of the flying conditions, It is
equals 7 x 4300 = 30100#. One half of this is sometimes specified that the alrplane must be
acting on each wheel. subjected to an angular acceleration as well as
The horizontal or X component of R is 30100 translatlonal acceleration. This angular ac-
tan 23’ = 425 x 30100 = 12800# and acting aft. cele:ation of the airplane produces inertia
The horizontal load factor on airplane forces which must be calculated If the air-
equals 12800/4300 = 2.98. plane is to be treated as a body in static
 A5.19

equilibrium. In some cases, a tail load due to ?z=-wxc MY ------------ ---

a gust on the tail is specified which produces a (1)
moment about the airplane c.g. which produces IY
angular acceleration of the airplane. In cer- ~x=-wzc-------------‘-
MY
tain landing conditions, the ground forces do (2)
IY
not pass through the alrplane c.g. thus pro-
ducing a moment about the c.g. which for stress
From Table A5.9, Iy = 16097600
analysis purposes is balanced by inertia forces.
My was assumed as 100,000
Moment of Inertia of Airplane
The calculation of the moment of lnertla of ience
an airplane about the center of gravity axes
was explained on page A3.5 of Chapter A3. A 100000 w xc = .00621 w xc
160g7600
F, q
detalled example solution was glven in detail In
Table 6A of Chapter A3. The general equations
for the moments of inertia of the airplane about F, = .00621 w zc
the reference axes are:
Nhere zc and xc are the z and x distances of
IY = r, we + z wza + z A Iy Nelght w to the airplane c.g.
Columns No. 9 and 10 of Table A5.9 gives
Ix = Z wy’ + r, wz= + 2’ A Ix the values of these inertia components. Fig.
A5.54 shows these inertia loads applied t 0 the
12 = Z wyB + Z wxa + Z A Iz fuselage. The reactions at wing attachment
points should be computed and then a table of
The last term ln each of the above equa- fuselage shears, moments and axial loads should
tions represents the moment of inertia of each be made up. This unit table could then be used
weight item about its own centroldal axes par- for all conditions involving angular acceler-
allel to the reference axes. ation of the airplane.
It should be realized that the Inertia
A5.21 Solution for Inertia Loads Due to Unit 100,000 In. resisting loads in Table A5.9 are only approxl-
Lbs. Pitching Moment. mately, since the moment of inertia neglects
To illustrate the general procedure of de- the centroidal moment of inertia of the big
termining the balancing inertia loads when the Items, such as the power plant, wing, etc. The
airplane is subjected to an unbalanced moment example is only for the purposejof Illustrating
about the c.g., an analysis will be made for a the general procedure of determining the inertia
unit 100.000 In. lb. moment. Table A5.9 gives reslsting loads due to angular acceleration.
the necessary calculations. The same general procedure can be followed In
considering unbalanced external moments about
From kinetics: the Z and X axes, commonly referred to as yaw-
ing and rolling moments.
Pitching angular accelerat ion a q MY

5
irad/sec. “)
where BALANCING INERTIA FORCES FOR “NIT 100,000 IN. LB. MOMENT
ABGUT Y MS THROUGH AIRPLANE C.G. (PITCHING MOMESI’)
MY = unbalanced external pitching moment
1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
about c.g. of airplane.
Fuselage sta.

IY = pitching moment of inertia of air- Pane, Ea. wt.

NO. VI
plane about airplane c.g. = Zwr’

The tangential inertia force F for a mass

w/g due to an angular acceleration a equals,

MY
P =ira, but a =Ty g

hence
MY
F = ~yw r, where r Is the distance from
Columns (2,, (3), &
Column (5,
the welght w to the alrplane c.g. Column (6)
Column (9)
Column (1.3,
It is convenient to treat the lnertla force
F as resolved lnto two components F, and Fz.
hence,
A5. 20 BEAMS -- SHEA AND MOMENTS

III. Fig?. As.62 shows thi: pl?n fo:?:~ of ‘I c::nt:-

11 50 80 Y0 170 2C;o ‘Y 260 290 315
I I 1 i ! A-T-4
lever win!; e Assume a comi.rini; ~lC~r~.!3 I
distributed load on the surf?!:e equal to
50 lb./sq.ft. LJrlte expressions fo; shear
and bending moment on :2’in[; :~ir~~i?jnf: x:1.1::t;‘:
at 25, 100, 150 and L.00 1 nche:; fr .!m awl.

Fig. A5. 54
200” ---
A5.22 Problems

(I ) Draw the shear, bending moment and axiaJ I

load diagrams for loaded structures in
Figs. 55 to 60,. T ~~~~5.63

--
90” Planform T-
100 200 i;
i Leading Edge c 50”
i 2 ” -&-
-- y ref. axis
I
b- 150” ----
E!!sgt!(55, laD6)
1.07~ t 7 1 Tt 1 tt Relative Span-
100 80
wise Distribution
1 1,25d300 4 10PO 4ook251 1

Fig. A5.63 shows plan form of’ a cant,llevsr wingS

The total distributed air load normal to :urface
~ ,-Cab!, is 10000 lb. The relative spanw: se -11STI:‘i hUt I GI;
is shown. Take center of pressure at 24 percent
400 (57)
of chord from leading edge. Divide wing lrlt:o
10 Inch width strips and ca.lculate V,, M, arid
My, and plot curves for same.

IV. Fig. A5,64 shows an externally braced

monoplane wing. Take an average wing lift
.500 lb.
load of 90 lb./sq.ft. normal to wing w:th
center of pressure at 27 percent of tile
chord from leadIng edge of wing arid calcll-
late and draw the front and rear beam ;:r!-
mary shears and bending moment diagrams.

+20” -4 10$/h 100

-J, - /

(II) Draw bending moment diagram for structures

and loading in Fig. A5.61, abc.
400#
4

Fig. A5.61
 A5.21

BENDING MOMENTS - BEAM - COLUMN ACTION”

A5.23 Introduction deflectlons will gradually converge and the memb-

A beam-column Is a member subjected to er will reach a state of equlllbrlum. These
transverse loads or end moments plus axial loads secondary bending moments could be found by suc-
The transverse loading, or end moments, produces cessive steps by the various deflection prlncl-
bending moments which, In turn, produce lateral ples given In Chapter A7. However, for prlsmatlc
beams this convergency can be expressed as a
bendlng deflectlon of the member. The axial mathematical series and thus save much time over
loads produce secondary bendlng moments due to
the above successive step method. For members of
the axial load times this lateral deflectIon.
Compresslve axial loads tend to increase the variable moment of inertia, the secondary moments
primary transverse bending moments, where as will usually have to be found by successive steps.
tensile axial loads tend to decrease them. If the end loads P are tension, they will
Beam-column members are quite common Ln tend to decrease the primary moments; thus, 1n
airplane structures. For example, the beams of general, the case of axial compression is more
externally braced wing and tail surfaces are lmportant in practical design, since buckling
typlcal examples, the alr loads producing ti-ans- and instablllty enter Into the problem.
verse beam loads and the struts Introducing ax-
A5.25 Equations for a Compressive Axially Loaded
ial beam loads. In landing gears, one member Is
Strut with Uniformly Distributed Side Load.
usually subjected to large bendlng and axial
loads. In tubular fuselage trusses, lateral Flg. A5.66 shows a pr1smatlc beam of length
loads due to installations supported on members L subjected to a concentric compressive load P
between truss joints produce beam-column action. and a uniformly transverse dlstrlbuted load W,
In general, beam column members In alrplane with the beam supported laterally at each end,
structures are comparatively long and slender and wlth end restralning moments M, and M,. It
compared to those in buildlngs and bridges; is assumed that the general conditions for the
thus, the secondary bendlng moments due to the beam theory hold, namely; that plane sections
axial loads are frequently of considerable pro- remain plane after bending; that stress Is pro-
portion and need to be consldered in the design portional to strain In both tenslon and compres-
of the members. slon.
This chapter deals briefly on the theory At any point a distance x from the beam end,
of single span beam-column members. A summary the moment expression is,
of equatlons and design tables is Included to-
gether wlth examples of their use. The informa- M = M1 + (Mm - MI ) X-wLx+wxa (A5.1)
tion In this chapter is used frequently in other L 2 2 -rn-----
chapters where practical analysis and design of From applied mechanics, we know that
beam-column members Is consldered. For a com-
pleted and comprehensive treatment of beam-col- M=EI day therefore, dlfferentiating equa-
umn theory and derlvatlon of equations, see dxs
tion (A5.1) twice with respect to x gives
Nlles and Newell-“AIrplane Structures”.
A5.24 General Action of a Member Subjected to + E; M = w - - - - - - _ - - _ - (A5.2)
Combined Axial and Transverse Loads.
Sub-Ilgure a of Fig. A5.65 shows a member
subjected to transverse loads W and axial com-
pressive loads P. The transverse loads W pro-
duce a primary bendlng distribution on the memb-
er. as shown in Fig. b. Thls bending will pro-
duce a transverse deflection curve as Illustrat-
ed In Fig. c. The end loads P now produce an
additional secondary bendlng moment due to the ---=Tpz~$.;fj”’ p4/&+!y~p
end load P times the deflectlon 6 , or the bend-
ing moment diagram of Fig. d. Thls first sec-
ondary moment dlstrlbutlbn produces the addl- ’ wF&~Zf2Zb,, Homent ’ Fig. As.66
tlonal lateral deflection curve of Fig. e and hence zP = ?,1
the end load P will again produce further bend- For simplification, let j =v- +;
ing moments due to this deflection. If the ax- which, substituted in (A5.2), gives
ial load is not too large, these SUCCeSSlve
d=M +&=w
* MSO discussed in Chapter C2, Part E. dxp Y
A5.22 BEAM -- COLUMNS

The solution of this differential equation gives, y+ (Ml+L Mz -MI X--+-WLX ma

M=C1 sin 5 + Cz cos 5 + wja - - - - (A5.3) 2 2
cl cl
where C 1 and Cg are constants of integration and DZ - Dl cos i
sin X - D1 cos ; - wj “j
sin x and cos x are the limits of an lnflnlte ci
sln L
s 5 j
series of variable x. When x = o, M = M, and (A5.7a)-----
s The slope of the elastic curve at any point
when x = L, M = M,, therefore:
is given by the first derivative of equation
c I = b; ;ja Jan ;Y (A5.7a)
WL
--+w-‘$cos ;+‘f sin (A5.R)
3 s 2
= M, - wja - (M, - wj”) cos L
j A5.26 Formulas for Other Single Span Loadings
sln L
3 In investigating other transverse loadings
for a single span carrying axial compression, it
and C!, = M, - wj8 Is found that the expression for bendlng moment
Let D, = MI - wja and D, = M, - wj*. Then, in the span always takes the form:
substltutlng In equation (A5.3),
M = C1 sin 5 + C, cos $ + f(w) - - - (A5.9)
D8 - D1 cos L
M= j sln x + DI cos x + wja (A5.4) where f(w) Is a term which does not include the
1 sin L j j axial load P or the end moments M, and KS. The
5 expresslons for f(w), C1 and C, depend on the
To find the location of the maximum moment, dif- type of the transverse load.
ferentiate equation (A5.3) and equate to zero. Table A5.1 gives the value of these 3
terms for types of transverse loading on a single
dM
- = 0 = 5 cos ’- - -‘a sin x span which are frequently encountered In alrplane
dx 3 jj s The Table also gives equatlons for
structures.
whence the point of maximum bending moment and Its mag-
nitude.
D. - D1 cos $ _ Table A5.11 is a table of slnes, cosines,
tan j=$ = D sun L - - - - - - (A5.5) and tangents for L/j In radians which Is more
1 convenient to use than the Usual type of trigo-
J nometric tables. This table Is based on values
given In Appendlx I of Alr Corps Information
The value of x must fall wlthln x = 0 to x = L,
Circular #493. The A difference have been added
otherwise M, or M, is the maximum Value.
to facilitate rapid use of the tables.
The value of the maximum span moment can be For single span beams, the crltlcal value
found by substituting the value from equation of L/j is n; that is, If the axial compressive
(A5.5) in (A5.4), which gives
load Is such that the term L/j = n, the center
sa = co;lx + wj” - - - - - - - - - (~5.6) region of the beam will tend to deflect until the
combined stresses equal the failing stress of the
J material.
The moment M at any point x along the span can
also be written: A5. 27 Moments for Combinations of the Various Load
M = D, sin $+ cos ;I+ wja - (A5.7) Systems as Given in Table A5. I, Margins of
Safety. Accuracy of Calculations.
where Xm refers to the value of x where the span
moment Is maximum, or equation (A5.5). since It The prlnclple of superpositlon does not ap-
Is customary to locate the polnt of maximum span ply to a beam-column, because the sum of the
bending moment and Its value before lnvestlgat- bendlng moments due to the transverse loads and
ing other span points, the value of tan xsl 1s the axial loads acting Separately are not the
j same as the moments when they act simultaneously.
known from equation (A5.5) and thus is available In combining several transverse load sy$tems
to use in equation (A5.7) for finding moments at with their accompanying axial loads, the principle
other points along the span. of superposition can be sald to apply If each
If the equation for the beam deflectlon IS transverse loading IS used with the total axial
desired, It can be found by substituting the load for the systems which are being combined.
value of M from equatlon (A5.3) In equation Thus, In Table A5.1, to find the moments for
(A5.1), which gives:* several combined loadings, add the values of C,,
Ce and f(w) for the several loadings and use
me-r C2, Part E, Eq. (21).
 A5.23
--

Table A5. I

Values of Terms Cl, C2, and f(w) in Equation

M 0 CI sin& t C2 cos++ f(w)

1 1

Single Span - Axial Compression - Uniform Section

Eq. for Point of Max Eq. for Max. Span

Loading Cl C2 f(w) Bending Moment Bending Moment
E ual End Moments. No
iii Side Load MI tan2 x=4 Mmax =
I ?%I-
P 2j MI 0
2
r
x--4 L
Unequal End Moments. No M2 - Ml cos L Tan x = M2 - MI cos L
Mmax ’ Ml
II Ml 0 TA -csEF
4
-i- 1 7 Y-
I 1
Uniform Side Load. No

III
End Moments wj2[cos(4-f)] .2 .2 M max = wj2(l - set L)
sin L -WI WI x= .5L zj
T
1
Uniform Side Load Plus D2 - DI cos L/j
End Moments Tanzz D2 - DI cos L
sin L/J M = Dl .2
max -t wi
IV where Dl wj2
Y
Dl- Ml - wj2 I
D2 - M2 - wj2

Concentrated Side Load. No xc a, - Wj sin - b Tan x/j = C

End Moments

raFbl
-xi+-
T
0 0 4- Mmax = (C12+C2p

V x > a, t Wj sin - a - Wj sin? 0

j I
tan TL
1
Triangular Loading. No [NOTE A)
.2 0 wj2x To obtain Maximum Moment, compute
- WI
VI sin L moment at 3 or 4 points in span. Draw a smooth
I
I curve thru plotted results.

Triangular Loading. No End

.2 .2
Moments WI - WI wj2(1-A (See Note A)
tan FL L
VII
1

Couple Loading (Clockwise) xc a, - m cos& 0 (See Note A)

-x2-
7
I
VIII - m cos a m cos a
x > a, T
1
4
7
1

w or W is positive when upward.

M is positive when it tends to cause compression on the upper
fibers of the beam at the section being considered.

Reference: AClC #493; Niles, Airplane Design; Newell and Niles

Airplane Structures

F’or Table of many other loadings, see NACA T. M. 985.

 TABLEA5.U

NATURALSINES, COSINES, ANDTANGENTSOFANGLESINRADMNS

 TABLE A5. II

NATURAL SINES, COSINES, AND TANGENTS OF ANGLES IN RADIANS

Lij in AL ,, TanL,, AL /i
Tan
RtWilLi”S sm cos L, 1 cut L/,

1.00
__-...
1.01

1.02 1

__- 1.03

1.04 --
-

1.05 -

___-- 1.06

1.07

1.08

1.09

1.10 -

--__ 1.11

1.13

1.14

1.15

1.16 -

1. 17

-___-1.18
1.19

-1.

1.21

1.22

__-. I. 23

___.1.24
1.25

1.26 -

1.27 -e’:‘:::: / 0.29628

1.28

1.29

1.30

1.31

1.32

1.33

1.34
, “.“““4 , , “.““III (

1.35 0.97572 1 1 0.21901 I I

I 0.00214 I 1 c
,> ““““C I , n *nol)” I
1.36

1. 37

1.38

-“. ““lZJ U. “YJJ&

0. 0.12050
m_oJlL6 0.00993
@. 99387 0.11057
0. UC?05 0.00994
0.99492 ~._ 0.10063
0.00096 0.00996
0. 995RR 0.09061
IO. OS086 0.00996
0. 99611 “. U8171
0.00075 0.00997
-7~ -__- 0 “7074
 TABLE A5.”

NATURAL SINES, COSINES, AND TANGENTS OF ANGLES IN RADIANS

0.00569 0.00823 0.03098

2.18 i 0.82010 1 -0.51221 - 1.43321
0.00576 0 ““PlY ” n1n,,
” CO”O”

-0.62617

-0.63592

-0.64361

- 1.09694
0.00736 0.02180
- 1.07514
0.00728 0.02133
- 1.05381
0.00692 n“.““I** nnoo.7 , ”
Y. n*noo
“*““I
2.34 0.71847 -0.69556 / - 1.03292
0.00699 0.00715 j 0.02045
2.33 0.71148 -0.70271 j - 1.01247
n .““I””nnvnli / , ”Y.“,,““.,n*nnc

j - 0.99242 1
I

1 - 0.16272 1
~.00602 1 , 0.01569
I - n 141"1 I
 TABLEA5.II

NATURAL SINES, COSINBS, AND TAHGKMTS OF AXViLE II EADIARS

r L-l A Ls h LJ *
L/, in Sin t/ Sin COBL/ COBL/ Tan L/ Tan L/
Radians j L/j 3 j il al

3.00 1, 0.14112 1 1I -0.98999 11 1I -0.14254 1

n rrnnn,

-_ ---- -

0.00996
3.06 0.08150 I
-.u--. _

3.05 0.09146 0.00997 ' n~nnn77 -. .

".-- !I _ _____ !I "."-"""
n n-lnnb? 1

“. “““TV

-0.04162

-. “-“--
-. ----_

-0.02160
0.00016 0.01000
- . 60

u. VlUUU
0.02641
0.00034 0.01002
0.03843

-- -. ---- -
166 I 0.06852
-_ _--- _ ' 0.00073 0.01005
3.22 -0.07833 -0.99693 ^ ^^-^1 0.07857 A -_a--
0.00996 u.uuu&44
3.23 -0.08829 -0.99609
, n fmOQc:
“.“““I” , I
n nnncra
“.“““I” , I

3.24 -0.09825 I
' -0.99516 ( I 0.09873 I “*“*““”
I 0.00103 -_ _~.~~
3.25 -0.10820 0.00995 -0.99413 1 ~- 0.10883 1
A5.28 BEAM -- COLUMNS

these values in the general expression for M as ,of the beam, or 4420 x .75 = 3315”# positive be-
given at the top of the Table. ,cause It produces compression in the top fibers.
In a beam-column member, the bending mom- Irhe moment at (2) due to the cantilever overhang
ents do not vary directly as the load is lncreas tequals (20+10) 36 x 16 = 8640”#. Fig.A5.68
ed. Thus, the student should realize that marg- 2
ins of safety based on direct proportion of mom- shows the beam portion between points (1) and (2)
ents to loads are incorrect and lie on the un- FLSa free body.
safe side. From Art. A5.25, we have the following pre-
It 1s recommended that four significant cise equations for a beam carrying a transverse
figures be used In computations, maklng use of uniform dltitributed load with end compressive
the so-called precise equatlons, since the re- loads.
sults in many cases Involve small differences
between large numbers. tan s = D, _ D, ~0s Li _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -(A)

A5.28 Example Problems* D1 sin L

EXample Problem #l i
snd
Fig. A5.67 illustrates a typical upper,
outer panel wing beam of a biplane. Let It be Mmax=L+wjp ----------- (B)
cos x
requlred to determine the maximum negative
bendlng moment between polnts (1) and (2), gen- i
erally referred to as the maximum span moment. Evaluating terms for substitution In these equa-
To obtain the true bending moments on the beam, tions, we obtaln,
the axial beam load as well as the end moments
M, = 3315”#
at (1) and (2) are necessary since they lnflu-
ence the deflection of the beam. Ma = 8640”#
Solution:- P = 4420# compression
To obtain the horlzontal component Th of
I = 10 In4 given and assumed constant
the lift strut load, we take moments about the
throughout the span.
j =jfT =m = 54.23
wj*= 20 x 2941 = 58820
D, = M, - wJ” = 3315 - 58820 = - 55505
D. = MB - wJ” = 8640 - 58820 = - 50180
from Strut to L 100
Lower Wing J =cz = 1.844
L L
From Table A5.11 sln - = .96290 and cos - =- .269S
3 J
Fig. A5.6’7 Substituting in equation (A)
tan $ = DB - D1 ~09 I:
/w q ZO#/in.
8640"# j
TTTTlTtTlTT b 4420x D, sln 5
4420#(!f'TTTt
3315”#
=-50180- (-55505x-:26981) = -65156 _
x l----L=loo- ’ pi - 1.2192
940# -55505 x .96290
Fig. A5.68 X
_ = tan-’ 1.2192 = .88383
iI
hinge point at the lert end..
Hence, x = .88383 x 54.23 = 48”, which equals the
mb = - 2000 x 50 - 540 x 116 distance from the left end of the beam to the
- 1500 X 100 + 70.75 Th = 0 point of maximum span moment.
hence
Th = 4420# L = A + wJ” , cos 5 = .63419 fr; ‘r;ble
cos x
The axial compressive load Induced by the lift i .
strut at point (2) then equals - 4420#.
Taking ZH = 0 for the load system of Fig. Hence
~max = - ‘s19 + 58820 = - 28,700'#
A5.67 gives P = - Th = 4420#. The end moment 01 1

the beam at (1) equals the end load times the To obtaln an Idea as to the magnitude of the
eccentricity of the hinge from the neutral axis secondary bending moment, that is, the moment due
*Additional examples are presented in Chapter C2, Part E, to the axial load times the lateral beam deflec-
with stress analysis. tion, the primary bending moment at a point 48”
 A5.29

from the left end will be computed. Qubstltuting values of CI and Cg and f(w) from
Table A5.1 in the above equations:
r-l+,, =3315+48x2Ox24-94Ox48=-18765"#
&Ma-Ml Cos L/j) sin '/j +MI cos x/j
Thus the secondary bending moment equals sin L/j
- 28700+18765 = - 9935"# which Is a large per-
centage of the primary moment. The transverse
deflection of the beam at the polnt of max. span
moment then equals - 9935 = 2.25 inches upward.
- 4420
Bendlng Moment at any Point Along Span
Let the moment at a point 10" from point
(2) be required. In thls case, x-= 100 - lo=90 But, Ml = 0 In our problem, hence,
M=D*(tan ?!?. gin x)+ CO3 s +wj'(Ref.
[ J J iI A5.7)
Eq.
1 M = M&In x/j
sin L/j
-=-
X go -- 1.6596,sin J = .99605 j +=1/2~=$&.82fj
j 54.23
cos ; = - .08867
L/j = 'az1.617
.
- - - sin L/j = .99892
tan 9=1.2192=value for x at the point of x = L/2 = 20.881
maximum bendlng moment
Hence,
M =-55505[(1.2192~ .99605)+-.08867 ] + x/j = 's . = .8085 - - - sin x/j = .72327

58820 =-3664"# Substltutlng in the above equations for M

Example Problem #2 M = 36000 x .72327 = 26066"#
Fig. A5.69 shows a slmpllfied landing gear .99892
structure carrying a vertical load of 12000# on This compares wlth a primary moment of
the axle. Member ABC is continuous thru B and
Letlt berequired to determine the 36000/2 = 18000"#. The deflection at the mid-
pinned ate. polnt of BC = 26066 - 18000 = .403 in.
bendlng moment at the mldpolnt of member BC and 20000
its lateral deflection due to the lZOOC# vertl- The maximum moment Is given by the equation:
cal design load.
Mmax =slnMa L and It occurs at x=2 (See
3 Table A5.1)
A5.29 Stresses Above Proportional Limit Stress of
Material. *

The equations as presented in this chapter

assume that E is constant or In other words the
stresses are wlthln the elastic range. In air-
craft structural design the applied or llmlt
loads must be taken without suffering permanent
deformation, hence E is constant under such
loads. However the aircraft structure must
take the design loads which equal the limit
loads times a factor of safety (usually 1.5)
Fig. A5.69 without failure. In many cases structural
\\ I failure will occur under stresses in the plastic
range where the material stiffness Is less and
Line of action of DB goes through E not constant.
A good approximation for an effective
solutlon:- modulus E' is obtalned as follows:-
Solving for reactions at C by statics, we
obtain the axial load In BC = -20000. The (1) Compute F, = P/A for the given number.
bending moment at B due to 3" eccentricity of
the wheel load = 3 x 12000 = 36000"#. (2) With this value of Fc enter the basic
Fig. A5.70 shows a free body of portion BC column curve dlagram for the given material (for
of member ABC. From Table A5.1 end fixity C = 1) and flnd value of L'/p cor-
M = CI sin ; + C. co3 J + f(w) responding to the stress F,.
* Also see Chapter C2, Part E.
A5. 30 BEAM -- OLUMNS

(3) Using these values of L’/p and F,, (4) Determine the bending moment at the
c omput e centerline of the beam-columns shown in Flg.
AlO. 10 Assume EI = 64,000,OOO lb. in. sq.

Basic column curves for various materials

are given in another chapter of this book.
A5.30 Problems* ‘r+---60”T40’-)’ 600#
Fig. A5.75
500# (5) For the beam-column in Fig. A5.75
kl5’+35” __f WE 30#/in. calculate the bending moment of the centerline
of the member. Assume E = 1,300,OOO psi. and
I = 10 in:

30&
Fig. A5.71 Fig. A5. 72

shows a l-1/2 - .065 steel

(1) Fig. As.71
tube subjected to both end and lateral loads. r lO#/in.

Determine the maxlmum bending moment on the 5000#

tube. Compare the result with the bending ,008~ ,,I I-;-1
moment due to the side load only. E = 29 x lo8
psi. I of tube = .075 in.’ Compute lateral 500#
deflection at point of maximum bending moment. Fig. A5.76
Area tube = 0.293 sq. in.
(6) For the beam-column loading In Fig.
(2) The beam column member in Fig. A5.72 it A5.76, calculate bending moment at center
made of 24ST aluminum alloy. Calculate and polnt of beam. Take E = 1,200,OOO psi and
plot a curve of the bending moments on the I = 10 in:
member. Also plot bending moment due to
lateral loads only. E q 10.3 x lo8 psi. I = A5.31 Beam-Columns in Continuous Structures.
5.0 ln.4 The secondary moments in a particular
member due to beam-column action also effect or
(3) Determine the maximum bendlng moment
for the wood wing beam and loading of Fig. influence the deflections in adjacent members
of a continuous structure. This rather involved
A10.9. I of beam section = 17 in.’ E = 1.3 x
problem can be handled quite simply and rapldly
106.
by the moment distribution method as explained
and illustrated in Arts. All.12 to 15 of
Chapter Ail and in Part F of Chapter C2.

A numerical procedure for such beam-

columns having a varying EI and/or a varying
axial load is presented and illustrated in
Part K and L of Chapter C2.

Beam-columns on elastic supports are

discussed in Part M of Chapter C2.
lOOO# 20008

ct48”-t 96” --it.- 56=--d

1 200” -y

Fig. A5.74
 CHAPTER A6
TORSION. - STRESSES AND DEFLECTIONS

A6.1 Introduction. sumed that any radial line undergoes angular

Problems involving torsion are common In displacement only, or OB remains straight when
aircraft structures. The metal covered airplane moving to OB’ .
wing and fuselage are basically thin-walled The unit shearing strain in a distance L
tubular structures and are subjected to large equals,
torsional moments in certain flight and landing
conditions. The various mechanical control sys- BB’ rQ
tems in an alrplane often contain units of E=AB=L
various cross-sectional shapes which are sub-
jected to torsional forces under operating con- Let G equal modulus of rigidity of the
ditions, hence a knowledge of torsional stresses material and let 7 equal the unit shearing
and distortions of members is necessary in air- stress at the extreme fiber on the cross-sec-
craft structural design. tion.
A6.2. Torsion of Members with Circular Cross Sections. rQG
--__-------
Hence, T=FG= (1)
The following conditions are assumed in the L
derivation of the equations for torsional
stresses and dlstort1ons: - In Fig. A6.2 let ho equal the unit shear-
Ing stress on a circular strip dA at a distance
The member Is a circular, solld or hollow p from 0. Then
round cylinder.
Sections remain circular after application +z prQG_pQG--
of torque. % r L L
Diameters remain straight after twisting of The moment of the shearing stress on the
section. circular strip dA about 0 the axis of the bar
(4) Materlal is homogeneous, isotropic and is equal to,
elastic. &-q = Tp pu = !E!p and thus the total In-
(5) The applied loads lie in a plane or planes
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft or ternal torsional resisting moment is,

cylinderL-c- L ------I M =- Gp2QdA

int. L
i
For equilibrium, the internal resisting
moment equals the external torsional moment T,
and since GQ/L is a constant, we can write,

pzu = GT - - - - - - - (2)

where J = polar moment of inertia of the shaft

cross section and equals twice the moment of in-
ertla about a dlameter.
From equation (1) E - 2
L -r
Fig. A6.1 shows a straight cylindrical bar Hence, T = TG _ - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ (3)
subjected to two equal but opposite torsional
couples. The bar twists and each section is or 7 z’s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4)
subjected to a shearlng stress. Assuming the
left end as stationary relatlve to the rest of also from equation (2), solving for the twist 8,
the bar a line AB on the surface ~111 move to
AB’ under these shearing stresses and this ro- Q&& _----__-_---_-
tatlon at any section will be proportional to I (5)
the distance from the fixed support. It is as- (Q Is measured In radians).

A6.1
A6.2 TOR ION

A6.3 Transmission of Power by a Cylindrical Shaft. Problem 2.

The work done by a twisting couple T In Fig. A6.4 illustrates an aileron control
moving through an angular displacement is equal surface, consisting of a circular torque tube
to the product of the magnitude of the couple (l-1/4 - .049 in size) supported on three
and the angular displacement in radians. If the hinge brackets and with the control rod fitting
angular displacement Is one revolution, the work attached to the torque tube above the center
done equals 2 n T. If T is expressed in inch- support bracket. Find the maximum torsional
pounds and N is the angular velocity in revolu- shearing stress in the tube If the air load on
tions per minute, then the horsepower trans- the aileron is as indicated in Fig. A6.4, and
mitted by a rotating shaft may be written, also compute the angle of twist of tube be-
tween horn section and end of aileron.
HP. * =2nNT
- -----------v-s
396000 (6)
Average load on surface = 40#/0’

where 396000 represents inch pounds of work of

one horsepower for one minute. Equation (6)
may be wrltten: fir-----

T = H.P. x 396000 = 63025 H.P. ------

N (7)
2nN
Fig. A6.4
EXAMF’LEPROBLEMS.
SOLUTION:
Problem 1.
Fig. A6.3 shows a conventional control
The airload on the surface tends to rotate
stick-torque tube operating unit. For a side the aileron around the torque tube, but move-
load of 150 lbs. on stick grip, determine the ment is prevented or created by a control rod
shearing stress on aileron torque tube and the
attached to the torque tube over the center
angle of twist between points A and B. supporting bracket.
The total load on a strip of aileron one
SOLUTI ON: inch wide = 40(15 x l/144) = 4.16 lb.
Let w equal intensity of loading per Inch
Torsional moment on tube AB due to side of aileron span at the leading edge point of the
stick force of 150# = 150 x 26 = 3900 in. lb. aileron surface, (see pressure diagram in
The resistance to this torque is provided by the Fig. A6.4).
Then 3w + (0.5 w)12 = 4.16

24 ST Al Alloy hence w q 0.463 lb./in.

G = 3,800,OOO psi
The total load P, forward of the center-
line of torque tube = 0.463 x 3 = 1.389 lb. and
P, the load on aileron portion aft of hinge 11ne
. Control Wir Aileron Horn = 0.463 x 0.5 x 12 = 2.778 lb.
-1 11
2 Pl PZ
,g 4”
aileron operating
Fig. A6. 3
system attached to aileron #A3" 12"
horn and the horn pull equals 3900/11 = 356 lb.
The torsional moment per running Inch of
The polar moment of inertia of a 1% - 0.058 torque tube: = - 1.389 x 1.5 + 2.778 x 4 = 9-O
round tube equals 0.1368 in4. in. lb. Hence, the maximum torque, which occurs
Maxlmum Shearing stress = ‘G = Tr/J = at the center of the aileron, equals 9.0 x 29 =
(3900 x 0.75)/0.1368 = 21400 psi. 261 in. lb.
The angular twist of the tube between 261 x 0.625 = 245o ps1
points A and B equals =E=J
T(mx.) 0.06678

QZL 3900 x 28 = 0.21 radians (J = 0.06678 In+.)

GJ 3,800,OOO x 0.1368
or 12 degrees. Since the tube section is constant and the torque
varies directly as the distance from the end of twists of non-circular cross-sections is given
the ailerons, the angle of twist 0 can be com- in Art. A6.6.
puted by using the average torque as acting on
entire length of the tube to one side of horn or A6.5 Elastic Membrane Analogy.
a distant L = 29”, hence The shape of a warped cross-section of a
non-circular cross-section in torsion is
0=GJ-TL 261 x 29
2 x 3800000 x 0.06678 57.3 = 0.86 needed In the analysis by the theory of elas-
ticity, and as a result only a few shapes such
degrees
as rectangles, +?lipses, triangles, etc., have
A6.4 Torsion of Members with Non-Circular Cross- been solved by the theoretlcal approach. How-
Sections. ever, a close approximation can be made ex-
The formulas derived in Art. A6.2 cannot be perimentally for almost any shape of cross-
used for non-circular shapes since the assump- section by the use of the membrane analogy.
tions made do not hold. In a circular shaft It was pointed out by Prandtl that the
subjected to pure torsion, the shearing stress equation of torsion of a bar and the equation
distribution Is as indicated in Fig. A6.5, for the deflection of a membrane subjected to
namely, the maximum shearing stress is located uniform pressure have the same form. Thus if
at the most remote fiber from the centerline an elastic membrane is stretched over an open-
axis of the bar and is perpendicular to the ing which has the same shape as the cross-
radius to the stressed point. At a given dist- section of the bar being considered and then if
ance from the axis of rotatlon the shear stress the membrane is deflected by subjecting It to a
slight difference of pressure on the two sides,
cz max.
the resulting deflected shape of the membrane
provides certain quantities which can be mea-
sured experimentally and then used in the
theoretical equations. However, possibly the
@ maln advantage of the membrane theory is, that
Fig. A6.5 it provides a method of visualizing to a
considerable degree of accuracy how the stress
conditions vary over a complicated cross-section
of a bar in torsion.
The membrane analogy provides the follow-
Fig. A6. I ing relationshlps between the deflected mem-
Fig. A6.6 brane and the twisted bar.
(1) Lines of equal deflection on the membrane
(contour lines) correspond to shearing
z max.
stress lines of the twisted bar.
is constant in both directions as illustrated in
Fig. A6.5, which means that ends of segments of (2) The tangent to a contour line at any point
the bar as It twists remain parallel to each on the membrane surface gives the direction
other or in other words the bar sections do not of the resultant shear stress at the corre-
warp out of their plane when the bar twists. sponding point on the cross-section of the
If the conditions of Fig. A6.5 are applied bar being twlsted.
to the rectangular bar of Fig. A6.6, the most (3) The maximum slope of the deflected membrane
stressed fibers will be at the corners and the at any point, with respect to the e@ge
stress will be dlrected as shown. The stress support plane is equal in magnitude to the
would then have a component normal to the sur- shear stress at the corresponding point on
face as ‘well as along the surface and thls Is the cross-section of the twisted bar.
not tru?. The theory of elasticity shows that
thti maximum shear stress occurs at the center- (4) The applied torslon on the twisted War is
line of the long sides as illustrated in Fig. proportional to twice the volume Included
R6.6 and that the stress at the corners is zero. between the deflected membrane and a plane
Thus when a rectangular bar twists, the shear through the supporting edges.
stresses ::r.e not. constant at thr: same distances
from the axis of rotation and thus the ends of To illustrate, consider a bar with a
segments cut through the bar would not remain rectangular cross-section as indicated in Fig.
parallel to each other when the bar twists or in A6.8. Over an oponinc of th-: same shape we
other words, warping of the section out of its stretch a thin membrane and deflect it normal
plane takes place. Fig. A6.7 illustrates this to the cross-sectlon by a small uniform pres-
action in a twisted rectangular bar. The ends sure. Equal deflection contour lines for this
of the bar are warped or suffer dlstortion deflected membrane will take the shape as il-
normal to the original unstressed plane of the lustrated in Fig. A6.9. These contour lines
bar ends. which correspond to direction of shearing
Further discussion and a summary of equa- stress in the twisted bar are nearly circular
tions for determining the shear stresses and near the center region of the bar, but tend
A6.4 TORSION

to take the shape of the bar boundary as the From Table A6.1 It is noticed that for
boundary is approached. Fig. A6.9a shows a sec- large values of b/t, the values of the con-
tion through the contour lines or the deflected stants is l/3, and thus for such narrow rec-
membrane along the lines l-l, 2-2 and 3-3 of Fig. tangles, equations (6) and (7) reduce to,
A6.9. It is obvious that the slopes of the de-
flected surface along line l-1 will be greater 3T
than along lines 2-2 or 3-3. From this we can 9lAx zbt2 ---------_--__ - (8)
conclude that the shear stress at any point on
line 1-l will be greater than the shear stress Qzm 3T _---_-----_---_- (9)
for corresponding points on lines 2-2 and 3-3.
The maximum slope and therefore the maximum
2 /3 Although equations (8) and (5) have been

//
derived for a narrow rectangular shape, they
can be applied to an approximate analysis of
shapes made up of thin rectangular members

\ such as Illustrated
generous the fillet
in Fig. A6.10.
or corner radius,
smaller the stress concentration
The more
the
at these jun-

/ 1
iil!li
ctions and therefore
approximate formulas.
up of a continuous
the more accuracy of these
Thus for a section made
plate such as illustrated in

Fig. A6.8 Fig. A6.9

-Ii-t
,Slope
I! b-4 Fig. a
Fig. A6.9a b can be taken as centerline length for above type
of sections

stress ~111 occur at the ends of line l-1. The

slope of the deflected membrane will be zero at ftz
the center of the membrane and at the four
corners, and thus the shear stress at these
points will be zero.
A6.6 Torsion of Open Sections Composed of Thin Plates. Fig. A6.10
Members having cross-sections made up of
narrow or thln rectangular elements are some- Fig. (a) of Fig. A6.10, the width b can be taken
times used in aircraft structures to carry tor- as the total length of the cross-section. For
slonal loads such as the angle, channel, and Tee sectlons such as the tee and H sectton in Flg.
Shapes. A6.10, the polar moment of inertia J can be
For a bar of rectangular cross-sectlon of taken as Z bt “/, . Thus for the tee section of
width b and thickness t a mathematical elasticity Fig. A6.10:
analysls gives the followlng equations for maxi-
3T
mum shearing stress and the angle of twist per 8 z-zGJ
T GZ
unit length.

z-e T _____ ---------- 3T

T”lAx abt (6) = G (b,t: + b,t$)

0 = &in radians - - - - - - - - - - (7) For the maxlmum shearing stress on leg b,

T t, _ 3 T t, 3 T t,
=b, =-- J r,==bltl’t b,t,” - - - - (10)
Values of a and $ are given in Table A6.1.
and for the plate b,,
_ ‘I’ ta - 3 T t, - -.(ll)
=bb, J bltl a + bzta3 - - - - - -
TABLE A6.1 1
If t, = t, = t, then
3T
Q= G t3(bl + b,) - - - - - - - - - - - - (12)

T= t8(bz 3T + be) - - - - - - - _- _- - - (13)

 A6.5

EXAMPLEPROBLEMSHOWINGTORSIONAL STIFFNESS OF A6.7 Torsion of Solid Non-Circular Shapes and Thick-

Walled Tubular Shapes.
CLOSED THIN WALLED TUBE COMPARED
Table A6.3 summarizes the formulas for
TO OPEN OR SLOTTED TUBE. torsional deflection and stress for a few
Fig. A6.11a shows a 1 inch diameter tube shapes. These formulas are.based on the as-
with ,035 wall thickness, and Fig. A6.11b shows sumption that the cross-sections are free to
the same tube but with a cut in the wall making warp (no end restraints). Material is homo-
it an open sectlon. geneous and stresses are withln the elastic
range.
For the round tube JI = 0.02474 in’.
A6.8 Torsion of Thin-Walled Closed Sections.
The structure of aircraft wings, fuselages
For open tube J, q i x 3.14 x .O353 q 0.000045 and control surfaces are essentially thin-walled
tubes of one or more cells. Flight and landing
loads often produce torsional forces on these

63 Q3.14,,
major structural units, thus the determination
of the torsional stress and deformation of such
structures plays an important part in aircraft
structural analysis and design.
Fig. A6.12 shows a portion of a thin-
walled cylindrical tube which is under a pure
Fig. A6. lla Fig. A6. llb torsional moment. There are no end restraints
on the tube or in other words the tube ends and
Let Q1 equal twist of closed tube and 8, tube cross-sections are free to warp out of
equal twist of open tube. The twist, will then their plane.
be inversely proportional to J since 8 =--$ .
Therefore the closed tube is J1/J, = 0.02474/
0.000045 = 550 times as stiff as the open tube.
This result shows why open sections are not ef-
ficlent torsional members relative to
torsional deflection.
TABLE A6.3

FORMULAS FOR TORSIONAL DEFLECTION AND STRESS

e =& = twist in radkinans per inch of length.

Fig. A6. 12 Fig. A6. 13

FORMULA FOR
SHEAR STRESS
Let qa be the shear force intensity at point
(a) on the cross-section and qb that at point
‘c- =- 2T
nab3
(at end1 (b).
of minor axis). Now consider the segment a a! b’ b of the tube
wall as shown in Fig. A6.12 as a free body. The
applied shear force intensity along the segment
SOLID SQUARE.
edges parallel to the y axis will be given the
values qay and qby as shown In Fig. A6.12. For
‘c - q ,,. 2;& cat
a plate in pure shear the shearing stress at a
midpoint of each side).
Point in one plane equals the stress In a plane
at right angles to the first plane, hence
qa = 9a and qb = qb .
Y Y
Since the tube sections ire free to warp
midpoint of longside. there can be no longitudional stresses on the
tube wall. Considering the equilibrium of the
segment In the Y direction,
SDLID TRIANGLE. T-Fy = 0 = “yL - qbyL = 0, hence qay qby and q

1 73a4 T- q 20T therefore q, = qb or in other words the shear

K=+-- -2-
at midpoint of side. force intensity around the tube wall is con-
stant. The shear stress at any point 7 = q/t.
If the wall thickness t changes the shear stress
For an extensive list of formulas for many shapes both solid and hollow,
refer to book, “Formulas For Stress and Strain” by Roark, 1954 Edition.
 A6 6 TORSION

changes but the shear force q does not change, The elastic strain energy dU stored in this
Ol- element therefore equals,

7ata = Tbtb = constant. dU = qds 6

2
The product Tt Is generally referred to as
the shear flow and is given the symbol q. The Howevsr the shear strain 6 can be written,
name shear flow possibly came from the fact that
the equation Yc = constant, resembles the equa-
t=;=&butq=&
tion of continuity of fluid flow qS = constant
where q is the flow velocity and S the tube
cross-sectional area. TZ
We will now take moments of the shear flow hence dU = DAzGt ds
q on the tube cross-section about some point (0) .
In Fig. A6.13 the force dF on the wall element T8
dF = qds. Its arm from the assumed moment cen- or u= 8~2~t ds, the integral
f P
ter (0) is h. Thus the moment of dF about (0)
Is qdsh. However, ds times h Is twice the area is the line integral around the periphery of
of the shaded triangle in Fig. A6.13. the tube. From Chapter A7 from Castigllano's
Hence the torslonal moment dT of the force theorem,
on the element ds equals, au &ds -----------(17)
@=aT= f
dT - qhds = 2qdA
since all values except t are constant, equa-
and thus for the total torque for the entire tion (17) can be written,
shear flow around the tube wall equals,
Qzm Tds
~ ----- --------- (18)
f
T= 2qdA and since q is constant and since T = 2 qA, then 21~0,
IA ds
Q=& f ___--__-_-------
t (19)
T=q&$ ____-_----------- (14 where 0 is angle of twist in radians per unit
or length of one inch of tube. For a tube length
of L
qL.& _--__---_--------- (15 ds---------------(20
where A is the enclosed area of the mean periph- A6.9 Expression for Torsional Moment in Terms of
ery of the tube wall. Internal Shear Flow Systems for Multiple Cell
The shear stress 7 at any point on the tube Closed Sections.
wall is equal to q, the shear force per inch of Fig. A6.16 shows the lnternal shear flow
wall divided by the area of this one inch length pattern for a 2-cell thin-walled tube, when
or 1 x t or the tube is subjected to an external torque.
ql, q2 and q- represent the shear load per inch
.T - q/t it---------------
= -2 (16 on-the three-different portions of the cell
walls.
For equilibrium of shear forces at the
TUBE TWIST junction point of the interior web with the out-
Consider a small element cut from the tube side wall, we know that
wall and treated as a free body in Fig. A6.14, 91 = q2 +qa----- --__ ----.--(21)
with ds In the plane of the tube cross-section m
and a unit length parallel to the tube axis.
Under the shearing strains the plate element zt e

2
4s
---- 2 . A6.16
Fig. A6. 14 Fig. A6. 15

deforms as Illustrated in Fig. A6.15, that is, Choose any momentnaxis such as point (0).
the face a-a moves with respect to face 2-2 a Referring back to Fig. A6.13, we found that the
distance 6. The force on edge a-a equals q ds moment of a constant shear force q acting along
and it moves through a distance 6. a wall length ds about a point (0) was equal in
magnitude to twice the area of the geometrical inch in the web 1-2 and (q8 - q,) for web 2-3.
shape formed by radii from the moment center to For equilibrium, the torsional moment of
the ends of the wall element ds times the shear the internal shear system must equal the ex-
flcW q. ternal torque on the tube at this particular
Let T, = moment of shear flow about point section. Thus, from the conclusions of article
(0). Then from Fig. A6.16, A6.9, we can write:

To q 2Ql (-41 + Azb) + 2qzAza - 2qaAzb ‘T = 2q,A 1 f 2&A, f 2q,A, - - - - - - - (24)

= 2q,A, + 2q,A,b + Zq,A,, - 2q,A,b - - - - (22) For elastic continuity, the twist of each cell
must be equal, or 8, = 8, = Q3.
But from equation (21), q3 = q, - q,.
From equation (19), the angular twist of a cell
Substituting the value of q3 in (22)
IS

To = 2q,A, + 2qiAab f 2qeAna - 2qlAzab + 2qaA =b

But A, = A,, + A,b

$ _____ -__-__-_
(25)
Hence, T, = Bq,A, + 2q,A, - - - - - - - - - (23)

where A1 = area of cell (1) and A, = area of Thus, for each cell
of a multiple cell struc-
cell (2). Therefore, the moment of the internal ture an expression i ds
T can be written and
shear system of a multiple cell tube carrying I
Pure torsional shear stresses Is equal to the equated to the constant value 2GQ. Let alo,
sum of twice the enclosed area of each cell represent a line integral ds
T for cell wall
times the shear load per Inch which exists in I
the outside wall of that cell. (Note: The web l-0, and ale, ano, h3 and a,, the line in-
mn is referred to as an inside wall of either tegrals T for the other outside wall and
cell) e f
interior web portions of the 3-cell tube. Let
A6.10 Distribution of Torsional Shear Stresses in a clockwise direction of wall shear stresses in
Multiple-Cell Thin-Walled Closed Section. any cell be positive in sign. Now, substituting
Angle of Twist. in Equation (25)) we have :

Cell @
cell (1) $
L
q1 a,, + (Sl - q8) a,,
1 = 2GQ (26)

cell (2) j.+ (qe - ql)ala

2 [ + haa0 + (q2 - qB)az3
1
= ZQ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ (27)

cell (3) ;2”- (q3 - qahs

J c
+ q3azo
1 = 2GQ - (28)

Equations (24, 26, 27 and 28) are sufficient to

Fig. A6.17 shows in general the internal determlne the true values of ql, qe, q3 and 8.
shear flow pattern on a 3-cell tube produced by Thus, to determine the torsional stress
a pure torque load on the tube. The cells are distribution in a multiple cell structure, we
numbered (11, (2) and (3), and the area outslde write equation (25) for each cell and these
the tube is designated as cell (0). Thus, to equations together with the general torque
designate the outslde wall of cell (l), we re- equation, similar to equation (24), provides
fer to it as lying between cells 1-O; for the sufficient conditions for the solution of the
outside wall of cell 2, as 2-O; and for the web shear stresses and the angle of twist.
between cells (1) and (2) as l-2, etc.
A6.11 Stress Distribution and Angle of Twist for &Cell
91 = shear load per inch = T1t, in the out-
side wall of cell (l), where ‘cl equals the unit Thin-Wall Closed Section.
stress and t, = wall thickness. Likewlse, For a two cell tube, the equations can be
9e = Tats and q, = TJt3 = shear load per inch in simplified to give the values of ql, q2 and 8
outslde walls of cells (2) and (3) respectively. directly. For tubes with more than two cells,
For equllibrlum of shear forces at the junction the equations become too complicated, and thus
points of Interior webs with the outslde walls, the equations should be solved simultaneously.
we have (ql - qa) equal to the shear load per Equations for two-cell tube (Fig. A6.18): -
A6.8 TORSION

Cell 2
1 (asoA1 + aI&) T - - (29
9 1 = i? azoA1’ + a12AZ + aolAZ2 I - -
2GQ = --i--
337.4
- (qz - ql) 335 - 173.5 q2
1 =

.965 q1 - 5.34 qz - - - - - - - - - - - - (34

18
Equating (33) and (34)

- 14.195 q, + 8.505 q2 = 0 - - - - - - - - (35

q2 =
1
2-
aolAo + alzA
aZ0A12 f alzA2 + ao1A2’ 1 T ----(3C The summation of the external
sisting torque must equal zero.
and internal re-

J =4 olalz
’ + alzA2 + ao1A02
+ alzazo + asoaol 1- - - - - (31 --

i-
---q!2
T
0 =------------------- (32 u-i
GJ .~~1 I/
i
where A = Al f AZ. -. 050”
1
--
A6. 12 Example Problems of Torsional Stresses in
Multiple-Cell-Thin-Walled Tubes. +. 032”
Fig. A6. 19
Example 1 - Torsional Stresses in Un-symmetrical Two-
Cell-Tube.

Fig.
A6.19 shows a typical &cell tubular 83450 - 2 x 105.8 q1 - 2 x 387.4 qa = 0 - (36)
section as formed by a conventional airfoil
shape, and having one interior web. An externa Solving equations (35) and (36), q1 = 55.6#/in.
applied torque T of 83450 in. lb. is assumed and qa = 92.5#/in. Since results come out
acting as shown. The internal shear resisting positive, the assumed direction of counter-
pattern is required. clockwlse was correct for q, and q, or true
signs are q1 = - 55.6 and q2 = - 92.5.
Calculation of Cell Constants
q1, = - 55.6 + 92.5 = 36.9#/in. (as Hewed
Cell areas: - A, = 105.8 sq. in. from Cell 1).
A, = 387.4 sq. In.
A = 493.2 sq. in. Fig. A6.20 shows the resulting shear pat-
tern. The angular twist of the complete cell
Llne integrals a = can be found by substituting values of ql and
q2 In elther equations (33) or (34), since twist
26.9 of each cell must be the came and equal to
alo = x5 = 1075; a,, twist of tube as a whole.

aao = -25.25 + -15.7 + -25.3 = 1735

.04 .05 .032

Solution by equating angular twist of each cell

General equation 2GQ = : ‘$. Clockwlse
I
flow of q Is positlve.
Cell 1 Subt. In general equation

-
2GQ = 105.8
[-a
1
x 1075 + (-q1 + q2) 335
1 =
SOLUTION BY SUBSTITUTING IN EQUATIONS (29) & (30)
- 13.33 q1 + 3.165 q2 - - - - - - - - - - (3:
aeoAl + a,&
1
q1 = 2- a,,A12 f alAi? + aioAs2 1 T =
 = .002456 T

1735 X
1735 x 105.8 + 335 x 493.2
105.82 + 335 x 493,22 + 1075 x 387.42 1‘I
;
J = 4 aaoAla + areAa + aloAa2
Ca,,a,, + alaazo + azoalo 1
= .000665 T = .000665 x 83450 q 55.6#/In.
916.7 x lOOa + 333.3 x 200' + 866.7 x 1OO8
1
9a = 72 aloAz + aIzA
+ alaA + aloA2'
1 T =
"
866.7 x 333.3 + 333.3 x 916.7 + 916.7 x 866.7 1
= 09.76

1075 x 387.4 + 335 x 493.2

1735 x 105.82 + 335 x 493.z2 + 1075 x 387.42 1
n
T
T
G x 09.76 = .01116-$- (rad.) per unit
length of cell.
= .001107 T = .001107 x 834.50 = 92.5#/1n. A6.13 Example 3 - Three-Cell-Tube.
Fig. A6.22 shows a thin-walled tubular
Exam&e Problem 2. section composed of three cells. The internal
Determine the torsional shear stresses in shear flow pattern will be determined In re-
the symmetrical 2 cell sectIon of Fig. A6.21 sisting the ext?ma1 torque of lOO,OOO"# as
when subjected to a torque T. Neglect any re- shown.
sistance of stringers in resisting torsional
moment.
SOLUTION:
Y--h Fig. A6. 21
Calculation of
terms
Area of cells: -
A, = 100 A, = 100 Fig. ,A6.22
A - A, + A, = 200 SOLUTION:
Line integrals a =
/ utz
rlrr Calculation of cell constants
: - Cell areas: -
19 t

10 A, = 39.3 A, = 100 A3 = 100

a lo = .05 866.7
+ 20.03 q

Line integrals a = tds , -

f

a,, q 2 n x x .025
10 = 62g al, = 10
.05 = 200
- 20 fx 10 _- 916.7
azo .03 a -20 = 667 aas dL3~
2o - .03 .03
Solution of Equations from Article A6.11: -
aao = $f$ + -j& q 917

1
4 ' = 2 aaoA12azoAl + alA
+ alaA + aloAaa 1 T Equating the external
sistfng torque: -
torque to the internal re-

2qrAl + 2q,A, + 2q,A, + T = 0

Substituting:

78.6 ql + 200 q, + 200 q3 - loo,ooo = 0 - (37)

9s = $ Leo
2 A 1 P';';'; I. tLTAa 01A,2 1 T Writing the expression
of each cell: -
for the angular twist

Cell (1)
-2
1 866.7 x 100 + 333.3 x 200
916.7 x 100' + 333.3 x 200a + 866.7 x lOOa * 1
A6.10 TORSION

Substituting: ! 46.14 Torsional Shear Flow in Multiple Cell Beams by

Method of * Successive Corrections.
The trend In airplane wing structural de-
2GQ = k3
. a9 41 + 200 qr - 200 q,
1 - - - (38) sign particularly
i toward multiple
In high speed airplanes
cell arrangement
is
as illustrated
in Fig. A6.24, namely a wing cross-section
Cell (2) 1nade up of a relatively large number of cells.

2G0 = &
[
(qa - sl) ale + baa0 + (ch - qJ) aaa
1 Fig. A6. 24
Substituting:
\dith one untiown shear flow q for each cell,
the solution by the previous equations becomes
200 cl8_ 200 q1 + 667 qa + 333 qa - qulte laborious.
C The method of successive approximations
provides a simple, rapid method for finding the
333 q3

1 - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ - - (39)
shear flow in multiple cells under pure torsion.

EXPLANATION OF SUCCESSIVE CORRECTIONMETHOD.

Cell (3) Consider a two cell tube as shown in Fig.
a. To begin with assume each cell as acting
independently, and
2~0 q &
D [
(q3 - qs) az3 + wso
1 subject cell (1) to
such a shear flow q1
as to make GQ, = 1.
Substitutlng: From equation
(19) we can write,
z3.x =ko
[
333 9s - 333 qa + 917 q5
1 - - - (40)

Solving equations (37 ) to (40), we obtain, Now assume G0 = 1, I- 5” 4

then Fig. a
91 = 143.4#/ln.
qa = 234.1#/in. Q
43 = 208.8#/in.
q2 - 91 = 90.7#/ln.
Since practically all cellular aircraft
q* - 9s = 25 .j#/in. beams have wall and web panels of constant
thickness for each particular unit, the term

I y for simplicity
L equals the length of a wall or web panel
will be written Z-& where
and
t its thictiess. Thus we can write,
Fig. A6 .23
q= 2A ------_----_-_ (41)
L
bell 7

Therefore assuming GQ& = 1 for cell (1) of

Fig. a, we can write from equatlon (41): -
Fig. A6.23 shows the resulting internal
shear flow pattern. The angle of twist, if de- * Based on Paper, “Numerical Transformation Procedures
sired, can be found by substituting values of for Shear Flow Calculations” by S. U. Benscoter.
shear flows In any of the equations (38) to (40) . Journal, Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, Aug. 1946.
 A6.11

2A
-.-2 2 x 89.3 (l-2) is subjected to a shear flow qa = - .109#
178.6
- 842 = 0.212 lb./In. /in. (counterclockwise with respect to cell (1)
and therefore negative), in addition to the
shear flow q1 = .212 of cell (1). The negative
Fig. b. shows the results. shear flow q8 = - .109 on web l-2 decreases the
twist of cell (1) as calculated above with the
resultlng value for GQI = 0.875 instead of 1.0
as started with.
Thus in order to make GQ1 = 1 again, we
will have to add a constant shear flow q: to
cell (1) which will cancel the negative’twlst
due to q, acting on web (l-2). Since we are
considering only cell (1) we can compare cell
Fig. b Fig. c
wall strains instead of cell twlst since in
equation (41), the term 2A is constant.
In a similar manner assume cell (2) sub- Thus adding a constant shear flow q: to
cancel influences of qa on web l-2, we can write:
jected to a shear flow qs to make GQ8 = 1, Then

a, 2 x 39.3 qi (x+) ce11 (l) - qa (+) web 1-2 = ’

qa = ,& 10 + 15.7 Z’s = O.l09#/in.
hence
t .05 .03

Fig. c shows the results.

Now assume the two cells are joined to- 4: = Qa -------- (42)
gether with the interior web (l-2) as a common
part of both cells.
See Fig. d. The in-
terior web is now Substituting values in equation (42)

[ . 1=842
9,= 9,
subjected to a re-
sultant shear flow 10
of q1 - qa = (.212 -
.109) = .103#/in. q: = 9.0 25 7 .05 10 2s .237
Obviously this change .04 +.05
of shear flow on the Fig. d
interior web will cause
the cell twist to be different for each cell in- Thus to make GQ, equal to 1 we must correct
the shear flow in cell (1) by adding a constant
stead of the same when the cells were considered
shear flow equal to .237 times the shear flow q2
acting separately. To verify this conclusion
In cell (2) which equals .237 x .109 = .02S8#/in.
the twist measured by the term GQ will be com-
puted for each cell. Since this shear flow is In terms of the shear
flow qa of the adjacent cell it will be ‘referred
Cell (l), GQ, =& z q+=
to as a correction carry over shear flow, and
will consist of a carry over correctlon factor
times qa.
1
= 2 x 89.3
.212 x q.g%+
.
(.212 - .109) $5
1 =
Thus the carry over factor
cell (1) may be written as
from celi (2) to

= 0.875
C.O.F. (2 to 1) = 0$
(7
web (l-2)
which equa1s
Cell (2), GQ, =--+q+=
8

1
= 2 x 39.3 II ,109 xs - (.212 - .109) g5 1
=
.237 as found above in substitution
(42).
Now consider cell (2) in Fig. d. In
in equation

bringing up and attaching cell (l), the common

= 0.466 web (2-l) is subjected to a shear flow of q,. =
- 0.212#/in. (counterclocWlse as viewed from
Since 01 must equal 8, if the cross-section cell 2 and therefore negative). Thls additional
is not to dlstort from its original shape, it is shear flow changes G0, twist of cell (2) to a
evident that the above shear flows are not the relative value of 0.4375 instead of 1.0 (see
true ones when the two cells act together as a previous G0, calculations). Therefore to make
unit. GQ, equal to 1.0 again, a corrective constant
Now consider cell (1) In Fig. d. In brlng- shear flow 41, must be added to Cell (2) to
ing up and attaching cell (2) the common web
A6.12 TORSION

cancel the twist effect of q1 = 0.212 on web ( :onsiderlng Cell (2)

(2-l). Therefore we can write,
, a”, = q: (C.O.F.) 1 to 2 = .0258 x .277 =
q’, (2 t) cell (2) - ql (k) web (2-l) = 0 .00717#/in.

hence Fig. f shows the resulting second set of

corrective constant shear flows for each cell.
Since our corrective
q$!!!! 0 _--------- (43; I
shear flows are
:rapidly getting
smaller, the con-
tinuation of the
Substituting In equatlon (43): - process depends on
the degree of ac-
curacy we wish for
= .277 qL= .277 x .212 = .0587%/M. the final results. Fig. f
Suppose we add one
Thus the carry over factor from cell (1) to more set of cor-
cell (2) in terms of q1 to make GQ, = 1 again car 1 rective constant shear flows 4:’ and qz , Using
be written the carry over correction factors previously
found we obtain,

= 2o0 = .277 s’: = .23? x .00717 = .0017#/in.

C*o-F* (1 to 2) = 723
n,
(22 = .277 x .0139 = .00385#/fn.

Fig. e shows the constant shear flow q’s and

q: that were added to make GQ = 1 for each cell.
However these cor-
Fig. g shows the results.

The final or re- 4’;

=
.-W--c- 00385
rective

independent
shear flows
were added assuming
the cells were again

other or did not

of each

have the common web

sulting cell shear
flows then equal the
orlginal shear flows
plus all corrective
cell shear flows, or
t iJ
fq';'=

\a--cc
.0017 11
(1)
it
(2)

Fig. g
(l-2). Thus in 91 (final) = 91 + s: +
bringing the cells
s: + qT
together agaln the interior web Is subjected to
be resultant shear flow of q: - q’,. In other
words If we were to add the shear flows of Fig. t? 9, (final) = 9. + 4’. + s”, + 4:
to those of Fig. d, we would not have GQ, and GQ,
equal to 1. The resulting values would be closer Fig. h shows
a= . 1787
to 1.0 than were found for the shear flow system the final results.
To check the
of Fig. d.
Considering Fig. e, we will now add a second ! final twist of each
set of corrective shear flows q”, and 4’:. to cells cell the value GQ
(I) and (2) respectively to make G0, and GQ, = 1 will be computed for
each cell using the
for cells acting independently. q values In Fig. h.
Consldering cell (l), and proceeding with Fig. h
same reasoning as before, Cell (1)

4’:
0
Z$ cell (1) - qb
GQ1=
,
1
2 x 89.3 C .2534 x F + .0747 x-$ 1 = .997
Hence

q:’ = = .0587 x .237 = .0139#/in.

GQ.= 2 x 139.3 .1787 x g
10
- .0747 x T5 1 =.997

A6.15 Use of Operations Table to Organize Solution by

Successive Corrections.
or Operations Table 1 arranges the calculations
so that the steps dealing with the corrective
91” = (C.O.F.) 2 to 1 times q; = .237 x .0587 shear flows can be carried out rapidly and with
= .0139 a minlmum of thought.
 OPEMTIONS TABLB 1

c*o* (l-2) =
0
$ web l-2 10
.05
= .40
cell 2

10
=.z= *25
40
.05
Explanation of Table 1
Line 2 gives the shear flow q in each cell,
Line 1 gives the carry over factors for when it is assumed each cell is acting separ-
each cell, computed as explained before. Line 2 ately and is subjected to a unit rate of twist
gives the necessary constant shear flow q in or GB = 1.
each cell to give unit rate of twist to each The calculations for the q values are as
cell acting independently. (GB = 1). Line 3 follows: -
gives the first set of constant corrective shear
flows to add to each cell. The corrective q re- For cell (1)
ferred to as the carry over q or C .O.q in the
table consists of the q in the adjacent cell 2.AL = 2 ’ loo a -25
91 =
times the C.O. factor of that cell. Z + cell 1 s
Thus .237 x .109 = .0258 is carry over from 0
cell (2) to cell (1) and .277 x .212 = .0587 is
For cell (2)
carry over from cell (1) to cell (2).
Line 4 gives the second set of corrective
carry over shear flows, namely .277 x -0258 = %- a, I 2 x 100 a .4
.00717 to cell (2) and .237 x .0587 - .0139 to Z 0+ cell 2 lo+ 30
.05 Ci
cell (1). Line 5 repeats the corrective carry
over process once more. Line 6 gives the final A, and A, equal cell area of cells (1) and (2)
q values which equal the original q plus all respectively. L = length of wall element and t
carry over q values. its corresponding thickness.
Example Problem 1 (2 cells) In order not to start out with decimal values
Determine the internal shear flow system of q, thevalues above will arbitrarily be
for the two cell tube in Fig. A6.25 when sub- multiplied by 100 to make q1 = 25#/in. and
jected to a torque of 20,000 in. lbs. Qa = 40#/in. Since we want only relative
& 10” + 10” 4 values of terms this is permissible. These
values are shown in line 2 of Table (2). The
.05 0.10 corrective carry over process proper is started
in line 3 of table (2). In cell (1) the’amount
carried over of q1 = 25 to cell (2) equals the
C.O. factor times 25 or 0.4 x 25 = 10 which is
written along the vertical line under cell (2).
Likewlse in cell (2) the amount of q2 = 40 that
is carried over to cell (1) equals the C.O.
Fig. A6.25 factor times q2 or .25 x 40 = 10, which is
written along the vertical line under cell (1).
OPEFtATIONS TABLE 2 The second set of corrective carry over
constant shear flows are given in line 4 of
Table (2), thus, .4 of the q1 = 10 = 4.0 is
carried over to cell (2) and .25 x value of
91 = 10 = 2.5 is carrled over to cell (1). Line
5 repeats the process namely 0.4 x 2.5 = 1 to
cell (2) and .25 x 4 = 1.0 to cell (1).
This process of carrying over values of q
is continued until the values are small Or
negligible. Line 8 gives the flnal q values in
each cell as the summation of the assumed q
value plus all carry over values of 9. Thus in
Explanation of solution as given in Table (2):
cell (1) q = 38.85#/1n. and for Cell (2)
Llne 1 gives the values of the carry over q = 55.5. Line 9 gives the torque that these
factors. The values are calculated as follows: values of cell shear flow can produce.
C.O. factor cell (1) to cell (2): T = 2Aq
A6.14 TORSION

For cell (1) T = 2 x 100 x 38.85 = 7770 1n. lb. OPIGRATIONS TABLE 3
For cell (2) T q 2 x 100 x 55.5 = 11100 in. lb.
Line 10 gives the sum of the above two values
which equals 18870 in. lb.
The original requirement of the problem was
the shear flow system for a torque of 20,000”#.
Therefore the required q values follow by direct
proportion, whence

20000
91 q - x 38 ’ 85 = 41 . Z#/in .
18870

20000 IExplanation of solution as given In Table 3: -

(28 = 18870 x 55.5 = 58.9#/in.
Cell (1) Cell (2) Cell (3)
These values are shown in line 11 of Table A, = 96 A, = 56.5
A, = 144
2. Check on twist of cells under final q values.
The relative total strain around each cell c 4 = 1140 z: + = 1040 z g = 1055
boundary is given by the term h Z q + for the
Shear flow q for G0 = 1 for each cell acting in-
cell e dependently: -
Thus for cell (1)
Cell (1)
$ 1 z q+ =A+.” + (41.2 - 58.9) 10
(%) 35 =
I

= 212 Cell (2) 9 =;?iia- --_1040

192 _ J8&
24
For cell (2),

To avoid small numbers these values of q

= 212 are multiplied by 100 and entered on line 2 of
the table. Calculation of carry factors as
Thus both cells have the same twist. given In line 1 of Table 3.
In the above calculations q1 and q2 act Cell (1) to (2)
clockwise In each cell, hence the shear flow on
the Interior common web is the difference of the
two q values.

Example Problem 2. Three cells

The three cell structure in Fig. A6.26 Is
subjected to an external torque of - 100,000 in. Cell (2 1 to (1)
lb. Determine the internal resisting shear flow
pattern.
z-2.5 = -21
PA-- 12” -+- 8” -j “*O

Cell (2) to (3)

(G-J Web 2-3 - 300 = ,284

c*o* (2-3) = 1055
Z + cell 3
( >

Fig. A6. 26
 A6.15

Cell (3) to (2) as given in Table 4. Line 10 shows the cor-

rection of q values to develop a resisting
L
web 2-3
torque of lOO,OOO”#. The multiplying factor is
0z 300 100,000/80630.
2.0. === .288
(3-2) =
A6.16 Torsion of Thin-Walled Cylinder Having Closed
Type Stiffeners.
The balance of the solution or procedure in The airplane thin-walled structure usually
Table 3 is the same as explained for Problem 1 contains lon-itl!dinal stiffeners space3 around
in Table (2). It should be noticed that cell the outer walls as illustrated in Fir:r. A6.28
(2) bein?- between two cells receives carry over and A6.29.
q values from both adjacent cells and these two
Values arc added together before being distribu-
ted or carried over again to adjacent cells.
For exanple consider line 3 in Table (3) and
cell (2). Thi: q value 5.82 representing .23 x
23.3 is brought over from cell (1) and the q
value 3.08 = .2i38 x 10.70 from cell (3). These Open Type Stiffener Closed Type Stiffener
two values are added together or 5.82 + 3.08 -
8.00. T::e carry over q to cell (1) Is then .Zl For the open type stiffener as illustrated in
x 8.90 = 1.87 and to cell (3) Is .2S4 x 8.90 = Fig. A6.28, the torsional rigidity of the ln-
2.53. dividual stiffeners as compared to the torsional
In line 8, the final q in cell (2) equals rigidity of the thin-walled cell is so small
the original q of 18.45 plus all carry over q to be negligible. However a closed type
values from each adjacent cell. stiffener is essentially a small sized tube and
Line 10 in Table (3) shows the total torque its stiffness is much greater than an open
developed by the resultant internal shear flow section of similar size. Thus a cell with
is 17435"#. Since the problem was to find the closed type stiffeners attached to its outer
shear flow system for a torque of - 100,000 in. walls could be handled as a multiple cell struc-
lb., the values of q in line 8 must be multipli- ture, with each stiffener acting as a cell with
ed by the factor 100,000/17435. a common wall with the outside surrounding cell.
Line 11 shows the final q values. Since in general the stiffness provided by the
stiffeners is comparatively sinall compared to
Example Problem 3. Four cells. the over-all cell, the approximate simplified
Determine the internal shear flow system procedure as given in NACA T.N. 542 by Kuhn can
for the four cell structure in Fig. A6.27 when be used to usually give sufficient accuracy. In
subjected to a torsional moment of - 100,000 in. this approximate method, the thin-walled tube
lb. and closed stiffeners are converted or trans-
4 8” I20 A- 20 L 40 _I formed Into a single thin-walled tube by modi-

46~~i:
fying the closed stiffeners by either one of the
following procedures: -
(1) Replace each closed stiffener by a doubler
plate having an effective thickness
t,=tsTS/d, and calculate @ ds/t with these
(500) doubler plates in place. The enclosed area
Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3 Cell 4 of the torsion tube still remains (A) or
the same. See Fig. A6.30.
Fig. A6.27

OPERATIONS TABLE 4
Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3 cell 4

T;ansformation
Transformation by Procedure (2)
by Procedure (1)
+d+

T
+-- d + t,K
I J t
s
In Fig. A6.27 the values in the rectangles tte=tsK+tst ;
represent the cell areas. The values in ( )
represent the L/t values for the particular Wall Fig. A6. 30 t=tst +ts. ;is
Fig. A6.31
or web. After studying example problems 1 and 2
one should have no trouble checking the Values
A& 16 TOR

(2 ) Replace the skin over each stiffener bY a

“liner” in the stlffener&aving a thickness
t, = tSK a/,. (See Fig. A6.31.) The en-
closed area (A) of the cell now equals the
original area less that area cross-latched
Partly lateral shear
In Fig. A6.31.
and partly torsional shea
Procedure (1) slightly overestfmates and
procedure (2) slightly underestimates the stiff-
ness effect of the stiffeners.
The corner members of a stiffened Cell are
usually open or solid sections and thus their
Torsional shea
torsional resistance can be simply added to the
torslonal stiffness of the thin-walled over-all
cell.
A6.17 Effect of End Restraint on Members Carrying
Torsion, Fig. A6.32
The equations derived in the previous part
of this chapter assumed that cross-sections
throughout the length of the torsion members
were free to warp out of their plane and thus
there could be no stresses normal to the cross-
sections. In actual practical structures re- A6.18 Jkample Problem Illustrating Effect of End
straint against this free warping of sections Restraint on a Member in Torsion.
is however often present. For example, the Fig. A6.33 shows an I-beam subjected to a
airplane cantilever wing from Its attachment to torsional moment T at its free end. The prob-
a rather rigid fuselage structure is restrained lem will be to determine what proportion of the
against warping at the wing-fuselage attachment torque T is taken by the flanges in bendlng and
point. Another example of restraint Is a heavy what proportion by pure shear, at two different
wing bulkhead such as those carrying a landing sections, namely 10 inches and 40 inches from
gear or power plant reactlon. The flanges of the fixed end of the I-beam.
these heavy bulk’neads often possess considerable -+&U+- Fixed
lateral bending stlffness, hence they tend to
prevent warping of the wing cross-section.
Since only torsional forces are being considered
here as being applied to the member, the stress-
es produced normal to the cross-section of the
member namely, tension and compression must add
up zero for equilibrium. Thus the applied tor- 3.4”
que is carried by pure torsion action of the
member end part by the longitudlonal stresses
normal to the member cross-sectlons. The per-
centage of the total torque carried by each Fig. A6. 33 Fig. A6. 34 Fig. A6.35
action depends on the dimensions and shape of Flg. A6.34 shows the torque dividing into two
the cross-section and the length of the member.
parts, namely the couple force F-F formed by
Fig. A6.32 illustrates the distortion of an
bending of the flanges of the I-beam and the
open section, namely, a channel sectlon subject- pure shearing stress system on the cross-
ed to a pure torsional force T at its free end
section. Fig. A6.35 shows the twisting of the
and fixed at the other or supporting end. Near section through a distance 6.
the fixed end the applied torque is practically
all resisted by the lateral bendlng of the top The solution will consist In computing the
and bottom legs of the channel acting as short angle of twist Q under the two stress con-
cantilever beams, thus forming the couple with H ditions and equating them.
forces as lllustrated in the Figure. Near the Let TR be the proportion of the total
free end of the member, these top and bottom torque T carried by the flanges in bendlng
legs are now very long cantilever beams and thus formlng the couple F-F in Fig. A6.34. From
their bending rigidity is small and thus the Fig. A6.35, the angle of twist can be written
pure torsional rigidity of the section in this
region is greater than the bending rigidity of
the channel legs. QpAL--_- F L’ _ 2 TR L’
0.5h 3 EI 3 hz EI
0.5h
 A6.1’7

Note: The deflection of a cantilever beam with The shaft rotates at constant speed. The dlf-
a load F at Its end equals FL5/3EI, and I the ference In belt pull on two sides of a pulley
moment of inertia of a rectangle about its cen- are shown on the figure. Calculate the maxlmum
ter axis = tb3/12. torslonal shearing stress In the l-3/4 inch
shaft between pulleys (1) and (2) and between
hence (2) and (3).
hs TB
(2) A l/2 HP. motor operating at 1000 RPM
Now let Tt be the portlon of the total torque rotates a 3/4-.035 aluminum alloy torque tube
carried by the member In pure torsion. The ap- 30 inches long which drives the gear mechanism
proximate solution for open sections composed of for operating a wing flap. Determine the maxi-
rectangular elements as given in Art. A6.6, mum torsional stress in the torque shaft under
equation (12) will be used. full power and RPM. Find the angular deflection
of shaft In the 30 Inch length. Polar moment of

Qtq* Inertia of tube = .Ol in.

G = 3800,000 psi.
Modulus of rlgidlty

T=60 000 in. lb.

Equatlng 8B to 0t , we can write fl(

TB = 3 E ha b”
Tt 8LeGt* (2b + bw)

Substituting values when L = 10 inches.

?I!= 3 x 10.5 x los x 3.; x 1.7; =

Tt 8 x lo= x 3.7 x 10’ x 0.1*(2 x 1.75 + 3.3)

= 9.65
A6.36
Therefore, percent of total torsional T
taken by bending of flanges equals,
(3) In the cellular sectlon of Flg. A6.36
determine the torsional shear flow in resisting
TB?Tt (‘O”) = TB:” TB (100) = 90.5 percent. the external torque of 60000 In.lb. Web and
9.65 wall thickness are given on the figure. Assume
the tube Is 100 In. long and find the torsional
If we consider the section 40 Inches from deflectlon. Material Is aluminum alloy. (G =
the fixed end, then L = 40 Inches. Thus if 40* 3800,000 psi.)
Is placed In the above substitution instead of (4) In Flg. A6.36 remove the Interior .035
10’ the results for TB/Tt would be 0.602 and web and compute torslonal shear flow and de-
the percent of the torque carried by the flanges flectlons.
in bending would be 36 as compared to 90.5 per-
cent at L = 10 inches from support. Thus In T = 100,000 in. lb.
general the effect of the end restraint decrease!
rapidly with increasing value of L.
The effect of end restralnt on thin walled
tubes with longltudional stiffeners is a more
involved problem and cannot be handled In such
a simplified manner. This problem Is considered
In other Chapters.
A6.19 Problems.

f
12”
1
k 12” +- 8” -I

320#
(5) In the 3-cell structure of Fig. A6.37
Fig. A6.36 determine the internal resisting shear flow due
to external torque of 100,000 In. lb. For a
(1) In Fig. A6.36 pulley (1) Is the driving length of 100 inches calculate twist of cellular
pulley and (2) and (3) are the driven pulleys, structure If G Is assumed 3,800,OOO psi.
A6.18 TOR ION

(6) Remove the .05 interior web of Fig.

A6.37 and calculate shear flow and twist.

(7) Remove both Interior webs of Fig.

A6.37 and calculate shear flow and twist.

(8) Each of the cellular structures In

Fig. Ah.38 Is subjected to a torsional moment
of 120,000 In.lbs. Using the method of
successive approximation calculate resisting
shear flow pattern.

Fig. A6.38

The blg helicopters of the future will be used in many important industrial and military opera-
tions. The helicopter presents many challenging problems for the structures engineer.
(Sketches from United Aircraft Corp. Publication “BEE-HIVE”, Jan. 1958. Sikorsky Helicopters)
 CHAPTER A7
DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES
ALFRED F. SCHMITT ’

A7.1 Introduction.
Calculations of structural deflections are P
important for two reasons: -
Works2 Pi A 6i
(1) A knowledge of the load-deformation ,:I
characteristics of the airplane is of primary in the limit as
importance In studies of the influence of
structural flexibility upon airplane perform- A6 -0
ante.
Work = 16P d6
(2) Calculations of deflections are neces-
sary in solving for the internal load distri-
butions of complex redundant structures.
Fig. A7. 1
The elastic deflection of a structure
under load is the cumulative result of the curve is a straight line whose equation 1s
strain deformation of the individual elements P = k6 and the strain energy is readily dam-
composing the structure. As such, one method puted to be
of solution for the total deflection might in-
volve a vectorial addition of these individual u = k6E 0r, equally, U = P2
2~.
contributions. The involved geometry of most 2
practical structures makes such an approach
A?. 3 Strain Energy Expressions for Various Loadings.
prohibitively difficult.
For complex structures the more popular STRAIN ENERGYOF TENSION
techniques are analytical rather than vectorial.
They deal directly with quantities which are not A tensile load S acting at the end of a
themselves deflections but from which deflec- uniform bar of length L, cross sectional area
tions may be obtained by sultablewrations. A and elastic modulus E causes a deformation
The methcds employed herein for deflection cal- 6 = sL/~~. Hence S = EI 6 and
L
culations are analvtical in nature.
A’l.2 Work and Strain Energy. U=fSdd=y$ ------------ (1)
Work as defined in mechanics is the prod-
uct of force times distance. If the force Alternately,
varies over the distance then the work is com-
puted by the integral calculus. Thus the work
done by a varying force P in deforming a body
U=SaL--- _____---------- (2)
2AE
an amount 6 Is
Work = P Pd6 and is represented Equations (1) and (2) are equivalent ex-
by the area under the load deformation (P-6) pressions for the strain energy in a uniform bar,
curve as shown in Fig. A7.1. the former expressing U in terms of the de-
If the deformed body is perfectly elastic formation and the latter expressing U InTerms
the energy stored in the body may be completely of load. The second form of expression is more
recovered, the body unloading along the same convenient for general usage and succeeding
P-b curve followed for increasing load. This strain energy formulas will be put In this form.
energy is called the elastic strain energy
- of
- For a tensile bar having non-uniform prop-
deformation (hereafter the -Astrain energy, for erties (varying AE), or for which the axial load
brevity) and is denoted by the symbol U. Thus S varies, the strain energy is computed by the
calculus. Thus the energy in’a differential
U = jf Pd6. Should the body be linearly
element of length dx is given by eq. (2) as
elastib (as are most bodies dealt with in
structural analysis) then the load-deformation dU = S”dx
2AE where S and AE

are average values over the length of element.

AT. 1
A7.2 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES

The total energy in the bar is obtained by

8
summing over the length of the bar. u _ 2dze L 1 _ sin g dx =
nZAE
S=dx I( 0
U=$dU=/2AE-- ____ -_--s-s (3) 2(25)= (40)*___ (.227) (40) = 0.0920 In lbs.
9.87(2)(10 x 10’)
Example Problem 1
A linearly tapered aluminum bar is under STRAIN ENERGYOF FLMUHE
an axial load of 1500 lbs. as shover. rn Fig. A7.2
A uniform beam of length L under the action
Find U.
of a pure couple undergoes an angular rotation
proportional to the couple. Thus, from elemen-
tary strength of materials
A(x) = A,(1 -h’

A,= 2 in’

t 1500# Fig. A7.2

Solution: where the constant EI, the product of elastic

modulus by sectIon moment of inertia, is called
From statics, the internal load S = -1500# the “bending stiffness”.
at every section. Since the rotation Q builds up linearly
with M the strain energy stored is

u= L s*dx
-
c 2AE
=
J 40(-1500)Wx
O I
u= ; MB

= 2(-1500)” ’ dT for convcn-

-= 4.5 In 2 inch lbs. iencs) u=1 MBL _ - - - - - - - -
lo8 o 2-T (4)
I 2 EI -------
Note that although P was a negat lve (com-
For a beam hdvlng non-uniform PrOPertIeS
prassive)
. . load the strain energ r remained
poslT;lve. (varylng EI) and/or for which M varies along
the beam, the strain energy is computed by the
Example Problem 2 calculus. From eq. (4) the strain energy In a
Find U in a uniform bar under a running beam element of differential length is
load
q = q,, cos E (Fig. A7.3).

Hence summing over the complete beam to get the

total strain energy one has
L - 40”
4% I 2 in2 U=fdU+-y------ ______ (5-J
E w 10~10~ PSi
q,- 25 lb/in
Example Problem 3
For the beam of Fig. A7.4 derive the strain
Ia energy expression as a function of Mo.
Fig; A7. 3

EI = constant

Solution:

The equation for S (x) was found by statics.

Fig. A7.4

S(x) = & qdx = i,” q, cos E dx

Solution:
L The bendlng moment diagram (Flg. A7-4a) was
2L
= q0 y sin g
1 x = q. F
(
1 -sin g
)
. found and an analytic expression written for M.

Substitution into eq. (3) gave I

 A7.3

p=&T -___--- ______ --_- (6)

vhere the constant GJ, the product of the elastic

nodulus in shear by the cross section polar mom-
?nt of Inertia, Is called the “torsional stiff-
less”.
Fig. A7.4a Since the twist 4 builds up linearly with
l’ the strain energy stored is

Then U=;T$

1 ~-----------------
TEL
J = i? GJ (7)
=- M:L
6EI
For a shaft of non-uniform properties and
varying; loading one has
Example Problem 4
Determine the strain energy of flexure of
the beam of Fig. A7.5. Neglect-shear strain J2JT~----- _______- ---
energy.
In passing It Is worth remarking that one
often encounters the group symbol “GJ” in use
for the torsional stiffness of a non-circular
shaft or beam such as an aircraftxng. In
such a case the torsional stiffness has not been
computed literally as G x J, but rather as de-
fined by eq. (6), VIZ. the ratio of torque to
Fig. A7. 5 rate of twist.
Solution:
Example Problem 5
The bending moment diagram was drawn first For a certain flight condition the torque
(Fig. A7.5a) and analytic expressions were on an airplane wing due to aerodynamic loading
written for M. is given as shown graphically in Fig. A7.6. The
variation of torsional stiffness GJ is given in
like manner. Find the strain energy stored.

1.0.

t---x Fig. A7.5a

Inspection of the diagram revealed that

the energy of flexure in the right half of the Od
beam must be ldentlcal with that of the left y-0 Y-L
Root Tip
half. Hence
Solution:
u=2*-&
I L/2
0
(P,x)Bdx A numerical integration
performed using Simpson’s rule.
of eq. (8) was
The work is
=LP 8L3 shown In tabular form In table A7.1.
24 EI Values of T and GJ for selected wing
statlons were taken from the graphs provided
STRAIN ENERGYOF TORSION and were entered in the table. For convenience
In handling the numerical work all the variables
A uniform circular shaft carrying a torque were treated in non-dimensional form, eq. (8)
T experiences a total twist In a length L pro- being changed as follows
portional to the torque. Thus from elementary
strength of materlals
A7.4 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES
I
where strain energy in a beam under the action of a
T E T/TR , T=Y/L transverse shear loading V(lbs)*. For this
purpose V = 7 x dy x t and t x dy Is called A,
?%i z GJ/GJR the beam cross sectional area. Hence

The subscript R denotes “root” value (y=o). du = v2dX

- , and
The coefficients for Simpson’s rule appearing in ZAG
column (6) were taken from the expression for
odd n therefore the elastic strain energy of shear for
the entire beam 1s given by
I = g (f, + 4f, + 2f, + 4f, + - - - -

- - - - + @f
u = - ______-_--------
J;;pGx (10)
4 n-2 + 3fn-l + &J
Example Problem 6
Determine the strain energy of shear in
I TABLE A7.1 the beam of Example Problem 4.
STA. T (T)” iZ zj’ Coeff. (a:Coeff. Solution:
z

The shear load diagram was drawn first

.i 1.0.98 1.0.96 1.0 76 1.26
1.0 .267
.0667 .0667
336 from the right end.
:: .94
.67 .88
.45 :54
.37 1.63
1.22 .133
.250 : 216
305 p 4 + &
.a .29 .084 .24 .35 .200 :070 A A
1.0 0 0 .14 0 .0833 0.0 PO +x AG= CONSTANT
III1 I I
II1111111 I""'
V(x) -po

Then
Therefore the strain energy was =/2
1
U=ax2x Po2CbZ
0
2u = s x .994
= p,2L
2AG
STRAIN ENERGYOF SHEZR
Eq. (9) may be used to compute the shear
A rectangular element “dx” by “dy” of strain energy in a thin sheet. The element
thickness “t” into the page under the action of dx x dy Is vlsuallzed as but one of many in the
uniform shear stress IG (psi) is shown In Fig. sheet and the total energy Is obtained by
A7.6a. summlng. Thus
7;,
From elementary strength I----
of materials the angle of Vt dx dy ------------
shear strain r 1s pro- T- 7 T 51 G (11)
portional to the shear 1
stress ‘G as T& 1 __-- Here a double integration is required, the
a summation be-lng carried out in both dlrectlons
x = $ where G Is the -r ta-zzj over the sheet. In dealing with thin sheet the
use of the shear
- flow
- q E ti Is often convenient
material elastic modulus so that eq. (11) rewrites
Fig. A7.6a
in shear. For the dis-

I( qadx
~ Gt dy _-----------
placements as shown in
the sketch only the down u=;
load on the left hand slde does any work. (In
general all four sides move, but if the motion A very important special case occurs when a
is referred to axes lying along two adjacent homogenous sheet of constant thickness is
sides of the element, as was done here, the de- analyzed assuming q Is constant everywhere. In
rivation Is simplified). This load is equal to this case one has
T x dy x t and moves an amount Xx dx. Then U=&[&dy=~ ___--u---w- (12)
dU = ; ‘GKt dx dy where S = J J dxdy is the surface area of the
sheet.
=; untidy--------------- (9)

Eq. (9) may be used to compute the shear I * T’he sketch

length
is visualized
dx taken from
as a side view of an element
a beam of total height dy.
of
 A7.5

Example Problem 7 A7.4 The Theorems of Virtual WorK and Minimum

Find the shear strain energy stored in a Potential Energy.
cantilever box beam of uniform rectangular An important relationship between loa? and
cross section under the action of torque T. deformation stems directly from the definitions
(Fig. A7.8). of work and strain energy. Consider Fig. 47.9(a).

A u = P/Y5
T
7 Limit A6 + 0,
-L dU = Pd6
C
@ LL!YL
+ C-b--1
Fig. A7. a
Fig. A7.9a

Solution: Thus

The shear flow was assumed given by dU ------------ (14)

Bredt’s formula (Ref. Cnapter A-6) d6=p ------

m T In words,
q=&4-, “The rate
--A of’ change of strain energy with
respect-to
~ - deflection is
- equamthesoclated
---
constant around the perimeter of any section. ‘1oad ” .
Then Eq. (14) and the above quotation are state-
ments of the Theorem of Virtual Xork. The
U=r,9eS= 8G;;rat =(b+c) reader may find theowatedquite dif-
2Gt
ferently in the literature on rigid body me-
= T*L(b+c) chanics but should be able to satisfy himself
4Gbacet that the expressions are nevertheless compatible.
A useful restatement of the above theorem
THE TOTAL ELASTIC STRAIN is obtained by rewritinrr eq. (14) as
ENERGYOF A STRUCTURE
dU - Pd6 = 0
The strain energy by its definition Is
always a positive quantity. It also is a It is next arqued that if the change in dis-
scalar quantity (one having magnitude but not placement d6 is sufficiently small the load P
direction) and hence the total energy of a remains sensibly constant and hence
composite structure, having a variety of ele-
ments under various loadings, is readily found dU - d(P6) = 0
as a simple sum.
d(U-p6) = 0 - - - - - - - (15)
S’CIX Madx T=dx
‘TOT= Jm + J -SET+ I- 2GJ The quantity
potential
U - P6 is called the total
of the system and eq. (15), resembling

JJq2kdY
as it does the mathematical condition for the
+ v2dx
J2AG+ -2Gt ------------ (13: minimum value of a function,
statement
is said to be a
of the Theorem of Minimum Potential.
From theforzit-is that the
The Integral symbols and common use of “x” Theorem of Minimum Potential is a restatement of
an an index of integration should not be taken theogmoftual Work.
too literally. It is probably best to read - -
-structural analysis the most important
these terms as “the sum of so and so over the uses of these theorems are made in problems con-
structure” rather than “the Integral of “, for cerninFp buckling instability and other non-
quite often the terms are formed as simple linearities. No applications will be made at
sums without resort to the calculus. The cal- this point.
culus is only used as an aid in some applica-
tions. A7.5 The Theorem of Complementary Energy and
It is seldom that all the terms of eq. Castigliano’s Theorem.
(13) need be employed in a calculation. Many
of the loadings, if actually present, may be of Again in the case of an elastic body, ex-
a localized or of a secondary nature and their amination of the area above the load-deformation
energy contribution may be neglected. curve shows that increments In this area (called
A7.6 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES
I
the complementary energy,U*), are related to the Farce (lbs.) Translation (inches)
load and deformation by (see Fig. A7,9(b). Moment (in. lbs. ) Rotation (radians)
Torque (in. lbs.) Rotation (radians)
Pressure (lbs/in”) Volume (in”)
Shear Flow (lbs/in) Area (in”)

dU* =edP Any generalizations of the meanings of

“force” and “deflection” are possible only SO
long as the units are such that their product
Fig. A7.9b yields the units of strain energy (in. lbs).
6
Once again for emphasis it is repeated that,
while the complementary nature of eqs. (14) and
(17) are clearly evident, the use of eq. (17)
dU* (Castigliano’s Theorem) is restricted to linearly
dp = 6 ---___-_-_-------- ( elastic structures. A brief example will serve
for illustration of the possible pitfalls.
This is the Theorem of Complementary Energy. The strain energy stored in an initially
Now forthen&ly elastic body a very straight uniform column under an axial load P
important theorem follows since (Fig. A7.9c) when deflected into a half sine wave is

dU = dU* so that
P
Y=Yosinn”, 7J.J ) M=PY
Consider Flexural Energy Only

Fig. A7.9c
I u = Pa6La
:.
CL! = 6
dP _----_--~--_ ------ X Fig. A7. 10 naEI
(17)
where 6 Is the end shortening due to bowing.
In words, I Because the deflectlons grow rapidly as P ap-
“The
-- rate of change
-- of strain energy with proaches the critical (buckling) load the
respect to loadis equal to thesomd problem is non-linear. The details of the
deflecti~“. - - - - calculation of U are given wlth Fig. A7.10.
Eq. (17) and the above quotatlon are state- Now according to the Theorem
--- of Virtual
ments of Castigliano’s Theorem. Work (eq. 14) _
For a body under the simultaneous actlon of I dU
-=p
several loads the theorem is written so as to db
apply individually to*each load and Its assocl- but
ated deflection, thus : dU P2L”
ds = n?%
au
-=6 ---------------- Therefore
&P1 1 PZLZ
nr=PEI
or
The partial derlvatlve sign In eq. (17a)
Indicates that the increment in strafn energy is n”E1
P=T
due to a small change in the particular load PI,
all other loads held constant. (Euler fOrIILIla for uniform column). The
Note that by “load” and “deflection” may correct result.
be meant: Application of Castigliano’s Theorem,
eq. (17), leads to the erroneous result:
Assoc lated
Load----------Deflection 22 = 6
dP

du, 2P6La = b
dP T?EI
* The proof of the theorem for the case of multiple loads is
generally formulated more rigorously, appeal to a simple
diagram such as Fig. A7.9c being less effective. See, ** See Art. A17.6, Chapter A-17 for detailed
for example, “Theory of Elasticity” by S. Timoshenko. derivation of this equation.
 A7.7

p = naEI (Incorrect) Then

2L 2U = 43.26 x lo-’ Pe LB FT

Moral : Do not use Castigliano’s theorem for

6 P = 3 = 43 26 x lo-’
non-linear Eblems. P ft.
dp ’
Fortunately the above restriction upon .ihe
use of Castigliano’s theorem is not a very Yote that In this problem the only use made of
severe one, the majority of every day structural the calculus was in the differentiation. A
problems being linear. Castigllano’s theorem simple sum was used to form U, as per eq. (2).
is quite useful In performing deflection calcu-
lations and a variety of applications will be Example Problem 9
made in the following sections. Derive Bredt’s formula for the rate of
twist of a hollow, closed, thin-walled tube:
A7.6 Calculations of Structural Deflections by Use of
Castigliano’s Theorem. T ds
As the examples of Art. A7.3 have illus- ’ = FG x Ref. chap. A6.
i
trated,the strain energy of a structure can be
expressed as a function of the external loadlngs The strain energy is stored in shear ac-
provided the internal load or stress distribu- cording to
tion Is calculable. Having the strain energy so U=!: q2dxdy
expressed the deflections at points of load ap- 2 u 7x-’
plication can be determined with the aid of eq. This Is the only energy store-d, secondary ef-
(17), Castigllano’s Theorem. fects neglected. Over a given cross section q
In the examples to follow the deflections is a constant and is given by Bredt’s equation
of a variety of statically determinate struc- T where A is the enclosed area of the tube
9=FA,
tures are computed. Methods of handling redun-
dant structures are considered in subsequent (Ref. Chap. A.5).
articles.
Solution:
Example Problem 8
Find the vertical deflection at the pOlnt Since the twist per unit length was desired
of load application of the crane of Fig. A7.11. the strain energy per unit length only was
Cross sectional areas are given on each written. Thus, assumlng y in the axial direction,
member . The stranded cables have effective no integration was made with respect to y. The
moduli 1 of 13.5 x lo8 psi. E = 29,000,OOO for integration in the remaining dlrection was to be
other members. carried out around the perimeter of the tube and
^ c so the index was changed from “x” to the more ap-
proprlate “s”. Hence (compare with Example Prob. 7)

The symbol 4 means the integration is carried out

Fig. A7. 11
around the tube perimeter. Therefore

Solution:

The strain energy considered here was that USE OF FICTITIOUS LOADS
due to axial loading in each of the four mem- In the following example the desired deflec-
hers. The load distribution was obtained from tlon Is at the free end of the bar where no load
statics and the energy calculation was made in Is applied. A fictitious load ~111 be added for
tabular form as follows: purposes of the calculation. The rate of change
of strain energy with respect to thls flctitlous
load will be found after which the load will be
I
L
TABLE A7.2
I
I
set equal to zero.
sired result
This technique
In as much as the deflection
gives the de-
Is
I
I
MEMBER 1
I
sLBS /
I
LFT(
I
AExl’feLBS 1

I
C&!XIO~I
I
equal to the ---rate of change of straln
with respect to the load and such a rate exists
even though the load Itself be zero.
energy

OA -1.50 P 40.0 136 0.66 P=

2.50 P 50.0 11.8 26.48 Pp
1.58 P 63.0 11.8 13.33 Pa Example Problem 10
-2.12 P 84.5 136 2.79 Pa Compute the axial motlon of the free end of
1Z = 43.26 Pa the tapered bar of Flg. A7.12.
A7.8 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES
I

= 4o#/in.
I erally are easier to evaluate.
A = &J (l-2;) “A, = 4 h*P Example Problem 11
L =4oin. Find the deflection at point B of the beam
E = 10 x lOa psi of Fig. A7.13.
i P,
EI constant
IX Fig. A?. 12

Solutlon:
Fig. A7.13
After addition of the fictitious end load
P, the axial load from statics was found to be
I Solution:
S(x) = R + q (L - x) A fictitious load Pl was added at Point B
and the bending moment diagram was drawn in two
Hence, since loadings other than tensile are of parts.
a secondary nature

2PL
- See Eq. 3 O<X<L/S

Fig. A7.13a

Then neglecting the energy of shear as being

small*

Before evaluating the lntegrals it was ob-

served that the steps to follow, in which U was
to be differentiated with respect to F: and the
subsequent setting of R = o would drop out both 8
the first and last terms. Hence only the second
term was evaluated. - 3Y) + + (L + 3Y)
1 dy

U=X+‘*(l-ln2)cX L/3

Then
1
+2EI
1
(’ + “‘)
9
I0
(L - 38) = de .
1
Differentiation under the integral sign with
62!=2Lgq (l- In 2) respect to P, gave
dF: AoE

DIFFERENTIATION UNDW THE INTEGRAL SIGN

An Important labor savings may be had in
the calculation of deflections by Castigliano’s
theorem. dy
In the straln energy integrals arlslng in
thls class of problems, the load Pi, with respec
to which the deflection is to be found, a&S as
an Independent parameter In the integral. Pro-
vided certain requirements for continuity of the
functions are met - and they invariably are in * For beams of usual high length - to - depth ratios the shear
these problems - the differentiation with re- strain energy is small compared to the energy of flexure.
spect to P may be carried out before
-- the inte- Neglecting the shear energy is equivalent to neglecting the
g-ration is made. The resulting integrals gen- shear deflection contribution. (see p. A7.14)
The fictitious load P,, having served its pur- The total loadings
pose, was set equal to zero before completing were
the work.
M=M1-Ma=(To-PR)sln 0

T=Tl+Ta= Tacos 8 + PR
(1 - cos Q)

1 P
+TMi J o
L/3
(2L - 3y)(L + 3~) dy
Thus
Fig. A’l. 14b

(To - PR)= sina 0 Rd 8

(L - 35)’ de

1 vi?
6
B
=7pL”
486 EI
+ m J 0 [T&OS 0 + PR(l - cos Q)]’ Rd 8

(Note use of “RdQ” for the length of a dif-

Example Problem 12 ferentlal beam element instead of “dx”). Dlf-
Fig. A7.14 shows a ferentiating under the integral sign
cantilever round rod of
diameter D formed in a
quarter circle and acted 8U (To - PR)R” n’2slnP Q dQ
upon by a torque To. z=- EI o
Find the vertical move-
ment of the free end.

Solution: [T&OS 0 + PR(l - cos Q)](l - cos Q) dQ.

Fig. A7.14a shows Putting P, the fictitious load equal to zero and
the vector resolution of integrating gave

r?!P
Plan View
the applied torque T, on
beam elements. T, (Q) =
Tacos 8 and the moment T1 6
M,(Q) = To sin 0. Ap- VERT
/8;l
plication of a fictitious E
vertical load P (down) at iTO Since J = 21 and G = /2.6 the deflection was
the point of desired de- negative (UP).
flection gave the loadings Fig. Ai’. 14a
shown In Fig. A7.14b.

A7. 7 Calculation of Structural Deflections by the Method of Dummy-Unit Loads (Method of Virtual Loads).
The strict application of the calculus to Castlgliano’s theorem as in Art. A7.6, leads to a
number of cumbersome techniques ill-suited to the solution of large complex structures. A more
flexible approach, readily adapted to improved “book keeplng” techniques is the Method of Dummy-
Unit Loads developed independently by J. C. Maxwell (1864) and 0. Z. Mohr (1874). -
- Thatthe equations for the Method of Dummy-Unit Loads may be derived in a number of ways is
attested to by the great variety of names applied to this method in the literature Q . Presented
below are two derivations of the equations stemmlng from different viewpoints. One derivation ob-
tains the equations by a reinterpretation of the symbols of Castigliano’s theorem - essentlally an
appeal to the concepts of strain energy. The other derivation uses the principles of rigid body
mechanics. Based as they are upon a common set of consistent assumptions, all the methods must, of
COLlTSS, yield the same result.

Derivation of Equations for the Method of Dummy-Unit Loads

(Virtual Loads)

I - From Castigliano’s Theorem II - From the Principle of Virtual Work

Beginning with the general expression for When a system of forces ‘whose resultant Is
strain energy, eq. (13) zero (a system in equilibrium) is displaced a

@Variously called the h’faxwell-Mohr Method, Method of Virtual Velocities, Method of Virtual Work, Method of Auxilliary
Loads, Dummy Loads, Method of Work, etc.
AT.10 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES
I Cont’d. 11[A Cont’d
: imall amount without disturbing the equillbrlum
t valance, the work done is zero - obviously,
differentiate unler the integral sign with : ;ince zero resultant force moving through a
respect to Pi to obtain Clistsnce does zero work.
Consider now the set of equilibrium forces
*dx + _----mm etc. i applied to the truss of Fig. A7.15(b). The set
61 = M JP.
1 nlay be divided into two parts: the “external
EI :system”, consistinrS of the unit load applied at
Consider the symbols I;he point whose deflection is desired and the
ilS 3M 3T 1;wo reactions fixing the line of reference, and
--- -------- - - etc.
3pi ’ 3Pl ’ dPi ’ - - - 1;he “internal system” consisting of the axial
toads acting on the truss members to produce
Each of these is the “rate of change of so :quilibrium. These latter are denoted by the
-and-so with respect to Pi” or “how much SO- symbol “u”. This set of forces is considered
and-so changes when Pi changes a unit amount” OR small enough so as not to.affect the actual be-
E’zUY-“,LLY
, “the so-and-so loadin- for a unit load savior of the structure during subsequent ap-
Pi”, plicatlon of a real set of major loads. This
Thus, to compute these partial derivative snit load set is present solely for mathematical
terms one need only compute the internal load- reasons and is called a “virtual - loading”
~ or
ings due to a unit load (the virtual load) ap- “dummy
-- loading”.
plied at the point of desired-t= For Assume now that the structure undergoes a
example, the term bM,31,, could be computed in deformation due to application of a set of real
either of the two ways shown in Fig. A7.15a. loads, the virtual loads “going along for the
ride”. Each member of the structure suffers a
RATE METHOD UNIT METHOD ,deformation denoted by A @ . The virtual load-
ing system, being in equilibrium (zero resultant)
by hypothesis, does work (“virtual work”) equal
to zero. Or, considering the subdivision of the
virtual loading system, the work done by the
external virtual load must equal that absorbed
Fig. A7.15a by the internal virtual loads. The work done by
the external virtual forces is equal to one
pound times the deflection at joint C, the re-
actions R1 and Ra not moving. That is
M = Plx ( m = dummy loading External Virtual Work = 1’ x 6c.
/=x(=g-J The internal
structure
virtual work is the sum over the
of the products of the member virtual
Likewise, %P c, where PC is a load (real loads u by the member distortions A. That is,
or fictitious) applied at joint c of Fig. A7.15t )9 Internal Virtual Work = Z u.A .
is given by the loadings for the unit load ap-
plied as shown. Then equating these works,
In practice the use of the unit load is 1 x 6c = r, u.A .
most convenient. iJsing the notation
If the deformations A are the result of
elastic strains due to real member loads S then
A = SW
AE for
each member and one has
6 QUSL
C AE
for the unit loadings, the deflectlon equatlon The argument given above may be extended
becomes quickly to include the internal virtual work of
virtual bending moments (m), torsion loads (t),
shear loads (v), and shear flows (s) dolng work
during deformations due to rsal moments (PI),
+Jv!!!
AG
+ 44Gttidy--------- (18)
torques
(4).
(T), shear loads (V), and shear flows
The general expression becomes

-1.0 -1.0
Mmdx Ttdx
EI+ /- GJ
+ vvdx 9 i tidy
/ -XT-+ II Gt ---- - (18)

@ Note that the deformations are not restricted to those due

to elastic strains only. They may be the result of elastic
*u” loads due to a unit (virtual) load. or inelastic strains, temperature strains or misalign-
ment corrections.
 A7.11

In applying eq. (18) the labor of a deflec-

tion calculation divides conveniently into
several steps :
i. Calculation of the real (actual) load
disk-ibutlon (s,M,T, etc.)
ii. Calculation of the unit (virtual) load
distribution (u,m,t, etc.) due to a unit
“u 1” loads “u St1 loads
(Virtual) load applied at the point of desired
deflection and reacted at the reference point(s)
Fig. A7.16a Fig. A7.16b

III. Calculation of flexibilltles,

1 1
I TABLE Al.3 I

AE,~EI~ etc.
iv. Summation and/or Integration.
Here again note the general nature of the
terms “load” and “deflection”. (See p. A7.6)
The following examples apply the method of
dummy-unit loads to the determination of ab-
solute and relative deflections, both rotatlon
and translation.

Example Problem 13
The pin-jointed truss of Flg. A7.16 is
acted upon by the external loading system shown.
The member loads are given on the figure. Mem-
ber properties are given in Table A7.3. Find
the vertical movement of joint G and the hori-
zontal movement of joint H.

Answers : = 0.286”
6GvER

= -.0587” (the negative sign means

%OR
the jolnt moves to the LEFT since the unit load
was drawn to the RIGHT in Fig. A7.16b).

Example Problem 14
Fig. A7.16 For the truss of Flg. A7.16 find the fol-
Solution: lowing relative displacements of jolnts:
c) the movement of joint C in the direction
Only the energy of axial loadings in the of a diagonal line joining C and F.
members was considered. Unit (virtual) loads
were applied successively at joints G and H as d) the movement of joint G relative to a line
shown In Figs. A7.16a and A7.16b. AN S and u joining points F and H.
loadings were entered in Table A7.3 and the
Relative deflections are determined by
sudx applying unit (vlrtual) loads at the points
calculation for AE6 = was carried out by where the deflections are desired and by support-
I
ing such unit load systems at the reference
forming the sum of suL/AE terms for the members points of the motion. Thus, for solution to
part (c) a unit load system was applied as
of the truss, i.e. show-n in Fig. A7.16~ and for the solution of
AT.12 DEkLECTIONS OF STHUCTUHES

part (d) the system of unit loads of Fig. A7.16d Rotations, both absolute and relative are
was used. Table A7.4 completes the solution, determined by applying unit
-~____ (virtual) couples
the real loads and member flexibilities to the member or portion of structure WhOSe

being the same as for example problem 13. rotation 1s desired. The unit couple is reslst-
ed by reactions placed on the line of reference
for the rotation. Thus Figs. A7.16e and A7.16f
show the unit (virtual) loadings for parts (e)
and (f) respectively. Table A7.5 completes the
calculation, the real loads and member flexlbll-
ities L& being the same as for example
( 1
problem 13.
R=l#
91~” loads rr~qtt loads

Fig. A’7. 16c Fig. A?‘. 16 d

TABLE Al.4 “u 5” loads ‘be” loads

1

Fig. A7. 16e Fig. A7.16f

MEM. ” fib qb. us u,
(See Table
A7.3)
I I I I I
I I 1
AB 6.270 10,500 0 -0 0 0

Bc 9.759 2,250 -.6 -.375 -13.17 -6.23

I

I
DG I 9.320 I-3.7501 0 I .625 0 -21.6

BF 13.012 2,000 -.6 -.50 -20.62 -13.0

CG 13.012 -1,000 -.a 0 *lO. 41 0

DH 13.012 2,000 0 -.50 0 -13.0

z = 65.67 C ~19.36

Therefore the movement of joint c towards

joint F was 6 = .06587 inches and the motion of
joint G relative to a line between F and H was
6= -.0194 inches, the negative sign indicating
an upward movement.

Example Problem 15
For the truss of Fig. A7.16 determine
e) the absolute rotatlon of member DG Therefore the absolute rotatlon of member
DG was QDG = .00473 radians and the rotatlon of
f) the rotation of member BG relative t_O
member CG. BG relative to CG was QBG _ CG = .00053 radians.
Example Problem 16 points C, D, E, the attachment points of an
Find the vertical deflection of point C for alleron or a flap. The wing beam deflection
the cantilever beam of Fig. A7.17 carrying a bends the aileron or flap structure by applying
concentrated load P at its end. Also find slope a load at D thru aileron supporting bracket. To
of elastic curve at C. know this force the deflection of the Wing beam
at D relative to line CE must be known.
Solution:
Solution:
6c= I F
Origin at B: -
With origin at B
M=30x .$=15x’
M=- F’x (Fig. A7.17)

For virtual loading (Fig. A7.17a)

m = 0, for x<b
m = -1 (x - b), for x>b

Hence Mmdx = - Px(-x + b)dx = (Px” - Pbx)dx

L
Whence tjc = sI (x” - bx)dx = A[ g - y],”
i b
m = 0, x< 20
3L2b + b”
=-.---P
3EI [
L3
2 2 1 m= -.5 (x-20)=-.5x+lO,whenx=20to50
m = -.5 (x - 20) + 1 (x -50) = .5x - 40, when
If b = zero, then 6B = PL3/3EI x = 50 to 80
Mnldx
“D(CE) = y
1 a L L b xqp Fig. At’. 17

A C
B
15 x2 (-.5x + 1O)dx + & 15 x2
Fig. A7.17a
4 1*
(.5x - 40) dx
A or' B
Fig. A7. 17b
J unit
oouple ---

e,= F =- lo8
EI - 11.72 + 6.25 + .300 - .400 +
I
For virtual loading

m = 0, xcb,
see Fig. A7.17b

m = - 1, x>b
76.8 - 102.4 - 11.72 + 25.0 1
x lo8 I -17.9
Hence Mmdx = (+x)(-l) dx = Px dx EI
Therefore deflection of point D relative to line
L joining CE is down because result comes out nega-
. l . 0, =
xdx = & (L’ - ba) tlve and therefore opposite to direction of vir-
/
/ b tual load.
If b = 0, 8, = g Example Problem 18
,u lb/ft -6 m=h

Example Problem 17
For the uniformly loaded cantilever beam
of Fig. A7.18, find the deflection of polnt D
relative to the line joining points C and E on
the elastic curve of the beam. This is repre- l#
R=l/L
R=l/ L ‘nit
sentative of a practical problem In aeronautics,
in that AB might represent a rear wing beam and (a) (b) Cc) couple
Fig. A7.19 Fig. A7.20
A7. 14 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES

Find the horizontal deflection of point C

dy = 8 & and 8 = -&, where A = CrOSS SeCtiOna.1
for the frame and lociding of Fig. P7.19. Also S
angular deflection of C with respect to line CD. a rea of beam at section and Es = modulus of
r igidity: and assuming that the shearing stress
Solution: V
is uniform over the cross-section.
Ii
Fig. b shows the static moment curve for Vvdx
the given loading and Fig. c the moment diagram T herefore 1 x 6 = AE, . Then the total deflec-
for the virtual loading of a unit horizontal
load applied at C and resisted at D. t ion for the shear slips of all elements of the
t learn equals
l-l=%--wz; m=h L vvdx

hence
2 2 6 total =
I 0 %
- -------(a)

w/here V is the shear at any section due to given

1roads. v = shear at any section due to unit
kiypothetical load at the point where the deflec-
t ;ion is wrtnted and acting in the desired directlon
()f the deflection. The reactions to the hypo-
=- 1 whL”
- t;hetlcal unit load fix the line of reference for
12 EI t;he deflection.
A is the cross-sectlonal area and Es the
To find angular deflection at C apply a unit
imaginary couple at C with reactions at C and D. n nodul.us of rigidity. Equation (a ) is slightly
F.ig. A7.20 shows the virtual m diagram. In error as the shearinfg stress is not uniform
(lver the cross-section, e.g. being parabolic for
, : 3. rectangular section. However, the average
Thearing stress gives close results.
For a uniform load of w per unit length, the
(:enter deflection on a simply supported beam is: -

Linear Deflection of Beams Due to Shear by Virtual Work.

Generally speaking, shear deflect ions in For bendlng deflection for a simply supported
beams are small compared to those due to bendInE P beam uniformly loaded the center deflection is
except for comparatively short beams and there-
fore are usually neglected in deflection calcu- 5 WL”
lations. A close approxlmatlon is sometimes 384 EI
made by using a modulus of elasticity slightly Hence
less than that for bending and using the bending r WLZ
-
deflection equations. 8AE, 2
The expression for shear deflection of a - =24 ; , using Es = .4E,
5wL4 0
beam IS derived from the same reasoning as in r = radius of gyration.
previous derivations. The virtual work equa- 384EI.
t1on for the hypothetical unit load system for i 1
shear detruslon dy (Fig. A7.21) considering onl: J For I beams and channels r is approximately g d
dx elastic is 1 x 6=vdy where v is shear on
section due to unit hypothetical load at point and for rectangular sectlons r = (d = depth)
0, and dy Is the shear detrusion of the element
dx due to any given load system or any other d
cause. In aircraft structures a rat10 of L Is

seldom greater than +2 .

Thus the shearlng deflection In percent of

cl
the bending deflection equals 4.1% for a L rat10
T l#
Fig. A7. 21 of :2 for I-beam sections and 1.4 percent for
* Sometimes “G”, instead. See p. A7.4 rectangular sections.
 AT.15

Example Problem 19 t = torsional moment at any section due to

a unit virtual couple acting at section
where angle of twist is desired and
Unit acting in the plane of the desired de-
flection. (inch lbs/inch lb)

Example Problem
Fig. Al. 22
I Example Problem 20
Find the vertical deflection of free end A Fig. A7.23 shows a cantilever landing gear
due to shear deformation for beam of Fig. A7.22 strut-axle unit ABC lying in XY plane. A load
assuming shearing stress uniform over cross- of lOOO# Is applied to axle at point A normal to
section, and AEs constant. XY plane. Find the deflection of point A normal
to XY plane. Assume strut and axle are tubular
and of constant sectlon.
bA = / v$
s
Solution:
v = lOO# for x = 0 to 10
V = 150 for x = 10 to 20 The loading shown causes both bending and
twisting of the strut axle unit. First find
v = 1 for x = 0 to 20 bending and torsional moments on axle and strut
hence due to lOOOf load.

1 10 20
6A = AE,
J 100.1 dx + &-
J 150.1 dx

= ;. [loo, jI) k i15nl 2o = z

0 10
l#
Method of Virtual Work Applied to Torsion of Cylindrical Bars.

The angle of twist of a circular shaft due

Fig. A7.23 Fig. Ai’. 24
to a torsional moment may be found by similar
reasoning as used in previous articles for find-
ing deflection due to bending or shear forces.
The resulting expressions are: -

Ttdx Member AB M = 1000 x, (for x = 0 to 3)

(j=
I EJ
S
- ____ - _______ (A)
I
T=O
Member BC MBC = 3000 sin 20’ + 1OOO x,
Ttdx (for x = 0 to 36)
0=
J v---e-v-- _-___ - (B)
TBC = 3000 cos 20’ constant
between B and C.
In equation (A), for translation deflections,
T = twisting moment at any section due to Now apply a unit l# force at A normal to xy
applied twisting forces. plane as shown in Fig. A7.24 and find bending
t = torslonal moment at any section due to and torsional moments due to this 1# force.
a virtual unit 1 lb. force applied at
the point where deflection is wanted
and applied in the dlrectlon of the Member AB
desired displacement. (in lbs/lb)
Es = shearlng modulus of elasticity for the m = 1. x = x, (for x = 0 to 3)
material. (also “G”)
J = polar moment of inertia of the circular t=o
cross-section.
In equatlon (B), for rotational deflections, Member BC
0 = angle In twist at any section due to
the applied twisting moments in PlaneS m = 3 sin 20’ + 1. x (for x = 0 to 36)
perpendicular to the shaft axis.
Angle in radians. t = 3 cos 20“ constant between B and C.
AT.16 DEFLECTIONS F STRUCTURES

Subt, The shear flows shown on the (nearly) horizontal

edges of the web panels are average values. Fig.
A7.27 Is an exploded view of the beam showing
6= J!I$E+JT$$ the unit (virtual) loads.

=’ 1000 x E 1000 x + 1026)

E1 J 0

36
(x + 1.026)] c& + &
s J 0
(2820) (2.82) dx

Virtual loading. Fig. A7.27

=&( [333 X ‘1 3 + [333 X 3 + 1026 x 2 + 1050
0
Since both axial loads and shear flows
were considered, the form of deflection
Xl”“)+ & [,,,,I ; = & (16,925OO) + equation used was
0
6G= J ?$ + JJ 5 qGFdy
& (286200)
S
Integrations in the flanges were made
assuming linear load variations. Such an in-
Note : A practical landing gear strut would in- tegratlon carried out over a uniform flange of
volve a tapered or reinforced section involving length L whose real load varies from Si to SJ
a variable I and J and the integration would
have to be done graphically or numerically. and whose virtual load varies from ui to UJ
yields
Example Problem 21
For the thin-web aluminum beam of Fig.
A7.25 determine the deflection
the loading shown. Stringer
at point G under
section areas are 0
JLsuch
-=-
AE
L ui
+s1
uJ AE
si
3 6
given on the figure.

The Integrations in the trapezoidal sheet

panels were made using the shear flows on the
(nearly) horizontal sides as average values,
assumed constant over the panel. With this

simplification qAV GAV dxdy = qAV &V $

Gt
Fig. Al. 25
where S is the panel area.
Solution: The calculation was completed in Table
A7.6.
It was assumed that the webs did not buckle
and carried shear only. Fig. A7.26 is an ex-
ploded view of the beam showing the internal
real loads carried as determined by StatlCS:

Fig. A?‘. 26

* The equations of statics for tapered beam webs are

derived in Art. A15.18, Ch. A-15.
 .l * (jG = (278.0 + 13.4) P x 10-B =

.147 (1800) LO-’ in = .265 In.

A?.8 Deflections Due to Thermal Strains.

As noted In the “virtual work derivation”
of the dummy-unit load deflection equations, the l------L4
a
real internal strains of the structure may be
due to any cause including thermal effects.
Fig. A7.29
Hence, provided the temperature distribution and
thermal properties of a structure are mown, the
dummy-unit load method provldes a ready means Solution:
for computing thermal deflectlons.
The axial deformation of a differential
Example Problem 22 element of the upper flange (subscrlpt U) was
Find the axial movement at the free end of assumed given by AU = a T dx where a was the
a uniform bar due to heat application to the
flxed end, resulting in the steady state tem- material thermal coeff iclent of eXpanSlOn.
perature dlstrlbution shown in Fig. A7.28. As- The lower flange, havlng received no heating
sume material properties are not functions of underwent no expansion.
Inasmuch as a thermal expansion is uniform in all
temperature. directions no shear strain can occur on a material element.
Hence no shear strain occurs in the web. The apparent
anomaly here - that web elements appear to undergo shear
T = temperature above
ambient tempera- deformations g = F (Fig. A’7.29b) - is explained as
-k T(X)= To (I-tanhF) ture follows: The temperature varies linearly over the beam
depth. The various horizontal beam “fibers” thus undergo
K = an empirical con-
axial deformations which vary linearly also in the manner
I stant dependlng of Fig. A7.29b giving the apparent shear deformation. No
upon thermal prop- virtual work is done during this web deformation since no
erties and rate of axial virtual stresses are carried in the web.
Fig. A7.28 heat addition. With the addition of a unit (Virtual)
load to the free end, the virtual loadings ob-
talned In the flanges were:

Solution: = -xL (= - u,)

“U h
The thermal coefficient of expansion of the
rod material was a. Hence a rod element of Then the deflectlon equation was
length dx experfenced a thermal deformation
A=a.T*dx. Application of a unit load at
the bar end gave u = 1. Therefore

u.u.T.dx=uT, I:( l-tanh y) dx 1

Example Problem 24
=aT,L 1-i (In coshK)
1 The first
stresses
involves cutting
step In computing the thermal
In a closed ring (3 times IndetermInate)
the ring to make it statically
Example Problem 23 determlnate and finding the relative movement Of
The idealized two-flange cantilever beam the two cut faces.
of Fig. A7.2Ya undergoes rapid heating of the Fig. A7.30a shows a uniform circular ring
upper flange to a temperature T, uniform span- whose inside surface 1s heated to a temperature
wise, above that of the lower flange. Deter- T above the outslde surface. The temperature is
mine the resulting displacement of the free end. constant around the circumference and Is assumed
 F STRUCTURES

to vary linearly over the depth of the cross

sectlon. Find the relative movement of the cut
surfaces shown in Fig. A7.30b.

I iemarks :
In the three elementary examples given
above no stresses were developed inasmuch as the
idealizations yielded statically determinate
structures which, with no loads applied, can
nave no stresses. Indeterminate structures are
treated in Chapter A.S.
A'7.9 Matrix Methods in Deflection Calculations
b Introduction. There is much to recommend the use of
Fig. Al. 30 matrix methods @ for the handling of the quantity
of data arising In the SolutiOnS of stress and
Solution: deflection calculations of complex structures:
J!he data Is presented in a form suitable for use
An element of the beam of length Rd$ is In the routine calculatory procedures of high
shown in Fig. A7.30~. Due to the linear tem- speed digital computers; a flexlbillty of opera-
perature variation an angular change dQ = tion Is present which permits the solution of ad-
hRaT do occurred In the element. The change in ditlonal related problems by a simple expansion
of the program; The notation itself suggests new
length of the midllne (centrold) of the section and Improved methods both of theoretlcal ap-
was A = y da. proach and work division.
Unit redundant loads were ap-
The methods and notations employed here and
plied at the cut surface as shown In Fig. A7.30b later are essentially those presented by Wehle
giving the following unit loadings around the and Lanslnge in adapting the Method of Dummy-
ring. Unit Loads to matrix notation. Other appropriate
references are listed In the blbllography.
From unit redundant couple (X)

mX = 1 (m positive if It tends to open BASIS OF METHOD

the rlng). Assume the structure to be analyzed has been
ux (= axial load) = o (positive of tensile) Idealized into a truss-like assembly of rods,
bars, tubes and panels (sheets) upon which are
From unit redundant axial (horizontal) load (Y) acting the external loads applied as concentrated
loads Pm or P,, each with a dlfferent numerical
= -R (1 - cos 0,
mY

= cos $
uY
From unit redundant shear (vertical .) load (X)

m5 = -R sin 4

U = - sin 0
e

The deflection equation by the dummy-unit load

method Is

6= u. A+ m . dQ Fig. A’l. 31. Idealization into an

assembly of bars and panels.
Then
2n
bx =

2n
I I
0-A + 1 . ii!f
0

2n
do = ‘& y

@For the reader

rules of matrix
not familiar
operations
with the elementary
employed here,
arithmetic
a short appen-
cos (I y d$ + (-) R(l-cos 4, y d$ dix has been included in the present edition.
0 0 @L. B. Wehle Jr. and Warner Lansing p----A Method for Re-
ducing the Analysis
-- of Complex Redundant Structures to
-- a
2n R*aT (negative Indicating movement to r-I%ocedure, Journ. of Aero. Sciences, 1_9, October
= - - h the right)
 AT. 19

subscript. Thus the system of Fig. A7.31a is THE STRAIN ENERGY

Idealized into that of Fig. A7.31b. It is next desired to write the Strain
With the above Idealization an improved energy as a function of the q’s. Cont lnulng the
scheme may be employed to systematize the com- illustrative example, write
putation of deflection calculations. The fol-
lowing steps summarize the procedure which is
discussed in detail in succeeding sections.
I. A set of internal generalized forces,
denoted by qi or qjare different numeri-
cal subscrlpts), is used to describe the inter-
nal stress distrlbutlon. The q’s may represent
axial loads, moments, shears, etc. In con-
junction with a set of member flexibility coef-
ficlents, alj, the q’s are employed to express
the strain energy U. alj gives the displacement
of point I per unit force at po?nt j.*
II. Equilibrium conditions are used to Observe that each of the integral terms in
relate the Internal generalized forces 41, qj to the above expression is a property of the struc-
the external applied
~- loads, Pm or Pn. With this tural element (variation of EI) and of the nature
relationship the strain energy expression ob- of the associated generalized force (exponent on
tained in I, above is then transformed to give variable). Introducing the notation
U as a function of the P’s.
III. Castigliano’s Theorem Is used to
compute deflections.

CHOICE OF GENERALIZED FORCES

L
Consider for example the problem of writing
the strain
cantilever
ternal
energy (of flexure) of the stepped
beam of Fig. A7.32a, assuming ex-
loads are to be applied as transverse
aza =

the strain
1
energy
0
‘N-y
EI,

becomes
point loads at A and B. The set of Internal
generalized forces of Fig. A7.32b will com-
pletely determine the bending moment dlstrlbu- U = i qe a,, + 1 q2 az2
2 e
+ 2 x 21 q2 qs ha
I
tlon in the beam elements and hence the straln
energy. Set (b) then Is a satisfactory choice
of generalized forces. +IqQae -- ---- ---- ______ (19)
2 a
It should be pointed out that set (b) is
not a unique set. Other satisfactory choices Equation (19) Is an expresslon for U which
(not an exhaustive display) are shown in Figs. could have been written lmmedlately from physl-
A7.32c, d and e. The final selectlon may be cal considerations. Each coefflclent aij is the
made for convenience or personal taste.
Note that only as many generalized forces displacement at point I per unit change in force
are used per element as are required to deter- at point’ j. This Identity Is easily seen by
mlne the signlflcant loadings in that element. applying Castigllano’s Theorem to eq. (19).
With this interpretation the first term in eq.
(19), representing the strain energy In the
outer beam portion, is written by analogy to
eq. (2) of Art. A7.3 U = i G . The remaln-
c )
ing three terms, representing the energy stored
in the Inner beam segment by q, and qa, are like-
$E&t?j--~~' q4111%q~ wise readily written, with proper account taken
qa for the cross Influence of one force upon an-
other (the “a,, q2 q3” term).
M = qlx OCX<L, Note that
M = q, + q,y OeycL,
-d” u -- --a
b” u - -- - - - - - - (20)
Fig. AT. 32. Some possible choices
Yj = hlhj bsjbsi ji
of generalized forces.
Hence
= uji (Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem)
*(“Relative displacements in the individual member”) aij
AT. 20 DEFLECTIONS F STRUCTURES

The general form of strain energy express- q1 = PI

ion is (expanding eq. (19) by Induction)
qs = P1 + PB
2u = 9191 a11 + qlqz ala + - - - - - + 91 qN a,N
I
qs = P1. L1

+ q2ql aal + qaqs aaz + - - - - - - - - - -I

I
I
+q,q, a,, + qsqs asz + - - - - - - - - - -I
I

+q+ql a,, + - - _ - _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -i
# I
I I
I I Fig. A7.32f
I I
I
I I
+ qNql aNl + - - - - - - - - - - + qN qN am
In matrix notation
- -
In matrix notation this equation is written 1 0
(see appendix)
1 1
2u =
Lq1q* - - - -
qN.a, I a1 .----a=
N
I
I
L1 0
- -
as 1 as a------;
, Symbolically these relatlonshlps are wrltten
1; II

1&;-------4 {qlf=[Dim]{Pmf ----------- - (22)

or, more concisely, The matrix

distribution”
[ 1
Gim Is called the

inasmuch as any one column of

%nit load

[ 1 Gim , say the mth column, gives the values of

In the matrix
[ aiJ 1many (if not most) of
the generalized forces (the q’s) for a unit
the elements are zero. In the specific example, value of load Pm, all other external loads
eq. (21) would be written zero.

THE STRAIN EN’ERGYIN TEP,MSOF APPLIED LOADS

If eq. (22) and its transpose are used to sub-
st .tute for the ql’s in eq. (21) one gets

2u =lpm] [oml] [alj] [GJn] {Pn/ - - - - - (23)

The problem of computing and tabulating

various aiJ ‘s is considered in detail later. In the notation here I and j are used Inter-
changeably as are m and n. Also [Gml] is the
RSLATING THE INTEKNAL GENERALIZED transpose of [Glm] , 1 .e. Interchange of sub-
FORCESTO THE EXTERNALAPPLIED LOADS scripts denotes transposition (see appendix),
For the statically determinate structures If the matrix triple product in eq. (23) is
considered in this chapter the internal forces formed and defined as
are related to the external loads by use of the
equations of static equilibrium. A set of
linear equatlons results. Thus, In the specific IIAmn]-[Dml]FI-J] kjn] ------- (24)
example consldered, if P1 and P, are the ex-
ternal loads applied as in Fig. A7.32f, then by
statics (refer to Fig. A7.32b) then
 pllcation itself yields a summation to complete
2u=pmJ E-]{P~/ --------- (25) the calculation.
From this last dlscussion it is clear that
eq. (26a) also may be derived by formulating the
Eq. (25) expresses the strain energy as a 1ummyJJnit Load equatlons (Art. A7.7) in matrix
function of the external applied loads. lotat i on.
In the specific example being used To illustrate the application of the matrix
nethods presented thus far, a brief and element-
ary example Is worked with those tools already
developed.

Example Problem 25
Determine the influence coefflcient~matrlx
for transverse forces to be applied to the unl-
DEFLECTIONS BY CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM form cantilever of Fig. A7.33 at the three polnts
Application of Castigllano’s theorem to indicated.
eq. (251,

2u = pm] k-1 {Pn/ - - - - - - - - - (25)

yields

iibU\=
bp,j i$6
1, km] [pn/- - - - - - -
m( (26)
Fig. A’l. 33

Solution:
The steps in passlng to eq. (26) may be
demonstrated readily by writing out eq. (25) The choice and numbering of generalized
for, say, a set of three loads (m, n = 1,2,3), forces are shown on the figure. These forces
differentiating successively with respect to were placed so that previously derived express-
R, P8 and P3 and then re-collecting in matrix ions for the a’s could be used. The fOllOWlng
f ortn. member flexibility coefflclents were computed.
The matrix

the external
Am
ri
L
glves the deflection
--1

points “m” for unit values

at

of the
Note that the only non-zero coefficients
mixed subscripts
of
(i not equal to j) are those
for loads common to an element.
loads Pn and is therefore, by definition, the
-matrix of
- influence coefficients. IL/3
COMPARISONWITH DUMMY-UNIT LOADS EQUATIONS
It is Instructive to write eq. (26) out as
a,,=
0
This expression
I- X9X
-=-
EI
= a,, L” = a,,
81EI

was adopted from that de-

veloped for a transverse shear force on a cantl-
lever beam segment in the preceding Illustrative
{B \ = krni] LJ] Ejn] {‘n) - - - - (26a) example.
IL/”
and compare the expresslon with a typlcal term a 33 = aas= ’ 3dy
- -_ - L
from the dummy-unit load method equations, say I EI 3EI
SL
6=Zua. In the matrix equation (26a) the
This expression Is for a couple on the end
G is the unit (virtual) matrlx correspond-
c 1
ml of a cantilever segment (of length L/3).
ing to the symbol “u” in the simple sum. The

I
L/3
[:aiJ1 are the member flexibilitles correspond- a 28 = a,, NY _ L2
---
= EI 18EI
L 0
Ing to AE. The matrix product PM] Ipn[
This expresslon Is for the cross Influence
gives the member load distributions due to the of a couple and a shear load on a cantilever
real applied loads, hence these are the “S” segment. Collecting in matrix form,
loads. Finally the operation of matrix multi-
 DEFLECTIONS STRUCTURES

-i-
AT.22

2700 0 0
s per eq. (26).
The matrix
bout the main diagonal
cAmn1 is
as It must be: from
seen to be symmetric

53 3
=&
0 l
276L
IL 0 0
[axwell’s reciprocal theorem Amn = Anm (see

[ 1 0

0
l
zp-0

0
l

0
0
‘9. (20)).

J.10 Member Flexibility Coefficients:

27l -ElIL Compilation of a Library.

_00 0 TXl+ I Several member flexibility coefficients

erived below for various members and loadings.
more comprehensive listing is available
P‘aper by Wehle and Lanslng referenced
are

in the
earlier.
was computed by
BARS
successively applying unit loads at points 1, 2
and 3 and computing the values of the q’s by The energy in a uniform bar under varying
statics. a.xial force (Fig. A7.34) is
-
1 0 0

ClGlm=
1
L/3
1
0
0
0
+ qj-qr
L 1
x sdx

1 1 1
‘hen referring to eq. (2G), Fig. A7.34
L-2L/3 L/3 0
I

values of the q’s obtalned for a unit load at

i- 1
gives the
b”U
91 = bs; = AE o
J
1 “(1-E)’ dx

polnt “1” with no other loads applied. The ZZ- L

second column gives the q’s for a unit load at 3AE
point “2” only, and so forth.
Flnally,
- Lnd ,

11
_I ir
~0000100

= & 0 1
*lan
[’ I 00
An equally likely choice of generalized
forces for the above case Is shown In Fig.
27.34a. The strain energy Is (x measured from
free end)
Multiplying (see appendix), 9

54 28 8 =-qi
28 16 5 Fig. Al. 34a
8 5 2

Should the deflections be desired at the

three polnts one forms

P,
61
=L” 54 28 8

P, a
33 =q
b”U
=&
L
xadx =m
LJ

1
6s 20 16 5
162EI I 0
i 65 -a 5 I2 0P3 aiJ = -= - La
xdx = 2AE
 A7.23

In the case of tapered members the L

coefficients
tegrals
are determined
of the form
by evaluating in- IT = & pi + qj x]adx
0
and from which
I
L Fig. A7.34e
uii = EI
NOTE: The coeff-
Such a quadrature can always be made in these 8 icients for bars and
problems. For the linearly tapered bar the aiJ = uji =2& beams are directly
results may be obtained as functions of the end -;ss ckgy=-e
area ratios, Thus, Yehle and Ianslng give SO

L3 that for tapered

aJj = 3EI beams one uses the
results for tapered
bars with EI in place
SHElABPANELS of AE.

For the rectangular shear panel with a

uniform shear flow qi on all edges (Fig. A7.34f)

-L-AA*
qi2
I t
’ = 2Gt ’ S t qi
S = surface area 1/ r
” c-c-c
aii = -&
Fig. A7.34f
The trapezoidal shear
panel (Fig. A7.34g) is treated approximately by
using the average shear flow on the non-parallel
sides as though it were constant throughout the
sheet. Thus

pgs qi (av. 1

S = surface area h$ - y- - 1‘7 hz

S
ai1 =Gt cl-*T--r !-L

Since by statics q =
j
Fig. A7. 34g
qis, one could use qj as
an alternate choice of generalized force and

The energy in the uniform beam of Fig.

A7.34d is given by
TORSION BAR
A uniform shaft under torque qi has Strain

energy

412L L .
Fig. A7. 34d U=m. Then aii = GJ

b”U A7. 11 Application of Matrix Methods to Various

aii = bqis =& (= qj) Structures.
Example Problem 26
The tubular steel truss of Fig. A7.35 IS to
aij = - d”u _ L
-= (= aji) be analyzed for vertical deflectlons at points E
b9plj
and F under several load conditions in which
verticals loads are to be applied to all joints
An alternate choice of generalized forces excepting A and D. The cross sectional areas of
for the beam of Fig. A7.34d is shown in Fig. tube members are given on the figure.
A7.34e. Set up the matrix form of expresslon for the
A’l. 24 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES

Constant Axial
Load; 3
q1-qj -
A--
1 0 1.0
Then
=i- %i+ "j j+ 2 0 0
-ij+-ji
. L/AE 3 0 0 0
Fig. Al. 35 Fig. Al. 35a
E,, :
-1 4 0 1.25 0 1.25
deflectIons at points E and F. 5 0 -1.03 0 -1.03
Solution: 6 -1.0 - .75 0 - .75
The member flexibility coefficient for a 7 1.13 .848 1.13 .848
,unlform bar under constant axial load Is
VAE . Fig. A7.36a gives the numbering scheme 8 -.825 -1.65 -.825 -1.65
applied to the members and the q’s (these being
one and the same, since q Is constant in a given 9 .20 0.40 .20 0.40
-
member ) . Fig. A7.36b shows the numbering scheme
adopted for the external loading points. I’hen the matrix triple product

Imn] = Emi] pi j] [G jn]

Nas formed glv ng, per eq. (261,

1
440 389 257 389 PI
Fig. A7. 36a Fig. A7.36b
389 927 252 789 PZ
=- 1
Member flexibility coefficients were col- E 252
257 252 257 PS
lected In matrix form as
389 789 252 789 P,
-- Inches
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 l
192.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 The results here give the deflections of
all four points. Since only the deflections of
2 0 92.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
points 3 and 4 were desired the first two rows

[Ia131
=P
3 0 0 138 0 0 0 0 0 0
4
5
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
146
0
0 0
0
55.7
0
0
183
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
of

could
[-IA may be dropped

have been achieved

out.

by leaving
The same result

out the

c 1I)
7 0 0 0 0 0 0 165 0 0
8
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
55.7
0
0
229
first two rows of
[ I(
Gml

The matrix form of equation above Is useful

the transpose of G,,

In organizing the computation of deflectIons for

In the case of a pin jointed truss, where a number of different loading conditions. Thus,
only a single generalized force is required to should there be several different sets of ex-
describe the straln energy per member, the ternal loads Pn, corresponding to various load-
matrix of member flexibility coefficients is a ing conditions, each set Is placed in column
diagonal matrix as above. form giving the loads as the rectangular matrlX

[Ipnk
’
Unit load distrlbutlons were obtained by
placing unit loads successively at external k different numerical subscripts for the
loading points 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Fig. A7.36b).
The results were collected in matrix form as
load condltlons. The matrix product
 -.

LJ L
km] = kimI] pnk] - - - - - - - - - (26b all = aas = AB , as* = AB
/ 3EI / GJ
nnit~ rives the deflections at each point (m) for L” L
the various load conditions (k). a., =aes= BC , a 77 = BC
/
3EI / GJ
Example Problem 27
Deflections at points 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the L2 L
truss of Fig. A7.35 are desired for the follow- a +li = a.2.a = BC a I)6 =aea= BC
ing loading conditions: / 2EI ’ / EI
Collected In matrix form
EI
GJ =1.3

- -
1 2 5

Solution: 9.0 0 0
0 3.9 0
The matrix product formed per eq. (26b) wa
1 0 0 0
set up as
- - :I%J=irl 0
0
0
0
648
36.0

2500 -1200 1800 0 0 0

0 0 0
389 927 252 789 2000 - 800 1470
0 0 0
257 252 257 252 800 -2100 -1200
389 789 252 789 450 -1750 -1100
- -

Example Problem 28
The unit load istr butions
LJ
G,, were obtained

For the landing gear unit of Example Prob- by applying unit external applied loads, numbered
lem 20, Fig. A7.23 find the matrix of Influence and directed as in Fig. A7.37b.
coefficients relating deflections due to lift
and dr:ag loads acting at point A and torque
about the axle A-B. 1 2 3

.O 0 0
Solution:
0 1.0 0
The structure was divided into elements
and the set of internal generalized forces ap- 0 0 1.0
plied as shown in Fig. A7.37a. (Torques and .342 0 0
moments are shown vectorlally by R.H. rules).
Axlnl stresses were neglected In C-B.
[IG im =
3
0
0
0
-.937
.342
0
1.026
2.811
0 0 1.0

At this point the engineer may consider the

problem as solved, for the remaining computation
is a routine operation:

Fig. AT. 3’la Fig. AT. 37b

Example Problem 29
The following member f lex ibl ity coefficients The beam of example problem 21 is to be re-
were determlned solved by the matrix methods presented herein.
AT.26 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES

Influence coefficients for polnts F, G and H T ‘he matrix trlple product

are to be found.

Solution:

Fig. A7.38 shows the choice and numbering

of generalized forces.
C:ompletes the calculation.
, (coeff’s
E:xample Problem 30
Deflections of statically Indeterminate
structures often may be computed successfully
)y the methods of this chapter provided that
;ome auxiliary means Is employed to obtain an
tpproximatlon to the true internal force dls-
;ribution. The exact internal force dlstrlbu-
Lion is not necessarily required ln making de-
flection calculations inasmuch as such a calcu-
lation amounts to an integration over the
Fig. A7.38
structure - an operation which tends to average
,out any errors. Thus one may use the englneerlng
theory
- of
- bendlng (E.T.B.), experimental data,-
Iorevlous experience, etc. to obtain reasonable
No forces were shown applied to the lower flang e 1istlmates of the internal force distribution for
elements as these were known to be equal to 1mnlt loadings.
those of the upper flange due to symmetry. In the following problem the matrix of ln-
Entries were made for a in matrlx form as be- fluence coefficients 1s determined for a single
IJ cell, three-bay box beam (3 times Indeterminate)
low. Entries for a==. and u,, were quadrupled a s by using the E.T.B.
these occur in two identical members each on Q B Fig. A7.39a shows an Idealized doubly
and bottom. Entries for a,,, aaa and aes were symmetric single cell cantilever box beam having
doubled. (See Art. A7.10 for coefficient three bays. Determine the matrix of influence
formulae . ) coefficients for the six point net indicated.

Unit load values were obtalned as in Fig. Stringer Areas

A7.27, considered to be external loading num- Constant = .33 in 2
ber “two” . Slmllar diagrams were drawn for unl
loads at points “one” (H) and “three” (F).c,~. Fi
g.I
- A 7-25
Fig. A7. Y9a
1 2 3
s-1 ,-
1 1.0 0 0 Solution:
2 .0667 0 0
Flg. A7.39b Is an exploded vlew of the beam
3 1.201 0 0 showlng the placement and numbering of the ln-
ternal generalized forces, Note that only the
Gm=
c!
4
5
0
.0540
1.0
.0600
0
0
upper slde of the beam was numbered, the lower
side being identical by symmetry.
6 2.184 1.09 0 Member flexlblllty coefficients were com-
0 1.0 puted by the formulas of Art. A7.10 and entered
7 0 In matrix form as below. Note that all entrles
8 .0447 .0496 .0545 for which there were corresponding loads on the
1.00 lower surface of the beam were doubled. By
9 3.00 2.00 this means the total straln energy of the beam
- ~-
 due to the torque developed in
transferring the load to one side.

‘he matrix triple product

:ompletes the solution.

i7.12 Deflections and Angular Change of the Elastic Curve

of Simple Beams by the “Method of Elastic Weights”
(Mohr’ s Method).
Fig. Al. 39b
In the calculation of structural deflec-
was accounted ror. Note also that entries for tions there occur many steps involving simple
arr, ass, aaa and alo.lo were re-doubled as integral properties of elementary functions.
each of these q’s act on two (identical) mem- I’he Method of Elastic Weights (and the Area
bers. Toment Method to follow in Art. A7.14) owes its
popularity In large measure to the fact that it
enables the analyst to write down many of these
integral properties almost by Inspection, rely-
11520 lng as it does upon the analyst’s famlliarlty
2 32,000
1520 with the properties of simple geometric figures.
: 80.96 20.24
For f lndlng the deflection of a point on a
5 80.96 20.24

1 7
6 4510
46,800
simply supported beam relative to a line joining
=E 6 4510 the supports, the Method of Elastic Weights
9 20.24 80.98 20.24
10 20.24 60.96 20.24 states :
11 6000

-The deflection at point A on the elastic

12 62,000
13 8000 ------
14
15
20.24 40.48 :urve of
---___------ a simple beam Is equal to the bending
20.24 40.48

noment
---- at A due to t&e & diagram
~--- acting as a
distributed beam 1%. -
Note : VOID SPACES INDICATE ZEROS.
Spelled out in steps:
Unit load distributions were obtained for I - The g diagram is drawn just as it
successive applications of unit loads to points
one through six (Fig. A7.39a). The internal occurs due to the applied beam load
forces predlcted by the E.T.B, for a load ii - This diagram is visualized as being
through the shear center (center of beam, due tc the loading on a second beam (the conjugate
symmetry) were superposed on the uniform shear oeam) supported at the points of reference for
the deflection desired
-ii- 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 ill - The bending moment in this conjugate
3eam is found at the station where the deflec-
1 1.3 0.1
tion of the original beam was desired. This
2 I.1 .O.l
>ending moment Is equal to the desired
Gin,
r-l = 3
4
I.1
2
0.3
2
leflection.

5 2 2 To prove the theorem, consider the dummy-

6 .0075 .0125 0.15 0.05 unit load (virtual work) equation
7 .c375 -.a375 0.05 -0.05
0 .0125 .0875 0.05 0.15
9 2.67 2.67 1.33 1.33
10 2.67 2.67 1.33 1.33 This expression equates the external virtual
11 .04.?3 .oa?3 .0713 .017< I.100 .0333 work done by a unit load, applied at a point de-
12 ,020 -.020 .0267 -.0267 ,.0x33 flecting an amount 6, to the internal virtual
work on a beam element experiencing an angular
13 .0023 .0423 .0179 .0713 .lOO Mdx
14 3 3 2 2 1 change d 0 = EI . The sum (integral) of such
-15 3 3 2 2 1 expressions throughout a beam gives the total
AT. 28 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES

deflectlon at the point (cf. eq. 18). We now In Fig. f consider

Mdx as a load on a simply
show that the deflection expression, using the EI
above equation, is the same as the bending supported beam and determlne the bendlng moment
moment expression for a simple beam loaded by at points b and c due to Mdx acting at point a.
Mdx nT
an “elastic weight” EI . Mdx L MLdx PaL
Mb = 4x . 2 = -
8EI
In Fig. A7-40, the loading of (a) produces
the real moments of (b). Consider the deflec- Mdx L MLdx
Mc = 4EI . 4 = -16EI
tlons of points B and C due to the angular
change Fy in a beam element at A* (Fig. A7-40~). These values of the beam bending moments at
points b and c are identical to the deflections
at b and c by the virtual work equations. The
moment dlagram m for a unit load at b and c
(Figs. d and e) Is numerically precisely thesame
as the influence line for moment at points b
and c.
Therefore deflections of a simple beam can
be determined by considering the E curve as an
EI
imaginary beam loading. The bending moment at
any point due to this M loading equals the de-
ET
flection of the beam under the given loads.
MdX
EI r/j Likewise It Is easily proved that the angu-
6 I lar change at any section of a simply supported
Cc) beam is equal to the shear at that section due to
t& -z diagram acting as a beam load.

A7.13 Example Problems

(d) mb, moment diagram for unit
load acting downward at point B Example Problem 31. Find the vertical
deflection and slope of points a and b for beam
and loading shown In Fig. A7.41. The lower Fig.
shows the moment dlagram for load P acting at
t center of a simple beam.
(e)mc, unit load at point C
MdX
1EI
+ t EI Constant
(f) 1 Mdx
--3 Mdx -~
4 EI 4 EI
Fig. A7.40 7P H

For a unit load at point b, Flg. d shows the m

diagram. The value of m at the midpoint of dx
(point A) = L/8. Hence

64 16 16

For deflection of point c, draw m diagram for a Deflection at polnt a equals bendlng mom-
unit load at C (see Fig. e). Value of m on ele- ent due to M diagram as a load dlvlded by EI.
ment clx = -L (See lower Fig. Of Fig. A7.41)
16

Hence

* For simplicity the points A, B and C were placed at the one- The angular change of any point equals the
quarter span points. The reader may satisfy himself with Shear due to H/E1 d1agrem as a load.
the general character of the proof by substituting XA, xB and
XC for the point locations and then following through the
argument once again.
 PL2 PL% -=1 o (Slope is horlzont- c Airplane
CLb = 1 EI al or no change
7% -z
from origlnal dl-
rection of beam
axis.)
Ex~inl,): : pi‘o5 1co::,3:; . D-?t ~,r:nin: th: cef‘leuti on
of a simple bean loaded unlformlg as shown in J Front Beam
FIG. A7.42. The bending moment ex:)ression for
a uniform load M = wlx - wx2 or parabolic as I
22 Plan View Ii2 Wing
s;?o;‘~rlIn Fi /;.
T A’ .4&i ~ The dcflectlon it mid-
polnt equals tile bend!nf moment due to M dia- /Air Load
Grin: :is -i load.
L Load on Rear Beam 3
w/in. l5#/in.

Fig. AT. 43

L Bolution:- Due to the beam varlable moment of in-

-WL -WL ertla the beam length between A and C will be
2 2
dlvlded into 10 equal strips of 10 Inches each,
Fig. A7.42 The bending moment M at the mldpoint of each will
be calculated. The elastic weight for each strip
will equal Mds where ds = 10” and I the moment
-7’
of inertia at midpolnt of the strip. These elas-
tic loads are then consldered as loads on an lm-
aglnary beam of length AC and simply supported at
, A and C. The bending moment on this Imaginary
-wLj
1 -1- wL3 = Area 1 beam at point B ~111 equal the deflectlon of B
24 24 24 wL3
vyith respect to line joining AC.
Fig. Al. 42a The bending moment at C = 15 x 30 x 15 +
10 x 15 x 10 = 8250”#
The shear load at C = (15+25)x30=600#
6 = LwL3.+Lw13.;\ 2
center ( 24 -.) Bending moment expression between points C
--5 WL4 and A equals, M = 8250 + 600x + 12.5x2, where
384 EI K = 0 to 100.
Table A7.6 gives the detailed calculations
ocenter = k4 WL3 - & .L3 + = 0 for the strip elastic loads. The I values as-
( 1 EI
sumed are typical values for a aluminum alloy
3 beam carrying the given load. The modulus of
Slope at supports = the reaction = g4 w& .
elasticity E = 10 x 106 Is constant and thus can
Ex:im,)le
r- Problem 33. be omitted until the final calculations. The
Fig. A7.43 shows the plan view of one-half figure below the table shows the elastic loads
of a cantilever wing. The aileron is supported on the lmaglnary besm.
on brackets at points D, E and F with self-align. Table A7.6
lng bearings. The brackets are attached to the i
Y= I
wing rear beam at points A, B,and C. When the moment at mid-
at mid- point
wing bends under the air load the aileron must point
llkewise bend since it is connected to wing at 1.

11563 5.5
three points. In the design of the aileron beam 20063 6.5
and slmllarly for cases of wlhg flaps this de- 31063 7.5
44580
flectlon produces critical bending moments. As- W580 I- ~~~ 5
suming that the running load distributed to the 79050 12.0
100050 16.0
rear beam as the wing bends as a unit is as shoffl 123550 20.0
in the Fig., find the deflection of point B with 149550 24.0
178150 28.0
respect to straight llne jolnlng points A and C,
which will be the deflectlon of E with respect tl
line jolnlng D and F If bracket deflection is
neglected. The moment of Inertia of the rear
beam between A and C varies as lndlcated In A 1 1 1 i 11111 c
the Table A7.6 5 10 10 10 10 5 ’ 5 10 10 10 10 5
226570 B 299090
A’l. 30 DEFLECTIONS 0 F STRUCTURES
T
Bending moment at point B due to above elastic A’7.14 Deflections of Beams by Moment Area Method*
loading = 7,100,OOO .*. deflection at B relative
For certain types of beam problems the meth-
to line AC = 7,100,OOO = .71 Inch
od of moment areas has advantages and this meth-
E=lO, 000,000
od Is frequently used In routine analysis.
Example Problem 34 Angular Change Prlnclple. Fig. A7.44 shows a
Fig. A7.43a shows a section of a cantilev- cantilever beam. Let it be required to deter-
er wlng sea plane. The wlng beams are attached mlne the angular change of the elastic line be-
to the hull at points A and B. Due to wing tween the pointsAand B due to any glven loading.
loads the wing will deflect vertically relative From the equation of virtual work, we have
to attachment points AB. Thus lnstallatlons
such as plplng, controls, etc., must be so lo-
cated as not to Interfere with the wlng deflec-
tlons between A and B. For Illustrative pur-
poses a simpllfled loading has been assumed
as shown In the f Igure. EI has been assumed as
constant whereas the practical case would in-
volve variable I. For the given loadlng deter-
mine the deflectlon of point C with respect to
the support polnts A and B. Also determine the
vertical deflectlon of the tlp points D and E.

Fig. A7.43a L
FE===’

I Moment Diagram

Fig. A7. 43t ,

,7.43c

Fig. A?‘. 43d I

Solutlon:- Fig. A7.43b shows the bendlng moment

diagram for the glven wing loading. To find the
deflectlon of C normal to line jolnlng AB we
treat the moment diagram as a load on a imaginary
beam of length AB and simply supported at A and B
(See Fig. A7.43c.) The deflection of C is equal
numerlcally to the bendlng moment on thls flctl-
clous beam.
Hence EI6, = 25920 x 40 - 25920 x 20

To find the tip deflection, we place the elastic Fig. A7.44

loads (area of moment dlagram) on an imaginary
beam Simply supported at the tlp D and E (See
Fig. A7.43d). The bendlng moment on this imagl-
nary beam at points A or B will equal numerlcally A Mdx where m Is the moment at any
the deflection of these points with respect to EI my sectlon, distant x from B due
the tlp points D and E and since points A and B to unit hypothetlcal couple
actually do not move this deflection will be the applied at B. But m = unity
movement of the tip points with respect to the at all points between B and A.
beam support points. Therefore aB = it Mdx
Bending moment at A = 193420 x 700 - 40000 x / BEI
433 - 127500 x 124 = 102200000. :. 6tlp = (*Moment area first developed by Prof. C. E. Greene and
102,200,000 published in 1874. )
EI *
 A’7.31

Referring to Fig. A7.44, this expression repre- Hence

sents the area of the M diagram between points 6=-E? . 32 L E+ = - P&Y
B ( 2 J
E
B and A. Thus the first principle:- “The Example Problem 3E
change in slope of the elastic line of a beam Fig. A7,46 illustrates the same slmplifled
between any two points A and B IS numerically wing and loading as used in example problem 34.
equal to the area of the M diagram between Find the deflectlon of point C normal to line
iz Joining the support polnts A and B. Also find
these two points.” the deflection of the tip points D and E relative
to support points A and B.
Deflection Principle
In Fig. A7.44 determine the deflectlon of
point B normal to tangent of elastic curve at A.
In Fig. A7.44 this deflection would be vertical
since tangent to elastic line at A Is horizontal
I
A Mdx rl
From virtual work expression 6B = lB EI m,
Fig. Al. 46
where m is the moment at any section A distance
x from B due to a unit hypothetical vertical
load acting at B. Hence m = 1 .x = x for any
point bettieen B and A.
Hence
6

exrression represents the 1st moment of the

M diagram about a vertical thru B. Thus the Solutlon:-
E Due to symmetry of loading, the tangent to
deflectlon principle of the moment area method the deflected elastic line at the center line of
can be stated as follows:- ‘The deflectlon of a alrplane Is horizontal. Therefore, we will find
A on the elastic line of a beam in bending the deflectlon of points A or B away from the
normal to the tangent of the elastic line at a - horizontal tangent of the deflected beam at POlnt
point B 1s equal numerically to the statlcal mo- C which Is equivalent to vertical deflection of
ment of the M area between noints “A” and “B” C with respect to line AB.
!31 Thus to find vertical deflection of A with
about point A”. respect to horizontal tangent at C take moments
of the M diagram as a load between points A and
Illustrative Problems
Example Problem 35. Determlne the slope Ei
C about polnt A.
and vertical deflection at the free end B of the Whence
cantilever beam shown In Fig. A7.45. EI Is con-
stant. (area) (arm)
&O (tangentatc) =A E50i646 40x20 =

& (518400) = deflection of C normal to AB.

Fig. A7. 45
I To find the vertical deflection of the tlp point
J D with respect to line AB, first flnd deflectlon
p: of D with respect to horizontal tangent at C and
subtract deflection of a with respect to tangent
at C.
Solution:- The moment diagram for given load Is
triangular as shown In Fig. A7.45. Since the SO (respecttotangentatc) = & (40000 x 267 +
beam Is fixed at A, the elastic line at A Is
horizontal or slope is zero. Therefore true 127500 x 576 + 25920 x 720) = & (102700,000)
Slope at B equals angular change between A and B
1 (See Fig. A7.46 for areas and arms of M/E1 dia-
which equals area of moment diagram between A
and B divided by EI. gram). Subtracting the deflection of A with re-
spect to C as found above we obtain
Hence 7 _I
rti-2
qj = (-PL. L/2) j = - - so (respecttollne AB) = & (102,700,OOO -
2EI
The vertical deflection at B is equal to the 1st 518400) = & (102,180,OOO)
moment of the moment diagram about point B di-
vlded by EI, since tangent to elastic curve at A
is horizontal due to fixed support.
A7.32 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES
I
A7.15 Beam Fixed End Moments by Method of Area
MA = - Pab’ and MB = - Pba’/L’ ;nihere b = (I, - a )
Moments -P-
From the two principles of area moments as To find the fixed end moments for a beam with
given in Art. A7.14, it is evident that the de- variable moment of inertia use the M/I diagrams
flection and slope of the elastic curve depend Pn place of the moment diagrams.
on the amount of bendlng moment area and its lo- Example Problem 37
cation or its center of gravity. Fig. A7.40 shows a fix-ended beam carrying
Fig. A7.47 shows a beam fixed at the ends two concentrated loads. Find’ the flxed-end
and carrying a single load P as shown. The bend moments MA and MB.
Ing moment shown in (c) can be consldered as
made up of two parts, namely that for a load P
acting on a simply supported beam which Elves
the triangular diagram tiith value Pa (L-a)/L
for the moment at the load point, and secondly
a trapezoidal moment diagram of negative sign
with values of MA and MB and of such magnltude
as to make the slope of the beam elastic curve
zero or horizontal at the support points A and (b)
B, since the beam Is consldered fixed at A and B
The end moments MA and MB are statically
Indetermlnate, however, with the use of the two Fig. A7.48
moment area principles they are easily determin-
ed. In Fig. b the slope of elastic curve at A
and B is zero or horizontal, thus the change in
slope betiveen A and B Is zero. By the 1st

Solution:- Fig. b shows the static moment diagram

assuming the beam simply supported at A and B.
B (b) For simplicity In finding areas and taking moments
lastic Curve
of the moment areas the moment diagram has been
Fig. A7.47 dlvlded Into the 4 simple shapes as sho:Yn. The
Pa(L-a)
centrold of each portion Is shown together ,with
rm the area which is shown as a concentrated load at
L (c) the centroids.
-r- Fig. C shows the moment diagrams due to un-
known moments MA and MB. The area of these tri-
angles is shown as a concentrated load at the
prlnclple of area moments, this means that the centroids.
algebraic sum of the moment areas between A and Since the change In slope of the elastic
B equal zero. Hence In Flg. c curve between A and B Is zero, the area of these
(-MA;Mb) L, (pa (L-a) . L = 0 _ _ - - _ _ -(A) moment diagrams must equal zero, hence
L 2 5265+14040+ 2160+6885+ lsMA+l!>MB = 0
or
In Fly. b the deflection of B away from a tang- 15MA+15MB+28350=0 - - - - - - - - - -(l)
ent to elastic curve at A Is zero, and also de-
flection of A away from tangent to elastic curve The deflectlon of point A aflay from tangent to
at B is zero. elastic curve at B Is zero, therefore the first
Thus by moment area prlnclple, the moment moment of the moment diagrams about point A
of the moment diagrams of Fig. C about points A, equals zero. Hence,
or B Is zero. 5265x6+15x14040+17x2160+24x6805+150MA+
300 MB=0 or 150 MA+300 MB+444600=0- - - -(2)
Taking moments about point A:- Solving equations (1) and (2), we obtaln
MA = - 016 in. lb.
ZMA=PaS(L-a).2_a+Pa(L-a)Sx(a+L-a)+M&xT,+ MB = - 1074 In. lbs.
2L 3 2L 3 23
With the end moments known, the deflection or
Q&I&L=O--------------- slope of any point on the elastic curve betfleen
2 3 A and B can be found by use of the 2 principles
of area moments.
Solving equations A and B for MA and MB
 T
A7.16 Truss Deflection by Method of Elastic
Weights

If the deflection of several or all the

joints of a trussed structure are required, the
method of elastic weights may save considerable
time over the method of virtual work used in
previous articles of this chapter. The method
in general consists of finding the magnitude and
location of the elastic weight for each member
of a truss due to a strain from a given truss r 3r of Member bc
A Lbc
loading or condition and applying these elastic r Elastic Load on Imaginary Beam
weights as concentrated loads on an imaginary ‘SLbc
‘gr ALbc 3r (3)
beam. The bendIng moment on this imaginary beam
due to this elastic loading equals numerically
the deflection of the given truss structure.
Consider the truss of dia;;ram (1) of Fig.
A7.49. Diagram (2) shows the deflectlon curve Bar ck
for the truss for a AL shortening of member bc,
all other members considered rigid. This de-
flection diagram can be determined by the vlr- Section Curve (5)
dual work ex pression 6 = uAL. Thus for deflec- for 6L Lengthening
tion of joint 0, apply a uhlt vertical load act- AL of Member ck
-
ing down at joint 0. The stress m In bar hc due r1
to this unit load = 2 . 2P = 4P . Therefore Rigid Arm 1
3 r 5

6, = ALbc . The deflection

4P . at other
5
lower chord joints could (7)
be found In a similar \Moment Curve
manner by placing a unit load at these joints. for Elastic Loads
Diagram (2) shows the resulting deflection curve Fig. A7. 49
This diagram Is plalcly the influence line for
Stress in bar bc multrplied by ALbc. Table A7. 7 Equations for Elastic Weights
Diagram (3) shows an lmaglnary beam loaded Elastic-Weight for Chord Members
with an elastic load ALbc acting along a vertl- (See Member ab)
r Upper Chord Lower Chord
Cal line thru joint 0, the moment center for ob-
taining the stress In bar bc. The beam reac-
tions for this elastic loading are also given.
Diagram (4) shows the beam bending moment dia-
gram due to the elastic load at point 0. It is
noticed that this moment diagram is Identical to w=-
the deflection diagram for the truss as shown In h
diagram (2).
The elastic weight of a member is therefore
equal to the member deformation divided by the
arm r to its moment center. If this elastic
load is applfed to an imaginary beam correspond-
Ing to the truss lower chord, the bending moment
on this imaginary beam will equal to the true
truss deflection. h

Diagram 5, 6 and 7 of Fig. A7.49 gives a

similar study and the results for a AL lengthen-
Ing of member CK. The stress moment center for
thls diagonal member lies at polnt O’, which lies
outside the truss. The elastic weight AL at Member Axial Deformation AL
w= Perpendicular Arm to Moment Center = r
E
point 0’ can be replaced by an equivalent system Themoment center Oofa chordmember is the
at polnts 0 and k on the fmaglnary beam as shown lntersectlonofthe othertwomembers cutbythe
In Diagram (6). These elastic loads produce a SectlonusedlndeterminingtheloadInthatmemb-
bendlng moment diagram (Diagram 7) Identical to ?r by the method of moments
the deflectlon diagram of dlagrarn (5). Theslgnoftheelastlcwelghtwforachord
Table A7.7 gives a summary of the equations nemberlsplus If Ittendstoproducedcwnwardde-
flectionof Itspolntofapplicatlon. Thusfora
for the elastic weights of truss chord and web simple truss compressionlntopchordortenslon
members together with their location and Sign. inbottonchordproducesdownwardorposltive
elastic welght
AT.34 DEFLECTIONS ’ STRUCTURES

Table A?‘. I WEB DIAGONAL MEMBERS

(continued) (See Member ab)
f,

Fig. A?. 50
Fig. A ’ thls step are given in the figure, the stresses
belngwrltten adjacent to each member. The next
step or steps Is to compute the member elastic
Neights, their location and their sense or cllr-
ectlon. Tables A7.8 and A7.9 gives these calcu-
latlons. Table A7:6
Yemb, Elastic we,igixts
Load pLs AL A rm Elastic Point Of
AE r app1ica-
Edmx106 w r'6L tion
r joint
/
-.0266 24 .Q01117 b
For a truss diagonal member the elastic -.0357 24 .001467 c
velghts P & Q have opposite signs and are as- -.0268 24 .0011$7 d
24 .001117 A
sumed to be directed toward each other or +Ee 24 .003465 B
. .0592 24 .002465 C
Lway according as the member Is in compres- .0269 24 .001117 D
sion or tension. In fig. a, P Is greater 1
;han Q and P is located at the end of the di-
igonal nearest the moment center 0. Downward
3lastlc welghts are plus.

TABLE A7.7

<\ a
(CONTINUED)
Truss Verticals
_(See Member ab) !ia
f; f
P s
$a

aA 26.25
Table

:
I<

.242
A7.9

Load
P

-5660
Web Member Elastic Weights.

L
Ab " .146 4710
bB I' .146 -2355
Bc " .093 1177
cc ** .093 1177
Cd " .146 -2355
Dd I* .14a 4710
De " .242 -5560

Fig. A7.51 shows the elastic weights obtained

from Tables 8 and 9 applied to an lmaglnary beam
whose span equals that of the given truss.
These elastic weights are the algebraic sum of
the elastic welghts acting at each truss joint.

The elastic welght P acts at foot of vertl-

:a1 and downward If vertical is In tension.
2 acts opposlte to P at far end of chord memb-
?r cut by index section l-l used In finding
stress In ab by method of sections.
a e
AbBcCdD
AT.17 Solution of Example Problems.
k- 8 spaces at 15” --I
Ra = .005412 Re = .005412
The method of elastic weights as applied tc
truss deflection can be best explained by the
solution of several simple typical trusses. The deflection at any joint equals the bending
moment on the lmaglnary beam of Fig. A7.51.
Example Problem 38 Defl. at A = (.0054X?+ .00185)15 = .007262x15 =
Flg. A7.50 shows a simply supported truss .109”
symmetrically loaded. Since the axial deforma. Defl. at b = .109+ (.007262- .000507)15= .109 +
tions In all the members must be found, the .006755x15= .209”
first step is to find the loads In all the mem Defl. at B = .209+ (.006755- .002347)15= .209 +
ers due to the given loading. The results of .004408x15= .275”
Defl. at c = .275+ (.004408- .0027)15 = .301” learn loaded with the elastic welghts from Table
The slope of the elastic curve at the truss joint i7.11. Table A7.12 glves the calculation for the
points equals the vertical shear at these points jolnt deflections.
for the beam of Fig. A7.51.
Example Problem 39
Find the vertical deflection of the Joints
of the Pratt truss as shown In Fig. A7.52. The
member deformations41 for each member due to the
given loadlng are written adjacent to each memb-
er. Table A7.10 glves the calculation of member L-- 5 @ 25"= 125" ______I
elastic weights. Flg. A7.53 shows the Imaginary
beam loaded with the elastic welghts from Table Fig. A7.54
A7.10. The deflections are equal numerlcally to
the bending moments on thls beam. Table A7.11

Elastic Weight of Chord Members

6b = .01855 x 25 = .465”
6B = .465 + .053 (AL in Bar Bb) = .518”
6, = ~01855 x 50 - .00387 x 25 - .833”
6, = .833 + ,031 (AL of Cc) = .864 AK .0825 15.0 .00550 B
Bc -.055 17.17 .00320 K
6D = .01855 x 75 - .00387 x 50 - .00623 x Ei -.069
.096 21.14
20.0 .00480 C
25 = 1.03” .00322 J
JI .106 22.50 .00471 D
DE -.0736 21.14 .00348
b -.063 c -.091 d -.091 e .083 f IH .113 20.0 .00565 i
EE -.075 17.17 .00437 B
BG .108 15.00 .00720 F

Elastic Weight of Web Members

Member AL rl P -fi Joint '2 Cl s& Joint
6@25"=150" j =1 '2
AB -.0432 9.60 -.00450 A 9.60 .00450 B
Fig. AT.52 BK .072 9.60 -.00748 B 11.20 .00643 K
KC -.0635 9.27 -.00685 K 10.60 .00600 c
CJ 085 10.60 -.00802. C 11.26 .00755
JD :0138 10.33 00134 J 10.93 -.00126 r:
Table A7.10 ID 0496 10.33 '00480 10.93 -.00454 D
Elastic Weight Chord Members 10.60
9.27 -:00415
-.00274 ia
H 11.26
10.60 .00891
.00240 1:
EI
BK -.0254
:044
FA .0985 9.60 -.01028 F 11.20 .00878 H
Member AL r w =Q Joint 9.60 -.00610 G 9.60 .00610
r GF -.0585 F

AB .061 30 .00203 b
Bc .061 30 .00203 b
CD .066 30 0022 %
0
bc -.083 30 :00277 E
Cd -.091 30 .00304 D 9

A& G
I Elastic Weight of Web Members
g x
P z
Member A L q
0 Fig. A’l. 55 %
P c&L Joint
'1
Ab 124 19.2 -.00648 A
Bb :053 m
bC 128 19.2 -.00667 b
CC -:031 25 -.00124 7
CD .080 19.2 -.00417 c
Dd 0

4 G
B C D E F
s 6
ea $:
z: 0
Fig. AT. 53
* error
Example Problem 40
Find the vertical .lOlnt deflections for the Example Problem 41
unsymmetrically loaded truss of Fig. A7.54. The Fig. A7.56 shows a simply supported truss
AL deformations for all members are given on the Nith cantilever overhang on each end. Thls slm-
Figure. Table A7.11 glves the calculation of pllfled truss Is representatlve of a cantilever
the elastic weights, their signs and points of
Nlng beam the fuselage attachment points being
appllcatlon. Fig. A7.55 shows the lmaglnary
A7.36 DEFLECTIONS F STRUCTURES

at e and e”. The AL deformation In each truss lever over-hang portion of the truss relative to
member due to the given external l.oading is giv- support points e and e’.
en on the figure. The complete truss elastic Since the cantilever portlon is not flxed at
loading will be determlned. With the elastic e since the restraint is uetermined by the truss
loading known the truss deflections from various between e’ and e, this fact must be taken Into
reference lines are readlly determined. account in loading the cantilever portlon. The
reactlons on the beam of Fig. A7.58 represent
the slope at e due to the elastic loading between
e and e’. This elastic reaction in acting In the
reverse direction 1s therefore applied as a load
to the imaglnary beam between e and a as shown In
4@20” Flg. A7.59.

Table A7.13

Elastic Weights of Chord Members R = .00312 R = .00312

.~.
Member Fig. A7. 58
AL r
In finding deflectlons this overhang eias-
.080 20
-.070 20 tically loaded portlon Is consluered as flxed a.t
.074 20 a and free at e. The bending moment at any point
-.060 k0
.070 20 on this beam equals the magnltutle of the vertical
-.056 20 deflection at that point.
-.056
.074 20 Thus to flnd the deflection OS the truss end
-:04a
072 20
(Joint a) we find the bendlng moment at point a
of the imaginary beam of Fig. A7.59.
Elastic Weights of Web Members
Hence
deflection at a = .?Xa (calllng counterciock-
P = && apply =2 wise positive). = (.01922 - -00312) 80 + .00248 x
'1 at
joint 70 + .00333 x 60 + .00239 x 50 + .00468 x 40 +
_--.
8.95 -.00346 8.95 .00234 x 30 + .00543 x 20 - .00149 x 10 2 2.13”
8.95 -. 00895 i 8.95 upward. Due to symmetry of truss and loading of
8.95 -.00702 b 8.95 the truss we know the slope of the elastic curve
8.95 -. 00838 B 8.95
8.95 -.00670 8.95 at ths center line of the truss is horizontal or
8 -.00781 + 8
s: 95 -.00728 d EL95 zero. Thus to find the deflection of any point
8.95 -.00850 D 8.95 wlth reference to Joint f we can make use of the
12.0 .00792 12.0
12.0 . 0020 .i 12.0 deflectlon principle of the moment area method.
--
Thus in Flg. A7.60 the vertical deflection of any
point for example joint a, relative to Joint f
Table A7.13 gives the calculations for the mag- equals the moment of all elastic loads between
nltude of the member elastic weights. The signs a and f about a.
and also the joint locations for locating the
elastic loads are also given. Comblnlng alge-
braically the elastic weights for each joint fro]
Table A7.13 the beam elastic loading as shown In
Fig. A7.57 1s obtained.
Let it first be required to determlne the R = .00312
vertical deflection of Jolnt f relative to the (From Span ee’) Fig. A7. 59
truss support points at e and e’.
To determine the deflections of the trUSS xl, = 2.077” (student should make calcula-
between the supports e a d e’ it is only neces- tlons). Prevlously the deflection of f wlth re-
sary to consider the elastic weight loading be- spect to e was found to be -.0586”. Thus de-
tween these points. Fig. A7.58 shows the port10 flectlon of a wlth respect to point e = 2.077 +
of the lmaglnary beam of Flg. A7.57 between thes .0586 = 2.135” which checks value found above.
polnts. The deflection at f relatlve to line ee Let It be required to find the deflection Of
Is equal to the bendlng moment at f for the por- joint c relative to a llne connecting joints b
tlon of the imaginary beam between joints e and
e’ and simply supported at these POlntS.
Hence deflection at I = - .00312 x 30 +
.00232 x 15 = .0586” (upward since minus Is up).
Find the vertical deflection Of the canti-

IQ Fig. A7.60
 A-7.37

For this problem we need only to consider (7) For the truss in Fig. A7.66 calculate
the elastic loads between points b and d as the deflection of joint C along the direction CE.
loads on a simple beam supported at b and d E = 30,000,OOO psi.
(See Flg. A7.61) The deflection at C with re- 4000#

B&tjG--$
spect to a llne bd of the deflected truss
equals the bending moment at polnt c for the
loaded beam of Flg. A7.61.
hence
6, = .004743 x 20 - .00239 x 10 =.07 inches

Fig. A7.67 Fig. A7.68

RddKl4743 Rb=.OO466? (8) For the truss In Flg. A7.67, flnd the
vertical and horlzontal displacement of joints C
Fig. A?‘. 61 and D. Take area of all members carrying tenslon
A7.18 Problems
as 2 sq. in. each and those carrying compression
as 5 sq. In. each. E = 30,000,OOO psi.
3000# (9) For the truss in Fig. A7.68, determlne

P
B 102 yO”1 E
C
the horlzontal displacement of points C and B.
20” E = 28,000,OOO psl.
30” G D+ 5000 5000 1000 1000 1000 500#
--. _ D 20”

t H
c
30” ’ 20” WO# ipJ$yjk
/A
L A B-L
40” 1 Jsr
“Fig. A7.63’ Fig. A7.64
Fig. A7.69 Fig. A7.70

(1) Find vertical and horizontal deflec- (10) For the truss in Fig. A7.69, find the
tion of jolnt B for the structure in Fig. A7.62. vertical deflection of joint D. Depth of truss =
Area of AB = 0.2 sq. in. and BC = 0.3. E = 180”. Width of each panel 1s 180”. The area of
10,000,000 psi. each truss member Is indicated by the number on
(2) For the truss In Fig. A7.63, calculate each bar in the figure. E = 30,000,OOO psi. Al-
the vertical deflectlon of joint C. Use AE so calculate the angular rotation of bar DE.
for each member equal to 2 x 10’. (11) For the truss In Fig. A7.70, calculate
(3) For the truss of Fig. A7.64 determine the vertical and horlzontal displacement of
the horizontal deflection of joint E. Area of joints A and B. Assume the cross-sectional area
each truss member = 1 sq. In., E = 10,000,000 for members in tension as 1 sq. In. each and
psi. those in compression as 2 sq. In. E = 10,300,OOO
(4) Deternilne the vertical deflection of psi.
joint E of the truss in Fig. A7.64 (12) For the truss In Fig. A7.70 calculate
(5) Determlne the deflection of joint D the angular rotation of member AB under the glven
normal to a line jolnlng jolnt CE of the truss truss loading.
in Fig. A7.64. lOOO# 5000

I=-- 1004
p+T+ p$E$z

Fig. A7.71 Fig. A7.72

(13) For the beam In Fig. A7.71 determine the

deflection at points A and B using method of elas-
60Ci# k
tic weights. Also determine the slopes of the
I
50,000# elastic curve at these points. Take E = l,OOO,OOO
Fig. A?‘. 66
Fig. A?. 65 psi and I = 1296 in.*
(14) For the beam In Flg. A7.72 find the de-
(6) Calculate the vertical displacement of flection at points A and E. Also the slope of the
joint C for the truss In Fig. A7.65 due to the elastic curve at point C. Assume EI equals to
load at joint B. Members a, b, c and h have 5,000,OOO lb In. sq.
areas of 20 sq. in. each. Members d, e, f, g
and 1 have areas of 2 sq. In. each. E =
30,000,000 PSI *
A7.38 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES

qEFig A7 73
Reaction * ’
Fig. Al. 81 Fig. Al. 82

(15) Fig. A7.73 Illustrates the aIrlOadS on (23) In Fig. A7.81 find the vertical move-
a flap beams ABCDE. The flap beams is supported ment and the angular rotation of point A. Take
at B and D and a horn load of 5OO# Is applied at EI = 12,000,OOO.
C. The beam Is made from a l”-.049 aluminum (24) Determine the vertical deflection of
alloy round tube. I = .01659 in’; E = 10,300,00( point A for the structure In Fig. A7.82. EI =
psi. Compute the deflection at polnts C and E 14,000,000.
and the slope of the elastic curve at point B.
, lOO#
lOO#
;s,,T3,,T
100 100
T31 ~g,,“gl~~gll~
zL-31 Fig. Al.83

Fig. Al. 74 Fig. A7. 75 lO’o#

(16) For the beam of Flg. A7.74 determine
the deflections at points C and D in terms of EI Drag
which Is constant. Also determlne slopes of the
elastic curve at these same polnts.
(17) For the cantilever beam of Fig. A7.75
determine the deflectlons and slopes of the
elastic curve at points A and B. Take EI as
constant a Express results In terms of EI. Front View Side View

lOO# 100 100 lOO# 400# (25) The cantilever beam of Fig. A7.83 Is
loaded normal to the plane of the paper by the
two loads of lOO# each as shown. Find the de-
flectlon of point A normal to the plane of the
Fig. Al. 76 Fig. Al. 77 paper by the method of virtual work. The ret-
tangular moment of Inertia for the tube is
(18) For the loaded beam in Fig. A7.76 de- 0.0277 In+. E = 29,000,OOO.
termine the value of the fixed end moments MA (26) The cantilever landing gear strut in
and MB. EI is constant. Also find the deflec- Fig. A7.84 Is subjected to the load of 500# In
tion at points C and D in terms of EI. the drag dlrection at point A and also a torslon-
(19) In Fig. A7.77 determine the magnitude al moment of 2000 in. lb. at A as shown. De-
of the flxed end moment MA and the simple sup- termine the displacement of point A In the drag
port RB. dlrectlon. The tube size for portlon CB Is 2”-
.083 and for portlon BA, 2”-.065 round tube.
Material 1s steel with E = 29,000,000 psi.

(27) Using the matrix equation 2U =

LJ
q1

L-4 bd= compute the straln

truss of Fig. A7.63 (Problem 2).
energy
The member
In the

flexlblllty coefficient for a member under

Fig. A7.78 Fig. Al. 79 Fig. Al. 80
Uniform load is L/AE (see Fig. A7.35aj.
axial
Ans. U = 22.4 lb.in.
(20) In Fig. A7.78 EI is constant throughout (28) Using matrix equation (23) compute
Calculate the vertical deflectlon and the angu- the stralri energy In the beam of Fig. A7.71.
lar rotation of point A. Note: the choice of generalized forces shoi;ld
(21) For the curved beam in Fig. A7.79 find be made so as to permit computation of the
the vertical deflectlon and the angular rota- member flexlblllty coefficients by the equations
tion of polnt A. Take EI as COnStant. of p. A7.19. Ans. U = 3533 lb. in.
(22) For the loaded curved beam of Fig. (29) Re-solve the problem of example
A7.80, determine the vertical deflection and the problem 25 for a stepped cantilever beam whose
angular rotation of the point A. Take EI as I doubles at point “2” and doubles again at “3”.
constant. (Heaviest sectlon at built-In end.)
 (30) For the truss of Fig. A7 85 determlne
the influence
vertical
ax!
coefficient
deflections
matrix relating
due to loads P,, P., P,
P * a~I~~li-icl as s!iown. Member areas are
L-l--
shown on the figure.
t = .051”
G = 3.85 x lo8 psi 20”
/
i I

Fig. A7.86
c__ 10” 1.2” -

Fig. AT. 85

Answer.
(34) Find the influence coefficients re-
lating deflections at points 1 and 2 of the
44.95 44.95 33.28 simply supported beam of Fig. A7 87. Use
matrix methods.
99.9 99.9 38.28
38.28
106.56 38.28
99.9 33.28I
38.28 p- 20” T 20” .+ 20” 1

(31) For the truss of problem (30) deter-

mine which of the following two loading con-
ditions produces the greatest deflection of
point 4, (All loads in pounds).

Condit .on No. PI P* PS P.4

1 1000 500 800 400 Fig. AT. 8’7

2 300 700 400 600

Ans .
r- 1
(32) Determine the matrix of influence 12.34 7.102
coefficients relating
braking torque (positlve
drag load (positive aft),
nose up) and moment L-l *mn = 10-e
7.102 12.34
in the V-S plane (positive right wing down) as
applied to the free end of the gear Strut
assembly of Problem 26.
Note to student: It will be highly instructive to re-work
Answer. problems 33 and 34 using the alternate choice of generalized
forces in the stringers from those used in your first solution.
See p. A’i’. 22 for alternate generalized forces on a stringer.

References for Chapters A7, A8.

TEXT BOOKSON STRUCTURALTHEORY

“Advanced Mechanics of Materials”, F. Seely and

(33) Find the deflection of the load J. 0. Smith, 2nd Ed., John Wiley, New York.
applied to the cantilever panel of Fig. A7.86.
“Advanced Strength of Materials”, J. P. Den
(Ass:me the web does not buckle). Use matrix
notation. Ans. 6 = 7.94 x lo-= Inches. Hartog, McGraw-Hill, N. Y.
“Theory of Elastlclty”, S. Timoshenko, McGraw-
Hill, N. Y.
A7.40 DEFLECTIONS OF STRUCTURES
I
TEXT BOOKSN’ITH MATRIX APPLICATIONS Wehle, L. and Lansing, W., A-~-Method for Reducing
the Analysis of Complex Redundant Structures to
“Elementary Matrices”, R. A. Fraznr, ‘d. J. a Routine Procedure, Journ. of Aero. Sci. -
. e-,.7,-
Duncan and A. R. Collar, Cambridge University vol. IY, lY3Z.
Press. Langefors, B., Analysis of Elastic Structures by
“Introduction to the Study of Aircraft Vibration Matrix Transformation wl%
---- w Regard to -
and Flutter”, R. Scanlan and R. Rosenbaum, Semi Monocoque Structures, Journ. of Aero. Sci.
Mac Millan, New York. 19, 1952.
Langefors, B., Matrix
-___ Methods for
- Redundant
Structures, Journ. of Aero. Sci. Vol. 20, 1953.
TECHNIC.AL PAPEPS Falkenheiner, H. Systematic Analysis of Redundant
Elastic Structure-by --~ of Matrix ??alculus,
Benscoter, S. U., “The Partitioning of Matrices Journ. of Aero. Sci, 20, 1953.
@ Structural !inaIysis”, Journ. of Appl. Mechs. Argyris, J. and Kelsey, S., Energy Theorems In
Vol. 15, 1948.
Structural Analysis, Aircraft Engineering, -
Oct. 1954, et. seq.

Many problems involving calculation of deflections are encountered in the structural

design of a large modern airplane such as the Douglas DC-8.

 CHAPTER Ax

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

ALFRED F. SCHMI’I”I’

A8. 00 Introduction. tics are individually useful in forming the bases

A statically indeterminate (redundant) for methods of solution.
problem is oni: in which the equations of static m There are more members In the Structure
equilibrium are not sufficient to determine the than are reauirsd to sunuort the applied loads.
int:~>r,:l,-i1. stress distribution. Additl onal re- If n members may be removed (cut) while leaving
l,! t L;,:i:;: i ;,:; bet;vccn displacements must be a stable structure the orltylnal structure Is said
.‘.1‘I ti; f.‘!L tci r\?rmit a solution. to be “n-times redundant”.
T!Li‘ “T’heory of Elasticity” shows that all
st,l~::~~tures ‘I“’ st-itically indeterminate when- -COROLLARY-
,ai;il:.-::d In ni!nute detail. The engineer how-
ev 8>I- ) is f-ften able to make a number of as- In an n-times redundant structure the mag-
s;:,r;>ti rr~ :\n:! coarse approximations which render nitude of the forces in n members may be assigned
ttr? ;w‘3! :im ~i2terminnte. In addition, auxiliary arbitrarily while establishing stresses in equl-
? i:i:; ‘!P’ :1v:.ti l~tt!l:: such as the Engineering librium with the applied loads. Thus, in Fig.
A8.1 (a singly redundant structure), the Internal
ThL?ory of Renciiny; MY nriii the constant-shear- force distribution of (a) is in equilibrium wlth
(T >
fl.O.‘* niles of thumb (q - T/Z%) (see Chaps. A-5, the external loads for any and all values of X,
A-6 ‘Iris! A-13 through A-15). ‘While these latter the force in member BD.
‘I:‘? cert,iinl.y hot l?wn of “st,atics”, the en-
girle->I, ;J?l[‘l Oy‘i li;o;n often enough so that prob- B .701x c
1..3s In which t!ie;i are used to obtain stress
~iistr~lhi~ti ens :ir’c often thoup;ht of as being X X
“(;f~:-(.~yri;,v I/ L,-,”
_ . z F
It, i:; i‘requ~~nt Ly the case In 2 lrcraft A D
str,llct ;r-:11 ,3irl:ilysi:; that, in view of the re- a .707x ,
~.~uiI’e:ni~1 t:: for efficient design, one cannot ob-
tii!? :! det.erminatr problem without sacrificing
neccssnt~y :=xcurncy. The Theory of Elasticity (b) (c)
w:::!;‘t=:. ii:e nxist2nce of i sufficient number of
Taxi 1 i:;ry c ontiitinns to permit a solution in Fig. A8.1
Sl!Cil c;i:;es.
Singly redundant stress distribution, (a) consisting of a stress

in static equilibrium with the applied loads, (b), with one

zero-resultant stress distribution, (c), superposed.

A8. 0 Thr Principle of Superposition.

‘The Ret~eral principle of superposition Only the system (b) is actually required to
stat ‘c: t!!?t the t-as&tint effect of 3 group of equillbrate the external loads (corresponding to
1o:1? i I!“:; ‘jr cnI1SHS acting simultaneously is x = 0). Note that the system (c) has zero ex-
eqx.1 to thr ,i?r;,:bralc sum of the effects acting ternal resultant.
s”l’!‘l-,~j,(;]pJ*
: 1 ‘The principle is restricted to the
:I!-!n~!ltiori t!l,!t thg> resultant ef feet of the a Of all the possible stress (force) dis-
siW’t”.l io’:~llr~~;s or causes varies as a linear trlbutions satisfying static equilibrium the
i:l!l; ‘t 1 >n. ?il!i::, the princip1.e does not apply one correct solution is that one which results
~,ii~:r, t:.- nembor tnaterlal is stressed above the Kkinemat lcal ly possible strains (displace-
pl’o~?c’r?,Ionai i Imit or when the member stresses merits) , i.e. retains continuity of the struc-
3 r 3 i:t~;endent upon member def lectlons or de- ture.
form~tioris, :as, f jr example, the beam-column, a
m;~“l“.>r ~,irryinP: bending and axial loads at the Thus, for example, there are an infinite
~‘!‘I!‘.’ t i are. number of bending moment distributions satis-
fying static equilibrium In Fig. AO.l (d) since
A8. 1 The STatically Indeterminate Problem. M, can assume any value. Of these, only one
S~vcr21 characteristics (and Interpreta- will result in the zero deflection of thexght
tion:; thereof) of the statically indetermlnate hand beam tip necessary to maintain structural
These characterls- continuity with the support at that point.
probl?~m may be pointed out.
A8. 1
A8.2 STATICALLY INDETERMlNATE STRUCTURES

t ;he Theorem of Least Work. In words; “the rate

C)f change of<tralnenergy with respect to a
f :ixed redundant reaction Is zeroR.
48. 2. 1 Determination of Redundant Reactions by
Least Work.

Example Problem A
By way of illustration, the problem posed
Fig. A8. Id )y Fig. A8.2 was carried to completion. The
Sing!y redundant beam with root bending
)ending moment was given by (x, y, B measured
kom the left ends of the three beam divisions)
moment M. undetermined by statics.
M = (500 + Rx) x 0(x CL/2

-COROLLARY- M = (500 + Rx) L

+ (Rx-500) y ocyLLh
If n member loads have been assigned ar- 2
bitrarily while establishing equilibrium with
the external leads, relative movements of the M=Rx (L-X) O<Z<L
elements ‘will result, violating continuity at n
points. n zero-resultant stress (force) dis- rThen
trlbutions may then be superposed to reduce the
relstlve motions to zero. The resulting stress ve
distribution is the correct one. u=; ( 500+Rx ) B~adx
0
AS. 2 The Theorem of
A theorem extremely useful in the solution
Least Work.
a
of redundant
Castigliano’s
problems may be obtained
Theorem. Consider first
from
the +2EI 1 (50O+Rx)L + (RX - 500)~
2 1 dy

problem of redundant reactions such as in a

L

I
beam over three sunports (Fig. A8.2). One of
the reactions cannot be obtained by statics. i- & Rxa(L - KG:)‘da

& --llooo# 0
EI = constant
Differentiating under the integral siir,n, (See
ps A7.8)

J
L/2
wok x L * x L --A
(500 + Rx) x2dx
Fig. A8. 2
0
A singly redundant beam with one reaction given an ar-
bitrary value (R,).

If the ~mknown reaction (say that on the far 1

+TT + (Rx - 5OO)y
right) is given a symbol, Rx, then the remaining
reactions and the bending moments may be de-
termined from statics. The strain energy U may L
then be written
U = f (Rx).
as a function
Next form
of Rx, i.e.,

au
-
aRx
= 6Rx
au
IRx (L - a)”

L/2
de

aR, = 0 = (500 + Rx) x2 dx

This is the deflection aa Rx due to Rx. Rut
this must also be zero, since the support is 0
rigid. Hence

au
-=o ------------------(1
aRX

Eq. (1) is true for all redundant reactions

occuring at fixed supports. Because it corre-
spends tc the mathematical condition for the I
minim&m of a function, eq. (1) is said to state ’
 1xdx
Completion of the computation gave L
% + 2PL - ML
Rx = - T1500 lbs. = - 93.8 lbs., !?!L,-
aMR - ML + xzE
3L
J o
the negatlve slgn Indicating that Rx was down.
2L
Example Problem B

0
Determine the redundant fixed end moments + %+
for the beam of Fig. A8.2(a). C

1 )’ EI = con&+; MR
r/
“LO t O=ML
I-L-I-2L-4

A doubly ,redundant
Fig.

beam
A8.2a

with two reactions given

+s + 2PL - ML
3L
two arbitrary values.

Solution:
G.Y
. “7;L
ML + PL - MR
+ MR z dY + 3L
The redundant end moments were designated
as ML and MR for the left and rlyht beam ends
I0
L L

I
respectively and were taken posltlve as shown.
The moment equations for the two beam portlons
0 = ML
X % + 2PL - ML X2
(x from left end, y from right) were iF+ 3L 3L dx
+ 2PL - ML 0 0
X O<x<L
3L
+ MR
ML + PL - Mr
M=MR+ Y OcY<2L
3L
Then 0
IIR + 2PL - M '
3L
Lx
1 dx Evaluating
ously gave
the integrals and solving slmultane-

KL=-%PL
1 ML + PL - MR *
+2EI 0
3L 3 I-$ = - ; pL

Differentiating under the integral sign (see A8.2.2 Redundant Stresses by Least Work.
remarks on p. A7-8) The Theorem of Least Work may be applied to
the problem of determining redundant member
forces within a statically Indeterminate StrUCtUre.
au s + 2PL - ML Thus, in an n-times redundant structure if the
aML X redundant member forces are assigned symbols X,
3L Y, X, - - - etc., the values which these forces
must assume for continuity of the structure are
such that the displacements associated with these

MR +
ML + PL - I"5
3L 1
Y$3’. forces (the discontinuities)
Hence, by an argument parallel
redundant reactions,
must be zero.
one writes,
to that used for
A8.4 STATICALLY INDETEI NATE STRUCTURES

f- 1
x’dx
2EIBC

In words, “the rate of change of strain energy 60

with respect to the redundant forces is zero”. 1 (50,00O)‘d%
+ EICD
Eqs. (2), like eq. (l), are statements of the
Theorem of Least Work. They provide n equations I cl
for n-t-redundant structure. The simul- Obviously there was no need to consider the
taneous solution of these equations yields the nergy in CD as its loading did not depend upon
desired solution of the problem. : and hence could not enter the problem. Dif-
‘erentlating under the Integral sign
Example Problem C
The cantilever beam and cable System of au 58.3 X
Fig. A8.3(a) is singly redundant. Find the -=-
ax EAAB
member loadings by use of the Least Work
Theorem.
A
x2 dx
B
1 OOO#
Jo
30

A singly
arbitrary
(4

redundant
value (X).
Fig.
structure
A8.3
with
(b)

one member force given an

+ (4 -
50
58.3
a x
EIAC
I0
ye dy = 0

58.3 X + 11,032 X + 6620 X

Solution:
EAAB EIBC E*AC
The tensile load in the cab12 was treated
as the redundant load and was given the symbol = 21.44 x los
X (Fig. A8.3(b)). The strain energies con- EIBC
sldered were those of flexure in portions AC,
CD and BC and that of tension in the cable AB. Putting
Energies due to axial forces In the beurn port-
ions were considered negligible. = 0.025 in2
The bending moment in BC (origin at B) was *AB

I BC = 8.0 In4
MBc = (1000 - & XJ x
.
I = 10.0 In*
In AC, (origin at A): AC

50 gave
MAC =c3X-Y
X = 613 lbs.
In CD:
Then
= 50,000
MCD

The strain energy was therefore

MBc = [loco - &
( )I
613 x = 685x

x2 L MAC = $$ 613 . y = 526: y

u=;? ( EAB)
 A8.5

Exa:n~1e Problem D Differentiating under the integral sign

A semicircular pin-ended, uniform ring Is
sur;port::! :and loaded as shown in Fig. A8.3(c). 60’
As a first s;:prcximation the horizontal floor au R”X sin’ 8 d 0
tie is tc Pa assumed rig13 axially. Find the = = El
bonding moment distribution In the ring. I 0

-- R’P “;; _
cos Q) sin 0 d 8
EI
I 0

Fig. A8. 3 -- R”P

331
I
“z;n
6oo
Qd 8

f PR 60’
cos 0 sin 8 d 0
so ution:
The axial load in the floor was taken to
I AE
0

be the redundant (since the floor was assumed 60°

rigid, this could have been thought
dundant floor reaction
of as a re-
from fixed supports).
The loading Is shown in Fig. A8.3(d).
The bending moment distribution was
AE

SEvaluat ing ,
I
+XR sin ‘QdQ+$$
0
::I:“QdQ
I 60’

M = X R Sln 8 - PR (1 - cos Q) O<QC60”

au
-=o+(~+-E)
M = X R Sin 0 - PR/Z 60°CQ<900 ax

The axial loadings were

S = P cos 8 + X sin 8 O<Q<60°

Therefore
S = X sin Q 60°<Q<900

The strain energy (for only half the

structure) was *

60’
B
U=2EI 1
I[
JO
X R sin Q - PR (1 - cos 0)
1 RdQ Example Problem E
The portal
of Fig. A8.3(e)
frame
is
three times redundant.
9o”
!a Set up the simultaneous
1
+2EI
60°
[I
X R sin 8 - PR/2
1 RdQ equations in the re-
dundant forces.
relative
The
bending stiff-
nesses of the segments

1
60” 2 are given on the figure.
Fig. A8.3e
+-zz
0
P cos 0 + X sin 8
1 RdQ
Solution:

The redundant forces

selected were the bendlng.moment, the transverse
shear force and the axial force, all at polnt A.
The four figures A8.3(f) through A8.3(1) show
the bending moment diagrams of the structure due
to applied loads and due to redundant forces
* Zero strain energy in the rigid floor (AE + 00).
A8.6 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
I
acting individually (it being easier to com-
+Ic-
,n

pute the loadings in this fashion). The com- 50,000 s1n e + n + 5OV(l + sin
1.50
e) -5uT(l - ccwa) 1(1 + sin e) gizize
0
plete loadlnp was obtained by superposition.

I I
50
(1000s' + M - VS' + 50 V - 100 T)(SO - s') ds,

sin
+

10 2.25

b0
g: 0 =+ ~000s' + M - VS' + 50 v - lom~(-loo) *s,
I 0
2.25

+IT- 0
50,000 s1n 9 + n + 50 V(1 + s1n e) -sn(l
1.50
- cos B)](cos B _ 1)5a.*e

After evaluation of the integrals the equations

obtained were

.1492M + 9.682V - 7.459l’ = 2.778 x lo= ,

9.682M + 763.1V - 484.WI’ = 288.3 x 10”

Q)
I -7.&YgM - 484.OV + 614.Y!! = -111.15 X 10’

A8.3 Redundant Problems by The Methods of Dummy-

Unit Loads.
‘Jnile the Theorem of Least Work may be made
the basis of redundant problem analysis, its
direct application by the calculus, as in Art.
A8-2.1 and AS-2.2, is often Impractical. For the
V Fig. A8.3h majorlty of problems the work Is Pacllitated if
carried out by the techniques of the Method of
Dummy-Unit Loads.
The following derivation Is for a doubly
redundant truss structure. The extensi’on to a
more general n-times redundant structure, in
The composite bending moments as functions of which other loadlngs in additlon to axial (flex-
s, 8 and s’ were ure, torslon and shear) are present, Is indicated
later.
MBc
=_ MAE
=M+vs A8.4(a).
Consider the doubly redundant truss of Fig.
It may be made statically determinate
50,000 sin 8 + M + 50 V + 50V sin 8 by “cutting” two members such as the diagonals
Indicated. Application of the external loads to
- 5GT (1 - cos e) thls determinate (“cut”) structure gives a load
dlstributlon, “S”, computed by satlsfying static
MCD = 1000 S’ + M - Vs’ + 50 V - 100 T equlllbrlum. At this time dlscontinuitles appear
at the cuts “x” and “y” due to the strains
Then since developed.
M=ds
rand$$=a$=$=C,

one has,
50
au
a = 0 = cMa ds S loads s loads uy loads
I
Jo Fig. A8. 4a Fig. A8.4b Fig. A8.4~
I
+
-5o,MK1 sin

50
e + M + bOV(1 + sin
1.50
e) - SoT(l - cos Q)
1
50dB
I To compute these and subsequent displacements
the Method of Dummy-Unit Loads may be used (Art.
A7-7). For this purpose virtual loads are placed
+
I 0
(1000s' + N - VS' + 50 V - 100 T) dS,
2.25

150
alternately
and (c).
at the x and y cuts as In Figs. A8.4(b)
From the dummy-unit load equations

au _ o = (N + VS) SdS
dV 2.25
0
I
 A8.7

!
1?or continuity these net relative displacements
Inust be zero. Equating the above expressions
------------- (3) aach to zero, and rearranging, gives the slmul-
taneous equatlons
=zsuyL
‘fl AE
Kr,---- ux2L +yz--------
UxUyL _ 2 SUXL
-
nlt-redundant stress dls- AE AE AE 1
ux and u are the ------
Y (4
tributlons as lndlcated In Flgs. A8-4b, c. The +yz”y=- =L 2 SUYL
-
subscript “0” indicates these relative dlsplace- AE AE i
ments occur In the determinate (“cut”) struc-
ture with the “original” stress distribution. : Eqs. (4) are two simultaneous equations In the
It Is now desired to close up the dls- two unknowns X and Y. Upon solution for X and Y
contlnultles by application of redundant loads the true stress distrlbutlon may be computed as
X and Y to the x and y cuts, respectively, as
in Flg. A8-4(d). Load X =s+xux+yu ----------- (5)
causes a stress dlstri- ‘TRUE Y
butlon Xux and, likewise,
X
X
YY For a structure which ls only singly re-
Y causes a distribution dundant , eqs . (4) and (5) are applied by setting
Yuy . The relative dis- Y = 0 giving
placement at cut x due to m
redundant load X Is given xz-- ux2L _ _ r, -SUXL
Fig. A8.4d AE AE
by (6Xx Is read “dlsplace-
ment at x due to X”). simply,
or,

and at cut. y by (read 6 as “displacement at

y due to Xl’). w

6 = 2 xux * “YL = x z y and,

m AE
=S+Xux - ____ -___-_-- (5a)
‘TRUE
Similarly the load Y causes displacements at
the cuts y and x given respectively by
A8.4 Example Problems - Trusses With Single Redundancy.

6 = r, YUY * UYL = y 2 UYZL Examole Problem #l

YY AE AE

and

6 = r, YUY * u,L = y 2 UyUxL

XY AE AE

Now the net relative displacement at each ClOOO# 1lOOO#

cut under the simultaneous actlon of the three
Fig. A8. 5 Fig. A8.6 Fig. A8.7
stress systems S, X.ux and Y.uy is
Fig. A8.5 shows a single bay pin connected
6 +6 +6 = 2 SUXL + x 2 UXUXL truss. The truss is statically determlnate wlth
x0 xx XY respect to external reactions, but statlcaily
AE AE
lndetermlnate wlth respect to internal member
loads, since at any joint there are 3 unknowns
+ Y r, Uqk with only two equations of statics available for
a concurrent force system. The truss 1s there-
and fore redundant to the first degree. The general
6 +6 +6 =zsuyL+xz- uxuyL procedure for solution Is to make the truss
YO yx JY AE AE statically determinate by cutting one of the
members;on Flg. A8.6, member bc has been selec-
ted as the redundant member, and It Is Cut as
+ y r, UY$ shown. The member stresses S for the truss of
A8. 8 STATICALLY INDETE Rh IINATE STRUCTURES

Fig. AS.6 are then determined, the results bein@

recorded on the members and also entered in
Table A8.1. In Fig. AS.7, a unit l# tensile
dummy load has been applied at the cut section
of the redundant aember bc, and the loads In all
the members due to this unit load are calculates
The results are recorded on the figure and also
In Table A8.i under the head of LI stresses. The Fig. A8.9 Fig. A8.10
solution for the redundant load X in the redund- S loads u loads
ant member be is given at the bottom of Table
A8.1. The true load In any member equals the S Example Problem#l-A; Deflection Calculation in
stress plus X times Its u stress. a Redundant Truss

Table AS.1 Calculations of the deflections under load of a redundant

structure are made by application of the methods of Chapter
Member 1 L 1 A 1 S / u / ++ &L True Stress A-7. Since, however, there are certain pitfalls as regards
A =s+ xu symbols and also some important special techniques, the
15 395 following examples are given at this time. The extension of
15 -605 the method to more complex structures is immediate and no
15 395
15 395 further work on deflections of redundant structures is given
21.2 -559 in this chapter (excepting in the case of the matrix methods of
28.3 855 Arts. A8.10 et. seq. ).
109.5
X . true load in redundant member bc Find the horizontal movem-nt of point “d”
Sul of Example Problem # 1 under the action of the
x = -1 A m -61210
109.5
= -559# load ap2l:ed tliore e
-i-
z&!-h
A Solution: The equation used to flnc! the
deflection is Eq. (18) of Chapter A-7. xritten
for application to truss deflcctlons it is
&ample Problem #2
(see Example Problem 13, p. 127.11)
Fig. AR.8 shows a singly redundant
3-member frame. Find the member loadings. 6=+L----- ------- .-
Member areas are shown on the fipure. AE -(A)

Now for a deflectlon calculation the symbols

“S” and “u” must be careful.ly relnterpreted
from their meanings In the redundant stress
calculation. For a deflectlon calculation the
synbols of eq. (A), abo:ie, mean: “S-1o:lds” are
the true loads of the redilndant structure !ut:
1 lOOO# to application of the real external loadin<;
“u-loads” are the loads #due to a dunlny-un’tt
Fig. A8.8
(virtual) load applied at the external point
where the deflection Is desired and In the di-
Solution: Member CC was select,ed as the rection of the rleslred deflection,
redundsnt and was cut in flrrurlng the S-loads,
as in Fig. A8.9. Fig. A8.10 shows the u-load Thus, the “S loads” for use in Eq. (A) are
calculation. The table completes the calcu- the true stresses (the solution) of Example
lation. Problem # 1.

SUL u2L True Load The “u-loads” represent additional Inf’orma-

Mem. L A s u A A =s+xu tion which would, in Eener’al, appear to necessi-
tate another redund.snt stress calculation. As
will be seen, such is Yorturiatcly not the case,
In the present problem the dummy-unit load is
applied identically as is the lOOO# real load
and :hence the u-loads are slm~ly equal to the
“S-1 oatis” properly sea l~i ‘!oiiT; D The follo,~i:n~
table completes the calculation.

1 11).
 A8.9
I
I I I I I I 1
SUL
/ Mem. 1 L A s* ” A
4

A0 141.4 .2 335.5 fl 3.355x105

BO 100 .2 625.6 -1 -3.128~10~

co 200 .4 274.1 0 0

0.227x105

.
1 I I I I I 22 700
B 52,300 *- 6=-h---
* true loads from Exa:r.l:le Problem #2.

By way of demonstration another set of

u-loads, called u’ , were found for this same
* identical .,,ith the “trlli, rtress” of Table problem, this time by cutting member OA. The
A8.1. corresponding calculations follow:
** sim::ly l/lOOOth of the “S-loads” since the
Su’ L
dummy-unit lead 18 a?:)licd exactly as Is S u’ A
the lOOO# real load.
335.5 0 0
Example Problem # 2-A.
625.6 .518 1.808x105
Find the horizontal deflection of point 0
274.1 -1.155 - 1.583~10~
of Example Problem #2 under application of the
vertical lOOO# 10~1 slio~vn in Fig. A8.8. I: 0.225~10~

Solution: To compute the deflection use

The results are identical (allowing for
(j=+LJ round-off errors ).
AE
-Proof of Theorem
zzzz
Again the symbols “S” and “u” are to be re-
interpreted for a deflection calculation as To prove the theorem above we return to the
explained a.bove in Example Problem #l-A. The virtual work principle and the argument fr0m
“S-loads” are now the “true loads” computed in which the dummy-unit loads deflection equation,
Example Problem #2, above. The “u-loads” are Eq. (18) of Chapter A-7, was derived (refer to
loads due to placing a dummy-unit load acting p. A7.10). It will be remembered that the de-
horizontally on the structure at point 0. flection was shown to be equal to the work done
Since this load acts on a redundant structure by the internal virtual loads (u-loads) moving
it ;~ould appear that another redundant stress through the distortions (A) due to the real
calculation is required. However, this is not loads, i.e., 6 = Zu A. The internal virtual
necessary. loads are those loads due to a unit load acting
at the point of desired deflection.
Theorem: For
~-~ the u-loads --in a deflection
calculation any set of stresses (loads) in Now for the statically indeterminate
-- ~- structure these internal virtual loads (u-loads)
static equilibrlwn with the dummy-unit load
--- are, In general, IndetermInate since the dummy-
may be used, even
__- ~~--- from the simp ---
lest of “cut”
structures. unit load is applied at an external point of the
structure. However, we recall that,
This theorem says that to get the “u-loads” i- any stress distribution in static
for this deflection calculation we may “cut” equllibrlum with the “applied load” (for the
any one of the three members and get a satis- moment now we are thlnklng of the dummy-unit
factory set of u-loads by simple statics1 load as the “applied load”) differs from the
Before proving the theorem we complete the correct (true) distribution only by a stress
calculation in tabular form as shown. The dlstrlbution having z’:ro external resultant
“u-loads” were obtained by cutting member OC (p. A8.1).
and applying a unit load horizontally at 0. ii - a zero-resultant stress distribution
moving through a set of displacements does zero
work.
Af3.10 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

Mathematically expressed these points are; .6 0 0 .6

i * Y~RuE = lJ STATIC + uR=O

is a u-load distribution obtained

where %TATIC
from statics in a simple “cut” structure under
the action of the externally applied dummy-unit
Fig. A8.12 Fig. A8. 13
load and uP,Q is the zero-resultant u-load
ux loads uy loads
system which must be superposed to give the
true u-load distrlbution
We note here the rule by which the degree of redundancy
of a planar pinjointed truss can be determined. For a truss of
II. ZA .uP=C=O m members with p joints, the truss is n times redundant where
n = m - (2p - 3). For a spatial truss (3 dimensional truss)
n = m - (3p - 6).
It follows, therefore, that any set of
u-loads in static equilibrium with the
externally applied dummy-unit load will do the In the present problem n = 11 - (12 - 3) = 2.
same amount of virtual work when the structure
undergoes its distortion as would a “true” set The calculation is carried out In tabular
of u-loads computed by an Indeterminate stress form In Table A8.2. The member dimensions are
calculation. That Is, given in the table.
Table A8. 2
6 = ZA
* Y-~RUE=
SU,L suyL&L u,zL uxuyL True Load =
Member L A S ux uy A A
A A A SiXux+Yuy

AB 30 .5 750 -.6 0 -27,000 0 21.6 0 0 1660

r, A * UsTATIC
+ 2 A * ‘R=O= BC 30.25 0 O-.6 0 0 0 43.2 0 560

1 I I
Q.E.D. CE 50.5 0 0 1 0 0 0 100 0 -932 -1
BE 40 ,7 -3000 -.6 -.I? 137,000 137,000 36.6 36.6 36.6 -1015
I
ED 30 .5 -750 O-.6 0 27,000 0 21.6 0 -190
A8.5 Trusses With Double Redundancy

Trusses with double redundancy are

handled directly by Eqs. (4). By way of
illustration, the structure of Fig. A8.4, from
which Eqs. (4) were derlved, will be solved
for a loading P L = 2000~ and P 8 = lOOO#. I: 562, 200 476,000 341.1 452.6 36.6
Choices of redundants were made identical with
those of Fig. A8.4a. Figs. A8.11, A8.12 and
A8.13 show the S, ux and uy load calculations Substituting from the table Into Eqs. (4)
respectively. gives (common factor of E divided out)

341.1 X + 36.6 Y = - 562,000

36.6 X f 452.6 Y = - 478,000

Solvlng,
x = - 1550t
y=- 932 ##

Flnally (see Table A8.2)

Fig. A8.11
S loads True Load q S + Xu, + Yuy .
 A8.11

A8.5 Trusses With Double Redundancy, cont’d Solving the two equations for X and Y, one ob-
tains X = 52H and Y = 416#. The true load In
Example Problem 3 any member = S + Xux f Y-d which gave the values
Fig. A8.14 shows a structure composed of Y
in the last column of the table.
four co-planar members supportlng a 2000# load.
With only two equations of statics available for A8.6 Trusses With Multiple Redundancy.
the concurrent force system the structure, rel- By induction, eqs. (4) may be extended for
atlve to loads in the members, is redundant to application to trusses which are three or more
the second degree. times redundant. Thus for a triple redundancy,
Solutlon:
UXaL ux”YL + g z ki"eL - _ z
Su,L
-
Fig. A8.15 shows the assumed statically X2 AE +” AE AE AE
determinate structure; the two members CE and
DE were taken as the redundants and were cut at Uy'dL
UxUyL uyu5L v
points x and y as shown. The member stresses +YZ~+~Z~=-.z -(6)
Xr,AE AE
for this structure and loading are recorded on
the members. Figs. A8.16 and A8.17 give the
ux and uy member stresses due to unit (lx) uxu5L
xz-
tensile loads applied at the cut faces x and y. AE

I
Table A8.3 gives the complete calculations for
eqs. (4) and (5). The load In the redundant and after solving for X, Y, ;5,
member CE was designated X and that in DE as Y.
True Stresses = S + Xux + Yu + ;5u, - - - - -(7)

v
Y
A A8.7 Redundant Structures With Members Subjected to
: Loadings in Addition to Axial Forces.
Eqs. (6) are extended readily to cover
--.A-
+;ooo# +2000#
problems In which flexural, torslonal, and shear

------
loadings occur. Thus, for a three times redundant

-
Fig. A8.14 Fig. A8.15 structure

Xaxx + Ya +;5a =-6

XY X0 X0

Xa t Ya +Xa =-0
yx YY Ye YO -(8)
ux loads II Y loads
Fig. A8.16 Fig. A8. 17 Xaex + Ya5Y + Xa5%=- 6
50

u, aL UxUyL SUxL where

x.27
+y~-T--=-~- A

Substituting values from table a

xx
=Z-+
ux”L
AE
J J- m:dx
--ET+
t,” dx
GJ
2446 X + 2350 Y = 2,253,OOO.
+ i;dx
dy Gt

Jmxmydx
SuyL
xx7 ux”YL + y 2 UYZL - _ 2
A A
a =a =Z-+ UxUyL ~
XY n AE EI
Substituting:
2350 X + 3039 Y = 2,488,OOO.

TABLE AB. 3

AE

BE
2 66.5

.172
0

2000 -1.564
,806 1.154

-1.729
0

-2.253
0

-2.466
260.5

1163
5'76.5

2150
402

1948
900

465
aYY
t
= r, uY
2L
AE
+
J my’dx
.-+
EI
-----etc .

CE 280.5 0 1.00 0 0 0 402.5 0 0 521

DE .393.7 0 0 1.00 0 0 0 312.5 0 416

-
Total Z -2.253 -2.468 2446 3039 2350
I and
A8.12 STATICALLY INDETEI [NATE STRUCTURES

iolution:

f J J
SuxL IQnxdx Ttxdx
6x0 = The shear flow in the sheet panels was
AE+ --ET-+ GJ Because of symmetry t,hc
:hosen as redundant.
jroblem was only singly redundant. Fig. A8.19

JJ
;hows the ux and ;ix loadings due to the redund-
+ -GixdXdY
Gt tnt shear flow X = 1. The real loading in the
leterminate structure consisted of a constant
load P In the central stringer alone. The

6yo =
i
su L
--& + mYdx
I -XT---+ I TtYdx
GJ
:quation solved was (ref. eqs. (8)).

JJ

etc. vhere

[ S = P = constant, in central stringer

and where
REAL S = 0 in side stringers
S, M, T, q are the real loads in the de- LOADS
terminate structure; q-0

ux, mx9t x, Gx are the unit

--- (virtual) load- I U” = L - x in side stringers
ings due to a unit load at cut x; = 2(x-L) in central stringers
= 1.0
u,m t - are for a unit load at cut
Y Y’ Y” qY men evaluated, (note that the double inte-
y; etc.
;rals simply reduce to a constant times the
The redundant force(s) need not be an axial bane1 area)
force but may be a moment, torque etc.
After solution for the redundants, True
Axial Forces =
P
x=x

True Bending Moments =

Therefore the true stresses were
M+Xmx+Ym +~mz
Y in central stringer
t
J ‘ROOT = P-2LX = P 1 +lL8Gt
t
AEb

etc. P 1
PROOT= LX = 2 AEb in side stringers

Example Problem 4 1 + L2Gt

The symmetric sheet stringer panel of Fig.
A8.18 is to be analyzed for distribution of load Example Problem 5
P between stringers. As a first approximation, The problem of Fig. A8.19 is doubly re-
assume constant shear flow in the sheet panels. dundant as shown. Determine the bending moment
All stringers have the same area. distribution. Both members have equal sectional
properties.
t-“” tL
. x=0

Rli/l[ I1 Fig. A8. 19 Fig. A8. 20

S, M loadings
ux, ii, loadings
Fig. A8.19
 A8.13

Solution:

The bending moments at point C in member

CBD and at point B in member 4B were selected
as redundants yielding (when cutj the pin-
jointed determinate structure of Fig. A8.20.
The virtual loadings were as shown in Figs.
A8.21 and A8.22. For a specific case it was assumed that

AE = 100 E1 giving
L F

C
.3716
.1526 X + .1526 .3616 PL
.8121 Y -= .09011 PL

ux, mx loadings
Fig. A8.21
vmy=-y

uy,
L

,my loadings
Fig. A8.22 Then as usual
X=
Y=
.0645 PL
.456 PL

Note that in Fig. A8.22 the unit redundant True Stresses = S + X ux + Y u

loading was applied as a self-equilibrating set Y
of unit couples. The real and virtual load- True Moments = M + Xmx + Ym
ings were as follows: (member portion BD, Y
having no virtual loadings, was omitted. It A8.8 Initial Stresses.
could not enter the calculation.) In a redundant structure initial stresses
are developed if, upon assembly, certain mem-
bers must be forced into place because of lack
of fit. In some situations Intentional misfits
are employed to obtain more favorable stress
distributions under load (“prestressing”).
If, in Fig. A8.4(a), the redundant member
with the “x cut” was initially oversize (too
long) an amount oxi (an oversize, corresponding
The equations which were solved were (Ref. to a distortion in the positive X direction, is
w. (8)). a positive 6xi), the modified condition for
continuity at the x cut would be (compare with
the equations just preceding eqs. (4)).

6 +6 +6 +6 -0
x0 Xl xx XY
Similarly if the Y redundant member were too
long

6 +6 +6 +6 =o
YO Yl 3Tx YY

Then using the previous notations, the appropri-

ate equatlons for the redundant forces are

After evaluation of the integrals and multi-

plying though by L2 these become

= +4daL
AE
- g1 The “S loads” of eq. (10) are present because
of applied external loads. These may or may not
be zero depending upon the problem.
A8.14 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
I
Example Problem 6 If, as is sometimes the case, the number of
If in example problem 3 member CE was 0.01 misalignments exceeds the number of redundancies,
inches too short before assembly, determine the or if the misalignment does not coincide with
stress distribution after assembly and l.oad the redundant cut chosen but occurs elsewhere,
application. one may use the virtual work principle to com-
pute the effect of these misalignments on the
Solution: redundant cuts proper. Thus, referring to the
“virtual work” derivatlon of the Dunmw-Unit
Data obtained from the previous problem was load equations, {Chap. A7) one has
substituted into eqs. (10) along with
6 =z ux A, - _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ - _ - -(II)
Xi
6 = -.Ol” (negative because “too short”)
Xl
where 6xl is the Initial misalignment in the
6 =o
Yi determinate structure at the X redundancy-cut
due to initial imperfectlons (equivalent to
to give
initial strains) A1 throughout the structure.
2446 X f 2350 Y = 2.253 x 10’ + .OlE U as before, is the unit loading due to a
X
1 2350 X + 3039 Y = 2.488 x 10’ virtual load at cut x.Eq. (11) and slmi1a.r ex-
pressions for the Y, Z, etc. cuts may be in-
with E = 29 x 10” the redundant forces were serted in eqs. (10).

X = 985 lbs. Example Problem 8

Referring back to example problems num-
Y= 57lbs.
bers 3 and 6, assume that member BE is .025”
too long. Determine the initial stresses If
Then, as usual,
the other members are of proper length and no
external load Is applied.
True stresses = S + Xux + Yu .
Y
Solution:
Example Problem 7
Assume that In the structure of examole To employ the same equations as those of
problem 5 an angular misalignment occurred be- example problem 3, the initial imperfections
tween members AB and CBD at joint B such that occurring at the same x and y cuts used there
the end of member AB had to be rotated 2.7’ were computed, In this case due to the initial
clockwise to fit upon assembly. Determlne the elongation of BE. Thus
moments developed without external loads
applied. 6Xi = z UxAl = (-1.564)(.025”) = -.0391”

Solution: 6 =zun = (-1.729)(.025) = -.0432”

Yi Yi
The initial Imperfection was 6 =
Yl. Then, use of those previously computed coeffi-
- 3.7’ cients In eqs, (10) gave,
/57.3 = - .0471 radians
The sign was determined by noting that the 2446 X + 2350 Y = .0391 E
orlginal mfsallgnment was in the negative di-
rection of the redundant couple Y. 235OX+3039Y= .0432E
The equations used from the previous
problem were (noting the equations there had With E = 29 x 10’ psl
been multlplled by L* x EI/LJ = EI/L).
X = 263 lbs.
.3716 X + .I526 Y = 0 Y = 209 lbs.

.1526 X + .8121 Y = .0471 y Finally,

Solving, True Initial Stresses = S + Xu + Yu

X Y
X = - .02s8 EI/L A8.9 Thermal Stresses,
Y = .0630 EI/L Stresses Induced in redundant structures by
thermal strains may be computed by appl1catlon of
True initial stresses and moments were deter- methods presented above. The problem may be ap-
mined as usual. proached from the point of view of computing the
relative motions at the cuts of the determinate Example Problem 9
structure caused by the thermal strains and then The end upright of the truss of Fig. A8.23
restorinbg continuity by applying redundant mem- is heated to the temperature distribution shown.
ber forces to the cuts. Determine the stresses and reactions developed.
Specifically, consider a doubly redundant
truss s;:ch as that of Fig. A8.4(a). After
making cuts “x” and “y” to render the structure
determinate, the application of the temperature
distribution is visualized. Relative displace-
ments occur at the cuts,denoted by 6xT and 6
YT’
These displacements may be computed by the
Dummy-Unit Load method as shown in Art. A7.8 of
Chap. h7. After this calculation is accomp- Fig. A8. 23 sliding Fig. A8.24
lished, the problem proceeds as for initial vertically)
strains, Art. A8.8. Thus, the continuity con-
dition at the cut gives (compare with the equa- Solution:
tions immediately preceding eqs. (4) and as-
sume for simplicity that the external loads are The structure was made determinate by cuts
absent, maklng 6x0 = 6 = 0) x and y as in Fig. A8.24. The unit loadings are
YO shown in Fig. A8.25.

In a truss, the thermal strains produce

relative displacements at t!ie cuts given by the ux loading ‘l#
“virtual work” derivation of the Dummy-Unit uy loading
Fig. A8. 25
Load equations (ref. Chap. A7, Arts. A7.7 and
A7.8) as

5XT=/ Llxa T dx The thermal coefficient

constant. The calculation
a was assumed
was set up in tabu-
+uyuTdx ---------- - (12) lar form.

wh::re u. is the mraterial thermal coefficient of

expansion, T is the temperature above the
ambient temperature and ux and uy are the unit
loa. distributions due to virtual loads at the
x ax1 ‘1’ cuts , respectively. The sums in eqs.
( !r‘ ) ‘3I‘.> bvritton as integrals rather than f-inite
S:IXS tl? ?llo:v for possible variat,ion in u and T,
alon: the members as well as from member to
mZr . Then the flnal equations for thermal
stresses in a doubly redundant truss become Substituting into eqs. (13)

5.008 X - .90 Y = 9 a T x 10’

- .90 x + 1.50 Y = 0
(13) Solving,

X = 2.01 a T x lo8

Y = 1.21 a T x lo8
Equations (13) may, of course, be extended
for application to structures other than True stresses are given in Table A8.4.
trusses. The expressions appropriate to other
loadings have been developed previously (eqs. Example Problem 10
(9) et seq. in this chapter and other equations The upper surface of the built-in beam of
in Art. A7.R). Fig. A8.26 is heated to a uniform temperature T.
A8.16 STATICALLY INDETE INATE STRUCTURES

Through the depth of the beam the temperature ‘hen the equations corresponding to eqs. (13)
varies linearly to normal (T = 0) at the lower iere written (see also eqs. (8) ).
surface. Determine the end moments developed,
neglecting axial constraint and influence of
zxia$f;ces. ,

x = l”# x= l”#
.\ :A!
..
u 13
z-T--

EI constant Virtual Loading

Fig. A8. 26a Fig. A8.26b

Solution:

The problem was only singly redundant be-

cause of symmetry and was made detehnlnate by
cutting the end bending restraints. Applica-
tlon of unit couples (Fig. A8.26b) gave m = 1 =
const. Then (see Example Problem 24, Art. A7.8)
the thermal deflection at the “cut” was

&T= :dQ=Ll.Tadx=TaL
--
h h Evaluated, the equations were
I 0 I0
The redundant moment equation was (by analogy to -$Y+o.a=+$
-hx
eq. 13)

Therefore
X
J mxadx
-=-&Ii?
EI
gx+;(&+E&+o.~=-~

0.x + 0-y +(& +g L4 = 0

I
L = - TaL/h
xrI Note that from the last of these equations
g = 0, as It must because of the synunetry of the
x= - TaEI ring. Solvlng the first two equations
h
X=h
aTE1
The redundant moment compresses the upper fibers
as was to be expected.
Y=O
Example Problem 11
Complete the problem begun In Example A non-zero value of Y would produce a vary-
Problem 24 Art. A7.8, viz, that of computing ing bending moment which cannot be because of
the thermal stresses in a closed ring whose symmetry. Hence this result too, is rational.
Inner surface is uniformly heated to a tempera-
ture T above the outside. A8.10 Redundant Problem Stress Calculations by
Matrix Methods.
Solution: In the following section the Indeterminate
structural problem is formulated in matrix no-
The rlng was made determinate by cutting at tation. The reader is assumed to be famlllar
the top as in Fig. A7.30(b). The unit loadings with the matrix applications of Art. A7.9 and
and thermal deflections were determined in the the elements of matrix notatlon and arithmetic
referenced example. The results of deflection (see Appendix).
calculations made previously were The stress distribution of the StrUCtKCe is
specified by a set of internal generalized forces,
~ = 2n RaT 91’ 4 ’ * (ref. Art. A7.9). Unlike the case of
-Ii- J
the determinate structure, these ql, q cannot be
3
6 yT =-2nR2aT
* In the case of indeterminate structures, wherein some of the
h support reactions may also be redundant, these reactions
also are denoted by q’s. (see Example Problem 13a).
related immediately to the external loads by the SYMBOLS- continued
equations of statics. Thus a certain subset of
the qi, qj are redundants and are denoted by Ti, Tj - the temperature (above normal) at
points i, j.
(r, s different numerical subscripts). the member thermal distortions as-
9rJ 4sJ ‘iT, *jT -
sociated with qi, q .
&hen, finally, the redundant forces, qr, qs, j
are computed (by satisfying continuity) the true
values of all the q, qj may be found by In the notation of Arts. A8.3 et seq, the
statics. final true values of the stresses were ex-
pressed as (eq. (5) Art. A8.3)

SYrBOLS =s+xux+yu ----------- (5)

‘TRUE Y
Q1’ Qj - internal generalized forces acting
In the notation to be employed here, this
on structural elements and re-
equation is restated as
actions at support points.
- redundant generalized forces and
T-J 9s redundant reactions (14)
P Pn - applied external loads
g;; (=gjn) - the value of qi, (qj) In the de- Here :
terminate structure under appli-
cation of a unit external
P = 1 (Pn = 1)
load
[gim]
(=[‘Jn]
J is the matrix of un it- load

gir (=FAjs) - t:e value of qi (qj) in the de- stress distributions in the determinate (“cut”)
terminate structure due to appli- structure found by the application of unit
cation of a unit redundant force (virtual) loads at the external loading points.
Qi = 1 (9, = 1)
The product [glm] {Pm} then gives the real loads
GIm (=Gjn) - the true value of qi (qj) in the
In the determinate structure, corresponding to
redundant structure due to appli- the “S” loads of eq. (5).
cation of load Pm = 1 (Pn = 1)
G
rm (“Gsn)
- the true value of qr (qs ) for
unit value of applied load
a
[glr](=cEJs])
is the matrix of unit-load

stress distributions found by application of

Pm= 1 (Pn= 1).
unit (virtual) forces at the redundant cuts in
- member flexibility coefficient: the determinate (“cut”) structure. Hence this
ail deflection at point i for a unit is the matrix of ux, u , etc. loads.
force, qj = 1 (see Arts. A7.9, 10) Y
The s , of course, correspond to X, Y,
a - influence coefficient for the de- etc. 1 1
terminate structure: displacement Note that the pim] and [girl matrices are
at external loading point m for a
unit applied load, Pn = 1. load distributions computed and arranged in much

a rn (‘asm)
( a = a
- influence
nm)
coefficient for the de-
the same fashion as was
c 1
Gim of Art. A7.9. The

mn small letter “g” is used to indicate

load dis-
terminate structure: displacement tribution in the “cut” structure.
at redundant cut r (s) for a unit
applied load, Pn = 1 (Pm = 1). By way of illustration, the final result
for Example Problem 3, Art. A8.5 is expressed
(a rn =u nr ) below. FIRST, in the form of eq. (5):
a - influence coefficient for the de-
l-S True Stresses = S + X (u,) + Y (u,)
terminate (“cut”) structure: dis-
placement at redundant cut r for a AE = 0 + 521 (.806) + 416 (1.154)
unit redundant force qs = 1.
(a rs =a Sl? ) BE = 2000 f 521 (-1.564) + 416 (-1.729)
- influence coefficient for complete CE = 0 + 521 (1.00) + 416 (0)
Amn redundant structure: deflection
DE = 0 + 521 (0) .+.416 (1.00)
at external loading point m for a
unit applied load, Pn = 1.
* Note that within each of the sets of subscript symbols (i, j),
(Am = Am) (r, s), (m, n) the symbols may be used interchangeably.
A8.18 STATICALLY INDETE. NATE STRUCTURES

SECOND, In the form of eq. (14): f external-point influence coefficients In the

cut” structure : deflection at point m per unit
oad at point n.

f influence coefficients relating relative dis-

llacements at the “cuts” to external loads:
Note that in this case
IIgim 1consisted of only isplacement at cut r per unit load at point n.

one column, Inasmuch as there was only a single

external load.
In Art. A7.9 the strain energy was written
)f Influence coefficients relating relative dls-
2u = pi_1 plJ {Qj} - - - - - - - - - 15) )lacements at the “cuts” to redundant loads at
;he “cuts”: displacement at cut r per unit re-
lundant force at cut s.
where
ra,,lis L -2
the matrix of member flexibi tY With the above notation one may write
coefficients (Art. A7.10). If now eq. (14 and
Its transpose are used to substitute into \ 15) 2u = L’rn_l vmii {‘n} + 2 L’r_l ErFJ {‘n}
the expression becomes (note the use of (I , J),
(r,s), and (m,n) Interchangeably)
+ p_I pjyJ{qs} - - - - - - - - - - - (19)

2u = (L’rn J [gYJ + LP 1 t--k+

Now according to the Theorem of Least Work
3U/aqr = 0 for continuity. Then, dlfferentlating
p1Y-J X(~j~{qs}+ pGl{‘n})*
eq. (19):
MultiplyIng out 3U
- = 0 = Frd{Pn}+ ErJ{qs} - - - - (20)
3qr

This last result may be verified by writing

eq. (19) out in expanded form; dlfferentlating
and then recombining in matrix form. Rearranged,
eq. (20) gives

(21)

The reader may satisfy himself that the Eq. (21) Is a set of simultaneous equations
“cress product” term In the middle of the above for the redundant internal forces q,, q,. It
result is correct by observing that, because of may be compared with eq. (6) of Art. A8.6, to
which it corresponds. Eq. (21) may be solved
the symmetry of
caij 1, directly from the form there dlsplayed or Its
solution may be obtalned by computing urs- ,
IXI
the lnverse of the matrix of coefficients, giving

,p}= - p-y pj-J {Pn} - - - - - - - (22)

The matrix product - pr;7 prJ gives the

The various matrix triple products occurri
above are asslgned the following symbols, each values of the redundant forces for unit values
having the interpretation given (compare with of the external loads. This may be given the
eq. (24) of Art. A7.9)
symbol
Cl
Gsn so that

---- (22a)
 A8.19

(14)
If now eq. (22) is Substituted

m for n)
into eq.
one gets (with exchange of r for s and L/Z0 01
rLZ/3
[I
‘Lji” =r
L
LI
L/2
0
1
0
0

La/3
0

L/2

C 0 L/2 1

The moments q, and qr were taken as the redund-

ants. With these set equal to zero, the internal
force diStrlbutiOnS due to application of unit
values of P, and P, were determined, glvlng

The matrlx set off in parentheses

gives the internal force distribution
above,
per lunft
l/L 0
value of the external loads. It is given the 0 0
symbol
El
gim =
i 0 l/L 1
(23) Lo o-l
rllth the applied loads set equal to zero, unit
values of the redundants were applied yielding

(r =) (2) (4)
so that
- l/L 0
{cQ}= LZIJ{Pm} - - - - - - - - - - - - (24) 1 0
gir
IXI = l/L - l/L
Eqs. (23), (24) constitute the major re-
sult, inasmuch as they present the means for 0 1
computing the internal force dlstrlbutlon in a
redundant structure.
Note that redundant load qa was applied as a
self-equilibrating Internal couple, acting on
Example Problem 13
The doubly redundant beam of F!g. A8.27 (a) both beam halfs.
The following matrix products were formed:
IS to be analyzed for the bending moment dis-
trlbution. The beam Is loaded by couples over
the supports as shown.

-, EI constant ,P2 *Pl

: A (4
L- = ‘f= =--I
q2c t-
91 (b)
94 f gI.zzII I

Fig. A8. 21

Solution:
0 0
The choice of Internal generalized forces
Is shown In Fig. AC.27 (b). The appropriate 0 l/L
member flexibility coefficients were arranged in
matrix form as (ref. Art. A7.10 for coefficient -0
GL 001

L-1
expresslons). 1 2
=&-I 0 1
A8.20 STATICALLY INDETEI INATE STRUCTURES

The inverse
appendix)
of
[urs 1was found (ref. though the matrix of member flexibility
fficients was expanded to a 6 x 6, the
coe-

:oefficients for q6 and q8 were zero. Thus,

L”/:i L/2 0 0 0 0-

L/2 1 0 0 0 0
Next, the unit
was found (eq. 22).
redundant load distribution
alJ=&
Cl 0 0 L8/3 L/2 0 0

0 0 L/2 1 0 0

0 0 0 000

0 0 0 000

With the redundants qs and qs set equal to

zero, successive applications of unit external
couples P, and P, gave the stress distribution
Finally,
was computed,
the true unit stress distribution
0 0
1 0
0 0
Cl
gim = 1 1
10 0 0

- O O H
0 0

L 0 1
and, with P1 and P, zero, successive appl ca-
z 1 I 0 0
tions of unl redundant forces qs and qe gave

(The tabular form of presentation of the Then, multiplying out per eqs. (17) and ( 8)
matrix Gim, above, is used here only to indicate
clearly
tional
the functioning
scheme.
of the subscript
In general,
essary to call out the subscripts
fashion excepting
nota-
it should be unnec-
in this
for the larger matrices, for
Clor-n
L8
=2EI L-1
4
1
3
1

the handling
prove helpful.)
of which, the tabular

Example Problem 13a

form may La
=6EI
r1
16
L5
5
2

The redundant beam problem of Fig. A8.27 is The inverse was found:
to be re-solved using the redundant reactions as
the unknowns.

Solution:

The support reactions under the loads PI

Finally,
and P, were given the symbols qs and qa, respec-
tively, positive up. These forces did not enter
Into the strain energy expression so that, al-
 1.286
.428
- .%%L -.428L

=i;1 - .3%6
.lJ3L
.a57
-.286L
-1.286 -.4%8
i 1.714 -.428
I
Loading for column

Fig.
of the

A8. 29
matrix [gim]

(:#om?,1r? ,bit;; solution to Example Problem 13).

The czntinucus tr,uss of Fig. A8.28 is

trlice red;mdant. It is d-sired to analyze it
for stress distributions under a variety of
loadin-; conditions consisting of concentrated
vertical loads ,ipplied at the four external Fig. A8. 30a
points indicated.

1 2 3 4 5 6 I

Fig. A8. 30b

8 panels at 20” = 160”

Fig. A8. 28

Solution: 20
20
The internal generalized forces (q,,qj) 20
20
ern>loyed were the axial loads in the various 20
members. These were numbered from one - to 20
thirty-one as S~O’MI on the figure. The member 20
flexibility coefficients in this case were of 40
the form UI = L/AE (Ref. Fig. A7.35a). The 40
40
coefflclents are written as a column matrix he- 40
low. (They were employed as the diagonal clc- 40
ments of a square matrix In the matrix multi-
40
pllcations, but are written here as a column to
conserve space. )
Member loads qs and qs were selected as
< 40
40
22.4
Cl
gir =

A,edundant s . vJith q5 and 9, set equal to zero 22.4

(“cut”), unit loads were applied successively 22.4
at external loading points one through f=, 22.4
the four stress dlstributionithus found being 22.4
arranged in four columns giving the matrix 22.4
By way of Illustration, the 22.4
22.4
loading figure used to obtain the second column 22.4
22.4
of
Cl
glm is shown in Fig. A8.29. 22.4
22.4
Next, unit forces were applied successivel> 22.4
at the redundant cuts “three” and “five” as shown 22.4
In Figs. A8.30a and A8.30b. These loads were 22.4
ar r anged in two columns to glve the matrix gIr 22.4
C -
A8.22 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
I
.059 .111. .OOGS
=

r .0035 .0065 .111

1 1.0
2 .50 -20
3 The calculation was completed as per eq.
4
(231 to give
[Gl,,II 1 , the values of the member

forces for unit applied external loads.

E.
Lr?=
Cl
I I /v .^,., _ . lb’/ -.003 - .002
21 1 .56 1 -.56 11 - .c25 -.085 - -032 - .017
77 I I I I I
12 - .01’7 -.032 -.085 - .045
7’2 nno nnG? 167 - .294
;i - 0.““L, I - * -1-
00,
^^_
-.““d I .---
.3x? . - . 764
15 0 ( 0 1 0 1 - in
.J”
,P , ,c) I n I n I n

29 -.5f 5 ,I - .56 I
30 1 -1.12
5 1. ) 1.12

NOTE: VOIDS INDICATE ZEROES

Mult iplying out gave

30 0 1 0 [ 0 1 -1.12
1 311 0 1 0 1 0 1 1.12

1 Example Problem 14a

1
-15.0 0 0 Fig. AS.31 shows the two bays of a steel
tubular tail fuselage truss which Is loaded by
=E 0 -15.0 -8.0 tail air loads to be resolved into three con-
centrated loads applied as shown. The fuselage
The inverse of bulkhead at the attach-points station (A-E-F-K)
appendix) is heavy enough so t;lat it may be assumed to be
rlgid in its own plane. Hence, the truss may
be analyzed as if cantilevered from A-E-F-K as
shown. All members are steel tubes, their
lengths and areas being tabu’~ated below.

Solution:
Next, the values of the redundant forces,
for un!t values of the applied loads, were The generalized forces were taken to be
found per eq. (22). the member axial load:, these being numbered as
In the table below. Member flexlblllty coeff ic-
I ents , L/A, (E set equal to urlty for conven-
lence) were also tabulated.
 A8.23

than apply successive unit loads and forces at

points m = 1, 2, 3 and r = 22, 23, 24 and then
carry each loading through the structure, an-
other procedure, often better adapted to large
complex structures, was employed.
In the method used, the equatlons of StatlC
equilibrium were written for each of the seven
joints .* Summation of forces in three directions
on each joint gave 21 equations in 24 q’s (the
unknowns) and the three applied loads P,, P, and
P =. Some typical equations obtained were:

From 2 F on Joint C.

.21360 ql. - .2136? ql. + .lEE34 q. - .lfWA q. = -P,

9. + 4 a=0

91.3 + 9L. = -1.0236 PL

From Z F on Joint B.

F .ot117s9 cl1 - .1- 90 - 4. -.07617 q,. = .5227 qr,,

Fig. A8.31
q, - PO - .91593 q** = 0

-.1410 q, + q13 + .4146 q,, = -.R523 q,.

And so forth, for the other joints.

Note that In each case the equations were
arranged with the applied loads (P,) and the
redundant q’s (q,,, qaa, qe+) wwed on the
right hand slde of the equal sign. This ar-
rangement was obser,ved for all 21 equations,
after which the equations were placed in matrix
form as

piJ{qj}= pin i ‘id{ .2.)

r,cl = 1,2, . . . . . . . 24
n = 1,2,3
s = 22,23,24

(Note that there were 24 equations here,

the additional tnree equations being the ident-
ities

9 aa = q,,
q23 = qa,
9 e* = 9x34 1
The structure was three times redu,dant.
In a space framework of p joints, 3p-6 inde- On the i-1 Fht hand side of the above matrix
pendent equations of statics may be written equation the matrices are shown “partitloned”.
(p. A8.10). Here, however, stress details in The first three columns of [D] are the coeffic-
the plane AEXF are to be sacrificed; six equa- ients of Pn and the last three are the
tions are lost thereby since only net forces in
two directlons in this plane can be summed.
3x11-6 -G=21 equations; 24 member unknowns.
Members 22, 23 and ~4 were cut. * For structures other than trusses the equilibrium equations
The next step was to compute the unit are written for the various structural elements, equilibrium
stress distributions [grm] and [girl . Rather of joints alone being inappropriate.
AR.24 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE. STRUCTURES

coefficients of the qs- The inverso was found (see appendix)

Th? matrix equation was solved for the qJ
r.5555 - 2880 .2:7q
by finoinc the inverse of (see appendix).
Tkus ,

Then (referring to eqs. (22) and (2Za))

where r .18 543 22S9 1

pinally, the complete unit stress distribution

Thus, the unit stress distributions in the vas obtained as
deterainat? structure were found by a procedure
having as its main advantage the reduction of
th.2 ,vork to a routine mathematical operation.
In the conduct of this work appropriate stand-
ardized techniques may be employed. *
The result in this case was
I\/1 m 1
I
2
I
3
I

I I I
6 i -1i404 I 115247 1 . a32
7 I-.8443 .7352 I - .761

II%:. &!1r_I =
. 7

The member flcxlbillty coefficients L/A

were arranged as the diagonal elements of the
matrix
IIalj1 * Then, multiplying out according
23
I

j-:1864
I
1 - I238
1
1 - I2010
to eqs. (17) and (18), 24 j-.0314 1 .176 1 .1313

r
177.9 -1137.0 -6430
-1
3 Example Problem 15
The doubly symmetric four flange Idealized
box beam of Fig. A8.32 is to be analyzed for
stresses due to load application at the SIX
points indicated. Flange areas* taper linearly
from root to tip while sheet thicknesses are
2970 1150 -1148 constant in each panel. The beam is mounted
r 1 rigidly at the root, providing full rsctreint
1150 1221

-1148 -1035
* These are the “effective areas”, being the flange area plus
* See references in appendix. adjacent effective cover sheet area plus one-sixth of the
web area. (The factor of one-sixth provides the same
moment of inertia as the distributed web area).
 A8.25

against warping of the root cross section due The member flexibility coefficients were
to any torsion loadings. collected in matrix form as shown below. Note
that entries for arr, a,,, a,, and a1o,ro were
collected from two stringers each (as well as
being doubled as discussed above). Coefficients
for these tapered stringers were computed from
the formulas of Art. A7.10.

NOT?: VOIDS INDICPTE ZEROES. E = 1, G = .385

U’YP. ) l-l5~*-cl
Cover sheet shear flows qs, q7 and qla were
selected as redundants. With these set equal to
Fig. A8. 32 zero, and with unit loads placed successively at
loading points “one” through “six”, the gim
ll 1
matrix was obtained. ‘When the cover sheets are
Solution: “cut” the two webs act independently as plane-
web beams. The details of the stress calculation
The generalized fo-ces employed are shown for such beams are similar to those of &ample
on the exploded view, Fig. A8.33. No forces Problem 21, Art. A7.7 and are not shown here.
were shown for the lower surface, its members
and forces being equal to those of the upper
surface because of symmetry. In the
Cl
uiJ

matrix this fact was accounted for by doubling

the member flexibility coefficients for the
members of the upper surface,

NOTE: VOIDS INDICATE ZEROES.

Calculations for
[ gir
1were made by suc-

cessively assigning unit values to the redund-

ants qe, q7 and qL8. The calculations are
illustrated by the exploded view of the end bay
in Fig. A8.34 showing the calculation in that
part of the structure for qs = 1. Note that
9 s = 1 was applied as a self-equilibrating pair
of shear flows acting one on each side of the
91 “cut”. The ribs were considered rigid in their
own planes.
Fig. A8. 33
Put q,=1

From equllibrlum of end rib: (Z M, 2 F)

A8. 26 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

The followin,: matrix products were formed:

Per eq. (18):

.17t;9 .0520
.2678 .07322
.07322 .1%54I

Per eq. (1:):

.a3356 -.009318 .009318 -.001605 .001605

qa=’
The invorse
appendix) .
of
[ars 1was found (ref.

q,=l -
r 3.882 -2.562 J13T-j
ql=-llrrq q3=1 cLlrs --I
1 =-10E = 6.137 -2.521
- .1137 -2.521 9.499
Fig. A8.34

Then
91 = -1.0
‘1, : 1.0

From eqLlilibriurn of 2n_d rib:

.00598 -.00598 .00016 -.00016
4a = -(.5625 - .as) = -.3125
qs = .a25
= -.03593 .01872
.03409 -.Olt?72
-.03409 .01578 -.00403
.00403 -.01578 3
q-7 = 0 , by hypothesis
Finally, the true stresses were (per eq. 23)
So on, into the next bay. In the idealization
used here, the ribs have zero ::tiffness normal
to their own plane so that til*> a.xial flange
loads are transmitted directly to the flange
ends of the adjacent bay (see q,, q7, qQ, q10
of Fig. A8.33).

E.
Cl
lr =

The reader will observe that the result

;i - .1307 - .1955 1.00 displays the “bending stresses due to torsion”;
14 -1F.73 -26.44 -31.71 that is, the buildup of axial flange stresses
15 18.X 26.44 31.71 near the root of a beam under torsion when t,he
root is restrained against warping. The solu-
NOTE: VOIDS INDICATE ZEROES. tion for application of a torque is readily
found by superposing stresses for PI = 1 and
Pa = -1. Thus, one finds that under this con-
dition there is a root flange load of

9 l4 = 3.47 - 2.76 = 0.71 lbs.

for a torque of 15 inch lbs.

A8.11 Redundant Problem Deflection Calculations by

Matrix Methods.
D;flectians (and in particular, the matrix
of influence coefficients) are readily computed
fr?m the results of Art. AO.lO.
Assume that the redundant forces q, have Finally, the sum of the above two matrices gave
{ )
been deter,l!lned from eq. (22). The total de-
flection of external loading points is then
easily computed as the sum of, ONE, the de- r
144 -15.9 -

-
.052 -

-
.a?0
1
flection due to external loads acting on the
“Cut” structure
’ Cad(p,>(ref. eq. 16) and,
Cl
*rnn
.028 - 35.3.052
.038 -15.9
36.3.098 144
-15.9 .052 I
T’JO, the deflections due to the redundant
forces acting on this same cut structllre, Example Problem 17
Determine the matrix of influence coefficir,nts
[a4q~} (ref. eq. 17). Thus,
for the box beam of example problem 15.

Solution:

An alternate procedure to that shown by

eq. (25) was followed. The influence coeffic-
Substituting from eq. (22) ient matrix was formed as in Chapter A-7, Art.
A7.9, by the product.

This product was formed readily, inasmuch as

The matrix expression set off in paren- [Gim1was available from example problem 15.

theses above , giving as it does the deflections The result was

for unit values of the applled loads, is the
-matrix -of influence coefficients. Let

1pr;‘l prJ - - - - (25)

so that

{6,)= pmJ{‘n} -
_------____ (26)
A8.12 Precision
Calculations.
and Accuracy in Redundant Stress

Matters of precision are dependent upon the

number of significant figures obtained and re-
Example Problem 16 talned in dealing with the geometry of the
Determine the matrix of influence coeffic- structure and in the care with which arithmetic
lents for the redundant truss of example operations are performed. In the oiscussion to
problem 14. follow it is assumed that all due caution is
exercised with regard to the precision of the
Solution: work.
Matters of accuracy have to do with the num-
From the previous work the following matrix ber of significant figures finally obtained in
products were formed the answer as influenced by the manner of formu-
A8.28 STATICALLY INDETEI INATE STRUCTURES

lation of the problem. The accuracy of the re- .nverse cannot be found (ref. appendix). Its
sult may be affected by a number of factors, two :ondition is terrible. Example :
of ths most important of which are discussed
here.
Two factors
considered together
redundants”.
influencing accuracy often are
under the heading “choice of
They are:
[2
-37 -327 I
-327

0 - the number of SlgnifiCant figures

which may be retained in the solution for the In the matrix
I:ars 1 the off-diagonal ele-
inverse of the redundant force coefficient ma-
trix, ars
[ 1 . (eq.
21). Tents are measures of the structural cross-
:ouplinc of one redundant force with another.
‘he strength of this cross-coupling is depend-
00 - the magnitude of the r,sdundant forces :nt upon the choice of redundants made in
relative to the size of the determinate forces. ‘cutting” the structure to make it statically
These two factors are concerned respective- ieterminate.
ly with the left hand side and the right hand FOR EXAMPLE, the doubly redundant beam of
side of eq. 21, viz. Fig. A8.35(a) may be made statically determinate
)Y “cutting” any two constraints.

they are discussed in detail below. W(3) 3 4

-Yq, I
0 - ACCURACYOF INVERSION OF urs
Cl ; s,7-‘)qz
q&r=-]
(b)
Cd)
THE CONDITION OF THE MATRIX.
Fig. A8. 35
The characteristic of the matrix
[IarS
which determines the accuracy with which its In- Fig. h8.35(b) shows the choice of general-
verse can be computed is its condition. The lzed forces. Only two (ql and q2) are required
condition of the matrix is an indication of the to describe the strain energy, but the central
magnitude of elements off the main diagonal support reactions were also given symbols as it
(upper left to lower right) relative to those Yas desired to consider them in the discussion.
on. The smaller are the relative sizes of Then
elements off the main diagonal, the better is
the condition of the matrix. A well conditioned
matrix is more accurately inverted than a poorly
conditioned one. Two extreme cases are now
l/6
El% =-E”I
given for illustration:
a) the diagonal matrix. Its off-diagonal 0 0 00
elements are zero, so that it is ideally con-
ditioned. Thus, the inverse of

?IRST, suppose the beam was made determinate by

selecting the support reactions q, and q, as
redundants. The “cut structure” in this case
nay be visualized as the beam of Fig. A8.35(c)
NhOse central supports have been removed.
4ppllcation of unit redundant forces q, = 1
Is easily and accurately obtained as and qr = 1 gave

b) a matrix all of whose elements are equal

in each row, All the elements off
- the maln
diagonal are equal to those on. The determin-
ant
- of such a matrix Is zero and hence Its
 A8.29

Multiplying out, redundants may be chosen simply. In most struc-

tures, however, the additional labor involved in
seeking an orthogonal set of redundants is not
warranted.
(2) In choosing a set of redundants which
will yield a well-conditioned redundant matrix,
r, s = 3, 4 it is best to make such “cuts” as will leave a
statically determinate structure retaining as
The condition of this matrix is poor. many of the characteristics of the origlnal
Physically, a unit load at point “3” causes structure as possible. Thus, one may consider
almost as much deflection at point “4” as at “3” that the structure of Fig. A8.35(d) retains more
itself. The cross-coupling is large. of the features of the orlginal continuous-beam
structure than does that of Fig. A8.35(c).
SECOND, suppose the moments q,. and q2 had
been chosen as redundants. The “cut structure” (3) The degree to which one redundant in-
in this case bein visualized as in Fig. fluences another (extent of cross-coupling) can
AS.35(d). Application of unit redundant forces be visualized by observing how much their lndi-
9 I = 1 and q1 = 1 gave vidual unit-load diagrams “overlap”.
To elaborate on this last point, refer once
agaln to the above illustrative example. The
cross-coupling of q3 with q+ may be expected to
be large if their unit-load diagrams are drawn as
below In Fig. A8.36(a). This deduction follows
easily if it is recalled that the dummy-unit load
equatlon for such a cross-coupling term is of

the form m,m, dx *

, obviously large for m,,
I EI
m,. Strictly, the comparison is with the terms

m,” dx which form the on-diagonal

Multiplying out, EI -
elements of the matrix
1
[Iars
4I

The condition of this redundant matrix Is

obviously better than that obtained with the m4 7 h
first choice of redundants. There is less
cross-coupling between the redundant forces. (4 (b)
Fig. A8. 36
Thus the analyst, by choice of redundants, determines
the condition of the matrix. The choice may be critical in the
case of a highly redundant structure, for it may prove im-
possible to invert a large, ill-conditioned matrix with the Study of the unit-load diagrams for the
limited number of significant figures available from the initial redundant choice ql, qs (Fig. A8.36b) reveals
data. The following statements and rules-of-thumb may be that the cross-coupling should be small here
useful in the treatment of highly redundant problems.
since an integral of the form m,mz
___ dx can
i EI
(1) It is always possible to find a set of have a contribution from the center span only.
redundants
minimum-zero.
proper choice
for which the cross-coupling
in fact. Theoretically
of redundants, the matrix
is at a
then, by
ar,
[I
Hence, the

smaller than
m,me dx
EI I
m: dx
-ET-
is obviously
rnz dx
Or I EI’
considerably

Thus, a
may be reduced to a diagonal matrix (Ideally visual inspection of Fig..A.36 reveals that ql,
conditioned). q, is a better choice of redundants than is
q,, q,.
(la) The choice of redundants which glves
zero cross-coupling (“orthogonal functions”) is
not readily found in general. In some special
structures, such as rings and frames, orthogonal * see eq. (8) Art. A8.7.
AB. 30 STATICALLY INDETEI iNATE STRUCTURES

(4) Combinations of redundants may be em- ;uch a way th%t the nroduct
ployed to yield new unit-redundant stress dis-
tributions which do not “overlap” as extensively exactly what is desired, viz., “t-ike one tia::s
as do those of the individual redundants origin- ;he q3 column minus one half thr> qr column tl:
ally chosen. :ive the first column of the new distribution
For example, suppose that in the previous
Then “t%ke minus one YI:-A:f r;:’ th;; iis
illustrative problem, the choice qs, q, for re-
dundants had been made originally, leadin,? to
:olumn p1.u:; one times t,he q4 colzmn t.o [;i W: tr:f:
the unit-load diarrrams of Fig. A8.37(a). In-
spection of the diagrams leads one to anticipate second colunn of the new distritlution
a strong degree of cross-coupling and hence a
new set of redundants is sought. Rather than Multi plyin? out in the above ex:-Lr-,r:le
return to the structure to choose new “cuts”,
combinations of the m3 and m4 diagrnms are
looked for cyhich will have less “overlap” and -2 1L 0
hence less cross-coupling.
It is observed by inspection that two new 0 - 2-
stress distrlbutions>hich have the desired
property may be formed from the m,, m4 diagrams 1 - -1
by proper combination. Thus, if -- one half the - 2
m, diagram is subtracted
--- from
- the
- 2 diagram to
form one new stress distribution and one-- half - 1- 1
the rn> diagram is subtracted from
- the
- rn> dia- 2
gram toformheother new stress distribution,
the results are as shown in Fig. A.37b. There
is obviously less “overlap” of the diagrams for iow form the matrix of redundant coefficients
these new combinations. for the ne\N unknowns (subscripts p, a;
[Eip1=
11

(a) 04
Fig. AB. 37 The condition of this matrix is zmgreatly
New unit-redundant-force stress distributions (b) obtained by
improved over that obtained for q5, q4 alone
(previously computed), viz.,
combining previous distributions (a).

In this way two new unknowns are introduced

linear combination.
stress distributions
In matrix notation,
gir Cl
are transformed
by
the old
to a
Cl
0r-8 = I-718EI
ri
8
7
7
8
(r, s =3, 4)

matrix obtslncd here S~;,S,C

new set by forming
[IRlP to be similar to that obtained for ql, q2 in a
previous example, is coincidental. )
Once a transformation has been performs?,
leading to a new unit redundant matrix pi
[I ii1 ’
1 -l/2 the problem may be completed in the “p, 0

cl/z11
I
-;L system”. The appropriate equations are oi.t,airl-
cd from eqs. (14), (21), (23) and (25,) ci~.~.l:~
= -- by replacing all “r, s ,‘I by “ii, 0”. ThLE
iL
1 (22)
pi} = pig{%}+ pq{qp}- - - - - -
0
where the redundants qP (= qO) are the solutions
The transformation matrix
II 1B
rp
is written in of
p---&}~ - E&-J{Pn} - - - - - - - - (30) auxiliary rules, test information, or even in-
tuitlve guess-work which leads to a distribution
close to the final true distribution, There is
and where no need to set the redundant (cut) member forces
equal to zero in establishing the determinate
distribution. Instead, reasonable approximate
(SOa) values may be employed for them, (The correc-
tions to these values become the unknown
redundants ! )
(30b) Mathematically, the magnitudes of the re-
dundant forces are directly dependent upon the
The flnal unit load distribution is magnitudes of the elements in the matrices
[arn 1
or
IIupn 1on the right-hand side of eqs. (21) or

(30). (The right-hand side of such a set of

simultaneous equations is called the non-homo-
--
an3 the matrix of influence coefficients is geneous part.) Thus, the relative merits of
given by several possible determinate stress distributions
may be judged by forming the matrix product
[arn 1
with each and comparinrr results.
FOR MAMPLE, if the doubly redundant struc-
@O- THE MAGNITUDE OF THE REDUNDANT ture of Example Problem 3, Art. A8.5 were formu-
lated in matrix form the [g,,] and [a,,]
FORCES; SIZE OF ELMENTS IN
[Iurn matrices would be (see Fig. A8.30 for numbering
Inspectlon of eqs. (14) or (29) reveals scheme )
that the redundant forces act in the nature of
corrections to the determinate stress distri-
Fig. A8.38
buttons originally assumed (the
[ 1
gim ). It is
Generalized
scheme
force
in illustrative
numbering
prob-
apparent that if these corrections are large,
then any inaccuracies in the redundants (arisinp lem. q3 and q* selected as
from the difficulties inherent in accurately redundants.

inverting [urs] or [Use]) will have an im-

portant effect
stress distribution.
general practice,
on the accuracy of the final
Thus, as a matter of
it is desirable to keep the
r432 0 0 0
1
magnitudes of the redundant forces as small as
pass iblc *
It follows immediately that one should use
for the aeterilinste stress distribution one re-
qulrinq a minimum of correction, i,e., Select
as the determinate stress distribution one whick
aooroxlmates the true stress distribution as
cibsely as possible.
The rule given in connection with the
“choice of red&dants” (rule 2, above) is an ale
In making a good selection for the determinate
stress distribution. If, as suggested, a deter-
minate structure is obtalned by making “cuts” Several possible determinate stress distri-
which leave a system having propertles
to the original, the stress distribution
similar
obtain-
butions
[ 1
gim ~111 now be tried. FIRST, the

ed therein by statics should be a fair approxi- stress distribution obtained by statics alone in
mation to the final true stress distribution. the “cut” structure (q, = q, =- 0)
However, it is even more important to
realize that the determinate stress distribu-

i1
0
tion only need be In static equilibrium with 1
the external applied loads and that It may be l gim 1 = 0
! ) CUT
determined with the aid of any approprlate 101
A8.32 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

(This is cert,?inly a poor approximation to the Example Problem 18

final stress distribution). Multiplying out It is desired to increase the accuracy of
the calculation in the case of the box beam,
Example Problem 15. It will be assumed for this
purpose that the initial data of that problem
were sufficiently precise to warrant an increase
of accuracy.

SECOND, a stress distribution in which loads of Solution:

0.40 lbs were guessed at for q1 and q5. (In a
the times redmmt?%ture any two forces The first step taken was an examination of
may be assigned values arbitrarily while satis- the unit-redundant stress distributions obtained
fying static equilibrium.) qe, q, were found with the choice previously made of qs, q, and q18
by statics, Thus, as redundants, The three unit-redundant stress
distributions were represented graphically as In
Fig. AS.39.

{ ‘irnjGmSS = { iii,} .

Ml.l1t iplying out one finds

arn
Cl =
GUESS

Note that a reasonable guess at a stress

distribution resulted ln non-homogenous terms
only one-tenth as great as those obtained by
{gi2} {gi7} (gi12)
use of the “cut” distribution. The magnitudes
of redundants are correspondingly reduced.
Fig. A8.39

THIRD, as a matter of interest, the true Unit-redundant-force stress distributions -

stress distribution, obtained In Example Prob-
lem 3, was used. The result: axial flange forces.

Inspectlon of the figures showed that the

following combinations of distributions should
give new distributions likely to have consider-
ably less “overlap”.
The non-homogeneous terms are practically zero,
as they should be*.
be zero also.
The redundant forces would (I)---- 1 x{gls}- ~{gl,}+ 0 x{gl,,a}
(2)---- 0 x{gl.}+ 1 x{gl,}- ~{El,le)
(3)---- 0 “{gls}+ 0 x{gl,}+ 1 x{gi,i*}
* The demonstration here suggests a useful check upon the
final result of a redundant stress calculation. After ob-
taining the final true stresses [Gim] (- [Gjn]), one forms In matrix form the transformation was

and compares the result element-by-element with the

matrix previously computed,

[a,,] t [gri] [ aij] [gjn] .

The “true-matrix”
nearly so, if [Gim]
elements ought
is error-free.
to be zero, or
Using
[gir 1as previously computed, the multl-

plicatlon gave
 A8.33

.? 1 2 3
i = lo8
E
.07322 .1254

It remained to select a determinate stress

distribution which would reduce the magnitude of
the redundants. For this purpose, the engin-
eering theory of bending was employed to compute
stress dmbxlmisfying equilibrium for
each application of a unit external load. The
result was (refer to Example Problem 30, Art.
A7.11).

1 2 3 4 5 6

NOTE: VOIDS DENOTEZEROES.

Fig. AU.39:1 shows plots of the new distri-

ens, those h:~Vin~
t‘~:t: greatly reduced "overlap"
(CornpYre f;ith FI?. A8.39). p1IFJ=

NOTE: VOIDS DENOTEZEROES.

Next the matrix

IIapn 1was obtained by

multiplying out per eq. (30b)

Fig. A8.39a
-3495 -1841 1841 0 0-
New unit redundant stress distributions,
bipl 1167 -1167 1554 -1554 -14.50 14.50
-1082 1445 -1445 1802 -1802

This result compared very favorably with arn

IT 1
previously obtained, the elements being from one-
half to one-tenth as large.
The new redundant

was obtained by multiplying

coefficient

out per eq.

matrix
[aPa
(30a).
1 the The solutlon
“p,u
may be carried to completion
system”
in
using the matrices [pip], rap],

[‘im] and [apn] in eqs. (31) and (32).

This matrix
i -.01132
.0000175
.2584

is very well conditioned,

-.01132
-.03124
.2566

being a
-. .0000175
.1254
03124 1 AB. 13 Thermal Stress Calculations

The thermal stress problem is conveniently

formulated
the techniques
in matrix notation
presented above.
by an extension of
by Matrix Methods.

Tonsiderable

found originally
improvement over that of a
rs
in Example Problem 15, VIZ.,
II 1 First, consider eq. (21), written in the
form
A8.34 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

I
may consist of the sum of several contributions
should qi act on more than one member.
Because ArT is desired at each of the re-
In light of the physical interpretations given
dundant cuts, eq. (34) is expanded by writing
the equation is seen to be
to PI-S] md [am] ’
a matrix-form statement of the condition for {“rT}= prd{AiT} - - - - - - - - - - - (35)
continuity at the redundant cuts, viz., the dis-
placement at each cut caused by the redundant
forces plus the dlsplacement
by the external
at each cut caused
loads, must be equal to zero. IIgri 1 is, of course, the transpose of
[Igir 1,
To modify this equation for thermal stresses, the unit redundant force stress distribution in
the appropriate expressions for thermal dis- the determinate structure. Substitution of eq.
placements at the cuts must be added. Following (35) into eq. (33) gives
the argument used in Art. A8.9 one writes

Era { ‘s}=-- prd{ ‘n} - prd {AiT} - (36)

(SrT}+ prJ{‘s}+ ~r~{pn}=o
Solution of eq. (36) gives the values of the
where 6rT is the dlsplacement at the rm cut redundants q,, after which the problem may be
>due to thermal straining in
-- the determinate completed in the usual fashion, viz,
structure. The explicit form for this term will
be derived below. ReKritten,

It is obvious that the use of combinations

of redundants (the “p,cr” system of Art. A8.12)
is possible. One makes a direct substitution of
Eq. (33) Is a modifled form of eq. (21),
givlng as its solution the redundant forces in [gip] for [girl, [apn] for [am], etc. into w.
an indeterminate structure under the application
of both external loads and a temperature dlstri- (36).
bution.
To derive an explicit expression for 6rT, I It remains
MEMBICRTHERIWL DISTORTIONS
to establish the forms for
.
AiT
the virtual work concept may be employed to ad-
vantage. Thus, following the argument of the Thermal strains on an lnflnitestinal ele-
“virtual work” derivation for deflections (Arts. ment of homogeneous material can cause uniform
A7.7, A7.8), the thermal deflection at the rth normal extensions only, so that no shear strains
redundant cut must be equal to the total in- develop. Hence only normal (as opposed to
ternal virtual work done by the I’m-redundant shear) virtual stresses need be considered in
force virtual stresses (due to a unit rt_h-re- computing the internal virtual work. Note that
dundant force) moving through distortlons normal stresses associated with f lexure must be
caused by thermal strains. Included. It follows that only virtua.1 work in
Since the Internal stress distribution Is axially loaded bars and in beams in flexure need
expressed In terms of the internal generalized be considered. Hence AiT is zero for all qi
forces qi, qJ, It is convenient to employ these which are shear flows on panels or torques on
q’s in writing the virtual work of straining. shafts.
If one lets AiT be the displacement of internal
BARS
generalized force qi due to thermal straining,
The general expresslon for the virtual work
then the virtual work done by a single general- done by virtual axial loads u in a bar under
ized force is qi AiT . The quantity AiT will be varylng temperature T is
called the member thermal distortion. The total
virtual
talned
rt_h cut
workughouthe structure
by summlng, giving the deflection
as the matrix product
Is ob-
at the
where a Is the material
w=
J u*aTdx

thermal coefficient of
expans I on.
6 rT = I- i(AiT} - - - - - - - - - - (34)
gri
* It will be convenient later to designate by qsT the SOhtiOn
where gri Is the value of the qi due to a. unit to eq. (36) when the mechanical loads Pn are zero, the
(virtual) load at cut r. Note that the term AiT stresses in such a case being purely “thermal”.
 A8.35

Several specific cases are now treated. BEAMS

A bar under linearly varying load with For a beam the general form of expression
linearly varying temperature is shown In Fig. for the virtual work done during thermal strain-
A8.40. ing by a top-to-bottom-surface temperature dlf-
In this case ference 6T, varying linearly over the beam depth,
..\\L\\\\\\
Is (see Art. A7.8, EX. Prob. 24).
u = q.J t qi - qj x
L ai
Ti

T + Ti - TJ x Fig. A8.40
Tj L where

Then, assuming u constant m = virtual moment (positive for compress-

ion on top fiber)
6T = TBOTTOM- TTOP

h = beam depth.

Applied to the case of Fig. A8.42 one gets

2T1 + Tj T1 + 2Tj
=uL 91 + aL
6 6 qJ

This expression may be put In the form

w = q1 AlT + qj ‘jT
where

A
2Ti + T
IT z a L +

Ti + 2Tj
A
jTsaL 6 ’ h = constant
Fig. A8.42
Note that variation in the cross sectional
area of the bar does not affect the distortions or
A
IT’ AjT’ W = q1 AlT + 4 j ‘JT
The alternate choice of generalized forces
for the bar under varying axial load is shown where
In Fig. A8.41. By a
derivation similar to
that, above one finds - qi
W = q1 AlT + qj AjT Tj Ti

Fig. A8.41
Special forms of the thermal distortion
expressions for beams of varying depth may be
A Tl + *j derived readily as requlred.
IT = Q L T
Example Problem 19
T1 + 2Tj The upper surface of the beam of Fla. A8.43
AjT = a L8 6
is subjected to a temperature 6T above that of
the lower surface, varylng linearly as shown (I.e.,
The simpler cases of uniform load (ql = u
= constant) and uniform T (Ti = Tj) follow Im-
medlately by specialization of the above forms.
For example, for a bar under constant load
= Qj’ and constant temperature, TI = T = T,
91 j
one has AiT = a LT.
Fig. A8.43
 A8.36 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

the temperatures are equal at the left end and

differ by 6T, at the right end). Determlne the
center reactions assuming a is constant.

Solution:
solving
In the illustrative example of Art. A8.12
this structure was analyzed by employing as
generalized internal forces the bending moments
q1 and q, over the central supports (see Fig.
A8.35). The two central reactlons were denoted rhe fina _ stress distribution was
by q3 and %. The matrix of redundant coeffic-
ients, considering q, and q8 as redundants (the
better choice, It will be recalled) was (ref.
Art. A8.12)

1
=o+ EI a 6T, 0

Cl
ars =m
L
Cl
41
14
h 1

1
L
26,

93
The unit redundant load distribution for q1 =
and qa = 1 was 2
L
I-1 2
1
1 1 0
2 0 1
g 3-E ;
t IrII =
Thus the reactions were
4 ;-;
,39g EI a 6To
~ 95 =
Lh
Member thermal dlstortions were computed. (Note EI a 6To (negative indi-
that bT was negative according to the convention 9 1 = -1.60 Lh
cates DOWN)
adopted earlier).
Example Problem 20
2
3 6T,+ 2x ;6T) The symmetric sheet-stringer
48.44(a)
panel of Fig.
is to be analyzed for thermal stresses
+ a+ (-)
\ 6 I developed by heating the two outside stringers
to a uniform temperature T above the center
=- & 6T, stringer. Assume G = 0.3853.

Bolution:

bST = q C-1 The panel was divided for convenience into

three bays. The numbering and placing of gener-
allzed forces Is shown in Fig. AC!.&%(b).
=-g $fb~, Transverse members (ribs, not shown on Figure)
were considered rigld in their own planes - a
satisfactory assumption for synunetrlc panels.
Then from eq. (36) Because of symmetry only one half the panel was
handled. All member flexibility coefficients and
thermal distortions were doubled where appoprl-
ate.
The matrix of flexibility coefficients was
set up as (VOIDS DENOTEZEROES)
 A8.37

Then

0
- .5
0
0
The matrlx of member thermal distortlons
gir =
Cl 1.0
0
40 0
40
20 .025 - .025
0 0 .025
=uT 0
0
0 Multiplying out per eq. 18,
0
0 I 211.2 - 5.7 0

Here, for example AIT = 2 x 2 x 10 = 40 (doubleC

once because q1 acts on two stringer ends and
doubled agaln to account for the other half of
the panel). and
-
- 5.7
0
211.2
- 5.7
- 5.7
105.6 1
r-3 0 0 1.0 0 0 -.025 -.ozs 0 1 r 4c

4c

0 0 -.5 0 0 1.0 0 0 -.02.5 2c

&~{AIT} = 5 T 1 0 -.5 0 0 1.0 0 o -.oz .025 J
0

< 0

II
-20
91 =llT -20
-10
0

(b)‘%
0

(4 Then the redundant equations, per eq. (36),

Fig. A8. 44 were
The structure was three times redundant.
Stringer loads q., qs and qa were selected as
redundants. Fig. A8.45 shows the unit redundant
load sketches for qr = 1, qs = 1 and qs = 1.

Solvlng,

nCIn
,-. 5
P

onr
j-.5

Finally, the complete thermal stress dlstrlbu-

tion was

Fig. A8.45
lo J
A8.38 STATICALLY INDETEI ATE STRUCTURES

The result compares favorably ?!ith “exact”

solutions made under the same assumptions (ref.
NACA TN 2240) as far as the stringer loads are
concerned. The shear flow result is not very
satisfactory, primarily due to the use of too
few “bays” in this analysis.

Example Problem 21
The uniform four-flange box beam of F!g.
ElRir =
A8.46a is to be analyzed for the thermal
stresses developed upon heating one flange to a
temperature T, uniform spanwIse, above the other
three flanges.
9s
qe, \

.tip1y ng out per eq. (18),

g+ .a33 .625 .375 .125

L=k' (b + c) .625 in + .5@3 .375 .125

.375 .375 .500 + .333 .125

iT

.125 .125 .125 g$+ .0833

Fig. A8.46
For a specific case let kaL’, = 1. The
Solut ion Cb) lverse was computed to be

The beam was divided into four equal bays

giving a four times redundant problem. Four
self-equilibrating (zero-resultant) independent
stress distributions were taken as the unknowns,
these being shown in Fig. A8,46(b). Such zero-
resultant stress distributions are the only ones
possible In a structure havlng no applied loads*
The matrlx of member flexibility coefflc-
ients was formed by collecting coefficients fron Member thermal distortions (A,,) were
the several members. Unit redundant stress dis- omputed for loads q2, qr, qe and q, and were
tributions were prepared, taking ql, qs, qs and ollected from the one heated flange only.
q, as the redundants and setting these equal to
unity successively.
0 (Note that If two ad-
2 jacent flanges are
0 heated equally, one must
El4 = L (b + = a> 2 1
> set the corresponding AiT
Gt
AlT 8 0
2 equal to zero; this be-
.500
0
cause the virtual loads
I iI i.1667kPI I.667kP 1 /.1667k'
I I I 1 I
1J belng of opposite sign In
.soo
adjacent flanges, the
.1667kP .333ks
virtual work must cancel).
where k2 = Gt /AE (b + c) Ilt i plying out :
* Since external loads are not to be applied it follows from
statics that the generalized forces for adjacent webs and
cover sheets are equal, as are the loads in front and rear
spar caps at any given station. Hence an economy of
numbering in the generalized force scheme is possible.
Much labor is saved in the handling of data when the same
symbol can be employed on several members whose loads
are known to be equal. hen the solution to eq. (36) was written as
 AB. 39

“cut” making it determinate, after whi.ch the

temperature distribution is applied producing
thermal deflections
which, when multlplied out gave
{ %Tl} = pbq {‘iT}

Gt a L T
16 (b + c7 ( 1::::2} at the external points (compare with eqs. (35)
c .I
L .2413J . and (37) ). Simultaneously the redundant cuts
will experience relative displacements.
Finally the -complete set of thermal stresses SECOND, the redundant cuts are restored to
were (still for the case Lak2 = 1) zero displacement by the application of redund-
ant forces (this problem was solved in Art.
A8.13). The q, are given by eq. (36); they pro-
4.079
2.039 L duce additional deflections at pOintS m
1.938
3.008 L
.8562
3.437 L
.2413
3.558 L The total deflection of point m is then

The result compares favorably with an {%T}= [%d{‘iT}+ pmd{qsT} ,

exact solution (NACA TN 2240) insofar as flange
stresses are concerned, an error of less than But
1 percent being present at the root. Shear
flow values in the sheet are less satisfactory
due to the (relatively) crude assumption of
constant shear in each beam quarter.
Therefore
A8.14 Thermal Deflections by Matrix Methods.

A. STATICALLY DETERMINATESTRUCTURES
The problem of the thermal deflections of
a statically determinate structure was con-
sidered earlier in Art. A7.8 in non-matrix
form. It should be apparent from the deriva-
tion, that the matrix method presented for the { ‘mT}= r%J (I”iT}’ rid{ 'JT}) - ; - (38)
calculation of redundant-cut thermal deflec-
tions may be applied equally well to the The matrix quantity in parentheses is the
problem of computing the thermal deflections of total strain (thermal plus “mechanical” ).
external points of a determinate structure. -Fsinite reasons the equation for
Thus thermal deflections has been left in the form of
eq. (38) rather than the more polished forms
{ST}= pm;7{AlT} - - - - - - - - - - (37) which might be obtained by substitution from eq.
(36), FIRST, the qjT, the thermal stresses, will
where omT is the thermal deflection of external probably have been solved for previously and will
be readily available in explicit form. SECOND,
and far more imnortant from a labor saving stand-
point m, and
cGmi1 is the transpose of
cGim1, point, the unit load distribution gim (whose
[ 1
the unit-applied load stress distribution
(compare with eq. 35). transpose is used in eq. 38) may --- be any conven-
ient stress distribution satisfying stat=
B. REDUNDANTSTRUCTURES thesmt 0-f “cut” structures. One Gt
In the case of the redundant structure, Gn use the same~iml distribution (and same
L 1
additional strains are present due to the
thermal stresses set up; the effect of these choice of “cuts”) as employed in the redundant
strains upon the deflection of external points thermal stress calculation; a more convenient
must be included in the calculation. choice of cuts may be employed! In principle,
The appropriate equation is most easily any stress distribution statically equivalent to
derived by visualizing the action in two tkie
-- unit applied load(s) may be used for
stages. FIRST, the redundant structure is in eq. (38).
-- - (See- p* A8.9).
-
A8.40 STATICALLY INDE?

Example Problem 22
Compute the rotation occurring at the rlght
hand end of the beam of Fig. A8.43.

Solution:
tjT = - .289 a L 6 To
To compute the rotation a unit couple was h
applied (pos!tlve counterclockwlse) at the right
hand end. An additional generalized force, it is apparent that the values of the re-
called q,, also was added at that point. Then, dundant moments qX, qa could have been chosen
arbitrarily in above, without affecting

the result. Here, clearly,

structure visualized will lead to the same re-

and, using some results from Example Prob. 19, sult, q, belng equal to unity in all cases.

Example Problem 23
Compute the axial movement of the free end
of the central stringer of the panel of Fig.
A8.44.
1 = 1, 2, 5
so .ution
Note that q5 and qr, the intermediate support
re:actions, were omitted from consideration, An additional generalized force, qlo, was
They do not enter lnto any expression for the added axially to the free end of the central
internal virtual work of the structure; or, stringer (ref. Fig. A8.44b). Then
equally, they are not used to describe the
strs?n energy of the structure. Hence they are
not included in lwrltlng the total strain.
(Their A are zero.)
iT
The member flexlbillty coeff lclent matrix

= 1, 2, 5

From Example Problem 19, the true thermal

stress distribution was

i = 1, 2, 5

(q, was zero by Inspection)

To determine
1 1
glm , a unit couple qs = 1
Using the qjT as obtained in Example Problem 20
was applied. Taking as the
“cut” structure one
where 91 = 9a = 0 :cne has simply (with 910 g 0), the following product was
formed:

cHIglm

Then substituting
= :1 ;

Into
Lr,,J=LO

eq. (38),
0 1-l

pld {qjT} =
<
- 10.87
- 13.26
- 6.660
10.87
13.26
6.66 xaT
-152.2
- 4.06
0.00
2.162
 A8.41

Then, substituting Into eq. (38)) a unit load q10 = 1 gives (writing the transpose
Of
gim 1
%p = aT 29.13 { 1
26.74
13.34 L% J = L- 50 .50 .50 0 0 0 .025 0 0 1
-I
10.87
13.26
6.66 Then multiplying out for the thermal deflectlon:
-152.2 &T = 33.0 a T (same answer).
- 4.06 It is apparent from the above result that
0.00 the simplest determinate (“cut”) structure should
2.16;

It remained to find the determinate stress dis-

be used to compute
adequate. [ 1
gim ; it is completely

tribution for ql,, = 1. CLOSURE

As the determinate distribution gim , the
{ 1 The general thermal stress problem is
stresses due to a unit load ql, = 1 were com- complicated by the fact that the material prop-
puted in the “cut” structure obtained when ertles E, G and a vary with temperature. The
q1 = q* = q3 = 0. (Note that this Is a differ- problem created thereby Is prlmarlly one of book-
ent choice of redundant cuts from that employed keeplng - computing the member flexibility coeffi-
in computing the thermal stresses in Example cients (a ) and the member thermal dlstortions
Problem 20.) Thus (A,,) for’: structure whose properties vary from
point to point with the temperature. The varl-
0 ations of E, G and a with T will, of course,
0 have to be known from test data.
0 Two additional complications, not considered
1 here, are the lowering of the yield point with

f I
c
‘lm =
1
1
0
heating
of developlng
(and the attendant

enon of “creep”
inelastic
increased likelihood
strains)
(the time-dependent
and the phenom-
development
0 of lnelastlc strains under steady loading).
0 Should it prove necessary to analyze for
1 thermal stresses under more than one temperature
dlstrlbutlon, the member thermal distortion
and finally,
matrix AiT may be generalized easily into a
{ 1
29.13 rectangular form such as
26,74
13.34
10.87
13.26
< 6.66
-152.2 where AIR Is the member thermal distortion as-
- 4.06 sociated wlth force q1 from thermal loading con-
0.00
dition H.

= 33.0aT
. 2.162 I
The matrix
[ofCIJthe1ofconstant
member thermal

(ANSWER) coefficients consists coefflclents

in the AiT expressions previously presented, while
As a matter of interest, a different unit
stress dlstrlbutlon was employed with a differ- would be the temperature associated with q
*JR J
ent choice of “cuts’. If the forces q,, qe and for condition R. (compare wlth eq. (26b),
qe are set equal to zero (“cut”), application 01 Art. A7.11).
A8.42 STATICALLY IJYDETE

A8.15 Problems. (5) For the “King post” truss in Fig. e,

Note: Problems (1) through (9) below may calculate the load In member BD. Members AB,
be worked by either the Least Work or Dummy Unit BCandBD have area of 2 sq. in. each. The con-
Load Methods. The student will be well advised tinuous member ADC has an area of 9.25 sq. in.
to try some problems both ways for comparison. and moment of inertla of 216 in’. E is same for
all members.

Fig. a Fig. b
(1) Determlne the load in all the members Fig. g
of the loaded truss shown in Fig. (a). Values
in ( ) on members represent the cross-sectional 500#
area in sq. in. for that member. All members
0r same material. (6) In Fig. f, AB Is a steel wire 0.50 sq.
(2) For the structure in Fig. (b), deter- in. area. The steel angle frame CBD has a 4 in.
mine the load In each member for a 700# load at
sq, cross section. Determine the load in member
joint B. Areas of members are given by the AB. E = 30,000,OOO psi.
values In ( ) on each member. All members made (7) In Fig. g find the loads in the two tle
of same material. rods BD and CE. Iac = 72 in.’ * A
in. Ace = 0.15 sq. in. E is &m\dfk-oa~ sq’
members.

‘C
3 D T-
4
20’
E
Fig. c
A
(3) For the loaded truss in Fig. c, deter- 15’ 15’
s
mine the axial load in- all members, Values in 50,000#
parenthesls adjacent to members represent rela-
tive areas. E is constant for all members.
Fig. h

(8) For the structure in Fig. h, determine

the reactions at pOlntS A, B. Members CE and ED
are steel tie rods with areas of 1 sq. In. each.
Member AB is a wood beam with 12” x 12” cross
section. Esteel = 30,000,000 PSI- hood =
1,300.000 Psi.
(9) For the structure In Fig. 1, determine
the axlal loads, bending moments and shears in
the various members. The structure is contlnu-
ous at joint D. Members AB, BC are wires. The
member areas are AB = 1.2, Bc = 0.6; CD = 6.0;
(4) For structure in Fig. d, calculate the BDE = 10.0. The moment of Inertia for members
axial loads in all the members. Values in paren- CD = 60.0 In.‘; for BDE = 140 in.’
thesis adjacent to each member represent relative
areas. E 1s con&ant or same for all members. (10) Re-solve Example Problem 10, p. A8.15
50008 using as redundants the two restraints at one end
(couple and transverse force). Solved in this
way the problem is doubly redundant as no ad-
vantage Is made of the Symmetry of the St~UCtUre.
(11) Add two addltional members, diagonals
FB and EC (each with areas 1.0 in”) to the truss
Fig. of Fig. A7.85, chapter A-7. Find the matrix of
 A8.43

influence coefficients. problems of Art. A8.8 by writing

Am. [ars] {%} = -Em] { pn} - [gr;] { A,)

r 21.8
27.2
27.2
68.5
27.5
65.4
18.3
26.4
1 where Al is the initial
with force ql.
imperfection associated
Refer to the argument leading
27.5 65.4 68.4 26.2 to eq. (11) of Art. A8.8.

L 18.3 26.4 26.2 20.6

-I above,
(16) Using the equation
re-solve
of problem (15),
Example Problem 6, p. A8.14.

(12) Re-solve the doubly redundant beam (17) Using the equation of problem (15)
of Example Problem B, page A8.3 by matrix above, re-solve Example: Problem 7, p. A8.14.
methods. The redundant reactions should be
given “q” symbols. (See Example Problem 13a, (18) Uslng the matrix methods of Art.
page A8.20). A8.13, re-solve Example Problem 9, p. A8.15.

(13) Re-solve Example Problem 5, page (19) For the doubly symmetric four flange
A8.12 by matrix methods. For simplicity, make box beam of Example Problem 1.5, p. A8.24, de-
your choice of generalized forces including termine the redundant stresses qe, q7 and q18 if
those designated as X and Y in the example so one flange Is heated to a temperature T, unlf or-m
that Figs. A8.21 and A8.22 can be used to give spanwise, above the remainder of the structure.
the gir loadings,
Ans .
(14) By matrix methods x-e-solve Example
Problem 4, p. A8.12 using 3 equal bay divisions
along the panel (3 times redundant). Use the
same structural dimensions as in Example Prob-
lem 20, p. A8.36. Compare the results with
those obtalned from the formulas developed In
Example Problem 4.

(15) Show that the matrix equation REFERENCES

.
eq. (21) is modified to cover the initial stress
See references at the end of Chapter A-7.

Douglas DC-8 airplane. Photograph showing simulated aerodynamic load being applied to
main entrance door of fuselage test section.
A8.44

PROOF TEST OF DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT MODEL DC-6

DOUGI.AS DC-8 AIRPLANE. An outboard engine pylon mounted on a section of wing for static and flutter
tests. The stcvl ~)OX represents tht’ weight and moment of inertia nf the engine.
 CHAPTEK A9
BENDING MOMENTS IN FRAMES AND RINGS
BY
ELASTIC CENTER METHOD

Assumptions
A9.1 Introduction
In the derivations which follow the distor-
In observing the Inside of an airplane tions due to axial and shear forces are neglect-
fuselage or seaplane hull one sees a large num- ed. In general these distortions are Small
ber of structural rings or closed frames. Some compared to frame bending distortions and thus
appear quite light and are essentially used to the error is small.
maintain the shape of the body metal shell and
to provide stabilizing supports for the longi- In computing distortions plane sections are
tudinal shell stringers. At points where large assumed to remain plane after bendinr. This is
1 oad concentrat i’ons are transferred between hod: not strictly t:,uc !‘,:(‘R~JY~ti;e Turvature 0:‘ the
and tail, wing power plant, landin: Fear, etc., frame char ‘es this li;:ca!, di?trihution of' bend-
relatively heavy frames ~111 be observed. In irijr str,eszes on :j fr97i2 cr,oss-section. (‘:orri:o-
hull construction, the bottom structural fram- tions i'Or cur-v!tule ir,fluerlcc r;re given in
ins trrtrisfers the water pressure in landinr; to Chapter ;a13.
the bottom portion of the hull frames which in
turn transfers the load to the hull shall. Furthermore it i:: assumed th:it stress is
proportioml to strain. Since the airplane
In genei% the frame3 :are of such shape stress analyst must c’::lcillat.e the ultimate
ani the load distribution of such character strength oi’ n 1‘rame, this e?s,:mrtion obviously
that these frames or’ rings undergo bonding does not i~olti wi ti. heavy frame:; where the rup-
forces in transferring the applied lo:ids to the turini: stresses for the f’ramo ar’e above the pro-
other resisting portions of the airplane body. portional limit of the frame m:!terial.
These bending forces produce frame stresses in
general which are of m:ajor importance in the This ch.ipter will Ical i!r;ly with the the-
strength proportioning of the frame, and thus oretical analysis for ben-!ln?- nna;?nts in frames
a reasonable close approximation of such bend- and ring:: by the elastic center method. Prsc-
ing forces is necessary. tical questions of body frame design are covered
in a later chapter.
Such frames are statically indeterminate
relative to internal resisting stress and thus The fol1owin-J: photo:;rapkl:‘ 0:’ ‘: nrtl?n of
consideration must be given to section and the structural framinr.. of the hull of a sea-
physical properties to obtain a solution of the plane illustrate both li;.:ht ~1 1 i,sa.:y frames.
distribution of the internal resisting forces.

General Methods of Analysis:

There are many methods of applying the

principles of continuity to obtaln the solution
for the redundant forces in closed rings or
frames and bents. The author prefers the one
which is generally referred to as the “Zl,?st ic
;:ellteI.” method and his used it for many years II
ro:ltine airplane design. The :r;ethod was orisi-
nsted by Muller-BreslauO. The main differencn2 v
in this method as compared to most other method:
of solution is that the redundant forces are as.
sum+~ acting at a special :‘oint called the ela?.
tic center of thj? frame Nhich p;ivei r,csultint-
eqi;Lltions for the retlun?,int:; which are inti -
ponder,t of e’:c:1 other.

G’Muller-Breslau, H. , Die Neueren Hethden der

Festigkeitslehre und der Statik der Baukon-
struktionen. Leipzig, 1686.

A9.1
A9. 2 BENDING MOMENTS I FRAMES AND RINGS

Consider a small element ds of the Curved

beam as shown in Firr. A9.2. Let MS equal the
bendlng moment on this small element due to the
given external load system. The total ber,tiing
moment on the element ds thus equals,

M = M, + MA - XAy + YAx - - - - - - - -(l)

(Moments which cause tension on the inside

fibers of the frame are regctrded as posl-
tive moments. )

The following deflection equations lOr

point (A) mu:;t equal zero:-

8 = 0. (angular rotation of (A) = zero)

A, = 0. (movement of (A) in x direction 3 0)
A9. 2 Derivation of Equations. Unsymmetrical Frame. Ay = 0. (nir,vement of (A) in y direction = 6)

Fig. $.!I.1 ShoWS an unsymmetric-tl CU!‘Vgd From Chapter A7, which dealt with defiection
beam fixed Ltt ends (A) and (B) and carrying theory, we have the following equations for the
some external loading P,, P,, etc. This movement of point (A) : -
structure is statically indeterminate to the
third degree because the reactions at (A) and Q%@$ _-- ____ -__-_-
(B) hive three Luiknown elements, na~1”l,y, maqni- -(2)
tude, dlrection and line of action, making a
total of SIX unknowns with only three equations ~,+?+-~-~--~---- -(3)
of static equilibrium a~railai~le.
Mmds
AY=ZEI-----.-.----- - -(4)
P*
In equation (2) the term m is the bending
moment on a element ds due to a unit moment
applied at point (A) (See Fig. A9.3). The bend-
ing moment is thus
equal one or unity
for all ds elements 4
w.
of frame. umt moment
Fig. AQ. 3
Y Then substi-
/ ,’ JdSL ,’ B tuting in equatlon (2) and using value of M from
equation 1) we obtain -

l.ds l.yds l.xdd c. _ rj

+ M/,JEI - XAzr + YA&-- -
EI

Fig. A9.2 whence,

In Fig. A9.2 the reaction at (A) has been

replaced by its 3 components, namely, the forces
XA and YA and the moment MA and the structure In equation (3) the term m represents the
Is now treated as a cantilever beam fixed at bending moment on a element ds due to a unit
end (B) and carrying the redundant loads at (A ) load applied at point (A) and acting in the x
direction, as illustrated in Fig. A9.4.
and the known external loading P,, P,, etc.
Because joint (A) is actually fixed it does not
suffer translation or rotation when structure The applied unit Y,
load has a positive
is loaded, thus the move:nent of end (A) under
sign as it has been
the loading system of Fig. A9.2 must be zero. nsswncd acting toward lyA- :&l+
Therefore, three equations of fact can be the right. The L B
written stating that the horizontal, vertical distance y to the ds ,:
and angular defle::tion of point (A) must aqua1 elemcrit is a plus Fig. A9.4
zero. distance as it Is
 A9.3

measured upward from axis x-x through (A). place of XA, YA and MA respectively.
However the bending moment on the ds element
shown Is negative (tension in top fibers), thus The axes x and y through the point (0) arc
the value of m = - (1) y = -y. The minus sign centroldal axes for the values ds/EI of the
is necessary to give the correct bending moment structure. This fact means that the summations-
sign.
r,yds= 0 xds
and zm=o
Substituting in Equation (3) and using M EI
from Equation (l):-
The expres:: ions B x’ds/EI, Z y2ds/EI and
--
xyds - o--( 6 Z xyds/EI also appear in equations 6 and 7.
Ax = ‘A’ EI These terms will be referred to as elastic
moments of inertia and product of inertia of
In equation (4) the term m represents the the frame about y and x axes through the elastic
bending moment on a element ds due to a unit center of the frame, and for simplicity will be
load at point (A) acting in Y direction as given the following symbcls.
illustrated in Fig. A9.5. Hence, m 1 l(x) = x
Substituting in x*ds z Y’ds - -wds --
equation (4) and CT=1 Y ’ I, 9 = EI IXY
EI
using M from
x- +<x-+----y
equation (l), we Equations 5, 6 and 7 will now be rewritten
obtain, 1# using the redundant forces at point (0).
Fig. A9. 5

xyds
+MZds-0
o EI-
Ay = z”e + MA,$$- - XAZT +
hence,
yAg&2=o--------------(7)

Equations 5, 6, 7 can now be used to solve MO = - - (8)

for the redundant forces MA, XA and YA. With ds ----------
these values known the true bendlng moment at %I
any point on structure follows from equation
(1). A, = -~!!g + x,1, - Y I - (9)
OXYro --
REFERRING REDUNDANTSTO ELASTIC CENTER
The term M,.Z yds/EI is zero since ,Z yds/EI
For the purpose of simplifying equations is zero, thus MO drops out when substituting in
5 , 6, 771 let it be assumed that end A is Equation (6).
attached to a inelastic arm terminating at a
point (0) as illustrated in Fig. A9.6. The Ay = v - XoIxy + YoIy = 0 - - - -(lo)
point (0) coincides with the centroid of the
ds/EI v:iluas for the structure. Reference
axes x and y will now be taken wlth point (0) The term M,ds/EI represents the angle
as the origin. The redundant reactions will change between the end faces of the ds element
now be placed at point (0) the end of the when acted upon by a constant static moment Ms.
This angle change which actually is equal In
Y value to the area of the MS/E1 diagram on the
element ds will be given the symbol @,, that is,
@, = M,ds/EI. With this symbol substitution,

GFy . . equations
follows:-
8, 9, 10 can now be rewritten

MO = -&&
as

- - _ _ _ - - - - - - -(II)

inelastic bracket, as shown In Fig. A9.6. -2 @,y + XoIx - YoIxy = 0 - - - - - -(12)

Since point A suffers no movement in the actual = 0 - - - _ _ _ -(13)
structure, then we can say that point (0) must z Bsx - X,I,y + Y,Iy
undergo no movement since (0) is connected to
Solving equations (12) and (13) for the
point (A) by a rigid arm. redundant forces X0 and Y, we obtain,
Thus equations 5, 6, and 7 can be re-
written using the redundants X0, Y,, and MO in
A9.4 BENDING MOMENTS IN FRAMES AND RINGS
I
Table AS. 1
.m,Y - m,x y
x, = c > _ - - - - - -(14)

Ix (1 - +$’

- [%” - %J (9J-j / AB /p=lO( 15 / -12 /-120~+150/ix$O;3 -7501iyz&3; o /

Y, = Iy (1 -I&) - - - - - -(15) I I ! I I I I I I
wy2=lO8OO wx2=0
A9. 3 Equations for Structure with Symmetry About One Axis BC 9.12 30 0 0 360 ‘X=x23-24 - 0 iy=m- 243 -576
through Elastic Center.
wy2=2250 ~~2-1440
CD *=lO 15
If the structure is such that either the x 3 12 120 150 ix= 750
or y axls through the elastic center 4s a aXiS
of symmetry than the product of inertia Sum 32 0 660 16800 3456
Zxyds/EI = I,y q zero. Thus making the term
IXY = 0 in equations 11, 14 and 15 we obtain,

MO q -z illj __----- - - - - - -(16)

Cds/EI

The terms Ix and i are the elastic moment

x = __
%Y - - -
0
__-__----- -Cl?) of inertia of each port T on of the frame about
Ix Its centroidal x and y axes. Since I is con-
stant over each portion the centroidal moment
y, z-y _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ - - -(18) of Inertia of each portion is identical to that
of a rectangle about its centroidal axis.
A9.4 Example Problem Solutions. Structures with at least
One Axis of Symmetry. To explain for member AB:-

Referrlng to Flg. a,
Example Problem 1
10 lb.
Fig. AY.7
shows a rectang- B
ular frame with
Referring to Fig. b, AuL
fixed supports Fig. a
at points A and
D, and carrying --x lY = +Sbh’ = & x 30 x+ = .09 (negligible)
a single load as
shown. The
The distance from the
problem is to de- I- 3 I- 3
two reference axes to the
terY1?Ine
‘‘ the bena-
elastic center can now be
ing moment dla-
calculated:-
graze under thls
loading. YL&--JY --- D ,
’ I? y = z = s = 20.625 In.
The first Fig. A9.7
step In the
solution is to x zwx 0
=-%=32=o Fig. b
find the location of the elastic center of the
frame and the elastic moments of inertia Ix Having the moment of Inertia about axis xsxL we
and Iy. can now find its value about the centroidal
axis xx of the frame, by use of the parallel
Due to symmetry of the structure about the axis theorem.
Y axis the centroidal Y axis is located midway
bettieen the sides of the frame, and thus the Ix = Ix - zw(p) = 16800 - 32 x 20.625’= 3188
elastic center (0) lies on this axis.
Iy = Iy - Zw(?) = 3456 - 32(o) = 34-56
Table A9.1 shows some of the necessary
calculations to determine the location of the The problem now consi5ts In solving equa-
elastic center and the elastic moments Of tions (16), (17) and (18) for the redundants at
inertia. The reference axes used are xl-x’ the elastic center, namely
and y-y.
 A9.5

Area of static M/I diagram along the neutral axis of the fr:i.me moinbers.
Mo =a=
Total elastic weight of structure
In Flq. A9.10 the area of the M,/I diagram
Moment of static M/I diagram about equals fls = 22.5 x 2,1/% = 2’70. ‘I’i-,e centroid by
x0 q zid,y= Elastic x axis simple calculations of’ thi:: Lrlanr’le Would fall
IX moment of inertia about x 10 inches from B. Fig. A9.11 now sho’fls the
axis frame with its MS/I or its @s load. @, IS
OS= positive s;r.ce MS IS
Moment of static M/I diagram about positive. The next
-s&x = y axis ster! is to solve the
yo - Elastic moment of inertia about y equations for the
IY
axis redundant at the
2o+e25~~elastic center. The
Thus to solve these three equations we signs of the distances
must 3~sume a static frame condition consistent A x and y from the axes
with the given frame and loading. In general x and y 3re conven-
there lire a number of static conditions that can Fig. A9. 11 tional.
be c:hr?zen. For example in this problem we
might select one of the statically determinate Thus,
conditions illustrated in Fig. A9.8 cases 1 to
3. - (270)
MO=-*=
in 55 lO# 32 (from Table A9.1 = -8.437 in.lb.

r’u?.i,“-(1
Case 1 Case 2 Case

Fig. A9. a
Case 4
x0

y
0
= T;pl,y =

--Z$zg
IY
Ix
27OC9.375)

3456
3188

- --(270)(-2)

Fig. AS.12 shows these values of the re-

dundants acting at the elastic center.
=

=
o 70’3g
.

0.1562
c
Ib

lb.
.

To illustrate the use of different Static 28. ia

conditions, three solutions will be presented
with each using a different static condition.

Solution No. 1

In this solution we will use Case 3 as the

static frame condition. The bending moment on
the frame for this static frame condition is
given in Fig. A9.9. The equations

Bf%i diagry,T$/I diagram

Fig. A9.12 Fig. AY. 13

The bending moments due to these redundant

A !Fr’:g.~. 1 1 ,“,“iEZdZKhEsion forces will now be calculated.

MA = - 8.437 - .1562 x 12 f .7939 x 20.625 =

7. 5# t 2.5# Fig. AS. 10 6.06 in.lb.
MB = - 8.437 - .7939 x 9.375 - .1562 x 12 =
for the redundants require @isthe area of the -17.75 in.lb.
MS/I diagram. Fig. A9.10 shows the MS/I curve
which is obtained by dividing the values in MC=- 8.437 - .7939 x 9.375 + .1562 x 12 q
Fig. A9.9 by the term 2 which is the moment of -14.00 in.lb.
inertia of member BC as given in the problem.
Since the equations for X0 and Y, require the MD = - 8.437 + .7939 x 20.625 + .1562 x 12 q
moment of the MS/I diagram as a load about 9.81 in.lb.
axes through the elastic center of frame, the
area of the MS/I diagram will be concentrated These resulting values are plotted on Flg.
at the centroid of the diagram and along the A9.12 to give the bending moment diagram due to
centerline of the frame, or more accurately the redundant forces at the elastic center.
A9.6 BENDING MOMENTS I N FRAMES AND RINGS
-I---

Adding this bendin:: mmncnt diagram to the Static y. _ -2f;x _ -c-a (-10)-405x6-300( -12)-900x12] -
bending diagram of Fig. A.9.9 we obtain the final 34-56
bending moment dia,?;ram of Fig. A9.13.
-(-9180) q 2 656 lb
=
The final ben,iing moments could also be 3456 * ’
obtained by substituting directly in equation
(1) using subscript (0) instead of (A). Thus, The final moments at any point can now be
found by equation (19).
M = MS + MO - Xoy + Y,x - - - - - - -( 19)
Consider point Bz-
For example, determine bendinK moment at
point B. MS = -30 from Fig. kg.14
x = -12, y = 9.375
For point B, x = -1” and y = 9.375, Ms = 0
substituting in (19)
Subt. in (19)
MB = 0 + (-8.437) - .7939 X 9.375 + MB = -30+51.56-.7939x9.375+2.656(-12)
.1562 (-12) = -17.75 as previously
found = -17.75 In.lb. which checks first
solution.
AT POINT D. x q 12, y = -20.625, M, = 0.
Consider point D:-
MD q 0 + (-8.437) - .7939 (-20.625) +
.1562 x 12 = 9.81 in.lb. Ms = -90, x = 12, y = -20.625

Subt. in (19)
Solution No. 2
MD = -90+51.56 - 7939(-20.625) + 2.656 x 12
In Lhis solution we will use Case 4 (See = 9.80 in.lb.
Fig. A9.8) as the assumed static condition,
that is two cantilever beams with half the
Solution No. 3
external load or 5 lb. acting on each canti-
lever. Fig. A9.14 shows the static bending
In this solution we will use Case 5
moment diagram and Fig. A9.15 the M,/I diagram.
(Fig. A9.8) as the assumed static condition,
namely a frame with 3 hinges at points A, D and
E, as illustrated in Fig. A9.16.
T Before the
9.3
I bendlng moment dia-
gram can be calcu-
lated the reactions
at A and D are
necessary.

TO find VD
take moments about
30 -30 point A.
Fig. A9. 15

Fig. A9.15 also shows the results of mh = 10x6 - 24VD

= 0
calculating the 6, value for each port ion of
the M,/I diagram and Its centrold location.
hence, VD = 2.5
Substituting in the equations for the re-
dundants we obtain,
To find VA take ZFy = o = -10 + 2.5 + VA
= o hence VA q 7.5.
- (-45-405-300-900) = 51 56 in lb
MO =a= . . .
32
To find HD take moments about hinge at E Of
all forces on frame to right side of E and
_ Z&y _ (-4%405)9.375;;+;00-300)(-5.625) equate to zero.
x0
IX
ZME = -2.5 x 12 + 30H~= 0, hence HD q 1.
= 0.7939 lb.
Then using ZFx = o for entire frame, we Obtain
ZFx = -1 + HA = o, hence HA = 1.
 A9.7

The frame static bending moment dia;:rs?i axes through the frame elastic center are then
can now be calculated and dram as shown in calculated as -12 and G.625 inches rL:,;,ect-
Pig. A9.17. ively.

-30 .30 - MS - - t-3901 = 12 19 In

-30 (2) -30 Mo=xagT- 32 * * lb.
3 (4) Pin

t\
IB Y
x0 - -z&Y - -53 - -0.203 lb.
9.375 (6) IX 3188
150

/ y 0 = -%3x
IY = - 3456
C-540) = 0 ’ 1562 lb .

The final moments -t :Lny point can now be

found by use of equation (19), namely

M= M,+M,-X,y+ Y,x -------( 19)

Consider point B:-
1
x q -12, y = 9.375, MS = -30

Substituting -
Pin
MB = -30+12.19-(-0.203)9.375+0.1562(-12)
= -17.76 in.lb.(checks previous solu-
tions)

The moment diagram is labeled in 6 parts Consider point D:-

1 to 6 as indicated by the values in the small
circles on each portion. Most of the calcu- X = 12, y = -20.625, MS = o
lations from this point onward can be done
Tonveniently in table form as illustrated in Subt. in (19)
Table A9.2.
Table A9. 2 MD = C+12.19-(-0.203)(-20.625)+0.1562x12
= 9.82 in.lb. (checks previous solu-
tions)

The final complete bending moment diagram

would of course be the same as drawn in Fig.
A9.13 for the results of Solution No. 1.

Example Problem 2.

Fig. A9.18 shows a rectangular closed

frame supported at points A and B and carrying
the external loads as shown. The reaction at D
due to rollers is vertical. The frame at point
A is continuous through the joint but the
reaction is applied through a pin at the center
of the joint. The problem la to d&ermine the
bending moment diagram.

In order to take moments of the @s values

in column (4) of the table,
each portion

bending moment portions

the centroid of
of the diagram must be determined.
For example,. the Tentroid of the two triangular
marked 1 and 6 is
,667 x 30 from the lower end or 20 inches as
shown in Fig. A9.17. Thus the distances x
:2~~~~~~
:20#

I T
12’
L-24

1=3-
T-9
t
67”
1’

’ E. C.
L=!iO

-I 240”
Fig. A9. 18 Fig. A9.18
A9. 18
and y from this (21, location to the y and x MS diagram for load Pl
A9.8 RENDING MOMENTS IN FRAMES AND RINGS

The next step is to choose i: st,itic frJ.ne

condition and determine the static (Ms) bending
moment diagram. In this solution the frame is
assumed cut on moabcr AB jut ribo‘:e ,-oint A 3s
Illustrated in Figs. Alr.18, 19 and 20. For
simnlicity the static moment czvc has been
drawn in three parts, with each ?art consider-
ing only one of the three external riven loads
on the structure. Figs. k9.18, 19, 20 show
these resulting bending moment curws. The
portions of these bending moment di:~~ra:~s
Fig. AS. 19 Fig. AS. 20 numbered 1 to 10 are shown in the :,srenthesis
MS diagram for w loading M, diagram for P2 load. on each portion.

The next step in the solution con?ists of

Solution: finding the a, --a
k of the Ms/I tiiqrams and the
first moment of these dla?rams abou: the x and
The first step is to find the location of y axes throu;l;h the elastic center. These simp le
the elastic center of the frame. Due to calculations can best be done in table form as
symmetry of frame about the y axis, the elastic illustrated in Table A9.3.
center will be on a y axis through the middle
Table AS. 3
of the frame. The vertical distance 7
measured from a axis through AD equals,

Y’ _ ==
38.5
= 9.67”

The next step is to determine the elastic

moment of inertia of the frame about x and y
axes through the elastic center of the frame.

Moment of inertia about x axis = I, :-

Members AB and DC,

I, = ~x+x14.333” > 2 = 653.9

i

(+x+x 9.673 1 2 = 200.9

Member BC and AD I I I I I I I

= Sum -77100 -747225 - 4645

Ix = (30/4)(14.X3*) 1540.0
(30/Z) (9.678) = 1402.7
Solving for the redundants at the elastic
Ix = 3797.5 center,

Moment of inertia about y axis = Iy :-

MO = & = -‘,~~~““’ = 2018 in.lb.
Members AD and BC,
x - z%3y - =T%?& = -1 - 2.2 lb -
= 0 IX 3797
IY = & x $ x 3oa 563
= -cpl,x _ -(-74-W%) = 141 28 lb
+2 x $ x 30= 1126 Y, = IY 5289 . .

Members AB, CD, Fig. A9.21 shows these redundant forces

acting at the elastic center. Fig. A9.22
= shows the bending moment diagram due to these
3600 redundant forces . The calculations with refer-
ence to Fig. A9.21 are -
Iy = 5289
 Total elastic welght of ring q

+=n= 113 . 1
I 1

The elastic moment of inertia about x and y

axes through center point of ring are the same
for each axis and equal

I, = Iy = nr a = n x 18” = 15300
Fig. A9. 21
The next step In the solution Is to assume
a static ring condition and determine the static
MA = 2018 - 141.28 x 15 - 1.22 x 9.67 = -113 (MS) diagram. In general it is good practice
MS q 2018 - 141.28 x 15 + 1.22 x 14.33 = -84 to try and assume a static condition such that
the MS diagram Is symmetrical about one or if
Mc = 2018 + 141.28 x 15 + 1.22 x 14.33 = 4153 possible about both x and y axes through the
MD = 2018 + 141.28 X 15 - 1.22 X 9.67 q 4124 elastic center, thus making one or both of the
redundants X0 and Yo zero and thus reducing
Combining the bending moment diagrams of considerably the amount of numerical calcula-
Figs. A9, 18, 19, 20 with Fig. A9.22 would tion for the solution of the problem.
give the true or final bending moment dlagram.
In order to obtaln symmetry of the Ms
Example Problem 3. Circular Ring. diagram and also the MS/I diagram since I is
constant, the static condition as shown in
Fig. A9.23 shows a circular ring of Fig. A9.24 is assumed, namely, a pin at (e) and
constant cross-section subjected to a sym- rollers at (f). The static bending moment at
metrical loadlng as shown. The problem is to pgints (a), (b), (c) and (d) are the same
determine the bending moment diagram. magnitude and equal,

MS= 50(18 - 18 cos 4.50) = 265 ln.lb.

The sign is posltive because the bending moment

produces tension on the inside of the ring.

The next step is to determlne the Ids, Ib,x

and &y values.

& is the area of the Ms.1 dlagram, how-

ever since I is unity it is the area of the M,
diagram. The static MS diagram of Fig. A9.24
50 5'0# is divided into similar portions labeled (1)
Fig. A9.23 Fig. A9.24 and (2). Hence

@SW = area of portion (1) = Prs(u

where P q 50 lb. and a = 45O.
-sin a),

Substituting and multiplying by 4 since there

are four portions labeled (l).,

@S(l) = 4[50 x 18.-(0.785 - 0.707)] = 5052

The area of portion labeled (2) equals,

yFag&
Prae(l - cos a).
Moments due to redundant
forces. Fig. A9.26 Since there are two areas (2) we obtain,

Solution. Due to symmetry of the ring &(s )= 2[50 x 18’ x $- (l-0.707)] = 15000
structure the elastic center falls at the
Hence, total fls = 15000 + 5052 = 20052
center of the ring. Since the ring has been
assumed with constant cross-section, a relative
Since the centroid of the M, diagram due
value of one will be used for I.
to symmetry about both x and y axes coincides
A9.10 BENDING MOMENTS IN FRAMES AND RINGS
I
with the center or elastic center of the frame, Solution:
the terms Z&x and Z&y will be zero.
The first step is to determine the elastic
Substituting to determine the value of the center of the frame and the elastic moments of
redundants at the elastic center we obtain, inertia. Table A9.4 shows the calculations. A
reference axis xl-x’ has been selected at the
M, =?!!!&I = - (zoo52) = _ 17'7 fn.lb. midpoint of the side AB. Since a static frame
113.1 condition has been selected to make the MS
diagram symmetrical about y axes through the
- Z&Y q 20052(O) = o elastic center (see Fig, A9.28), it Is not
X0 18300 necessary to determine Iy since the redundant
Ix
Y, will be zero due to this syrmmetry.
- -z&x - -(20052)(0) = o
yo IY 18300 Table A9.4

Fig. A9.25 shows the values acting at the

elastic center and the bendIng moment diagram
produced by these forces. Adding the bending
moment diagram of Fig. A9.25 which is a constant
value over entire frame of -177 to the static
moment diagram of Fig. A9.24 gives the final
bending moment diagram as shown In Fig;. A9.26.

Example Problem 4. Hull Frame

Fig. A9.27 shows a closed frame subjected

to the loads as shown. The problem is t0 CA’ 38.4 2.0 19.2 -42 -806922t 33850 = 34772
determine the bending moment diagram.
Totals 221.2 1468 262140

In the last column of Table A9.4 the term

ix Is the moment of inertia of a particular
member about its own centroidal x axis. Thus
for member BDB;
D

static moment qzl$ -1, = Ly = .3 x 303/l-5 = 5400

For members AC and CA ,

Fig. A9?27 Fig. AS. 28

Ezz$sfz Let 7 = distance from X’X’ ref. axis to

centroldal elastic axis X-X.

=1468a 6.64 in.

221.2

By parallel axis theorem,

Ix = I,7 - 6.64'(Cw)
I 262140 - 6.64=(221.2) = 252400

The next step in the solution is to com-

pute the static moment elastic welghts & and
Fig. A9.29 their centrold locatlons. In Fig. A9.28, the
Fig. AS. 30 -- static frame condition assumed Is a p1n at POint
1 A and rollers at point A’, which gives the
 A9.11

general shape of static moment curve as shown 38.4

in the figure. l/e (4690 x 100 x')xdx
f= / 0
Consider member BDB' , 78400

The bending moment curve will be con-

1 = 38.4
sidered in two parts, namely (1) and (2). The = l/2 -- 1004 x4 21.77”
term 0s represents the area of the Ms/I
diagram. 0
78400
Thus for portion (1) and (1')
Vertical distance from line AA' to centroid =

=;!
@s(,) + flS(l, ) = Zy(aC
- sin a)
1 21.77 x 24/38.4 = 13.6". The static moment
weight for A'C' is same as for AC, thus
6000
C 1.5
x 30’
(0.524 - 0.5)
1 q 172800
@AC + &'C' = 2 x 784000 = 1568000
The vertical distance from the line BB' to
centrold of MS curve for portion (1) and (1') Fig. A9.29 shows the frame with the moment
IS, weights .& located at the centrolds, together
with the redundant forces MO and X0 at the elas-
tic center. It makes no difference where the
r(l - cos a -y$ 30(1 - 0.867 _ +, frame is cut to form our residual cantilever,
Y= =
a - sin a 0.524 - 0.5 if one of the cut faces is attached to elastic
center and the other is considered fixed. With
= 10 in. the elastic properties and moment weights known
the redundants can be solved for:
For portion (2) of the MS diagram the area of
M,-za,=- (1007000+172800+156800) =
the MS/I diagram which equals @s is 0 ZZW 221.2
= 7Pr*e (1 - cos a)= 6000 ~1350’ x 2.1 0-o. 867 12430"#
%4 .
= 1,007,000
x0 = a&Y =
1xX
Consider member AC, =1007000x48.16 +172800x33.36 +156800x-5.24
252400
From free body diagram of bottom portion
= -98.5#
of frame (Fig. A9.312 the equation for bending
moment 6D0p,46go ,600O Yo Is zero because of the symmetrical frame
and loading. The final or true bending moment
at any point equals

M = MS + MO - X,y

Y Fig. A9.31, Thus for point B

on member AC equals: MB = 0 + (-12430) - (-98.5 x 23.36) =

-10130”#
MX = 4690 x -100 xB
For point C
Area of M/I curve between A and C when I = 2
equals, Q at Point C = 4690 x 38.4 - 2OOx(38.4)'/Z
38.4 = 32700
m (4690 x - 100 x*)1x
/ 0
Hence MC = 32700 - 12430 - (-98.5 x -60.64) =
14300"#
38.4
= 784000
Flg. A9.30 shows the general shape of the true
frame bending moment diagram.
0
Example Problem 5
Distance to centroid of M/I curve along line
AC from A. Fig. A9.31 shows the general details of one
A9.12 BENDING MOMENTS FRAMES AND RINGS

The moment of inertia of the frame

half of a symnctrical hull frame that was used
cross sections are given in column
In an actiial :;eaplnne. The main external load 2 of Table A9.6 which have been
on such frames is the water pressure on the hul- determined from a consideration
botton plating. The hull bottom stringers of the actual dimensions of the
transfer the bottom pressure as concentrations frame members.
on the frame bottom as shown. The resistance tc
this bottom upward load on the frame is providec
by the hull metal covering tihich exerts tangen-
tial loads on the frame contour. The question
as to the distribution of these resisting
forces is discussed in later chapters. In this
problem the resisting shear flow in the hull Elastic Xx AXIS
sheet has been assumed constant between the
chine Faint and the upper heavy longeron. For
a’;*!lysis purposes the frame has been divided
Into 20 strlps. The centroid of these strips X’ X’
locate3 on the neutral axis of the frame sec-
tlons are numbered 1 to 20 in Fig. A9.21. The 8
tangential skin resisting forces are shown as
concentrations on frame strips #6 to #IS. On
the figure these tangential loads have been Side member of frameA’ \I 5
replaced by their horizontal and vertical com-
ponents. The sum of the vertical components
shoul:i equal the vertical component of the
bottom water pressure.

Table A9.5 shows the complete calculations

for determining the bending moment on the frame
Col:;rnrs 1 to ‘7 give the calculations for the
elastic properties of the frame, namely the
elastic ,weir;ht of the frame; the elastic center
loc:?tior:, and the elastic centroidal moment of
inertia !lbout the horizontal centroidal elastic
axis. A reference horizontal axis X’X’ has
been selected as shown. All. distance recorded
Floor Line
in the table have been obtained by scalin:: from
a large drawing of the frame.

The static condition asswned for computing

Neutral Axis
the M, moments is a double symmetrical cantl-
lever beam as illustrated in Fig. A9.32. The
frame Is cut at the top to form the free end
of the cantilever beams, and the fixed end
hss been taken at the centerline bottom frame
section. The static bending moment diagram
will be symmetrical about the y axis through d
the elastic center of the frame and thus the Keel
redundsnt Y, at the elastic center will be
zero since the term Z&x will be zero. The
calculations for determining the static
moments MS in Column 8 of Table A9.5 are not
shcwn . The student should refer to Art. A5.9
of Chapter AS to refresh his thinkin<? relative
to bending moment calculations on curved beams.

Columns 9 and 10 give the calculations Of

the ids values (area of Ms/I diagram) and the
Bending Moment
first moment (@sx values). The summations of
columns 3, 9, 10 permits the SOlUtlOn for the
radundants MO and X0 as shown below the table.
‘I’
The flnal bending moment M at any point on the Fig. A9.33
frame is by simple statics equals, Fig. A9.32

M = MS + MO - X,y.
 A9. 13

Table A9. 5

Frame Elastic Properties Calculation of Moment Weights and Solution of Redundants

6 I 8 9 10 11 12 13

w y’2 Arm Static Moment OS Y MO -XoY *Total

to Moment Weight Moment
Axis OS = M
xx MS - MS w
=Y 1000

065 0
065 0
065 0
065 0
065 --A
25 93
25 637
25 2420
35 --- ---. - fTlf?ll
-488 47’ n
-543 611.1 IA”“1

-602 814 0 - 33100

~--720 1110.0 -52400-
.a 1455 0 - 77800
-959 1865.0 ~111300
___
-32 86.7 - 5570
-34 128. 3 - 8650
- 24 105 a IV.”
-
-
7AAn
I1.Y

- 13 .- , fj4.9 1 - 4680 ] ” 1 -70000 1 229600

- 9 ixl AF.clI-
7”. ” -
7?!ar,
YY””
I 31 I -?lAml I YZ9A?Kml
I “VV

811.48 1 t 7228 7315.0 -348106 E 251280

i = 7228/811.48 1 8.9” MO=&. _ (7315.71; l;oo) 5 -go20”#

7 ’w 8 ,
1% = 423237 - 811.48 x 8.92 = 358940
34810;5;;;oo
1 I -968#

*Total Moment M at any station 3 Ms + Mo - Xoy

240 lb
Columns 11 and 12 record the values of
Ho aIlL’; - Xoy for each station point. For
examle , the value of -Xoy for station (1)
equals - (-968 x 17.2) = 16650 and for station
(20) = - [-968(-X3.7)] = -71400. 6” y=5.242

Fig. A9.44 shoinis the shape of the final L-!-

moment c’urve as the result of the values in lE
collmn 13.

A9. 5 Unsymmetrical Structures. Example Problem Solutions. E03,-lY

Eua~.?le Problem 1
Fig. A9. 34

Fig. A9.34 shows an unsymmetrical frame

carrying the loads as shown. Determine the
bending moments at points A, B, C and D.
Solution:-

The elastic weight of frame = Zds/I =

(15/l) + (12/2) + 10/l = 31
A9. 14 BENDING MOMENTS IN FRAMES AND RINGS

The distance ? from the line AB to the Fig. A9.36 shows the centrold locations of
elastic center is, the !iis values along the center line of the
frame . The moment of these @, values about the
x = (15)Q +6X6+10x12 = 5.032 In.
x and y axes ~111 now be calculated.
31
z!a,x = (-2X60)(-3.032) + (-21600)(-5.032) +
The distance y from line BC to elastic (-4860)(-5.032) = 139700
center equals,
Z&Y = (-2160)(5.242) + (-21600)(-2.258) +
7' 15 x 7.5 + 6 x 0 + 10 x 5 = 5.242 In. (-4860)(-6.758) = 70290
31
The values of the redundants at the elastic
The elastic moments of Inertia I, and Iy center can now be calculated using equations
and the product of Inertia Ixy are required. (ll), (14), (15), namely

IX = w + (15)(2,z58)e + F(5.242)' + g M, di!& = - (-iye') = 923 in. lb.

+ (10)(0.242)= = 606.51

IY = (15) (5.032)2 +g&+g, (0.968y +

(10) (6.968)’ = 942.96

70290 - 139700 ($g$)
= q 68.46 lb.
Ixy = (15)(-5.032)( -2.258) + (+)(0.968)(5.242) 217:74'
606.51 (1 - (606.51)(942.96))

+ (10)(6.968)(0.242) = 217.74
- C 2&x - Z&Y (+=I]
The next step Is to assume some static Yo =
frame condition and draw the static bending Iy (1 -.+&)
moment diagram. Fig. A9.35 shows that the
frame has been assumed cut near point C which
gives two cantilever beams. The bendlng
moment diagram in three parts for this static = -
[r
139700 - 70290 (606 51
=-=)I
217.74
= -132.36 lb.
condition Is also shown on Flg. A9.35. 942.96 (1 -
(606.51)(942.96)

The bending moment at any point from eq.

(19) equals,

M - MS + MO - X,y + Yox, for example,

Consider point A.

x = -5.032, y = -9.758, MS = -2520

MA = -2520 + 923 - 68.46 (-9.758) +

(-132.36)(-5.032) = -263 in. lb.
Fig. A9.35 Fig. A9. 36 Polnt B. x = -5.032, y = 5.242, MS = -1440
The @s values which equal the area of
MB = -1440 + 923 - 68.46 x 5.242 + (-132.36)
the MS diagram divided by the I values of the (-5.032) q - 209 In. lb.
particular portion will be calculated.
1 Point C. x = 6.968, y = 5.242, MS q 0
@S, = 3(-1440)/2 = -2160

erSZ -1440 x 15 = -21600 MC = 0 + 923 - 68.46 x 5.242 + (-132.36)

q
(6.968) = -357 in. lb.
(dss = 4.5(-1080) = -4860 Thus, the complete bendlng moment diagram
could be determined by computing several more
z@s = -2160 - 21600 - 4860 = -28620 values such as point D and the external load
points.
 A9. 15

Example Problem 2. Fig. A9.37 shows an un- Total I, = 6451.07

syrmmetrlcal closed frame. The bending moment
diagram will be determined under the given Calculation of Iy -
frame loading.
Member AB, Iy =+j- x 15’ ++ 30(0.667)a =
.
4500.7

Member BC, Iy = +2 x3 31.67 x 30~ = 791.7

Member CD, Iy ++ 20(l)= = 4501.7

Member AD, Iy ++ 3oa = 1 125.0

Total Iy = 10919

Calculation of’ Ixy -

-- 3()"----- Member ,:B, Ixy = +$ (-15) (3.343 1 = -1002.9
.
IY’ Fig. A9. 37
31.67
Member R’, Ix;, = ~(13.3G) (0 1 -- 12
ly--
Sol&Son: -
(SO)(lO) q -263.92
The elastic ,weight of frame equal:;
Member CD, Ixy =+15:(-1.657) = -497.1
&-* - f 31.67 +2J+s = 65.58
I 1.5 3 1 2
Member AD, I,, = 0
The location of the elastic axes will be
Total Ixy = -1753.9
determined with reference to assumed axes
x’x’ and y’y’ as shown on Fig. A9.37.
The next step in the solution is to assume
a static fr:acne condition and draw the MS dia-
$+ (0)+(F) (15)+@ (30)+(T) (15) gram e Fis. l:9.S8 shows the assumed static
X= .
65.58
q 15” condition, namely pinned at point A and supported
as rollers at noint D. The bending moment
dia,:ram is dra)yn in parts as shofin.
(FJ (15)+(V )(25)+(2O)(1O)+(~)(O)2 150"
Y’ 1 =
65.58

11.657”

These distances 2 and y locate the x and

y elastic axes as shown in Fig. A9.37.

The elastic moments of inertia and the Due to P1

elastic product of Inertia will now be cal-

culated. Fig. A9. 38

Calculation of Ix -
~ -
Member AB, 1x$ ~A(18.343~’ ll.657a )=1723.51
.

Member CD, Ix=+ x + (8.X3=+ 11.6575 ) = 721.58

31.67) (13.?W?) l(31.67)

Member BC, Ix = (T +-E-r-
(1oZ) = 1967.48 The next step Is to compute the v_tlue Of
0s for each portion of the moment diagram. Ids
Member AD, Ix = @(11.6578) ++ 30 x is the carea of the MS/I diagram. For reference
the portions of the MS diagram have been labeled
(0.5)’ q 2038.50 1 to 4.
A9. 16 BENDING MOMENTS IN FRAMES AND RINGS

600 The bending moment at any point equals the

Portlon (1). gs =7x*= 5000 original static Ms plus the moment due to the
.I
31.67 redundant forces as shown In Fig. A9.40.
Portion (2). @s = 7 x3= 3167

Portion (3). 6s =v x3=750 3958

II

Portlon (4). la, = -soo@ -500&j+ q -5000

zer, = 13125 - 5000 = 8125

The Indl-vldual Ids values are now con-

centrated at the c.g. of each of the Ms dia- Fig. A9.40 Fig. A9.41
grams. Fig. A9.39 shows the location of the Consider point A: - MS = 0
fls values wlth.respect to the x and y axes
through the elastic center. - 4.674 x 15 + 31.07 x 11.657
MA = 0 - 124.8
= 167 in. lb.

Point B. MS = 600

MB = 600 - 124.8 - 4.674 x 15 - :31.07 x 18.343

= -16.5 in.11;.

POIiIt C. MS = 0
1 ll:657 1 I
Mc=o- 124.8 - 31.07 x 8.343 + 4.674 x 15
= -314 in.lb.

Fig. A9.39 Point D. MS = 0

Z&x = SOOO(-15) + 3167(-5) = -105835 MD = 0 - 124.8 + 4.674 x 15 + 31.07 x 11.657

= 307 In.lb.
Z&y = 6000(8.343) + 3167(15) +
3958(13.343) -5OOO(-11.657) = 208659 Fig. A9.41 shows the true bending moment
diagram.
The values of the redundants at the elastic 3
center can now be calculated. AQ. 6 Analysis of Frame with Pinned Supports.

MO L$.$= -(8125) Fig. A9.42 shows a rectangular frame and

= -124.8 ln.lb.
65.58 loadlng . This frame Is Identical to example
problem 1 of Art. A9.3, except It Is plnned at
points A and D instead of flxed.
zer, Y -
x0 =
The first step ~111 be to determine the
Ix (1 -* elastic weight of the frame, the elastic center
location and the elastic moments of inertia
208659 - (-105835)(-w) about axes through the elastic center.
= = 31.07 lb.
6451 C 1 - 10919 x 6451
(-1763.gZ) 1 The term ds/EI of a beam element of length
ds represents the angle change between Its two
end faces when the element is acted upon by a

Y, =
Z&x-
-IL--
Iy (1 -*)
Zld,Y
. a.I
(Jp) unit moment. In this chapter this term has
been called the elastic
Physically, the elastic
weight of the element.
weight Is the ability
of the element to cause rotation when acted

=-C -105835 - 208659( -1763.9)

6451 1 = 4.674 lb.
upon by a unit moment.
applied to a rigid
When a unit moment Is
support, the Support SUffWS

10919 C (-1763*g*
)1
1 - 10919 x 6451
no rotation
fore a rigid
and therefore
since the support is rigid,
support has zero elastic
does not figure
there-
weight
In the franc
elastic properties.
 A9.17

If a support 1s pinned or hinged it has

no resistance to rotation and thus a unit
-14. 4.46 -14. 4.46
moment acting on a hinge would have InfInite
angle change or rotation and therefore a hinge
or pin possesses infinite elastic weight.

10 lb.

r-----l
6” 16” b
B
I=2
Fig. A9.45 Fig. A9.46
I=3 Fig. A9.45 shows the bending moment dia-
L=30 gram due to the redundant X0. Adding this
diagram to the original static diagram gives
A D the final bending moment curve In Fig. A9.46.
Fig. A9.42 Fig. A9.44 Fig. A9.43 A9.7 Analysis of Frame with One Pinned and One Fixed
support.
Due to symmetry of structure about the
centerline y axls the elastic center will lie Fig. A9.47 shows the same frame and loading
on this axis. Since the two hlnges at A and as in the prevlous example but point D is fixed
B have infinite elastic weight, the centroid instead of hlnged.
or elastic center of the frame will obviously
lie midway between A and B. Fig. A9.43 shows The slipport D
the elastic center 0 connected to the point A has zero elastic
by a rlgld bracket. weight and the pin
at A has infinite
Zds/EI for frame is lnflnite because of elastic weight,
the hinges at A and B. therefore the elastic
center of the frame
The elastic moment of inertia about a y D lies at point A.
axis through elastic center is infinlte since T’ne total elastic
the hinge supports have infinite elastic weight, weight of frame is
Infinite because of
Ix is calculated as follows: - pin at A.

For Portlon AB =+x+x 303 q 3000 The elastic moments of Inertia will be
calculated about x and y axes through A.

For Portion CD =-+x$x 30” = 3000 IX = 16800 (Same as previous example)

For PortIon BC = 24 x-$x 30’1 10800 IY = (%x24’)+(+x+x 243) = 8064

Ix = 16800 Ixy = (q x 15 x 24) + (9 x 30 x 12) = 7920

,
Fig. A9.44 shows the static frame con- The static frame condltlon will be assumed
dltion assumed to obtain the MS values. the same as in the previous example problem,
hence Ibs = 270 and acts 10” from B (Fig. A9.48).
The value of $?& for member BC equals the
area of the MS curve divided by I for BC,
hence !& = 45 x 24 x 1 = 270. The centrold
T-5
of this fls value is 10 inches from point B.
The redundant forces at the elastic center can
now be solved for

- Z@, -270 6.19

Mo = ds = infinity = ’ ’yo I.2582# Fig. A9. 50
ZEI Fig. A9.48 Fig. A9. 49

- -Z&x - -(270)10 = 0 Since the frame is unsymmetrical, the x

y. - Iy inf inlty and y axes through the elastic center at A are
not principal axes, hence
x0 =?f$ = 2;;$to = 0.482 lb.
A9.18 BENDING MOMENTS IN FRAMES AND RINGS

yap = - Z@SXP
1 _ _ _ - - - - - - - - -(21)
YP
Nhere Ixp and Iy are the elastic moment:, of
Inertia about thg principal axes and yp and XP
270 x 50 - 270 x 10 (gg,
= -.--.. the perpendicular distance from the fls loads
= 0.6038 lb.
7320a to the principal :~.xe::.
16800 (1 - 16800 x 8064)
The author prefers to use the longer
~:q~3.+~icns (14) an<1 (1:; J "91~ i: :?voId fincling th6
principal axes location, the proL;ertles about
these axes and the Perperif!lcular distances
with respect to these a~+s, thus decreasing the
numerical work required.
_ 2-0 x 19 -’ 270 x
-. C = .2582 lb. The student should use equations (19),
7920a
8054 (1 - 1 (10) and (21) to solve example [roblem 1 of
16800 x 8064
Art. A9.5 in order to compare the two methods
of solution.
I’,,, - --I---- u&3 -I 2.?$L= 0
’ Zds/El inf Lnlty A9.9 Problems.

Fig. A?.49 shows the redundant values at

nolnt A. The bendin? moments at the points
P, C and D are,

MB ‘: -.6039 x 30 = -18.11 in.lb. Fig. A9.52 Fig. A9.53 Fig. A9.54

(1) Figs. A9.52, 53 and 54 show the same frame
2~ = -I”.11 + .8582 x 2-3 = -11.92
with three different loadings. Determine bend-
ing moment diagram for each loading.
MD = .2582 x 24 = ‘5.19
100 100 100
Adding the static moment curve to that of
Fig. A9. gives the final moment ouri:e of
Fly. A9.50.
AS. 8 Solution of Unsymmetrical Frames Using Principal
Axes.
For the frame of A9.51 the axes x and y
through the elastic center are not principal
ayes because the elastic product of inertia (2) Figs. A9.55, 56 and 57 show same frame with
Y 3 different loadings. Determine bending moment
diagram for each loading.
100

b
Fig. A9. 51 Fig. A9.52

ixy Is not zero. However, for the Principal the frame and loading in Figs. A9.57 and .49.58.
am3 xp and y as shown, the product of Inertia 4100
!s zero. Thug if the redundant forces at the q1 8
100 100
?l?A+lr center are referred to the principal 5Od -50
,?.iec, ::r, illustrated in Fig. A9.52, then the T
30” x=1
3 .Lm’- f \‘I?li 0 f equations for the redundants
i ,:s1:1t 9.5 for symmetrical structure, namely lo- 4 \ ,, cl00
=1+ t8+14’+8’j
c:
-Cer,
pi0 = T&/l (Same)- - - _ _ - - - _ - -(19) t 100 Fig. A9.61
~Fig. A9.60.- --
(4) Determine the bending moment diagram for the
xop I “$ - _ - ^ - _ _ - - - _ _ -(20) frames and loadings as shown in Figs. A9.59 and
ACJ.60.
 CHAPTEK Alo

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

SPEClAL METHOD - THE COLUMN ANALOGY METHOD

AlO. 1 General. The Col~~r?n Analo~yf method is a Now assume we have a frame whose ceriterline
met!;od th?t is widely used by enr:ineers in de- len:rth and shane is identical to that of the
ter?,iniflf th-? b*:t;din; moments in a bent or coltl;nn section- in Fi?. A1O.l. The width of each
:,inL: t:;?e structure D The method considers pcrtion of this frame will bc proportlonal to
qnl~,- Gistor-tions due to bendinn: of the l/21 of the member. Fi?. k10.2 shorvs this
stl.ucture. a:::i!m:ec! i’re.me
1 ,. Furthermore, assume that end B
OS the frame is fixed and that a rigid bracket
is attached to the end A and terminating at
point (0) the elastic center of the frame. The
frame is subjected to an external loading,
Wl, wa, etc.
Y
AlO. 2 General Explanation of Column Analogy Method.

FIT. AiLO.1 sho,~s a short column loaded in

c‘3C:;3!-‘F:‘;ion ng 2 1o:id P located at distances
(31 3ri:i (;?) from the ;Irincip<al axes x and y of
t h :: s~~llo~lricro:s-section. ---TX
LY
- El

Fixed

Fig. AlO. 2

This cantilever structure will suffer bend-

ing distortion under the external load system
Wl, WE9 etc., and point (0) will be displaced.
Point (0) can be brought back to its original
undeflected position by applying a couple and
two forces at (0), namely, MO, X0 and Y, as
shown in Fig. A10.2. Since point (0) is attached
To find the bearing stress between the to frame end A by the rigid bracket these three
supporting; base and the lower end of the forces at the elastic center (0) will cause
column, it is convenient to transfer the load point A to remain stationary or In other words
P to the col~nn centrold plus moments about to be fixed. Therefore, for the frame in Fig.
the print ipal axes. Then If we let cr equal the A10.2 flxed at A and B, the moment and two forces
b~~arln~ stress intensity at some point a acting at the elastic center cause the static-
distance x and y from the yy and xx axes, we ally indeterminate moments Ml when resisting a
~312 ‘-5.rite given external loading causing static moments
Ms. The final true bending moment M at a point
on the frame than equals
~ =& ‘_ (Pa)y +-- (Pb)x
A IX IY M = MS + MI"
‘tipI- P iL is the area of the column cross-
sect ion ?nd Pa and Pb the moment of the load From FiL;. AlC.2 we can write for a point
on the frame such as B that the indeterminate
P about the xx and yy axes respectively. If
we let Pa = Mx and Pb = My, the above equation bending moment Ml equals,
?‘irl he !vr~itten,
MI = Mo+Xoy+yoX - - - - - - - - - - (2)

(5 zq!xx~~- - - _ - - - I - - (1) In Chapter Ai3, Art. A9.3, the equations

IX IY for Mo, X0 and Yo were derived. They are,
*Method of .hdhySiS due to Prof. Hardy Cross. See “The
Column Analogy” Univ. Ill. Eng. Expt. Sta. Bull. 215.

AlO. 1
AlO. 2 THE COLUMN A ALOGY METHOD

Mo =
- zer, z(dsx
=I---,x()=-s- a Y (4) The final or true bending moment M at any
Z&/I ’ Y. IY Ix point then equals,

The term 20, represents the area of the M =Ms-Ml ------- ------ (5)
static Ms/I curve. (E hes been assumed con-
stant and therefore omitted). Let the term Example Problem 1.
z@s be called the elastic load and Rive it a
ne’r, symbol P. The term Cds/I equals the Fig. A10.3 shows a rectangular frame with
elastic well-ht of the frame and equals the sum fixed supports at points A and D. The bending
of the length o!’ each member times its width moments at points A, B, C and D will be de-
which equals l/I. Let this total frame elastic termined by the column analogy method. This
weib;ht be given a new smbol A. frame and loadinq is identical to example
problem 1 of Art. kg.4 of Chapter A9 where the
In the exnressions for Yo and X0 the solution was made by the elastic center method.
terms Z(d,x and Z&y represent the moment of
the static M/I curve acting as a load about
the y and x axes respectively passing through
the frame elastic center. Therefore let Z&x
be given a new s,ymbol My and Z@,y a new
symbol M,. With these new symbols, equation
(2) can now be rewritten as follows: -

Ml =g+Mx27+Mx
Ix *- - - - - - - - - - (3)

Comparing equations (1) and (3) we see 7

7. 5
they are similar. In other words, the inde- 2. 5
Fig. AlO. 3
tcrmlnate bending moments Mi in a frame are Fig. A10.4
analogous to the column bearing pressures u,
hence the name “Column Analogy” for the method SOLUTION NO. 1
using equation (1). With this general ex-
planation, the method can now be clearly ex- We first consider the frame centerline
plalned by giving several example problem shape as shown in Fig. A10.3 as the cross-
solutions. section of a short column (see Flg. A10.5). The
width of each portion of the column section Is
AlO. 3 Frames with One Axis of Symmetry. equal to l/E1 of the member cross-sectlon.
Since E is constant, it will be made unity and
From the previous discussion we can write, the widths will then equal l/I.

(1) The cross-section of the analogous column 22 . 5=45 ^ 270

consists of an area, the shape of which
is the same as that of the given frame
and the thickness of any part equals
l/E1 of that part.

2) The loading applied to the top of the

analogous column is equal to the M,/EI
diagram, where M, Is the statlcal moment
in any basic determinate structure de-
rived from the given frame. If M,
causes bendlng compression on the inslde
face of the frame It is a positive bendlng
moment and the analogous load P on the Fig. AlO. 5 Fig. A10.6
column acts downward.
The first step in the calculations is to
(3) The Indeterminate bending moment Mi at a compute the area (A) of the column cross-section
given frame point equals the base In Flg. A10.5 and the moments of inertia of the
pressure at this same point on the column cross-section about x and y centroidal
analogous column. Thus the indetermlnate axes.
moment at any point on the frame equals
(from eq. 31, Area A = Z + =T +30+24=32
3 2

P MXY
=-+-+ w The calculation of the location of the
- - (4)
Mi A IX IY -------- centroldal axes and the moments of inertia I,
and I wo~ild be identical to the Complete M, q 270x9.375 = 2530 (positive because
calcu 9 ations given in Art. A9.4, and Table A9.1 base pressure is compressive on column portion
svhere this same problem is solved by the elastl above x axis).
center method. These calculations will not be
re?eat,qfi-\ here . The results were, Ix = 3188 My =- (270x2) =- 540 (negative because
and Iy = 3456. base pressure is tension on column portion t0
right of y axis).
Since the frame is statically indetermin-
ate the next step is to assume a static frame substitution in equation (3).
condition consistent with the given frame and
loading a Fig. A10.4 shows the condition Frame Point A. x=- 12”, y = - 20.625”
assumed for this solution, namely, pinned at
poi.nt A and a pin with rollers at point D. 2+!%$+y
The static MS diagram is therefore as shown in Mi A
Fig. A10.4. -We now load the column cross-
section with the MS/I diagram as a load as = 270 + 2530 (-20.625) + (-540)(-12)
shown in Fis. A10.5. The static moment sign M-I 32 3188 3456
is pcsitive because the static condition causes = 8.44-16.38+1.88 =-6.06 In.lb.
tenslon on the inside face of the frame. In
the column analogy method a positive Ms/I
loading is a domward or compressive load on The true bending moment from equation (5),
top of column, and therefore a negative M,/I
M = Ms - Mi
value ;would bo an upward or tension load on
the column.
MS = 0, see Fig. A10.5
Equation (3) requires the values of the
whence, MA q o- (-6.06) q 6.06 ln.lb.
Mx and My the moment of the Ms/I diagram as a
load about the x and y axes. Equation (3)
Frame Point B. x = - 12”, y = 9.325”
also requires the total colwnn load P which
equals the area of the M,/I diagram.
270 2530x9.375 + (-540)(-Z)
Mi q =+ 3188 3456
For this problem the value of P from
Fig. A10.5 equals, = 8.44+7.44+1.88 = 17.77

P = 22.5 x 24/2 = 270 MB = M, -Mi = o-(17.77) =-17.77 in.lb.

The centrold of this triangular loading Frame Point C. x q 12, y = 9.325

is 2 inches to left of y axis. Fig. A10.6
shows the column section with this resultant 270 2530x9.325 + (-540)12
load P. Mi =w+ 3188 34.56

We now use equation (3) to find the in- = 8.44+7.44-1.88 = 14.0

determinate moments Mi which are equal to the
R = Ms-Mi = 0- (14.0) =-14.0 ln.lb.
base pressures on the column. Equation (3)
invol.ves bending moments Mx and My and
Frame Polnt D. x = 12, y = -20.625
distances x and y, all of which must have
signs. The signs will be determined as follows
270 2530(-20.625) + (-540)12
Mi ==+ 3188
When moment Mx produces compression on 3456
base on that portion above x axis, then Mx is = 8.44-16.38-1.88 =-9.82
positive.
MD = Ms -Mi = o- (-9.82) = 9.82 in.lb.
When moment My produces compression on
base on that portion to right of y axis, then Fig. A10.7 shows the 28.17
My is positive. final bending moment dla-
gram, which of course -14
A distance y measured upward from x axis checks the solution by the
is posit-ive; measured downward Is negatlve. elastic center method in
Art. A9.4. The student
A distance x measured to right from y should note that the
axls is positive, to left negatlve. numerical work in the
column analogy method is i: 1
From Fig. A10.6: - practically the same as 6.06 9.82
In the elastic center
P = 270 method. Fig. Al0.7
AlO. 4 THE COLUMN ANALOGY METHOD

Solution No. 2 MA = Ms-Ml z-30- (-36.06) = 6.06 in.lb.

which checks solution 1.
In this solutlon a different static frame
condition will be asswned as shown in Fig. x = - 12, y = 9.375
Frame Point B.
A10.8, namely the frame is cut under the load
and one-half the 10 lb. load will be assumed
MI=~+ -1650 2531x9.325 + (-9180)(-12)
as going to each cantilever part. Fig. A10.9 3188 3456
shows the static moment diagram and Fig.
A10.10 the static M&I diagram with centroid =-12.23
locations of each portion of diagram which
MB = MS-Ml z-30-(-12.33) z-17.77 ln.lb.

Frame Point C. x = 12, y = 9.375

Mi _- IA60 + 2531x9.375 + (-9;z;12

q -76.0
R =M,-Ml =- 90- (-76.0) z-14.0 In.lb.
Frame Point D. x = 12, y = -20.625

+ 2531(-20.625) + (-9180)12
Ml - - 1650
32 3188 3456
= -99.82

MD = MS-Ml =, 90 - (-99.82) = 9.82 ln.lb.

k-1 2’4 Thus solution 2 checks solutlon 1. The

A student should solve this problem using other
Fig. AlO. 11 static condltlons.
Fig. AlO. 10
are numbered (l), (2), (3) and (4). The area AlO. 4 Unsymmetrical Frames or Rings.
of each of these portlons will represent a In applying the column analogy method to
load P,, P,, etc. on the col~mu? in Fig. A1O.ll. unsymmetrical frames and rings, the moment of
Since the static moment is negative on each
portion the load on the column section will be the M/E1 diagram must be taken about principal
axes and the moments of inertia with respect to
upward. principal axes.
P, =- 10(30) q -300, P, =-45x9 =-405 However, as explalned for the elastic cen-
P, =- 15(6)/2 =-45, P, =-30x30 =-go0 ter method in Chapter A9, the moments and
sectlon propertles with regard to centroidal
axes can be used If M,, My, I, and Iy are modl-
P = zp = -300-4.5-405-900 =-1650 f-led to take care of the dls-symmetry of the
From Fig. A10.11 structure. In Art. A9.2 it was shown that the
redundant forces at the elastic center to un-
symmetrical frame sectlons was, (see equations
Mx =- (45+405) 9.375+ (300+900) 5.635 11, 14, 15 of Art. A9.2).
= 2531

My = 300~12+45x10-405x6-900X12 Mo=&=$( same as for symmetrical

frame)
= -9180
P a&Y - Z&x (q 1
MXY MJ& x0 = Y -----
M1
q -+-+
A (a)
Ix IY I,(l-AGE) --
1x1 y
POINT A. x = - 12, y = - 20.625
2531(-20.625) + (-9180)(-12) zkfsx- Z&Y ( * 1
Ml=*+ 3188 3456 Y, = _-_---- b)
Iy (1 -+g 1
= -36.06
 AlO, 5

As previously done in Art. A10.2 let, SOLUTION:

Fig. A10.13 shows the cross-section of the

MY = ,Z!i&x and M, = Z!&J
analogous column. The length of each member cf
Furthermore, let, the column section being the same as in Fig.
A10.12, and the width of each portion being l/I.
M;r = My (+$) and M;c = Mx (~*) The first step In the solution is tn find the
column section properties.

The total area (A) of column section e;;,i;;is

and k = (1 --$$--) (15/1)+ (10/l) + (12/2) = 31.

Then substituting in equations (a) and (b) The other properties required are: - I,,
we obtain, Iy and Ixy.

The calculations to determine the location

of the centroldal x and y axes and the above
properties about these axes would be identical
From equation (2) we have, to that given In example problem 1 of Art. A9.5
of Chapter A9, where this same problem was
Ml = Mo+Xoy+Yox solved by elastic center method. The results
were Ix q 606.51, Iy = 942.96 and Ixy r 217.74.
Substituting values of X0 and Y, Into this The location of the axes were as shown in Fig.
equation, we obtain as the equation for Ml the A10.13.
indeterminate moment in the column analogy
method, the following - The next step in the solution is to choose
a static frame condltlon end determine the
=p+ (Mx-M;)y +&$&w ___ (6) static (MS) diagram. Fig. A10.14 shows the
Mi A kIx assumed static condition, namely, two cantilevers
because of the frame cut as shown. The figure
The true moment is the same as for the also shows the static bending moment diagram
symmetrical sectlon, namely, made up of three portlons labeled (l), (2) and
(3). The area of each portion of the moment
M = MS-MI diagram divided by the (I) for that frame por-
tion will give the loads P on the column.
Thus the solution of an unsymmetrical
frame by the column analogy method follows the
same procedure as for a symmetrical section 240
-1440, (1) ,
except that equation (6) is used instead of
equation (3).

AlO. 5 Example Problem - Unsymmetrical Section.

Fig. 610.12 shows a loaded unsymmetrical
frame fixed at points A and D. Required, the
true bendlng moments at points A, B, C and D.
This problem is identical to example problem
1 of Art. A9.5 where a solution was given by
the elastic center method.

240 lb
2160
A* Fig. AlO. 14
-1440
t
-1080
5.032 ’
iY

Pi =-1440x3/2 = - 2160

P, =- 1440x15/1 = -21600

p, q - 1080x4.5/1 = - 4860
Fig. AlO. 12
Fig. AlO. 13 ZP q - 28620
AlO. 6 THE COLUMN A ALOGY METHOD

These loads act on the centerline of the Frame Point C. x = 6.968, y = 5.242
frame members and through the centroid of the
geometrical moment diagram shapes. These MI =-923+68.37x5.242+132.36x6.968
centroid locations are indicated by the heavy
dots in Fig. A10.14 and their locations are = 357.7
given with respect to the centroldal x and y
axes. The loads P1, Pe and Ps are now placed MC = MS-Ml = O-(357.7) z-357.7 in.lb.
on the column in A10.13, acting upward because
they are negative. Frame Point D. x = 6.968, y = -4.758

We now find the moments Mx and M which MI =- 923+68.37 (-4.758)+132.36x6.968

equal the moments of the loads P abou !x the = -326
centroldal axes.
MD = MS -MI = 0- (-326) = 326 ln.lb.
Mx =-2160x5.242+21600x2.258+4860
x6.758 = 70290 The above results check the solution of
this same problem by the elastic center method
MY =2160x3.032+21600x5.032+4860 in Art. A9.5 of Chapter A9. The student should
x 5.032 = 139700 solve this problem by choosing other static
frame conditions.
To solve equation (6) we must have the
terms s, % and k. AlO. 6 Problems

= 70290x217.74/606.51 (1) Determine the bending moment diagram for

M;(=M&y
the loaded structures of Figs. A10.15 to
= 25234 A10.20.
400 400
w = 10 lb/in.
% ‘My(k)= 139700x217.74/942.96
IY
= 32258

k=(l-$$I$) 217.74’
= (1 - 6.
6.51x942.96)
= .9171 Fig. AlO. 15 Fig. AlO. 16

Substituting values in equation (6) we obtain,

200 300 lb.
_ -28620 + (70290-32258)y + 4
Ml 31 0.9171 x 606.51
(139700-25234)x
0.9171 x 942.96

whence,
& 24” 4
Ml =-923+68.37y+132.36x - - - - - (7) 100 100
Fig. AlO. 1’7 Fig. AlO. 18
For Frame Polnt A. x =-5.032, y =-9.758

Ml =-923+68.37(-9.758)+132.36(-5.032)

=-923-667.15-666.0 =-2256

MA = MS-Ml = -1440-1080-(-2256) =
-264 ln.lb.
1.5 260 260
For Frame Point B. x =-5.032, y = 5.242
200 lb. Fig. AlO. 20
Mi =-923+68.37x5.242+132.36(-5.032)
=-923+358.39-666.0 =-1230.6 Fig. AlO. 19

MB = MS-$ =- l&&O-(-1230.6) - (2) Solve problems (2) and (3) at the end of
-209.4 fn.lb. Chapter A9, Art. A9.9.
 CHAPTER All
CONTINUOUS STRUCTURES - MOMENT
DISTRIBUTION METHOD *

All.1 Introduction. The moment dlstrlbutlon set up In the two beams at B. The questlon Is
method was originated by Professor Hardy Cross.*’ how much of this moment Is developed by each
The method is slmple, rapid and particularly beam. The physical condition which establishes
adapted to the solution of continuous structures the ratio of this distribution to the two beams
of a high degree of redundancy, where it avolds at B Is the fact that the B end of both beams
the usual tedious algebraic manipulations of must rotate through the same angle and thus the
numerous equations. Furthermore, It possesses unbalanced moment of 270 will be dlstributed be-
the merit of giving one a better conception of tween the two beams In proportion to their ablli-
the true physical action of the structure In ty of reslstlng the rotation of their B end thru
carrying its loads, a fact which Is usually a common angle. Thls physical characterlstlc of
quite obscure in some methods of solution. a beam is referred to as Its stiffness. Thus let
The method of procedure in the Cross method it be consldered that the stlffness factors of
Is In general the reverse of that used ‘In the the beam BA and BC are such that 162 is dlstrlbut-
usual methods where the continuous structure Is ed to BC and - 108 to BA as shown In Fig. A11.4.
first made statically determinate by removing (The questlon of stiffness factors Is discussed
the continuous feature and the value of the re- in a following article).
dundant then solved for which will provide the Referrlng to Fig. All.4 again It Is evident
orlglnal continuity. In the Cross method each that when the elastic curve rotates over joint B
member of the structure Is assumed in a deflnlte that It tends to rotate the far ends of the
restralned state. Continuity of the structure beams at A and C, but since these joints are
is thus malntalned but the statics of the struc- fixed, thls rotatlon at A and C Is prevented or
ture are unbalanced. The structure is then moments at A and C are produced. These moments
gradually released from its arbitrary assumed produced at A and C due to rotatlon at B are re-
restrained state according to deflnlte laws of ferred to as carry-over moments. As shown by
continuity and statics until every part of the the obvlous curvature of the elastic curves
structure rests In its true state of equilibrium (Fig. A11.4), the carry-over moment Is of oppo-
The general principles of the Cross method site slgn to the distributed moment at the ro-
can best be explained by reference to a speclflc tatlng end. The ratio of the carry-over moment
structure. to the distributed moment, referred to as the
Fig. All.1 shows a continuous 2 span beam. carry-over factor, depends on the physical prop-
Let it be required to determlne the bendlng mom- ertles of the beam and the degree of restraint
ent diagram. We first arbltrarlly assume that of its far end. (Carry-over factors are dlscus-
each span is completely restralned against rota- sed in a following article. For a beam of con-
tlon at Its ends. In the example selected ends stant sectlon and fixed at the far end, the car-
A and C are already fixed so no restralnt must ry-over factor 1s -l/Z). In figure All.4 a fac-
be added to these polnts. Joint B Is not fixed tor of -l/2 has been assumed which gives carry-
so thls joint is lmagalned as locked so it can- over moments of 54 and -81 to A and C respectlve-
not rotate. The bendlng moments which exist at lY. To bbtaln the flnal end moments we add the
the ends of each member under the assumed condi- orlglnal fixed end moments, the dlstrlbuted bal-
tion are then determlned. Fig. All.2 shows the ancing moments and the carry-over moments as
moment curves for this condition. (For calcula- shown in Fig. A11.4. With the indeterminate
tion and formulas for flxed end moments see fol- moments thus determined, the question of shear,
lowlng articles). Fig. All.3 shows the general reactlons and span moments follow as a matter
shape of the elastic curve under this assumed of statics.
condltlon. It Is noticed that continuity of the
structure at B Is malntalned, however from the All.2 Definitions and Derivations of Terms
moment curves of Fig. All.2 It Is found that the
1. Fixed-end moments:
isternal bending moments In the beams over sup-
By “fixed end moment” 1s meant the moment
port B are not statically balanced, or speclfl- which would exist at the ends of a member if
tally there Is an unbalance of 270. The next these ends were flxed against rotation.
step Is to statically balance this joint, so
it 1s unlocked from Its lmaglnary locked state 2. Stiffness Factor:
and obviously joint B will rotate (See Fig. The stlffness factor of a member Is a value
A11.4) until equlllbrium Is established, that is proportional to the magnitude of a couple that
until reslstlng moments equal to 270 have been must be applied at one end of a member to cause
unit rotatlon of that end, both ends of the
* ~lso see Chapter C2, Parts F, L and M.
** Paper - A. S. C. E. Proceedings, May 1930). member being assumed to have no movement of
All.1
All.2 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

0.5 when far end Is fixed. The letter C

will be used to deslgnate carry-over factor.
4. Dlstributlon Factor:
If a moment is applied at a joint where two
01’ more members are rigidly connected the dlstrl-
c bution factor for each member is the proportlonal
B Fig. All. 1
part of the applied moment that 1s resisted by
that member. The distribution factor for any
member which will be given the symbol D equals
K/ZK, where K equals stiffness factor of a par-
ticular member and ZK equals the sum of K values
for all the Joint members. The sum of the D
,-480 -480-750 -750 Moments
I values for any joint must equal unity.
, Fig. All. 2 ! 5. Sign Convention:
Due to the fact that in many problems where
members come into a joint from all directlons as
is commonly found In alrpl,tne structure, the
Elash Curve lor Fixed End Spans customary slgn convention for moments may produce
L& ;-:.
-7 conf &ion in applying the moment dlstrlbution
method. The following sign convention Is used in
I Fig. All:3 ~ this book: a clockrvlse moment acting on the end
of a member Is posltlve, a counterclockwise one
is negatlve. It follows that a moment tending to
Elastic Curve due to Rotation of Joint B rotate a joint clockwise 1s negative. It should
be understood that when lndetermlnate continuity
Balancing Joint B moments are determlned by the moment dlstrlbutlon
method using the above adopted sign conventlon,
that they should be transferred Into the conven-
tlal signs before proceeding with the design of
the member proper.
I I in Figs. All. 4 plus All. 2 The following sketches illustrate the adapt-
ed sign convention.
I Fig. All.4 Illustrations of Sign Conventlons for
I I End Moments.
I
-ample 1 Fixed end beam with
IyF lateral loads.

Conventional + + tension In bottom flb-

moment signs ers is positive bend-
1ng moment.

Adopted slgn moments which tend to

convention rotate end of member

translatlon. The value of the stlffness factor z-z clockwise are posltlve.

will depend In part on the restralnt or degree t

of flxlty of the opposite end of the member
from which the couple Is applied. The letter K
is used as a symbol for stiffness factor. Example 2 Translatlon of supports
g:--.,. of flxed ended beam.
3. Carry-over Factor:
If a beam is simply supported at one end --;;---==tj
and restrained to some degree at the other, and
a moment Is applied at the simply supported end,
a moment 1s developed at the restralned end. Convent lonal - +
The carry-over factor is the ratio of the mom- moment signs
ent at the restrained end to that at the
simply supported end ~ For a prlsmatlc beam
v;ithout axial load the carry-over factor Is Adopted sign --
convention
Example 3 Pab

Fig. All.9
External applied moment --+M.
at joint in structure ------ _
Fig. All. 10

adopted sign Fig. All. 11

Moments which tend to
joint
i+ rotate jolnt counter-
zicckalse are posl tl vti. MZ
+ :l:dIller.t I,ig. All. 12

All.3 Calculation of FIxed End Moments

Since the fixed end moments are statlcally Since tile change In slope of t!le elastic
lndeterml:lattj, additional facts must be obtained surve between ends (1) and (2) is zerc, theorem
from the 1s~:; of c:i~~tlnuity in order to solve (2) as applyin to flxed elki beams WII be re-
for them. In this book the theorem of area stated as follows.
moments will be used to Illustrate the calcula- The sum of the areas of the moment diagram
tlon of the fixed end moments as well as the nust equal zero. And from ?heorem (lj tht: i-t::t~m
other terms which are used in the moment dis- ic moment of the areas of the moment diagram
trlbutlon method. (Ref. Chapter A7) about any point must equal zero or In equation
The following well known principles or form :
theorem of area moments will be used:- ZM = 0 - - - - - - - - - - _ - _ _ - - s(1)
(1) The deflection of any point “A” on the JgQ = 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ - -(2)
elastic curve of a bean away from a tangent to Tar a beam wlth variable moment of inertia the
the elastic curve at another point “B” is equal Zondltlons for flxlty are:-
to the moment of the area of the M diagram be-
/M~~/EI = 0
tfleen the points A and B about point “A”. /Mxdx/EI = 0
(2) The change In slope between two points Figs. All.11 and All.12 show the static and con-
“A” and “B” on tne elastic curve of a beam Is tinulty moment areas, the total area of each por-
equal to the area of the M diagram between the tion and Its c.g. locatlon.
E Substituting in Equation (1)
two points “A” and “B”.
The “area moment” theorems will be Illus- - -(3)
trated by the applications to the solution of a
simple problem, Fig. All.5 shows a simply sup- and from equation (2)
ported beam of constant moment of inertia and ox aboutleftend=Pab L+a MIL L
ZiOdulus of elasticity carrying a single concen- -.2 3+2.3'
trated load. Figs. All.6 and All.7 SIii)W the
static moment curve and the shape of the beam Myy+ - - - - - -(4)
elastic curve. Nova assume that the ends are fix.
ed as shown In Fig. All.8 and let the value of The values of M, and M, for any value of a or b
the f lxed end moments be required. Fig. All.9 can now be found by solving equations (3) and (4)
shows the shape of the final moment curves made
up of the static moment curve and the unknown Table All.1 gives a summary of beam fixed
traplzoldal moment curve formed by the unknown end moments for most of the loadings encountered
end moments D Flg. All.10 shows the shape of the in routine design and analysis.
elastic curve, the slope at the two supports be- w TABLE All. 1
ing made zero by fixity at these points. I w

kxi Fig. All. 5

L Fig. All. 6

-------- Fig. All.7

c-5 Fig. All.8

 All.4 THE MOMENT DIS: IBUTION METHOD

1. 1 - Continued iangent to the elastic curve at point A relative

,o a line AB is equal to the shear tit A on a
G-- w ;Imply supported beam AB due to the N curve be-
Lg+AAJbJ 5# ET
;‘fleen A and B acting as a load.
2.
Thus
(ML x l/3) = - $$ .(posltive Shear =
eA = - 2EI
$ (lOL’- 10aLt 3a2) ’ %(5L- 3a) Neg. Slope)

=MLx2’3=-ML
fggr 6o:

QE 2EI 3EI
2
sz(lOL’- 15aLt 6a”, ,et 8B = unlty
Phen 1 = ML or MB = 3x = stiffness Factor of
3EI L
3eam BA of F1g. A11.13. A moment applied at B
lroduces no moment at A since end A Is freely
;up?orted. Thus the carry-over factor for a
3ea.m freely supported at Its far end is obvious-
ly zero. Consider the beam of Fig. All.14. Due
to complete flxlty at end A, the slope of the
x)2dxpaJ+fwxYL- x)dx 3lastlc curve at A Is zero.
3A = M& . l/3 + Ms,L . 2/3 = 0
(Ref. N. A. C. A. 2EI 2EI
General case - Any loading T. N. #534)
3r

2
1 1.4 Stiffness Factor; Carry over Factor: -
Derivation of: rhus the carry over factor for a beam fixed at
Its far end Is l/2. Using the conventional mom-
(For definitions of these terms see page ent signs, the carry over moment is of the oppo-
.1 1.2) site sign as shown by the above equatlon, HOW-
Consider the beam of Figure A11.13. By ever, for our adopted sign convention Inspection
Mohr’s theorem (see Art. A7.12), the slope of a of the shape of the elastic curve as shown In
Fig. All.14 tells us that the sign of the carry-
EI is constant over moment is of the same sign as the rotating
moment at the near end. That Is, the moment act-
qi!yFrp MB
ing on each end of the member Is in the same di-
rectlon, and therefore of the same sign.

Elastic Curve

Fig. All. 13

Fig. All. 14

BB=M&.2/3+M&.1/3=M_B4+M&,but MA=- M2
2EI 2EI 3EI GE1
Then @B = M& - M_a4 = M_B_L
3EI 12EI 4EI
Let QB = unity, then MB = 4EI = stiffness factor
L
of beam BA of Fig. A11.14.
A comparison of the stiffness factor of this
beam to that of Fig. All.13 shows that the stiff-
ness factor of a beam freely supported at its MJ=- ZKF =- 2F which Is the general ex-
far end is 3/4 as great as one flxed at its far MB kqT-?q Z-5
end. Furthermore in one case the carry-over presslon for carry-over factor for a degree of
factor Is zero and In the other case it Is l/2. fixation F.
It Is therefore obvious that the values of these
two terms depends In part upon the restraint All. 5a Example Problems
or degree of fixation of the far end of the To obtain a deflnlte conception of the true
beam. mechanics of the “Cross” method, the reader is
advlsed to follow thru the detailed solution of
All.5 General Expressions for Stiffness and Cany- the following simple problems. In these prob-
over Factor in Terms of Fixation Factor (F) lems, the moment of Inertia in any span has been
at Far End of a Beam
taken as constant and all joints have been as-
In the beam of Fig. All.14 (F) flXatlOn sumed to undergo no translatlon. Problems in-
factor at A was unity since beam had been taken volving varlable I and joint translation will be
as completely flxed at A. It was found that:- consldered later.
MB = 4EI4) and MA = - 2 EI Qg Example .56/h.
L L
Problem #l e
Then 8B = unity and let EI =KforslmplicitY A El C D E
-c -
Then MB = 4K t 51.5 .: 96 96 51.5 i
§tmnees Factor q = K 01 11 10
MA = -2K
Likewise the results for the beam of Fig. All.13 Dlstrtbution Factor K/,? Ii 01 .5.5 10
give Carry over Factor 0.5 .5.5 .50
MB = 3K Fixed End Moments ‘-883 766:. 0833wL3:-768 R%=. 0833wL3.-768 863
MA = 0
Flgs. All.15 and All.16 show these results.
Fig. All.17 shows the general case, the flxa-
2nd L&lancing 00 00 00
tlon factor at A being F. The difference be-
Flnal Moments -883 663 -710.5 110.5 -883 883
tween Figs. All.15 and All.17 Is that the slope
at end A has changed but BB the slope at end B Conventional Moment lgnti , + + + + t
remalns the same. I ‘OverbanK Moment : .5 x 51.5 x 35.75 + .25 x 51.5 x 17.17 E 883 I

Example Problem 1 shows a two-span contlnu-

F= 1 ous beam with over-hanging ends. We first as-
sume all the joints B, C and D to be looked
MA= - 2K MB=4K against rotation or the beams BC and CD are
Fig. All. 15 arbitrarily assumed in a fixed-end condition.
The first line in the solution gives the
stiffness factor of each beam. From Art. All.5
F=O A- the general expression for stiffness factor is
A\ =.5 EI(3+F)/L, where F = fixatlon factor of far end,
MA-0 MB= 3K which equals 1, since all joints have been con-
sldered f lxed. Thus, stlffness factor K = EI
Fig. All. 16 (3+1)/L = 4 EI/L. Since EI/L Is the same for
each span BC and CD, the stiffness factor has
The change In moment at end A when changing been wrltten as one since it Is only the rela-
beam All.15 to that of All.17 = 2K - 2KF =
tive values that are necessary. The cantilever
2K(l-F). Since 8~ Is kept the same value, one- BA has zero stlffness.
half of the moment change at end A appears at The second row gives the member distribution
end B but of opposlte sign, or faCtOr D at each joint or D = K/ZK. For example
MB=4K-l/2 2K(l-F) =3K+KF=K (3+F) = at joint B, the distribution factor to BA = O/(1 +
0) = 0 and to BC = l/(1 + 0) = 1. At joint C, the
F (3 +F) distribution factor to CB = l/(1 + 1) = .5 and
eA= F(. 5) likewise to CD.
A i- The third row gives the carry-over factors.
F=F\ From Art. A11.5, the carry-over factor C = 2F/(3 +
MA= - 2KF Mg=K(3t F) F) = 2 x l/(3 + 1) = .5 assuming the far end fixed
or F = 1 for each member.
Fig. All. 17
The next step as shown by the 4th horizont-
Thus the general expression for the stiffness al row is the calculation of the fixed end mom-
factor of a beam of COnStad section equals EI ents. The signs of the moments are according to
c- our adopted sign convention, that is an Inter-
(3 + F). The carry-over factor from B to A = nal resisting moment which tends to rotate the
All.6 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
I
end of a member CloclWise is positive. 4. Calculate the carry-over factor C for each
We now begin the sol.ution proper by first end of all members C = 2F/(3+F).. Thus for
unlocking joint B from its assumed fixed state, beams flxed at far end F = 1 and thus C = l/2.
we find a moment of -883 on one side and 768 on For pinned at far eno F = 0, hence C = 0.
the other side of j-lint or 3 static unbalance 5. Calculate the fixed end moments (f) for glv-
of -115. Joint B therefore will rotate until a en transverse member loadings or support deflec-
resisting moment )C 115 is set up in the members tions, using equ%.+;ions In summary Table All .l.
BA and BC. End moments which tend to rotate end of beam
The resistance of these members to $3.rota- clockwise are positive moments. (See Art. A11.2)
tlon of Joint B is proportional :,o their stlff- 6-. Considering one joint at a time, unlock it
ness. The distribution factor based on t!.i: from Its assumed i lxed state, all other joints
sti ff’ness factors is 0 for RA and 1 for BC. remaining locked. If an unbalanred moment ex-
Thus 1 x 115 = 115 is distributed to BC at B and ists balance It statically by distributing a
0 x 115 = 0 to BA. Joint B is now imagined as counter acting moment of opposite sign among the
again locked against rotation and we proceed to connecting members according to their D or dis-
Joi~lt 0, which is n’,‘. released from its nssum?d tributinn factors.
locked state. Since t,he joint is already statl- 7. These distributed balancing moments produce,
tally balanced, no rot;itlon takes place and the carry over moments at far-end of members equal to
dlstributlnp balancing moment to each span is the distributed moment times the carry-over fac-
zero. PJext proceed to joint D, and release it. tor C and of the same slgn as the distributed
The unbalanced moment is, 115 so the joint is moment D Record these carry-over moments at far
balanced by distributing -115 between DE and DC ends for all distributed moments.
as explained above for joint B. 8. Repeat the proceedure of unlocking each
As pointed out in Art. A11.5, when we ro- joint, distrlbutlng, and carrying over moments
tate one end of a beam it tends to rotate the until the desired precision is obtained, stopping
far fixed end of the beam by exertlng a moment the solution after a distribution. The final
equal to some proportlon of the moment causing moment at the end of any member equals the alge-
rotation at the near end. For beams of constant braic sum of the original flxed end moments and
section and fixed at their far ends, the carry all distributed and carry over moments.
over factor Is l/Z as explained before. Thus
the dlstributlng balancing moments in line 4 Example Problem #2
produce the carry-over moments as shown in line ,“‘I”
56,I”.
5 of the table. This completes one cycle of the
moment distribution method, which is repeated
until there is nothin: to balance or carry-over,
or In other words until all artlficlal restraint S
have been removed and the structure rests in its
true state of equilibrium.
To continue with the second cycle, go back
to jolnt B and release lt again from Its assumed
locked state. There Is no unbalance since the
carry over moment from polnt C was zero, thus
there Is nothlng to distribute or carry-over.
Proceed to point C, releasing the joint, we find
it balanced under the carry-over moments of 57.5
and -57.5. Thus the distrlbutlng balancing mom-
ents are zero, Joint D Is likewise in balance
since the carry-over moment from C Is zero. All
joints can now be released without any rotation
since all joints are in equilibrium. To obtaln
the final moments we add the origlnal flxed end
moments plus all distributed balancing and car-
ry over moments.

All.6 General Summary of Proceedure

Example Problem 2 is slmllar to problem 1 but two
1, All computations should be wrltten on, or spans have been added. We first assume all joints
adjacent to the diagram of the structure. locked agalnst rotation. The stiffness factor of
2. Determine the stiffness factor K for each each span is proportional to EI/L or l/L since EI
end of each member. K = (3 + F) EI/L, where F 1s constant. The carry-over factor is l/2 as in
is the degree of flxlty at far end of member. prevlous example. Flxed end moments are calculat-
If all members are assumed fixed at far end then ed as shown. Unlock joint B, the unbalanced mom-
K is proportlonal to I/L assuming E as constant. ent is -115. Balance the joint by distributing
3. Determine the distribution factor D for each 1 x 115 to BC and zero to BA. Proceed to jolnt C,
member at each joint of structure. D = K/ZK.
and unlock, all other joints remalnlng fixed necessary. These modiflcatlons Usually involve
against rotation. The unbalanced moment is rather long expresslona for expressing the st,lff-
(-768 + 432) = - 336. Balance by distributing ness and carry over fat’ xs of a member in terms
.428 x 336 = 144 to CB and .572 x 336 = 192 to of the fixation given by adjacent members. It Is
CD. Proceed to joint D, and release. The un- felt that It is best to keep the method In Its
balanced moment Is zero which means that joint slmplest form which means that very little is to
D Is in equlllbrium, thus no distribution is be remembered and then the method can be used in-
necessary. Proceed to joint E and F and balanc frequently without refreshing ones mind as to
in a similar manner. The distributed moments many requlred formulas or equatlons.
will be the same as the values for jolnts B and There are however several qulte simple modi-
C due to symmetry of structure and loading, flcations which are easily understood and re-
however, the signs will be opposite under our membered and which reduce the amount of arlthmet-
adopted sign conventions. The next step Is the ic required conslderably.
carry-over moments which are equal to l/2 the For example In I?:,, lem #2, joints B and F
distributed balancing moments. This operation are in reality freely supported, thus it Is need-
Is shown clearly In the table. Values of all less arlthmetlc to continue locii,lng and unlocking
moments are given only to first decimal place, a joint which Is definliely free to rotate.
The first cycle has now been completed. Cycle Likewlse due to symmetry of structure and load-
two Is started by again releasing joint B. We ing It Is only necessar:,r to solve one half of the
find the joint has been unbalanced by the carry structure. Due to sJ71”:etry joint D does not ro-
over moment of 72. Balance the jolnt by distri tate and thus can be consldered fixed, which
buting - 72 x 1 = - 72 to BC and zero to BA. ellmlnates the repeated locking and unlocking of
Proceed to joint C. The unbalanced moment Is this joint.
57.5. Balance by distributing - 57.5 x .428 = A second solutlon of Problem #2 Is given in
- 24.6 to CB and the remainder - 32.9 to CD. Example Problem #3. As before we assume each
Proceed to joint D. There Is no unbalance at jolnt locked and calculate the fixed end moments.
this joint since the carry-over moments are in Now release or unlock jol.nt I! and balance as ex-
balance, thus no distribution is necessary. plsined In previous example #2. Before proceed-
Proceed to joints E and F In a similar manner. ing to joint C, carry over to C from B the car-
The carry over moments equal to l/2 of the ry over moment equal to 115 x l/2 = 57.5. Joint
2nd set of balancing distrlbuted moments are no B is now left free to rotate or in its natural
carried over as shown In the table. The second condition. Proceed to joint C and unlock. The
cycle has now been completed. This operatlon unbalanced moment = (-768+432+57.5)=- 278.5 or
has been repeated five times In the solution 278.5 is necessary for equlllbrlum. This moment
shown, or until the values of the balancing and is distributed between two beams, CD which is
carry over moments are quite small or negligibl fixed at Its far end D and CB which Is freely
The final moments equal the algebraic summatlon supported at the far end B. The stiffness fac-
of the orIgIna fixed end moments plus all dis- tor 1s equal to (3 + F) EI/L (See Art. A11.5).
tributed and carry over moments. One require- Hence for CD stiffness factor = (3 + 1)
ment of the final end moments at any joint Is EI/L = 4 EI/L. For CB stiffness factor = (3 + 0)
that the algebraic sum must equal zero. The EI/L = 3 EI/L or In other words the stiffness of
other requirement conslstant with the common a beam freely supported at Its far end Is 3/4
slope to all members at any joint is given by as great as when fixed at its far end. Thus the
equation (5) of Art. A11.8. The results at stiffness factor of CB at C Is .75 x -0104 =
joint C will be checked using this equatlon. .0078 s The carry-over factor C to B is zero
since B Is left free to rotate. (See Art, A11.5)
@‘kd - .5A.c = Kd
i&b - .5AMbc Kcb Example Problem #3. Slmpllfled Solution of Prob-
Subt. values lem #2

(610.4-432)- .5 [344- (-432)]-178.6-44

610.4 - (-768)J - e5 (883- 768) 157.6-57.3
C-
1.343
Rat10 of stiffness factors = K&J -- -.0139
.0104
= 1 34
o
Kch
Thus the dlstributlon Is according to the K
ratios of the adjacent members.
Simplifying Modlflcatlons - Example Problem #3
The solution as glven In Problem #2 repre-
sents the “Cross” method In its fundamental and
most elementary detalled form. Many modlf Ica-
tions of the general method have been presented
In the most part for the purpose of elimin1tlng
part of the arithmetic or the number of cycles
All.8 THE MOMENT DIS’ IBUTION METHOD

The stlffness factor of the fixed Support is ln- Iolution#l

,lX,h. 5% Flxed
flnity, that Is a rigid support has lnflnite re- Xample .5#/ in .
sistance to rotation. ‘roblem #4 1 TTTt t * Tt T11 T j/l
Y- 51.5 .- 96 b’/ 72
Joint C is now balanced by distrlbutfng
A B C DE
278.5 x .36 = 100.1 to CB and 278.5 x -64 = 178.4
Stiffness Factor k 0 ,0104 = l/96 = .0139*1/72=. 0139 .0139
to CD. Now carry over to joint B, 0 x 100.1 = _.
.0104

0 and 0.5 x 178.4 = 89.2 to D. Proceed to joint D,str,hu,,on Factor D=&

I -- 011 -
.4281.572 .5.5

D and release it from its assumed locked state. Carry-Over Factor 0.5 .5.5 .5
F,xed End Moments -883 768
The Unbalanced moment Is -432 + 89.2 = - 342.8, 1st BaLmcmg
-168 432 -432
0 115 144 192 216 216
we balance by dlstrlbuting 342.8 between DC carry-over 72 57.5 108 96
-~ ~~
which has a stiffness of 0.139 and the SuppOrt -70.7 -94.8 -46 -48

E which has an lnfinlte Stiffness or zero goes -36.0

25.1
-24.0
34.3
-47.4

to DC and 342.8 goes to rigid support. The car- 17.6 11.8

23.1123.7
17.2'
ry over moment to C from D Is zero since 0.5 x -12.6 -16.8 -8.6/-8.6

0 = 0. The final moments thus equals the sum- -6.4 -4.3 -8.41
5th %b.ncma 0)6.3 4.6 6.1 4.214.2
mations as shown which of course are equal to th -8831883 -644.3 644.3 -187.31187.3
__-~
results shown in Problem #2.
Example Problem #4
.5 x 216 = 108 is carried over to C. Joint D is
Problem 4 is similar to Problem #2 and #3, left Unlocked or In Its true state of restraint.
except that the support at D Is assumed as hav- Joint C is now unlocked. The Unbalanced moment
ing 50 percent flxlty. Thus 50 percent of any
solutlon#2
moment at this point produces rotation of the
member DC at D.
In continuous wing beams, which fasten to-
gether by fittings on a support, It Is commonly
required that the beam be considered as belng
fully continuous and also that the degree of
contlnulty be taken as 50 percent. Solution 1
of Problem 4 Is a detalled solution. The only
change that has been made Is In the stlffness
factor of the support E, which has been taken
as equal to the beam DC, thus any Unbalanced
moment at this point Is equally dlvlded between
the beam and the support,
Solutlon 2 Is a modified solution which
eliminates considerable arithmetic. Thus it is
Unnecessary to lock and unlock joint B and D
equals (-768 + 432 + 57.5 + 108) = - 170.5, or
since we know definitely that one Is freely sup-
170.5 is necessary for equllibrlum. Jolnt C is
ported and the other 50 percent fixed. There-
balanced by distributing .392 x 170.5 = 66.8 to
fore, once we have released these joints from CB and the remainder of 103.7 to CD. The carry-
their assumed flxed end state, we leave them In over moment to B Is zero and to D It equals
their natural state. The stiffness and carry-
103.7 x .286 = 29.6. The final moments In solu-
over factors for beams CB and CD must then be tion #2 are slightly different than solution #l.
determined for these beams with their modified
end condltlons. If another cycle had been added In solution #l
the discrepancy would be considerably smaller.
By reference to the fundamental equations
for stiffness and carry over factors in Art. All.7 Continuous Beams with Yielding or Deflected
Supports*
A11.5, it Is readl,ly seen that the stlffness
factor for CB is 3/4 as much as when fixed at In Wing, elevator and rudder beams the sup-
its far end B and the carry over moment is zero. port POintS Usually deflect due to the deforma-
For beam CD the stiffness Is 7/8 as much as wher tlon of the supportlng struts or wires In the
flxed at end D, and the carry over factor Is case of a wing, or to the deflection of the
2F/3 + F = (2 x .5)/3 + .5 = .286. With these stablllzer or fln In the case of elevator and
modifications the solution Is carried thru with rudder beams. If these beams are continuous this
a relatively small number of steps. Thus In deflection of their support polnts causes addl-
solution #2, joint B is Unlocked. The unbal- tlonal bending moments in the beams. The moment
anced moment of -115 is balanced statlcally by dlstrlbutlon method can of course be used to find
distributing 115 to BC. The carry-over moment the additional moments due to thls deflection.
of .5 x 115 = 57.5 Is carried over to C as show1 Thus Example Problem #5, shows a solution Illus-
Joint B Is now left Unlocked or free to rotate. trating a problem which Involves the deflecting
Jolnt D Is Unlocked next. The Unbalanced moment of the supports of a continuous beam. Due to
Is -432. It Is balanced by distributing 216 to symmetry of structure and loadlng, the slope at
DC and 216 to E since support at E Is considere< D Is zero or the beam may be considered fixed at
to give 5% fixity. The carry-over moment Of * Also see Chapter C2, Parts F, M andQ.
 All.9

Joint D. Since the moment of Inertia Is con- Since the fixed end moments are due to both
stant and the spans are constant, the relative lateral loads and support deflection, the values
stiffness factor of the beam Is 1. In the so- as listed In the solutlon table will be explain-
lutlon shown since beam is freely supported at ed in detall.
B this joint Is left free to rotate after re-
leasing and thus the stiffness factor of beam Fixed End Moment For Lateral Beam Loading
CB is 3/4 x 1 = 3/4, when compared to one havinE The dlstrlbuted airload is trapezoidal In
full flxity at B. shape. The fixed-end moments for a trapezoidal
Since the first step in the solution proper loading from Table All.4 are:
Is to assume the joints fixed against rotatton,
It is evident that deflecting one support rela- Ml-2=L2 (5u+2v) (See Fig. (a))
tive to an adjacent support will produce mom- a
ents at the ends which are assumed flxed against M2-l=L” (5u+3v) (See Fig. (a))
rotatlon. iz

All.8 Fixed End Moments

Due to Support
Deflections

Fig. All .I.8 shows a

f lxed end beam. The sup-
port B is deflected a
distance d relative to
the support polnt C. If
sthe member Is of constant
cross-section the point
of Inflection will fall For Span BC:
at the beam mld~oint and
Fig. All.18 MB=-MC. Mbc = $ (5x3+1) = 426 in. lb.
By moment area prln-
clpal deflection Mcb = & (5x3+1.5) = 440 in. lb.
-d=ML .L-ML .5L
4EI s 4EI E For Span CD:
Oi- d = ML2
6EI Mcd = 4; (5x3 .5 + 1) = 494 in. lb.

hence E!
M = 6EId the magnltude for the flxed end Mdc = ‘& (5X3.5+1.5) = 507 In. lb,
LB
moment due to a transverse support settlement Fixed End Moments Due to Sup:lort Movement
of d.
From Art. All.8 M : cEIcl/L’
Example Problem #5. Continuous beam with de-
flected supports. For Span BC:
CeIlera Deflection of B relative to C = EI/lE Inch. Hence,
data: 3 #/Ill. 4 #/in.
lilllllllilllri ~~c=Mcb=6X~0,000,000x.03339x.3125/40~=~90
0
+ in. lb.
?or Span CD:
%d =Mdc = 6 x 10,000,000 x 003339 x .1875/402 = 234
in. lb.
Solution: For signs of the moments due to these deflections
see Art All.2. Havlng determined the flxed end
Stifhess Factor K moments the general dlstrlbutlng and carrying
Distribution Fartor = K over process follo;vs as indicated in the,solutlon
table. Thus at joint B, the unbalanced moment =
(50-436+ 390) =14. Balance by distributing - 14
x 1 = - 14 to BC and zero to BA. Carry over .5 x
-14 7 - 7 to c. Considering joint C, the unbal-
anced moment = (440+390+234-494-7)=563. Bal-
ance bydistributlng - 563x .571=- 322 to CD and
-563 x .429 = - 241 to CB. Carry over .5 x -322 =
- 161 to D. At joint D the unbalanced moment =
(507+234-161)=580. This Is balanced by dls-
Conventional Signs I trlbutlng zero to DC and -580tothe flxedsupport.
All. 10 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
I
All-8 Check on Final Moments hM,h - .5A~+lL------- ---- (5)
mc - .5A ac
To satisfy statics, the algebraic sum of
the moments in all the members at a joint must If equatlo In (5) Is satisfied the accuracy of the
equal zero. This requlrement alone will not moment die trlbutlons Is established.
Drove that the final moments are correct, as er-
rors could have been made in the various distrl- All.9 End Moments for Continuous Frameworks Whose
buting and carry over moments. Contlnulty tells Members are not in a Straight Line. Joint
us that the final slope of the elastic curve at Rotation Only*
any joint is common to all members meeting at Continuous truss frame works are quite com-
that joint, thus for a complete check it is mon In aircraft construction. Welded steel tub-
necessary to prove that the flnal moments are ular fuselages are composed of members which
consistent with equal slopes for the varlous maintain continuity thru the jolnts due to the
members . The rotatlon of the joints from their welding. Landing gears frequently have two
original assumed flxed or locked condition is members which are made continuous at their points
due entlrely to the distributed and carry over of connectlon. The members of such structures
moments. The actual rotation will therefore usuallyl carry high axial stresses which cause
equal the rotation of the end of a simply sup- joint translatlon which in turn produces bendlng
ported beam when subjected to end moments equal of the members since the jolnts are rlgld. These
to those produced by the algebraic sum of the moments produce lateral deflectlon of the memb-
distributed and carry over moments. These end ers which introduces additional secondary moments
moments equal the f lnal moments minus the orlgl- ue to member axial loads times the lateral memb-
nal fixed-end moments and will be referred to aEi d
er deflections. These influences are treated in
AM moments. 1 ater articles. In th-ls article to further fa-
From Chapter A7, the slope at any point on a millarlze the student with the moment distrlbu-
simply supported beam equals the shear due to t? 10 t ion procedure, the effect of joint translation
E/E1 diagrams as a loading. and secondary moments will be neglected.
The slope 9A from Fig.a’ I Xample Problem #6
equals the beam shear a-t t
+~/3- a MabL
2EI
A or equals the react101 n Flg. All.19 Illustrates a simpllfled landing
at A l @ ;ear chassis problem. Let It be required to de-
t iermine the bending moments In the two members
d lue to the vertical load on the axle. The prob-
1 .em has been solved using three dlfferent de-
e crees of restraint at ends A and B. Joint 0 Is
E t welded joint and full continuity Is assumed
t ;hru this joint. The solutlons as given In Flg.
1 ~11.20 give only the moments due to joint rota-
- t ;lon under primary bending moments. The effect
0 -f axlal deformation and secondary moments due
t ,o member deflectlons is omltted In these solu-
t .lons. These factors are treated In later artl-
les.
In a practical problem the degree of re-
2/3 - AMbaL
2EI - 21 itralnt at points A and J3 would be determlned
;he type of fitting used and also on the rlgldlty
by

)f the adjacent fuselage or wlng structure. As

.llustrated In later examples, the moment dlstrl-
n&ion method permits the conslderatlon of the
wher 8 -igldlty of the adjacent structure without addlng
Iny difficulty, while such methods as least work
&&, = ; of m
i-+- 18" -----f!----- 32" --I
Since the angle 9, must be the same for
members meeting at A, the general relation be-
tween the moment Increments of any two members
such as AB and AC must be,
&b + .5 mha = F<
hMac + -5 A&a
To make thls equation consistent with the assum _ -- -
ed sign convention, that Is, the carry over moml-
ent has the same sign as the balancing dlstrl- t-4
6000# Fig. All.14
buted moment, the above equation must be modl-
fied as folloWs:- * ALSO see Chapter C2, Part H.
 All. 11

Condition I to be freely supported, they will be left in

Fixed at A and B their true state. Thus the carry over moments
from end 0 will be zero. Since A and B are both
pinned, the relation between the relatlve stlff-
ness factors of members OA and OB remain the
same as in condition I, thus the same K or
stiffness factors that were used in condition I
can be used in distributing moments at joint 0.
Joint 0 is balanced in same manner as condition
I but with zero carry over moments to A and B.
Solution for Condition III. A Is 5C$, Flxed and
B Is Pinned.
Since each member has a different degree of
fixlty at its upper end, the stiffness and carry
over factors will be consldered In detail. In
condition I since both members were flxed at
their upper ends the relative stiffness factor
of each member was proportlonal to I/L for the
member and this ratio was used. The general ex-
pression for stiffness factor is K = EI (3+F)/L
carry over factor = x. For member OA, F
3+F
equals .5 since A is 5% flxed, and for member
OB, F is zero since B Is freely supported. Hence
for member OA

18000 +(3+ .5) =L=3.5 EI 3.5x .1105 E=.012g E

30
K q Stiffness Factor
Values in ( ) are carry over factors C.O. Factor from 0 to A = 2 x .5 = -286
3 + .5
Fig. All. 20
For member OB
are not practicable because of the large number
of equations that must be solved to obtain val- K = F (3+(~)=~’ *;rxE = .0139E
ues for the many unknowns.
C.O. Factor From 0 to B = 2 x 0 = 0
Solution for Condition I, Fixed at Ends A and B
3+0
Referring to Flg. A11.20, all joints are
assumed locked against rotatlon or fixed. The Considering joint 0 in Fig. All.20 the external
vertical axle load of SOOo# produces a counter- moment of 18000 ln.lb. Is balanced by dlstrlbut-
clockwlse moment of 3 x 6000 = 18000 In. lb. ing - 18000 between the two members in proportion
about joint 0. The sign Is positive (See Art. to their stiffness factors. Hence - 18000 (.0129/
Release or unlock joint 0, the unbal- .0129 + .0139) = -8650 in lbs. is resisted by OA
A11.2).
anced moment is 18000 or - 18000 is required and the remainder of -18000 (,0139/.0129 + .0139)=
for static equilibrium of joint 0. Joint 0 1s -9350 to OB. The carry over moment from 0 to A =
.286 x -8650 = -2475 and zero from 0 to B. (See
balanced by dlstrlbutlng - 18000(.464/.464 +
.369) =-lo030 to member OB and the remainder or Fig. A11.20)
or -18000(.369/.464 + .369) = -7970 to OA. Example Problem #7
These distributed balancing moments at 0 produce
carry over moments at A and B. Fig. All.21 shows a structure composed oi^ 3
members. Member A0 is subjected to a transverse
Thus carry over to B, .5 x - 10030 = - 5015
and carry over to A, .5 x - 7970 = - 3985 load of 120# at its midpoint. Joint A is fixed,
B is freely supported, C is 25 percent fixed
Proceeding to joint A which is a fixed joint, and jolnt 0 is considered to Taintsin continuity
the unbalanced moment of -3985 Is balanced en-
between all members at 0. The end moments on
tirely by the rigid support, or no rotation
the three members duo to the transverse loadin,?
takes place when joint is released from its im- on member A0 ‘will be determined.
aginary fixed state. Similar action takes place
at joint B. The final end moments are as Solution #10 Fig. All.21 gives a solution using
shown in the Figure. the “Cross” method in Its fundamental unmodified
state. The solution Is started by assuming all
Solution for Condition II. End A and B Pinned three members as fix-ended. The relative stiff-
For this condition the ends A and B are ness factor K of each member is therefore pro-
freely supported. Instead of locking and un- portional to I/L of each member. These K values
locking these joints which are definitely known are listed in Fig. A11.21. The distribution
to be free
All. 12 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

Member - K-Value C. 0. Factor

factor D for each member at each joint which
equal K/ZK is recorded innon each member 2F
+-(3+F)
around each joint. Thus any balancing moment 3-F
Is distributed between the joint members as per ( _. _ 2 ,. ,, = .4, 2x1 =+
these distribution factors. The carry ove r 1 “n-m’J+ ” 3t1
l/k’ L25”/o r‘ixea
factors for all members is l/2. The flxed end 1 __ 1.5._ _~ _ ” 2x0 \ r7 ‘urci
moments due to external loading are comput ed uB=~(“tu) =.s,
for the three members. For member /LO, the fix- 1
ed end moments equal PL/8 = 120 x 20/8 = 300 in. OC=i&3+.25)=*,
lb. The other two members havlng no transverse ZK1.83
loading, the fixed end moments are zero.
In this solution the order of joint con-
sideration has been AOBC and repeat. Starting
with joint A the joint is released but since
the member A0 is actually held by a fixed sup-
port, no rotation takes place and the balancing
moment of 300 Is provided entirely by the sup-
port and zero by the member AO. The carry Over -372.5 t f
moment C, to 0 is zero. Releasing joint 0, the (3 0” c
unbalanced moment of 300 Is balanced by dlstri-
buting - 300 between the three members accord- SOLUTION #2 1
Ing to their D values, thus - 300 x .416 =
- 125 to OA; - 300 x .168 = - 50 to OC and
Pin ‘3 “0
* 000 1 Fig. All. 22

- 125 to OB. To prevent confusion It is recom- ,y distributing .75x25=18.75toCOandthere-

mended that a line be drawn under all distrl- nainderof 6.25tothesupport, sincetheflxityof
buted balancing moments, thus any values above ;he support at Chasbeenassumed as 25percent. A
these lines need not be given further consid- tine is drawn under the 18.75 and the carry over
eration and only values below the lines need noment of 9.37 Is taken over to 0. One cycle has
be considered In later balancing of the joints. low been completed. Returning to joint A, we
Immediately after distributing the moments at find -62.5 below the line. This is balanced by
joint 0 the proper carry over moments should be distributing zero to OA and 62.5 to the fixed
taken over to the far end of each member, thus support 6 A line is drawn under the zero distri-
- 62.5 to A, - 62.5 to B and - 25 to C. Jolnt
juted moment to A0 and the carry over moment of
8 is next considered. The unbalanced moment is
:ero is placed at 0. Considering jolnt 0 for
-62.5 and It is balanced by distributing 62.5 ;he second time the unbalanced moment is 9.37 +
to RO since the pin support has zero stiffness, 51.25 + 0 = 40.62 or the sum of all values below
or no resistance to rotation. h line Is drawn
;he column horfzontal lines. The joint is bal-
under the 62.5 and the carry over moment of tnced by distributing - 17 to OA and OB and
31.25 is placed at 0. Joint C is considered -6.62 to oc. Lines are drawn under these bal-
next. The unbalanced moment of -25 is balanced incing moments as shown in Fig. All.21 and the
:arry over moments are taken over to the far
SOLUTION X1
?nds before proceeding to joint B.
This general process is repeated until joint
4 has been balanced 5 times and the other joints
2 times each, as Indicated in the figure the dis-
tributlng values have become quite small and it
is evident that a high degree of accuracy has
been obtained. The final end moments at each
joint equal the algebraic sum of the values in
each column. A double line Is placed above the
2 K - Joint 0 I. 24 final moments as a distinguishing symbol. In
C. 0. Factor = l/2
For All Memb.
the figure the letters b and c refer to balancing
and carry over moments, the subscripts referring
to the member of the balancing or carry over
oneration. Any order of joint consideration can
be used in reaching the same result.
solution #2 of Problem 7
Fig. All.22 gives a second solution. With
the end conditions known at A, B and C, the modi-
fied stiffness factors of the members can be
Pin found together with the modified carry over fat-
l?l tors, thus maklng it necessary to balance joint
Fig. All. 21 0 only once and carry over this final far end
 All.13

moments of each member. The figure gives the assumed to give 50$ fixlty to these joints. In
calculation of the modified or actual stiffness Table All.2 a modlfied stiffness factor Is cal-
and carry over factors. With these known the culated for members GI, FI, and FH using a 50
solution is started as before by computing the percent flxity at their far ends. The last
fixed end moments due to transverse loading on column of Table All.2 gives the summation of the
member AO. Joints B and C are released and member stiffness factors for members intersect-
since no fixed end moments exist, no balancing ing at each jolnt.
is requlred and the joints are left In their 120#
true state of restraint instead of locking and 3200”#
unlocking as In solution #l. Releasing joint 0 K- w-
from its Imaginary fixed state the unbalanced
moment is 300 which Is balanced by distributing
- 300 between the 3 connecting members accord-
ing to the new distribution factors at joint 0.
Thus - 300 x .482. = - 145 to OA; - 300 x .361 =
- 108.2 to OB and - 300 x .157 = - 47 to OC.
The carry over moment to A = - 145 x .5 = - 72.5
to 8 = - 108.2 x 0 = 0 and -47 x .154 = - 7.2 tc
c. \\ /’ Fig. All. 23
Example Problem /if8 \ Landing
\ Gear
Figure All.23 shows the forward portion of
a ftlselage side truss. Due to eccentricity of TABLE All. 2
erigizle mount and landing gear members, external
moaents are produced on joints A, B and D as
shown. Furthermore lateral loads due to equlp-
ment Installation are shown acting on members BE
and CD. Assllrnlng the fuselage welded joints
produce rigid continuity of members thru the
joint, the problem is to find the end moments In
‘all the members due to the eccentric joint mom-
ents a11c two lateral ‘loads. The effect of joint
trsnslation and secondary moments due to deflec-
tions and axial loads is to be neglected in this
example.
Solution:
Table All.2 gives the calculation of the
stiffness factor for each truss member.
fuselage truss aft of joints
The
I and H have been
L
I
Fig. All. 2%
-298 c CT25
*b ~---.-- -141
-88 - b-176 StlJb ~---~~ - - 94
-18 ___ - 9 -9 A-- -16b -- x ,266 -4
1 .- b2 -~2b ~ “-+ -Ab--- _ -1
b0 ;b “-+ -Lb 0
xi+” 0 -- -21 -5
401 b 0

50% Fmed

2400\
-2400
-12_6& b - - 634 - 445 c c- c 222
316 >gb - 203
Xb --“% 314 _ b 629 Bb ___ 314
- 70 - -140 -89 ~~~ - -45 -70 - b - 140 : 8213 ~- x ,266 - 23
db - 44 - ~~ b-88 ab - 44 * - - 3
-. 777 - ii -21 ~~~~- -10 - 7 --“* Ab 4
T 209 b ..1 Lb __ - 90 - 26
1094 641 b 0
206
All. 14 THE MOMENT DIS'I 'RI BUTION METHOD
-
Fig. All.24 gives the solution of the bmydistributing 183 to AC and 164 to AB with
problem. The procedure in this SOlutiOn was as C arry over moments of half these values t0 ends
follows : c and B rkspectlvely.
The stiffness factor K for each member as The student should now be able to check the
computed In Table All.2 Is recorded in the Clr- r ,est of the solution as given on Fig. A11.24.
cles adjacent to each truss member. The carry The solution could be made with any order of
over factors for all members is l/2 except for Alolnt consideration. If any particular joint ap-
c
modified members GI, FI and FH for which the r jears to be nearly balanced, It is best to skip
carry over factor to the 5@ fixed ends is .286. 1.t for the time being and consider those joints
The dlstrlbution factor for each member at each vihlch are considerably unbalanced.
joint Is recorded at the end of each member, and The final moments at the end of each member
equals K/ZXK. 2tre glven below the double lines.
The next step In the solution Is to Compute
EXample Problem #9
the fixed end moments due to the transverse
loads on members. Fig. All.25 represents a cross sectlon Of a
For member BE V iielded tubular steel fuselage. The top and bot-
MBE = Paba/Le = 120x29.25xl~e,'41.25a =-298"; $ I ;om members which are web members in the top and
t )ottom fuselage trusses are subjected to the
MEB= 120X29.258x12/41.25a =725"#
:qulpment lnstallatlon transverse loads as shown.
M(-D=100X20" X10/30* =- & ; ,et It be required to determine the end bendlng
t aoments In the rectangular frame due to these
MDC= 100 x 10’ x 20/30” = 222
1zansverse loads assuming full continuity tkru
These moments are placed at the ends of the joints.
members on Fig. All.23 together with the eccen-
tric jolnt moments. The process of unlocking : Solution:
the joints, dlstributlng and carrying over mom- Fig. All.26 shows the solution. The dlstrl-
ents can now be started. In the solution as 1sutlon factors based on the member stiffness PaC-
given the order of joint conslderatlon Is tors are shown InOat ends of each member. The
ABCDEFGand repeat, and each joint has been bal- first step Is to compute the flxed end moments
anced three tlmes. flue to transverse loads, on members AB and CD us-
Consider joint A:- lng equations from Table All.l. The magnitudes
Unbalanced moment = 2400. Balance by dis- are 1890”# for AB and 2025”# for CD.
tributing - 2400 as follows:- Joint B Is now released from its assumed
To AC = - 2400x ,527 = -1268. Carry over .I:lxed state. The unbalanced moment of 1890 Is
to C = -634 t valanced by dlstrlbuting - 1890 x .247 = - 467 to
To AE3= - 2400x .473=-1132. Carry over E3A and the remainder of -1423 to BD. The carry
to B = -566 ()ver moment to A = - 465 x .5 = - 233. Due to
Proceed to Joint B:- :symmetry of structure and loading only one half
()f frame need be consldered and hence these car-
Unbalanced moment = (-566+3200-298)=
Joint Is balanced by distributing - 2336 I*y over moments to A are not recorded. However,
2336.
to connecting members as follows:- 1in balancing jolnt A it will throw over to B the
To BA=- 2336x .569 =- 1330. Carry over to :Same magnitude of carry over moments as thrown
A = - 665 ()ver to A from B but of opposite sign since the
To BC=- 2336x.310=- 724. Carry over to (Ylglnal fixed end moment at B Is minus. Thus
C = - 362 ;233 comes to B from first balance of A as shorn
To BE=- 2336x .121=- 282. Carry over to Ln the figure. The dLstrlbutlng moment to B of
-1423 produces a carry over moment of -1423 x .5=
E = - 141
-712 at D.
The convenient
under all balancing
device of drawlng a line
moments Is used to pIWWIt L
confusion In later balances of the joint. 6

Proceed to Jolnt C:-

Unbalanced moment = (-634-362-445) =-1441
The joint Is balanced by dlstrlbutlng 1441 as
follows:- T
To CA = 1441 x .44 = 635 ~ Carry over to A = 31E 36"
CB=1441x .214=309. Carryoverto B=15E
CE=1441x .O64=92. Carry over to E=46
CD = 1441 x .282 = 406. Carry over to D = 20:
This process Is continued for the remainder Of
the truss joints. After all joints has been
balanced once, on returning to joint A we find
below the lines an unbalanced moment of (318-
665) = -347. The joint Is balanced a second tlmt l-1/8 - . 035 Tube
Fig. All. 25
 A ,247 1 B tors will not be considered here but will be
treated In a later article.
(A) Calculation of Fixed End Moments for a
Given Beam Load
Fig.Al1.27 shows a fixed end beam with a
variable moment of inertia and carrying a single
concentrated load of lOO#. The beam moment dia-
gram for this load is considered in three parts.
Fig.Al1.28 shows the static moment curve as-
suming the beam simply supported at A and B and
CL carrying the load of 100t. Fig.Al1.29 shows
the other two parts, namely the triangular mom-
ent diagram due to the unknown moments MA and
MB which produce fixity at the two ends. In
this figure MA and MB have arbitrarily been taken
Fig. All. 26
as 100, instead of unity.
Fig.Al1.30 shows the M/I diagram for the 3
b 4-10 moment diagrams of Flg.Al1.29. The beam is di-
1743 vided Into ten equal strips, and the M/I curves
are obtained by dividing the moment values at the
Joint D is considered next: The unbalanced mom. end of each strip or portion by the corresponding
ent of (2025 - 712) q 1313 Is balanced by dis- I value from Fig. A11.27.
tributing - 1313 to the connecting members. From the conditions of fixity at the beam
To member DB = - 1313 x .678 = - 092 and ends, we how that the slope of the beam elastic
the remainder of -421 to DC. The carry-over curve is zero at each end. Likewise the deflec-
moment to B Is - 446. The carry-over from C to tion of one end of the beam away from a tangent
D is one-half the balancing moment B = - 421 at the other end is zero. Stating these facts
but of opposite sign or 210, due to symmetry as In terms of the moment area principles, we ob-
explained before for member AB. tain

s
Returning to joint B, the unbalanced as
recorded below the single lines is (233 - 446) L
= - 213. To balance 160 is distributed to BD =ru 0 - -(5 ) (Area of M/I diagrams
and 53 to BA. Carry-over 80 to D and bring I
equal zero)
over from A to B .5x-53 z-27. Continue this 0
process until joints A and D have been balanced
4 times or 4 cycles have been completed. The L
final moments are shown below the double lines. Ee=o -(6 ) (Moment of the M/I dia-
Fig.Al1.26a shows the resulting moment diagram I gram as a load about
on frame. s 0 either end equals zero)
(Note : Since E is usually considered constant
it has been omitted from denominator of the above
equations.)
TABLE All. 3

Fig. All. 26a

All. 10 Continuous Structures with Members of

Variable Moment of Inertia*
In Arts.Al1.3, 4 and 5 consideration was
given to the derivation of expressions for
fixed end moments, stiffness and carry-over
factors for beams of uniform cross-section.
Many cases occur in routine design where mem-
bers have a variable cross section. This
article will illustrate the calculation of the
fixed end moments, stiffness and carry-over
factor for a beam with variable moment of in-
ertia. The effect of axial load on these faC-
*Also see Chapter CZ, Part L.
 All. 16 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

P 1.dentlcal to Fig. All.SOc. For

A lOO# t ;he conditions of support assumed,
Fixed 1 Fixed
t ;he deflection of A away from a
/e-----24” _____LtcL 16”m t ;angent to the elastic curve at B
-. 10 in.
‘
1.s zero. ThUs by the deflectIon
I )rlnciple of area moments, the
nlament of the M/I diagrams of
I Curve
Fpigs. All.30 (a and b) about
t ?nd A equals zero. Thus,
743.8
345.7x14.1+ - 1oo MB x 24.4 = 0
)r
Fig. All. 28 MB= - 66”#
: jlnce MA was assumed 100, then
(:arry over factor from A to B =
I
,20 1’0
-66 = - .a?.
130 Trial MB
= -100 i-53
r To find carry over factor from B
to A, take moments about B and
F curve fequate to zero.
IHence

743.8x15.6-c~ $X25.9=0
07 2293 25.88 29.7’7 33.65 37;33
\Nhence
MA=-53.2”#
Therefore carry over factor B to
A = - 53.2 = - a532
100
2.06 6.07 (Note: For the moment sign con-
ventlon used in thls book carry
over factor would be plus.)
(C) Calculation of Beam Stlff-
ness Factors
k-- 24.4 ---i When a beam Is freely sup-
ported at one end A and fixed at
743.8 the far end B, the stiffness fac-
tor at the A end is measured by
Table All.3 shows the calculations for computln@ the moment necessary at’A to produce unit rota-
the areas and the centroids of the three M/I tion of the elastic curve at A.
diagrams of Fig. A11.30. Substituting values In Art. All.4 it was proved for beams of
from Table In equatlons (5) and (6). unlform section that EQA = MAL/41 or MA = 4EIQA/
L. In a continuous structure at any joint all
!$.$ MA+ F MB+8504 = 0 - - - - - -(7) qembers have the same 0, thus 4EQ 1s constant
snd the stiffness K of any prlsmatlc beam Is
11922 18122 proportional to I/L. For beams of variable
MB+179809=O- - - - - -(8)
100 MA+ - 100 section the stiffness factor K may be wrltten:-
The value 100 In the denominators Is due to the K=(-Io/L - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(9)
fact that trial values of 100 were assumed for where I, Is the moment of inertia at a partlcu-
MA and MB. Solving equations (7) and (8) we lar reference section and c Is a constant to be
obtaln; found for each non-uniform member. Thus for
MA = - 315”# and MB = - 785’#. non-uniform members
(B) Calculation of Carry Over Factors EQA=MAL/~cI~ - - - - - - - - - - - - (lo)
To determine the carry over factor from A tC By the moment area slope principle, the
B consider end A as freely supported and B as slope at A ‘when B is flxed equals the area of
fixed. A moment MA = 100 Is applied at A which the M/I diagram bet’Jeen A and B.
produces the M/I curve of Fig. A11.30b. Due to Taking MA = 100, MB was found t0 equal
the deflection of the beam Under this loading a -66"#. Thus EQA = 4(84:).7 - .66X743,8) = 1419.
restralning moment at B to cause tangent of The value 4 Is due to the strip width SlnCe
elastic curve to remain horizontal will exist. true area is wanted and only average ordinate
This unknown fixed moment at B has arbitrarily was Used In Table All .3.
been taken as 100, thus producing a M/I Curve Equating this result to EqUatlOn (10)
 100 x 40
1419 = 4cxl , whence c = .707 Example Problem 1.
I, was taken as the value at the A end or 1. Fig. All.33 shows a single bay rectangular
(See Fig. A11.27). bent carrying a distributed side load on one
Therefore KAB = .707 IA/L leg as shown. The K or I/L values for each
member are given on the figure.
Similarly for end B:-
Under the given loading It Is obvlous that
E@B = 4(743.8-.532x845.7) = lz;;’ the frame will sway to the right or in other
words, joints B and C will undergo considerable
whence
horizontal movement. The moment distribution
c = .85 and KBA = .05 IA/L method assumes that only joint rotation takes
place. To make this assumption true for this
All. 11 Frames with Unknown Joint Deflections Due structure we will add an Imaginary support at
to Sidesway * joint C which will prevent sidesway of the frame
as illustrated In Flg.Al1.34. The end moments
In the example problems so far treated the In the frame will then be found by the moment
joints of the particular structure were assumed
to rotate without translation or with a definlt ,e distrlbutlon process. Fig. All.34 shows the
amount of translatory movement. results of this process. To explain, the solu-
Translatlon of
the jolnts may however, be produced by shorten- tion beglns with computing the fixed end moment
ing and lengthenlng of the members due to axial on member AB = WLe/12 = (300x25+-‘)/12 = 15.63
loads and by lateral sway due to lack of dlag- thousands of foot lbs. This value with the
onal shear members. The problem relative to proper sign Is wrltten at the head of a column
the effect of jolnt translation due to axial of figures on member AB as shown In Flg.Al1.34.
stresses is treated in a later article. In Now considering Joint B, the unbalanced
this article only the effect of sldesway of joint moment of 15.63 is distributed as follows:-
rectangular frames on the frame bending moments To Member BA = - 15.63 (40/190) = - 3.27, Carry
will be consldered. over to Joint A = - 3.27/2 = - 1.63
Fig. All.31 illustrates cases of frames To Member BC = - 15.63 (150/190) = - 12.36. Car-
where only rotation of joints takes place (neg- ry over to Joint C = - 12.36/2 = - 6.18
lectlng axial deformation) whereas Flg.Al1.32
illustrates conditions ln which sidesway takes
place and the joints suffer translation as well 16’ I------- 70’ ----++ 6’ )
as rotation.
External
Support

J7 A

Fig. All. 33
Symmetry of Structure Frame prevented
& Loading from sidesway by
extern 1 restraint

B (
f-l mt-rlmmu-2
commo*t- (0. 0O)f f (0.00)
Symmetry m’ L--J1d Id Iii0 %A -12.36 bl------+ -6.18
of Loading -4-I I I I;1 t 2.44 t------ b1 4.88
i I
but Structure wnnnn,-am*. - 1.93 b,F -0.96
Symmetry of Structure, Unsymmetrical - bat0.76
Loading Unsymetrical - 0. 30 b,F -0.15
Fig. All.3 - b, to.12
- O.O4b,- -0.02
b l _-
t0 02
There are several methods of determining -1.53
the bend-lng moments due to sldesway. Only one
method will be presented here and it can best J
be explained by the solution of example prob- Fig. All. 34
lems .

* Also see Chapter C2, Part M.

All. 18 THE MOMENT DIST tIBUTION METHOD

11750 horizontal shear reaction at the upper end of

3517)(B r’:‘- -l?,c = 3606 lb. the vertical legs of the frame equal to 3606 lb.
8?Ct
Kending Moments Due to Sidesway.

Assume the structure sways sideways as

illustrated in Fig. h11.36, but with no
rotation of the upper joints. It was proven
25” in Art. All.8 that the end moments produced by
30O#/in the lateral movement of one end of a beam whose
I 3 ends are fixed against rotation are equal to
1 -3 , 1570
6EId/L’ where d is the lateral
Fig. All.36
movement.
the load P causes both vertical
In

6 I members to suffer the

same horizontal dls-
Fig. All. 35
placement at thelr
upper ends, hence their
end moments due to this
Now consider Joint C:- displacement are pro- y Fig.All.36 \
The unbalanced moment Is -6.18. To bal- portional to EI/La. 1
ance we distribute to CB = 6.18x150/190
4.88. Carry over to B = 2.44;
40/190 = 1.30. Carry over to D = 0.65
q

to CD = 6.18 x Since EI and L are

the same for each Vertical
A
I h
1,,,,11

Sidesway Without
member In our structure, Rotation of Joints
The balancing and carry over procedure is now the fixed end moments will
repeated for joints B and C, until the unbal- be the same magnitude for
anced moments become of negligible magnitude. each member. Therefore, for convenience we will
Fig.Al1.34 shows that 4 cycles have been car- assume fixed end moments of 10,000 ft.lbs. are
ried through. By keeping the ratio 150/190 set produced by the sidesway. We now use the moment
on the slide rule the unbalanced moments at distribution process in permitting the upper
joints B and C are distributed and chased back joints to rotate as illustrated In Fig. A11.37.
and forth as rapidly as one can write them The procedure is similar to that in Fig. A11.34.
down. Since joints A and D are assumed fixed, For example the solution is started by consider-
they absorb moments but do not give out any. ing joint B, The unbalanced moment is -10.
This is balanced by distributing 10x150/190 =
Fig. All.35 shows a free body diagram of 7.89 to BC and the remainder of 2.11 to BA.
each portion of the frame. The end moments
The carry over moments are ?.89/2 = 3.95 to C
are taken from the results in Fig. A11.34. and 2.11/B = 1.06 to A. Due to symmetry of
Consider member AB as a free body. To find loading and structure, the distributing and
the horizontal reaction HB we take moments carry over moments at joint C will be same as
about point A. at joint B, hence it is needless work to show
calculations at these joints. The carry over
mu q 300X25X12.5+11750-17570-2FjH~=O
moments from C to B will be identical to those
from B to C. Fig. All.37 shows the 5 cycles
hence HB = 87930/25 = 3517 lb.
have been carried out to obtain the final end
moments as shown below the double lines.
Now consider member CD as a free body. + 7.89 b
To find HC take moments about D. t 3.95 -- l/2 Due to symmetry
- 3.12 b of loading and
ZMD = 1530 + 770 - 25HC = 0, hence KC = 89 lb - 1.56 -l/2 structure it is not
t 1.23 b necessary to con-
We now place these horizontal forces on the + 0.62 - sider right hand
- 0.49 b portion as calcu-
top member BC as a free body as shown in the -0.25 - lations will be
upper portion of Fig. A11.35. The unknown c 0.20 b identical as shown
imaginary reaction RC at point C that was t 8.47 for left side.
orrmmmm -
added In Fig. All.34 to prevent sidesway is o%+cOm-0 B C
also shown. To find RC take ZFh = 0 p&&s *
8 s
IillF
1+1+1+1 ai
ml = 3517 + 89 -lSc = 0, hence RC = 3606 lb WPPPPP ,o
,- I.
Since the external reaction of 3606 does Fig. All. 37
not exist, we must eliminate it and find the
bending moments due to the sidesway of the
frame. In other words, the frame will sway
sideways until bending of the frame develops a
 Fig. All.38 shows a free body diagram of
the frame vertical members with the end moments
as found in Fig. A11.37. The shear reactions
HB and HC are each equal to (8470+9230)/25 =
708 lb. These shear reactions are then placed
on the free body of member BC In Flg. A11.38.
For equilibrium the summation of the horizontal
forces must equal zero. Thus P = 708+708 =
1416 lb. and acting to the right as shown in ‘“““I=24
Fig. A11.38. Since the reaction RC = -3606 in
Fig. All.38 must be liquidated and since the 12”
liquidating force P produced by the moments in
Fig. All.37 is 1416 lb. it is obvious the Fig. All. 41
values in Fig. All.37 must be multiplied by a
factor equal to 3606/1416 = 2.545. Therefore, SOLUTION:
the final bending moment values equal those of
Fig. All.34 plus 2.545 times those in Fig. Relat .ve Stiffness Factors: -
A11.37. Fig. All.39 shows the results and = g _ 3x24 KBC=$Z~:~ 4x16
Fig. All.40 the final moment diagram. %A L-24=3,
3 x 10
KCD =E L =r=;?
708 t A P= 1416 lb.
-f- B 7%-c The distribution factors for each member at
8470
8470 joints B and C, which equal K/ZK are recorded in
Hc=7da the small 0 on Fig. All .41a.

Fixed End Moments: -

25”
Fig. All. 38
For Member AB = PL/8 = 100x24/8 = 300 in.lb.
For Member BC = PL/8 = 100x16/8 = 200
I I
As explained in example problem 1, the
moment distribution is carried out in two steps,
one for joint rotation only and the .other for
effect of sidesway or horizontal translation of
- 11.75 - 1.53 joints B and C. Fig. A11.41a shows the moment
+ 21.56 + 21.56 distribution for no sidesway by placing an
t 9.81 + 20.03 Imaginary reaction RC at joint C. The process
is started at joint A and the order of joint
IB IC
balancing is ABCBC. As soon as a joint is
Fig. All. 39 balanced the carry over moments are immediately
carried over before proceeding to the next
joint. When a joint is balanced a horizontal
line is drawn,
F.E.M. - 200 200 F.E.M.
B, - 143 - - 71.5
- 42.8 - - 85.7 B,
B* 24.4 12.2
- 4.1-a B!d
b3 a-- 1.1
-363.2 -0. BS
47.3

4/7 2/3 t”
B C
317 l/3

T-7
Fig. All.40

Fkample Problem 2. Bent wlth Unequal Length

Legs and Plnned Ends. D

00
Flg.
All.41 shows a loaded unsymmetrical ,o,o
,I
000
II
frame. The final bendlng moments at B and C A Fig. Al 1.41a
will be determined. 9
ki
r4
All. 20 THE MOMENT DIS’I IBUTION METHOD

With the end moments known the reaction B1 119 - 59.5

RC can be calculated by a consideration of the 54.4-108.8 B1
free body of each member as shown in Fig. Be -31.0 --15.5
A11.41b. 5.2- 10.3 B,
BJ a -- 1.5
65 144.6 _19 Ba
e----w = 61.85 !i
-El 162.6
5.15

363*2PzHB=65

D
I - 3.15

Fig. All. 41b Fig. All. 41c F

To find HB take moments about A, cr’ S.OL - p-6.02 + 10.85

B la.85 q 16. 87 lb.
looX12+362.3-24H~ = 0, HB = 65 lb. 144.6 162.6
10.85
OB3.02
To find HC take moments about D,
-47.3+15HC = 0, HC = 3.15
Placing these shear reactlons on member BC
Fig. All. 41d
and writing equilibrium of horizontal forces
we find that RC = 65 - 3.15 = 61.85 lb. We
now must liquidate this reaction RC and permit To liquidate the reaction RC = 61.85 it
frame to sidesway. will therefore require 61.85/16.87 = 3.67 times
the moments in Fig. A11.41~. Therefore the
We will assume that the frame is fixed final bending moments equal those In Fig.
ended and that an unknown horizontal force P A11.41a plus 3.67 times those In Fig, A11.41~.
at C will deflect the frame sideways. The Fig. A11.41e shows the results. The bending
fixed end moments for equal horizontal de- moment and shear diagram and the axial loads
flection of B and C will be proportional to now follow as a simple matter of statics.
EI/Ls of the vertical member. -363.2 47.3
530.0 596.0
For member AB,-&=$= .0417 166.8 643.3

For member DC, $ = += .0445

For convenience we will assume 417 in.lb. as

the fixed end moments on AB and 445 on DC.
The assumed fixed ends will now be eliminated
by the moment distribution process as shown
in Fig. A11.41~. The order of joint balance iA 0 0110 Fig. All. 41e
was ABDCBCBC.
Fig. A11.41d shows the shear reaction on Example Problem 3. Bending Moments In Truss
the vertical members at B and C. These forces Involving One Panel Without Diagonal She‘ir
reversed on the top member show an unbalanced Member.
force of 6.02 + 10.85 = 16.87 lb. Therefore
a force P = 16.87 was necessary to produce the Frequently, in aircraft struct!;ros a truss
bending moments that resulted on the frame is used in which a diagonal member must be left
due to sidesway. out of one or more truss bays. The external
shear load on such bays must be carried by the
truss chord members in bending. Fig. All.42
shows a 3 bay truss with no diagonal member in
the center bay. The bending moments on the
truss members will be determined for the truss
 All. 21

loading as shown in the figure. Then the distribution factors are: -

To Member cb = 4/7 = .57

To Member cf = l/7 = .14

To Member cd = 2/7 = .29

In this problem there are no loads applied

to the members between jolnts. The external
shear load on the truss to the right of the
center truss panel which equals 10 + 10 = 20
I- 60” --+- 60” -+- 60” +
must be carried through the center panel by the
truss chord members in bending. This bending
Fig. All. 42 causes the center truss to sway or deflect
until a resisting shear force equal to 20 is
SOLUTION: developed.

The relative moment of inertia values We will assume the truss center panel is
for each member are given in the circles on flxed at joints b, c, f, and g. The right end
the truss in Fig. A11.42. of this assumed fixed ended truss will be given
an upward deflection. This deflection will
The distribution factor to each member cause fixed end moments in members bc and gf
at each joint is then computed and equals which are proportional to I/L8 for each member.
K/ZK . The values are recorded in then Since L is the same for each member, the fixed
on each member in Fig. A11.43. The stiffness end moments will be proportional to I of the
factor K is proportlonal to I/L for the member. member.
For example for joint c: -
I bc = 4, = 3.
Igf

100 F.E.M. F.E.M. 100

-28.5 - &iJ -29 - -14.5
-13.6 - -27.2 -27 2 - -13.6 5.9 - 11.8

9.8-
-1.4 - -2.8
4.9 4.0
/. +-.- -. - 8.01.4 -0.9
4.1 - 2
1.0 - 0.5 0.5 a 0.5
-4.4 a- -0,3
__ 36.9 -lx=T
-24.9 45.7

b
/I

0.5
-0. fc -0.
-0.4 -7.0 0.0
-0.1 -12 9 0.0
-11.8 1.0 3.0
1.3 ed
0.1 1.5
_o. 0.9
-17.2 -0.3

-
6 75y.E.M. EE.M. 75
hg -19.7 - -39.4
-152 -24.4- -20.6 - -10.3
10.3- - 5.1 2.0 - 3.9
-2.6 t-- - 3.1 -2. 7d - - -1.4

22.3 34.0 Fig. All. 43

All. 22 THE MOMENT DIST RIBUTION METHOD
I-
Therefore the fixed end moments on member to axial loads produces translation of the
gf will be 75 percent of those on member bc. joints of the structure. Since the angles be-
tween the members at a jolnt remain the same
Assume 100 as the fixed end moments on due to continuity, this translation of joints
bc . Then a 75 x 10 = 75 is the accompanying bends the members between joints. (2) The
f lxed end moment on gf. bend1r.g moments on the members due to external
joint or lateral loads or those due to joint
We now remove the imaginary flxed SUppOrtS rotation produce lateral deflection of the
on the center truss and let them rotate to members between joints. The member axial loads
equillbrlum by the moment distribution process times these lateral deflections produce
as shown in detail in Fig. A11.43. secondary moments. These secondary moments can
be handled by the general method of moment
The first step is to record the assumed distribution however the stiffness and carry
fixed end moments of 100 at each end of member over factors and the fixed end moments are not
bc and 75 at each end of member gf with due constant but become functions of the axial
regard for sign. The moment distribution pro- loads.
cess will be started at joint C. The unbal-
anced moment is 100 or -100 is necessary for Fig. All.45 shows a prismatic beam simply
static balance. Using the distribution fac- supported at A and fixed at B, with a moment
tors on joint C, we find -57 goes to cb, -29 MA applied at A and carrying an axial compres-
to cd and -14 to cf. Short lines are drawn sive load P. Sub. Figure a, b and c show the
below each of these numbers. Fifty percent of 3 parts which make up the moment diagram on the
these balancing moments are carried over to beam. WIthout the axial load P the portion (c)
the far end of each of these members. This would be omitted.
process is repeated at each joint until the
remaining balancing moments are negl.in;ible.
In Fig. All.43 the order of joint balance was
cfdebghacfdebghacfdebg. If the student will
follow this order he should be able to check
the figures in Fig. A11.43.

Fig. All.44 shows

free bodies of the truss
members bc and gf with
36’g
-r* Hc
Hfsf 28.7

(b)
MB
end moments from Fig.
60"
A11.43. The shear re-
action at ends c and f
by statics equals
-L (cl

Hc + Hf = 36.9+45.1
CT\ “” MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Fig. All. 44
+ 28.7+34 =
60 Fig. All. 45

1.377 f 1.045 = 2.422 lb.

By deflnltion the stiffness factor of beam
The external truss shear at line cf = 20 lb. AB is measured by the necessary moment MA to
Therefore it will take 20/2.422 = 8.25 times produce unit rotation (Q=l) for elastic line at
the final bending moments as found in Fig. point A. By the moment area principles, the
All.43 to develop a bendlng shear reactlon slope at A equals the shear at A due to the
of 20 lb. Thus the final moments are 8.25 moment diagrams acting as a load on a simply
times those in Fig. A11.43. supported beam at A and B. For a given unit
slope at A it is obvious that the required MA
The solution as given neglects the effect is less when the load P is acting as it pro-
of axial loads upon the value of the stiffness duces a moment load in (Fig. c) of the same sign
and carry over factors. Art. All. 12 explalns as the moment load due to MA. Thus the stlff-
how to Include these effects. ness of AI3 is less when carrying an axial com-
pressive load compared to that wlthqut It. For
All. 12 Effect of Axial Load on Moment Distribution I a tension axial load diagram C becomes a nega-
tlve moment diagram and thus MA must become
In the prevlous articles the effect Of larger to give unit slope at A. Or In other
axial loads upon the member end moments Of a words a member carrying a tensile axial load
continuous structure was neglected. The axial
has a greater stiffness than one wlthout axial
loads produce bending in the members of a COn- loads. It is evident that the moment dlagram
tinuous structure In two ways. (1) The short- due to P will also effect the magnitude of any
enlng or lengthening of the various members due
fixed end moments and also the carry over fac-
tor.

All.13 Fixed End Moments, Stiffness and Carry

over Factors for Beam Columns of Constant
Section*

In deriving expressions for fixed end mom-

ents, stiffness and carry over factors the beam
columns formulas of Chapter A5, must be used
in finding slopes, deflection and moments,
Mr. B. W. James in an excellent thesis at
Stanford University and later published by N.A.
C.A. as Technical Note #534 has derlved expres-
slons for these factors and has provided graphs
of these factors for use in routine design.
Figures All.46 to All.56 lncluslve are taken
from this thesis. The use of these Figures can
best be illustrated by the solution of several
problems.

All.14 Illustrative Problems**

Example Problem #12
.a
Fig. All.57 shows the same continuous beam
as used In Example Problem #4 (and solution #2).
For this example It has been assumed that such 0
axial compression loads exist in spans BC and CD
as to make the term L/j = 2.5 and 2.0 for these Carry-over factor. C = 2
2P
spans respectively, where j = am. Due to the Fig. All. 46
axial loads, new values of stiffness and carry
over moments as well as fixed end moments must
determlned as follows.
Span BC
p+L& .0104

From Fig. All.47 when L/j = 2.5, correction faC-

tor for stiffness factor = .775 when far end is
fixed and .36 when far end is pinned. flence,
KBO = .0104 X .775 = .00806
&-JB = .0104 x .36 = .00374
From Fig. A11.46, when L/j = 2.5 the carry over
factors are CBC = .73 and CCB = 0 if B Is con-
sidered freely supported.
From Fig. All.48 when L/J = 2.5 fixed end mom-
ents for uniform load = wL8/10.67 = 1 x 96’/
10.67 = 865 in. lb.
Span CD
K = I/L = l/72 = .0139, L/J = 2.0
From Fig. All.47 correctlon factor = .86, hence
QD = KDc = .86 x .0139 = .01198. Carry over
factor from Fig. All.46 = .62. Fixed end moments
from Fig. All.48 = wL’/11.2 = 1 x 72’/11.2 = 462
The distribution factor at joint C equals
(.00374/.00374 + .01198) = -238 to CB and the I I I /
remainder .762 to CD. ”
i/l’
* *

The balancing and carry over process is Stiffness factor coefficient. K = C i

similar to that in Example Problem #4.
Fig. All. 47
* See Chapter C2, Part L for members having a varying EI.
** Additional examples in Chapter C2, Parts G, L and M.
All. 24 THE MOMENT DIS? IBUTION METHOD

“I,
1, Lll

Fixed-end moment coefficient.

Fixed-end moment coefficient.
Uniform Load. Uniformly varybg load.
Axial compresslon.
Fig. All. 48 Fig. All. 49

I ’ n ’ I ik

L/1
Fixed-end momeit coefficient. Fixed-end moment coefficient.
Uniformly varying load. Concentrated load at mid-span.
Axial tension.
Fig. All. 50 Fig. All. 51
 All. 25

1.6

+I _yI I I I I 3.5 I I I I I I\\I

1.4

cA
or 1.0
/ I
%

0.8
- i--+--j--~y-qq~~~ - -.- -
! n
6.0, j ) ; j j--Jgqq
5:O 1
.l .1CI .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
0

RW$y$,f
Fig. All.52 Fixed-end moment coefficient. concentrated load.

j / i /

/
I
0 .1 .* .s .a .6
a/L REP
&qCA ?xQ?
Fig. All. 53
 All. 26 THE MOMENT DIS’ LIBUTION METHOD

C’ W‘-,, A’ \&cabane /A ,‘B c

Fig. All.58 \\,,.

\ .%
i Spruce
FPf VP f
Axial Beam Loads
c,-11758 ,I-= j-p565/1~nwJ
-- 17.21 I = 22 A B
A’
Span-AB, A’B’ Span-AA’
Fig. All. 59

Fig. All.59 shows the total beam axial loads in

the various portlons of the beam by actdlnp the
values shown In Fig. All .S8. The outer, span AB
due to the axial loads induced by dr;i[: wires oj’
drag truss Is subjected to a var‘ylng load. As is
customary In design of such wini: beams the axial
load In span AB will be taken as equ:il to the
$ average load or (-9571-8565-7559)/3=-p565#.
The beam bendlng moments at the support
Cwlumn distribution factor. 2g-CL. points will be deteralned by the moment distribu-
tlon method.
Fig. All. 56
Calculation of Factors:-
Span AB
I = 17.21, L = 100, I/L = .172
E = 1300,000, P = 8565
300,000 x 17.21 _ 51 l
0
s! 8565
Distributil
c-.-. n Plri
.--‘“r ” .I3 0 .62 62 L/j = 100/51.1 = 1.96
Fixed
BalanceEndJoint3
Mom, -8830 865
18. - -865 462 ~- -h62
-.-__
C.O. tot -13.2
From Flg. All.47 when L/j = 1.96, correctlon
Bal. Joint C /14&O 243.8, factor = .86 for fixed far.end and .52 for plnn-
Carry-over
Balance D
0- ---148 ed far end. Therefore
L3kL
Carry-OWX
Final Mom. -683 882 -105.8 705.8 314 314 KAB = .52 x -172 = .0895
KBA = .86 x .172 = .148
Comparing these results with those of Problem #3 From Fig. A11.46, when L/j = 1.96, the chrry ever
we find moment at C Is Increased 15.7 percent factors are :-
and that at D Is decreased 8.5 percent. For
larger values of L/j the difference would be c.0 .BA = -62, and zero from A to B since B
greater. Is considered In Its true state or freely sup-
ported. From F1gO All,48 when L/j = 1.96 equa-
Example Problem #13 tion for flxed end moment for uniform load =
Fig. All.58 shows the upper wing of a bl- wL2/11.25 = 32 x ?%‘,‘11.25 = 28420”#.
The wing beams are continuous over 3 The overhand moment MBc = 60 x 26.6 x
plane.
spans. The distributed air loads on the front (32+16)/2 = 38300”#.
Center Span AA’ :-
beam are shown in the figure, also the axial
loads on front beam induced by the lift and drag 1 = 22, I/L = 22/84 = .262, P = - 1175E
truss. The bay sectlons of the spruce are shown j = ,300,000 x 22 = 4Q 4
In Fig. A11.58. The moment of lnertla In each 11758
span will be assumed constant, neglecting the L/j = 84/49.4 = 1.70
Influence of tapered filler blocks at strut
points n KAA~ = KAIA = .262 X .896 z .234
C.O. Factor = .585
 -
Flxcd end moment = wL2/11.35 = 31 x x22/11.35 = For member BC
19300"# p = - 27150, I/L = .0083, I = .332
The moment distribution process Is given j = (3%#29/2:18.~2, L/j =G2
in Fig. A11.60. If the axial loads were neglec = 2.12
ted, the bending moment, at support A and A’
wou1.d be 19480, thus the axial Influence ln- 'rom Fig. A11.47, stiffness factor = .82 x .0083
creases the moment at A approximately 7.5 per- I .00681
cent. 0 ‘ram Fig. All.46 C.O. Factor = .66

6 ITar Member AC
P =10400#, I/L = -0029, I = .137
c
,

2.42
Stiffness factor = .0029x1.18= .00342
C.O. faotor = .39
1'lg. All.63
- shows the moment dlstrlbutlon solu-
tion which includes the effect of axial loads on
jolnt rotation. Comparlng the results ln Figs.
411.62 and 63, the moment %A of 24050 Is 29 per-
cent larger than that in Fig, 62, and the moment
st B Is 18 percent larger. The effect on the ax-
Etuample Proolem #14 la1 loads of these new flnal moments will be
Fig. All.61 shows a triangular truss com- quite small, and thus further revision Is un-
posed of tinio members fixed at A and B and rigiC I- :necessary.
ly joined at C to the axle bar. Let It be re-
quired to determine the end moments on the two
members conslderlng the effect of axial loads c)n
Joint rotation and translation.

1.63

-72000

1Zffect on End Moments Due to Translation of

Jolnt C Due to Axial Loads.
,
The movement of joint C normal to each
18000 Inember ~111 be calculated by virtual work.
(Reference Chapter A7). Fig. All.64 shows the
Solutlon:- virtual loading of l# normal to each member at C.
The magnitude of the axial loads In the The Table shows the calculation of the normal de-
members Is influenced by the unknown restralnlr 1g flections at C.
moments at A and B. To obtain a close approxl-
matlon of the axial loads, the end moments in Table
the two members will be determined wlthout con-
sideration of axial loads. Thus the external
joint moment of 4 x 18000 = 72000 In. lb. at C
Is distributed between the two members as showr1 ~I
In Pig. A11.62. With the member end moments
known the axial loads and shear reactions at A
and 8 can be found by statics. The resulting Thus the deflectlon of joint C normal to
<axial loads are BC equals .202" In the dlrection assumed for
Pile - 7360# and P8C = - 24240# and the the unit load, and the deflection of C normal to
shear react ions, SA = 198# and S8 = 2332#. AC = .207".
With the axial loads known the modifked
beam factors can be determined.
All. 28 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

All. 15 Secondary Bending Moments in Trusses with

Rigid Joints. *

Often in alrplane structural design trusses

with rigid joints are used. Rigid joints are
produced because of welding the members together
at the truss joints or by the use of gusset
plates bolted or riveted to each member at a
truss joint, When a truss bends under loading
All. 64 the truss joints undergo different amounts of
movement or deflection. Since the truss members
are held rigidly at the joints, any joint dls-
placement will tend to bend the truss members.
The flxed end moments due to support de- The bending moments produced in the truss mem-
flection equals M = GEId/L’ as derived in Art. bers due to the truss joint deflections are
A11.7. However, the secondary moments due to generally referred to as secondary moments Bnd
axial loads times lateral deflection modify thlE 3 the stresses produced by these moments as
equation. “James” has shown that the modified secondary stresses.
equatlon Is,
Since fatigue strength is becoming more
6EId If K=i and R = t , than important in aircraft structural deslgn, the
Mf ixed end = L-1)
question of secondary stresses becomes of more
M = 6m importance than in the past. The moment dlstrl-
Sg-a ’ bution method provides a simple and rapld method
for determining these secondary moments in truss
Flg. All.56 shows a plot of 2/3-a against L/j. members due to truss deflection. The general
For Member BC:- procedure would be as follows: -
R= .202/40= .00505 K=I/L= .0083,
(I.) Find the horizontal and vertical displace-
2g-a = 1.08 for L/j = 2.12. ments of each truss joint due to the criti-
Hence, fixed end moments due to translation of cal design condition. (See Chapter A7 for
joint C equal’s- methods of finding truss deflections).
6x .0083x .00505x29,000,000=-6750~y
NBC =kB = 1.08 (2) From these displacements, the transverse
deflection of one end of a member with
For Member AC respect to the other can be found for each
R= .207/47.2= .00438 K= .0029, 2(3-a= .92 truss member.
when
L/j =2.42and member is in tension. (3) Compute the fixed end moments on each member
hence 6x .00438x .0029x 29,000,OOO --_ due to these transverse displacements.
MAC=McA= .92
(4) Calculate stiffness and carry-over factors
-2400”# for each truss member.
The signs are minus because inspection shows
that the moments tend to rotate ends of members (5) Calculate dlstrlbution factors for each
counter clockwise. (Ref. Art. All .2) truss joint.
Fig. All.65 shows the moment distribution
for these moments. The magnitude of the moment (6) Carry out the moment distribution process
at B Is 6.7 percent of that in Fig. All.63 and to find the secondary moments at the ends
10.4 percent at JOlnt C, however, it is reliev- of each member.
ing. in this example.
(7) Calculate the stresses due to these second-
ary moments and combine with the pTimary
axial stresses in the truss members due to
truss action with pinned truss joints.
All. 16 Structures with Curved Members.
The moment distrlbutlon method can be ap-
plied to continuous structures which include
curved as well as straight members. The
equations for finding the stiffness factors,
carry over factors and fixed end moments for
straight members cannot be used for curved mem-
Fig. All. 65 bers. The elastic center method as presented
* Also see Chapter C2, Part H.
in Chapter A9 provides a rapld and simple diagram. Thus to find the distance z from B
method for determining these values for curved to this centroid we take moments of the M/EI
members. The use of the elastic center method diagram about B and divide by 0 the total area
in determinIng the value of stiffness and of the M/E1 diagram. Thus
carry over factors will now be explained.
j;= -2(.667L) + 1(.333L) _ - L _ L
All. 1’7 Structures with Curved Members.
-2+1 -1

Thus the centroid of the total moment weight 0

Before considering a curved member a
which equals one lies at point A or a distance
straight member of constant EI will be con-
L to left of B.
sldered. Fig. All.66 shows a beam freely
In using the elastic center method to de-
termine the stiffness and carry-over factor for
Fig. All. 66 a stralght beam, we assume that the bending
moment curve due to a mom,ent applied at A Is of
deflected beam such magnitude as to turn the end A through an
,“,‘3 MB angle of 1 radlan. As shown above, the moment
weight @ for this loading is unity or 1 and its
centroid location Is at A. Then by the elastic
Fig. All. 6’7 center method we find the moment required to
M~=F+?=~B turn end A back to zero rotatlon. The value of
this moment at A will then equal the stiffness
factor of the beam AB. In order to simplify
the equations for the redundant forces the
M/E1 Diagram elastic center method refers them to the elastic
center. From Chapter A9 the equations for the
redundant forces at the elastic center for a
structure symmetrical about one axis are: -

-2 er
MO = z dsFEI - - - - - - - - - - -

supported at end A and fixed at end B. A -2 Ids x - - - (2)

Yo =
moment MA is applled at end A of such magni- IY ----------
tude as to turn end A through a unit angle of
one radian as illustrated in Fig. A11.66. By 2 Ibs Y
=p-------------(3)
X0
definition, the necessary moment MA to cause IX

this unit rotation at A is referred to as the

stiffness of the beam AB. In Art. All.4 it Fig. All.69 shows beam of Fig. All.66 re-
was shown that thls requlred moment was equal placed by a beam wlth the reaction at end A
in magnitude to -4EI/L. It was also proved replaced by a rigid bracket terminating at
that this moment at A produced a moment at point (0) the elastic center of the beam, which
the fixed end B of 2EI/L or a moment of one due to symmetry of the beam lies at the mld-
half the magnitude and of opposite sign to point of the beam. The elastic moment loading
that at A. Fig. All.67 shows the bendlng 1s pls = 1 and its location Is at A as shown in
moment dlagram which causes one radian rota- Fig. A11.69.
tion of end A. Fig. All.60 shows the M/E1
diagram, which equals the moment diagram
divided by EI which has been assumed constant.

The total moment weight $ as explalned

in Chapter A9 equals the area of the M/E1
diagram. Thus @ for the M/E1 diagram in
Fig. All.68 eqUalS,
Fig. All. 69

Solving for redundants at (0) by equations (l),

(2) and (3).
In other words the total elastic moment
weight g equals one or unity. MO = & =& = - EI/L
The location of this total moment weight
$? ~111 colnclde with the centrold of the M/E1
All. 30 THE MOMENT DIS’I IBUTION METHOD

is removed and end A is connected by a rigid

bracket terminating at the elastic center of
the structure. We will now find the required
forces at (0) to cancel the unit rotation at A
‘7, !&i Y which was assumed in Fig. A11.71.
X0 I. -= 0, because y the vertical
IX
distance of @s load to x axis through elastic
center (0) Is zero.

Fig. All.70 shows these forces acting at

the elastic center.

A-=q$$-+B Fig. All. 73

Fig. All. 70 The total area of the M/E1 curve for the
curve In Fig. All.72 if calculated would equal
The bending moment at end A equals one or unity as explained in detail for a
straight member. The centroid of this M/E1
diagram would if calculated fall at point A.
EI Thus In Fig. All.73 we apply a unit !& load at
---2L
A and find the redundant force at 0. Due to
synunetry of structure about a vertical or y
By definition the stiffness factor is the
axis the elastic center lies on this symmetrIca
moment at A which Is required to turn end A
through an angle of 1 radian. Thus 4EI/L axis. The vertical distance from base line AB
to elastic center equals 7 = .6366r. (See
is the stiffness factor and thls result
page A3.4 of Chapter A3).
checks the value as previously derlvecl in
Art. A11.4.
The elastic moments of inertia Ix and Iy
can be calculated or taken from reference
The bending moment at B in Flg. All.70
sources such as the table on pace A3.4.
equals,
Whence,
= -- EI
L
I, = .2970r Y, but t = EI1
Hence the carry-over factor from A to B
.2978r3
1s .5 and the carry-over moment Is of opposlte Hence I, - EI
sign to that of the moment at A.
All. 18 Stiffness and Carry-Over Factors For Curved nr3t nr”
Members. IY =--F=- 2EI

Fig. All.71 shows a curved member, namely, Solving the equations for the redundants
a half circular arc of constant EI cross- at (0)) remembering & = 1 and located at point
sectlon. The end B is fixed and the end A Is A.
freely supported. A moment MA is applied at
A of such magnftude as to cause a rotation at Mo=-&&==.+~
A of 1 radian as illustrated In the Fig.
Fig. All.72 shows the general shape of the EI
bending moment curve which is statically in-
determinate. In Fig. All.73 the support at A
Yo = - msx - - (1)(-r) _ 2EI
IY nr’
__ -nr
---

1 rad.
= D&Y - (1)(-.636Gr) = _ 2 . 14EI
X0 0.2978r 3 r2
IX
E-i

Fig. All.74 shows these forces acting at

the elastic center. The bending moment at A
equals the stiffness factor for the curved beam
Fig. All. 71 Fig. All. 72 fixed at far end B and freely supported at near
 All. 31

end A. The ratio of the bending moment at The method of how to handle this remaining
point B to that redundant force can best be explained by pre-
at point A will n senting some example problem solutions.
give the carry- c-2. EI/r2 All. 19 Example Problems. Continuous Structures
over factor. .6&j 2EI Involving Curved Members.
m T
nr2 B
Bending Example Problem 1
moment at A, B
Fig. All. 74
Fig. All.76 shows
MA d& 2.145 (0.6366r) - (3)r a frame consisting of
both straight and
= -0.318EI 1.36EI EI curved members. Al-
- ___ - 0 . 636 -EI = - 2.314 - r though simplified C
r r r L 60”
q

relative to shape, 1-2

Bendin,? moment at B, this frame is somewhat 6
representative of a
, L=80” L=80” ,.
-0.318EI _ 1.36EI + 0.636EI =
- 1 . 042 EI
fuselage frame with two
MB = I‘ r r r cross members, one be- I=1 I =1
l,
tween A and C to support 1,
installations above ,r
Therefore the stiffness factor for a half-
circular arch of constant EI is 2.314 EI/r. cabin ceilin,? and the
1.
other between F and D \ w = 50#/in.
The carry-over factor equals the ratio of to support the cabin lllilll~l~ll~‘,
MB to MA or (-1.042 EI/r)/(-2.314 EI/r) = floor loads. The frame F ’
0.452. It should be noticed that the carry- supporting forces are
over moment has the same sign as the applied assumed provided by
moment at A as compared to the opposite Sign the fuselage skin as
for straight members. In other words, there shown by the arrows
on the side members. E
are two points of inflection in the elastic
curve for the curved arch as compared to one Eccentricity of these
for the straight member. skin supporting forces Fig. All. 76
relative to neutral
FIXED END MOMENTS axls of frame member is neglected in this simpll-
fled example problem, since the main purpose of
The fixed end moments on a curved member this example problem is to illustrate the appli-
for any external loading can be determined catlon of the moment distribution method to
quite rapidly by the elastic center method as solving continuous structures involving curved
illustrated In Chapter A9 and thus the ex- members.
planation ~vill not be repeated here.
SOLUTION
The student should realize or understand
that when the end moments on a straight member Due to symmetry of structure and loadlng,
in a continilous structure are found from the no translation of the frame joints takes place
moment distribution process, the remaining due to frame sidesway.
end forces are statically determinate, whereas
for a curved member in a continuous structure, The frame cross members AC and FD prevent
knowing the end moments does not make the horizontal movement of joints A, C, F, and D
curved member statically determinate, since due to bending of the two arches. Any horizonta
we have six unkno:yns at the two SUppOrtS as movement of these joints due to axial deforma-
illustrated in Flg. All.75 and only 3 equations tion is usually of minor Importance relative to
of static equili- causing bendlng of frame members. Therefore it
brium. Even when can be assumed that the frame joints suffer
the end moments Fig. All. 75 rotation only and therefore the moment dlstri-
are determined bution method is directly applicable.
from the moment
distribution Calculation of stiffness (K) values for
process there each member of frame: -
still remains
one unknown, Upper curved member ABC: -
namely the hori-
zontal reaction EI
KABC = K CBA = 2.314 r. This value was
at one of the
beam ends. derlved in the prevlous Art. A11.18.
All.32 THE MOMENT DIS' tIBUTION METHOD

Substituting: - distributed moment.

2.314x 1 Calculation of Fixed End Moments.

= .0770 (E is con-
KABC = KcBA = 30
stant and therefore omitted since only relative The curved members of the frame have no
values are needed for the K values.) applled external loadings hence the fixed end
moments on the curved members Is zero.
The relative moment of inertia of the
cross-section of each frame member is given For member AC, f lxed end moment equals
on Fig. A11.76. WLQ/12 = 10 x SO=/12 = 3000 In. lb. and for
member FD = 50 x 60 ‘/12 = 15000 in. lb.
= 2.314x = J540
KFED = KDEF 30 Since the supporting skin forces on the
slde members have been assumed acting along
For all straight members, the stiffness factor centerline of frame members, the flxed end
equals 4EI/L. Hence, moments on members AF and CD are zero.
= 4x2/60 = 0.1333
KAC = KCA Moment Dlstributlon Process: -
= 4x6/60 = 0.4000
KFD = KDF Flg. All.77 shows the calculations in
carrying out the successive cycles of the
= %A - 4x1/80 = 0.0500 moment dlstributlon process. Due to symmetry
KAF

KCD = SC q 4x1/80 = 0.0500

DISTRIBUTION FACTORSAT EACH JOINT: - carry over from C : -. 452 X C(-880)

JOINT A.

ZK = O-1333+ .0770+ .0500 = 0.2603

Let D equal symbol for dlstrlbutlon factor.

DABC = .0770/0.2603 q 0.296

DAC = .1333/0.2603 = 0.512

DAF = .0500/0.2603 = 0.192

JOINT F.

ZK = .0500+0.400+0.1540 = 0.6040

DFA = .0500/.6040 = .082

D = .4000/.6040 = -663
FD
= .1540/.6040 = .255
DFED
Carry-Over Factors: -

For the straight members the carry-over -1061/E

factor is 0.5 and the moment sign is the same 469
-2341 Fig. All. 77
as the distributed moment when the sign con- 105
ventlon adopted In this chapter is used. -521
23
For a half circular arch of constant I, -8753
the carry-over factor was derived In the pre-
vlous article and was found to be 0.452. The
Sign of this carry-over moment was the same of frame and loading, the process need Only be
slgn as the dlstributed moment at the other carried out for one-half of frame, thus In Fig-
end of the beam. However, using the slgn ure A11.77, only joints A and F are considered
convention as adopted for the moment dlstrl- since the numerical results at D and C would be
butlon in this book, the carry-over factor the same as at A and F respectively. In the
would be minus or of opposite sign to the figure the dlstrlbution factors are shown In
 All. 33

the 0 at each joint. The process is started inertia about x and y axes through the elastic
by placing the fixed end moments with due re- center.
gard to sign at the ends of members AC and FD,
namely, -3000 at AC, 3000 at CA, -15000 at FD Bly
and 1.5000 at DF. We now unlock joint A and
find an unbalanced moment of -3000 which means
a plus 3000 is needed for static balance.
Joint A is therefore balanced by distributing
,512 x 3000 = 1536 to AC, i296 x 3000 = 880 to
ABC, and .192 x 3000 = 576 to AF. Short hori-
zontal lines are then drawn under each of these
distributed values to indicate that these are
balancing moments. Carry-over moments are
immediately taken care of by carrying over to Y’ 19.1 x n (30/l) = l4 . 4gV
joint F, .5 x 576 = 280. From A to C the nx30+g
carry-over moment would be .5 x 1536 = 760 and 1 2
therefore the carry-over from C to A would be
.5(-1536) = -768 which is recorded at A as (NOTE:- 19.1 equals distance from line AC to
shown. For the arch member ABC, the carry-over centrold of arch member ABC.)
moment from A to C would be -0.452 x 880 =
-401 (not shown) and therefore from C to A = Calculation of moment of inertia Ix: -
-0.452 x (-880) = 401 as shown at joint A in
the figure for arch member CBA. Jolnt C in Member ABC
the figure has been balanced once for the nrd ’
purpose of helping the student understand the =.31*5+-
IX I I
sign of the carry-over moments which flow to
the left slde from the right side of the frame. = .3x303 nx30
+ ~ x 4.61p = 10100
1 1
After balancing joint A and taking care
of the carry-over moments, we imagine A as Member AC = 7 x 14.49 a = 6310
flxed again and proceed to joint F where we Ix total = 16410
find an unbalanced moment of -15000 + 288 =
-14712, thus plus 14712 is necessary for Total elastic welght of structure equals
balancing. The balancing distribution is .255
Z ds/I = (n x 30/l) + 60/2 = 124.24.
x 14712 = 3750 to FED, .663 x 14712 = 9750 to
FD and .082 x 14712 = 1212 to FA. The carry- The next step in the solution is to draw
over moments are .5 x 1212 = 606 to A, .452 x the bendlng moment curves on this frame portion
3750 = 1695 from D to F by way of the arch due to the glven lo d on member AC and the end
member and -.5 x 9750 = -4875 from D on member moments as found by the moment distribution
FD. We now go back to jolnt A which has been process In Flg. All 77. It is composed of
unbalanced by the carry-over moments and repeat three parts labeled (1) to (3) In Fig. A11.79.
the balancing and carrying-over cycle. In the
Portions (1) and (2 are due to the end moments
complete solution as given in Figure All.77 and portion (3) due to the distributed lateral
each joint A and F was balanced flve times.
load on member AC.
The final bendlng moments at the ends of the
members at each joint are shown below the
double short lines.

The arch member ABC has 3 unknown forces

at each end A and C or a total of 6 unknowns.
With 3 equations of static equilibrium avaIl-
able plus the known values of the end moments
at A and C as found from the moment distribu-
tion process, the arch member Is still Static-
ally indeterminate to one degree. Thus the
horizontal reaction at A or C as provided by
the axial load in member AC must be found be-
fore the bending moments on arch ABC can be The next stev Is to find the 8s (area of
calculated. M/I curve ) for each portlon and its centroid
location.
The first step In this problem is to find
the elastic center of the frame portlon com-
posed of members ABC and AC, as shown In Fig.
A11.78, and then find the elastic moments Of
All. 34 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

% Sl = 1094 x 7-I x 30/l = 103000 45 lb. The member AC also suffers an axial load
due to the shear reactions at the top of members
@Se = 60 x 2353/Z = 70590 FA and DC. Fig. All.81 shows free bodies of the
side member FA and DC with the end moments as
% Sa = (-.667x60x4500)/2 = -90000 found in Fig.Al1.77.
The shear reaction -38.1 38.J
Z& = 83590 at A and C can be 1259 A c 1259
found by taking
7 “A-RA s-C
Fig. All.80 shows the ,$ values concen- moments about lower
trated at their centroid locations and referred ends. Thus for FD, 80”
to the x and y axes through the elastic center. RA = (1259 + 1791)/80
= 38.1 lb. Likewise -l D
= 38.1 lb. These LF
Rc 1791 &I
reactions react on
Fig. All. 81
,’ cross member AC in the
/” ; opposlte directions
- thus giving a compression load of 38.1 lb. In
member AC, which must be added to the tension
A li? load of 46 lb. from the arch reaction to obtain
the final load In the cross-member.

Bending Moment in Lower Arch Member FZD

The frame hxs been imagined cut at A and the
arch end at A has been connected by a rigid The horizontal reaction on arch FED must
bracket to the elastic center. The redundants be found before the true bendinr; moments on the
at the elastic center which will cancel any arch can be found. The rjrocc.?dure is the Fame
relative movement of the cut faces at A can as for the upper arch. kigs. A11.81, 82, 83
now be computed. show the results for the lower frame portion.

Mo = ; “ds”? = ~-83590 = - 673 in . lb.

124.24 8753

/6g2
x0 = ’ %’ = [103000 (4.61) + 70590
IX
(-14.49) - 90000 (-14.49)] /
16410 q 46 lb.
E Fig. All. 82
-r, &x
yo= I = 0 because x = zero.
Y jF’ 19.1 x n(30/2)
= 900 1 15.76” ‘Y&Z 57.1
n x --30 + 60 57.1 I
The bending moment at any point on ABC 2 6
or AC equals that due to Mo and X0 plus the
moments in Flg. A11.79. .3x303
I, = + 15nx3.34= = 4.578
2 (60/6)(15.76)2 = 2478
For example,
IX = 7056
At point A on member ABC,
From Fig. A11.82,
MA = 1094 - 670+46x14.49 = 1091 (should =-
%SI q -8753 x 60/6 87530
be 1094 since moment as found in Fig. All.77
is correct one. Small error due to slide rule % SZ q .667 x 22500 x 60/6 = 150000
accuracy.
ei,, = - 6962n x (30/z!) = -328000
At point B on member ABC: -
z $3, = -265500
MB = 1094-670-46x15.51 = -289 in. lb.
Solvin,,; I’or Kedilndant forces MO :!ntl X0 (See
The horizontal reaction at A will not P‘icr. All. iiS)
produce any bcndin,F on member AC, thus the
values in Flp;. All.79 are the true moments.

The axial load in member AC by statics

from Fig. All.80 equals X0 or a tension load of
 :xample Problem 2. External Loads on Curved
x ,&Y--8753Oxl5.76+15OOOOx15.76-328000(-3.34)
7056 Iembers.
Q Ix
X0 = 294 lb. Fig. All.85 shows a frame which has ex-
;ernal loads applled to the curved member as
F lJ D Jell as to the straight members. The frame
supporting forces have been assumed as acting
uniformly along the side members AD and CE.
'he problem will be to determine the bending
aoments at frame points ABCDE.

Fig. All. 83 1000 B 1000

Bending moment at F on member FED,
MF = -6962+4650-294x15.76 q -6962 in.lb.
ME = -6962+4650+294x15.76 = 2340 in.lb.
The axial load in member FD = 294 lb.
compression plus 38.1 lbs. tension due to shear
reaction from slde members at points F and D
or a resultant load of 255.9 lb. compression. Fig. All. 85
Fig. All.84 shows the flnal bending moment
diagram on each member of the frame.

E
Member ABC
SOLUTION:-

Calculation of stiffness factors K. ,

2147 Member ABC. KAm = 2.314 I/r = 2.314x1.5/30 =

.1158
Member AC KAC = 41/L = 4 x Z/60 = .X33
c
KAD = 41/L = 4 x l/60 = .0667
2353’ j2353 KDE = 41/L q 4 x 3/60 = .2000
1259 A
w Calculation of Distribution Factors D.
JOINT A. ZK= .1158+ .1333+ .0667 = .3158
Member AF Member CD
DABC = .1158/.3158 = .366
DAC = .1333/.3158 = .422
DAD = .0667/.3158 = .212

JOINT D. ZK = .0667+ .2000 = .2667

Member FD DDA = .0667/.2667 = .25
DDE = 2000/.2667 = .75

‘8753 The carry-over factor for ABC Is -0.452 as pre-

8753 viously derived for a half circle arc, and 0.5
for the straight members.
6962 962
Calculation of Fixed End Moments
--s
For member AC, MA = MB LwLk &x10x60 =
Member FED
3000
E
For DE, MB = ME q PL/8 = 1000~60/8 = 7500
Figs. All. 84. Final Bending Moment Curves on Each
Member of Frame.
 All. 36 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

Curved member ABC. total elastic weight of member and its elastic
moments of Inertia about axes through the
The fixed end moments on this curved elastic center.
member due to the external loads will be de-
nx30
termlned by the elastic center method. The TOTAL EL4STIC WEIGHT = r, ds/I =E = 15
assumed static frame condition will be an arch . .
pinned at A and supported on rollers at B. = 62.83
(See Flg. A11.86)
Distance 7 from line AC to elastic center of
Fig. All.87 arch ABC equals 0.6366r = .6366 x 30 = 19.1 In.
shows the general 1000 = P B 1000 = P
Ix = 0.2978rS/I = 2978 x 303/1.5 = 5350
shape of the static l-l
moment. curve.
the frame portion
between the re- For A/G$=Jy\c
acttons and the load
points, the bending Fig. All. 86
moment equation is
M=P(r-r cos a). (2)

For the beam (1’)

(1) - ___--
portion between the
two 1000 lb. loads, Fig. All. 87
the bending moment Pi Static Moment Fig. All. 88
is constant and Curve.
equals, Calculation of redundant forces at elastic cen-
M=P(r -r cos 30°) ter.

Calculation of & Values. -(28800+167300) = -3122

MO=-*=
62.83
in.lb.
The Ids values equal the area of the M/I
curves. The moment curve in Fig. All.87 has x0 z-z2 &3Y 167300x5.7+28800(-9.1) =
been broken down into three parts labeled (1) Ix 5350
(1’ ) and (2). 129.3 lb.

flsl+&,
=2[r -
?(a - sin a)]
-
Y, = - ---.--=
z osx
IY
0 (because x = 0)

q 2 10;05x30s(.524- .5ij = 28800 The fixed end moments at ends A and C will
1 .
equal the moment due to the redundant forces Mn
The vertical distance y from line AC to and Y, since the static moment assumed was zer6
centroid of fls, and !i& values is, at A and C.

r(l-cos a -9) = 30(1- -867 - 0.5/‘82) _ MA = % q MO + Xoy = - 3122 + 129.3 (- 19.1)

y=
=- 652 In.lb.
a-sin a .524- .50
10 in.
Moment Dlstrlbution Process
@S* =F (1 - cos a). 0 = 120°, a - 30°.
Having determlned the fixed end moments,
distribution and carry-over factors, the moment
1000x308x2.1 dlstrlbution can now be carried out. Fig.
hi, = (l- .867) = 167300
1.5 All.89 shows the solution. The first cycle will
be explalned. Starting at joint (A) the un-
Vertical distance 7 from line AC to centroid of balanced moment Is -3000-652 = - 3652. The
@S, equals, joint Is balanced by distrlbutfng .432 x 3652
= 1543 to AC; .364 x 1543 = 1333 to ABC and
2r sin
0 8/2 = 2x30x0.867
2.1 = 24 8 in . .212 x 3652 = 776 to AD. The carry-over moment
‘i= from C to A = .5(-1543) q -772; from C on
member CBA to A = - .452(-1332) = 601; and from
Fig. All.88 shows the gs values and their lo- A to D = .5 x 776 = 388. Now proceeding to
catfon with respect to x and y axes through joint D the unbalanced moment Is -7500 + 388 =
the arch elastic center. -7112, The joint Is balanced by distributing
.75 x 7112 q 5340 to DE and the remainder 25
The elastic center method requires the per cent = 1772 to DA.
 All. 3’7

d.452 (-652) = C==*y

// /

Fig. All. 90 -l/CwLL = 4500

= 2513 x 60/2 = 75390

%

Fig. All.89
D.E
53401
-1500

-2610
1500

Ix.
2%

Calculation
= 218290

of elastic center location and

Distance y from line AC to elastic center =

19.1xnx30/1.5 = 1202” 12.97”
nx30.s 92.83
1.5 2

TOTAL EUSTIC WEIGHT = 92.83.

I, = .2978x30= +w (6.13)" + ffx 12.97’

The carry-over moments are: - 1.5 .

= 12713
From E to D = .5x (-5340) = -2670
Fig. All.91 shows the elastic center loca-
To A from D = .5 (1772) = 886 tion and the OS values together with thilr
centrold locatIons.
The first cycle Is now completed. Flve more
cycles are carried out in Fig. All.89 In order
to obtain reasonable accuracy of results. The
flnal end moments are listed below the double
short lines.

On arch member ABC the end moments of 584

are correct. However before the end moments
at any other point on the arch can be found
the horizontal reaction on the arch at A must X
be determlned. This reaction will be de-
termlned by the elastic center method. .97

A C
Fig. All.90 shows the bending moment
curves for members ABC and AC as made up of I ‘0s= -90000 t 75390 = - 14610
Fig. All. 91
5 parts labeled 1 to 5.
Solving for redundant forces at elastic center.
Calculation of pls values which equal area
of each moment curve divided by I of member.
MO = 2 as -218290
= -2356
2 ds/I = 92.83
I = 28800
3%
r, &y = 1673OOx11.83+368OO‘x6.13 +
@se= 167300 x0 = IX 12713

% = 584 x n x 30/1.5 = 36800

28800 (-2.97) -14610
12713
(-12.97), 181 lb .

Sk, =- (.667 x 4500 x 60/2) = -90000

All. 38 THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
I
The bending moment at any point on member (2) Find the bending moments at all joints
AC or ABC equals the values in Fig. All.90 and support points of the loaded structures
plus those due to MO and Xo in Fig. A11.91. in Figs. 7 to 10.

Thus at point A on member ABC,

MABC = 584-2356+181x12.97 = 584 in. lb. & Ggyfffij 4ooj~-$f400
which is the same as found by the moment dlstri-
bution process. 1
Fig. I Fig. 8
At point B on arch: -
MB from Fig. All.90 = 584+4000 = 4584
MB from Fig. All.91 = -2356-181x (30-12.97)
= -5476
Hence MB = 4.584-5476 = -892 in.lb.
k= 2 k=3 II=2
STRUCTURESWITH JOINT DISPLACEMENTS I, ,$pin ,,L
+ 24”+ 2O’l-j 5” b
For unsymmetrical frames or for frames Fig. 9
loaded unsymmetrically, the assumption that
only joint rotation occurs may give resulting
moments considerably In error. Joint dls- (3)
placement can be handled In a manner as
previously explalned and Illustrated for frames
composed of straight members.

The distribution of the skin supporting /r20+40” -j-32” +- 40”-+20’~

forces on the frame boundary are usually taken
as following the shear flow distribution for Fig. 11
the shell in bending as explained in a later
chapter. In the loaded beam of Fig. 11, the supports
B and E of the elevator beam deflect 0.1 inch
All. 20 Problems.*
more than supports C and D. Compute the re-
sultant bending moments at the supports and find
(1) Determine the bending moment dlagram for
reactions. EI = 320,000 lb.in.sq.
the loaded structures shown in Figs. 1
to 6.
(4) Fig. 12 Illustrates a continuous 3 span
wing beam, carrying a uniform alr load of 20
lb./in. Determine the beam bending moments at
strut points A and B. Take
IAB=l7in., 1~1 = 20 In., and E = 1.3~10’ In.a
Neglect effect of support deflection due to
strut axial deformation.
I- 16”+ 12”---/ ~5d’+- llO#q- loo’l+ llO’Li50~~
Fig. 3

j32”/- Fig. 12
Fig. 5

w = 12lb/in. (5) Figs. 13 to 15 are loaded structures that

suffer joint translation. Determine bending
moment dlagram.

Fig. 6

k2O’Y Fig. 14
* Also see Chapter C2, Parts F, L, M and Q. Fig. 13
Fig. 15
 CHAPTER A12

SPECIAL METHODS - SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD

A12.1 General. The slope-deflection method is ?ig. A12. la

another widely used special method for analyz-
ing all types of statically indeterminate
beams and rigid frames. In this method as in
the moment distribution method all joints are
considered rigid from the standpoint that all
angles betLveen members meeting at a joint are
ass?um?d not to change in magnitude as loads
are applied to the structure. In the slope
deflection method the rotations of the joints
are treatad as the unknowns. For a member
boundez by two end joints, the end moments can
be expressed in terms of the end rotations.
Furthermore for static equilibrium the sum of Fig. c
the end moments on the members meeting at a
joint must be equal to zero. These equations
of static equilibrium provide the necessary
conditions to handle the unknown joint rota-
tions and when these unknown joint rotations
are found, the end moments can be computed
from the slope-deflection equations. The ad-
vantages of the slope deflections method will Fig. e
be discussed at the end of the chapter after
the method has been explained and applied to
problem solution.
Figs. A12.1
A12. 2 Derivation of Slope Deflection Equation.

The problem is to determine the relation- distance A which causes end moments M’: and Mm, .
ships between the displacements of the end In deriving the slope deflection equations each
supports of a beam and the resulting end of the three beam deflections will be considered
moments on the beam. separately and the results are then added to
give the final equatlons. Fig. A12.2 shows Fig.
Fig. Al2.la shows a beam restrained at c repeated.
ends 1 and 2. It is assumed unloaded and of
constant cross-section or moment of inertia.
This beam is now displaced as shown in Fig. b, Fig.Al2.2 I_ L 4
namely, that the ends are rotated through the
angles 0, and e8 plus a vertical displacement
d, and d, of its ends from its original posi-
tion, which produces a relative deflection A Fig. A12.3
of its two ends, The angle fl representing the
swing of the member equals A/L.

The problem is to derive equations for

M1 and Ma in terms of the end slopes 0= and Fig. A12.4
8 Z, the length of the beam and EI. Figs. c,
d and e illustrate how the total beam deflectiol
in Fig. b is broken down into three separate
deflections. In Flg. c, the end (2) is con-
sidered fixed and a moment M\ is applied to
rotate end (1) through an angle 8,. In Fig.d, The applied moment M:, is positlve (tenslon in
end (1) is considered fixed and a moment Ml is bottom fibers). Since end (2) is assumed fixed
applied at (2) to rotate end (2) through an an unknown moment M’, is produced at (2). Fig.
angle Ba. In Fig. e, both ends are considered AX.3 shows the bending moment diagram made up
fixed and end (2) is displaced downward a of two triangles. M’, being unknown will be

A12.1
A12.2 SPECIAL METHODS - SLOE ‘E DEFLECTION METHOD

f
assumed also positive, as the algebraic solu- Fig. A12.6 shows the moment diagram for an
tion will determine the true sign of Mi. applied bending moment -M’:, which rotates end (2)
through an angle 8, when other end (1) 1s fixed
Two moment area theorems will be used in (See Fig. A12.5). In a similar manner as
deriving the slope-deflection equations, described before,
namely (I) that the change In slope of the
beam elastic curve between two points on the (-M”,L/2) + (-M”sL/2) = -(M':+Mt)L _ t5j
beam is equal In magnitude to the area of the ‘Z = EI EI 2EI
M/E1 diagram between the two points, and (II)
the deflectIon of a point (A) on the elastic Taking moments of M/E1 diagram about (2),
curve away from a tangent to the elastic curve
at (B) Is equal In magnitude to the first
moment about A of the M/E1 diagram between (A)
and (B) acting as a load.
or, - M’:, = m: _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - (6)
In Fig. A12.2 since 8, = 0, then 8, will
equal the area of the M curves divlded by EI. whence,

(M:L/2) (MkL/2) (M: + M’s)L 2EIS

8, z-+-e EI EI 2EI -- - (1) 0, =gandM:= La _-_____ (7)

The deflection of end (1) away from a Then from equation (6)
tangent at (2) equals zero, thus we take
moments of the moment diagram about (1) and M”,= - 4EI8
L “-----------m-(8)
equate to zero.

Fig. A12.8 shows the third part of the

beam deflection, namely, support (2) is deflected
downward a distance A assuming both ends fixed.
whence -ML = M5/2 _ _ _ - - - - - - - _ - - (2)

Fig. A12.4 shows the true shape of moment

diagram.

Substltutlng results in equation (2) in

equation (1) we obtaln,

4EI8,
81 = u4EI or M’I-
L
_------ (3)

Then from equation (2)

MI, = _ 2EF, _ - - - _ - - - - - - - - (4)

Fig. A12.10
The change in slope of the elastic curve
between the ends equal zero, thus by the moment
area theorem the area of M/E1 d1agra.m equals
zero.

Hence, (My + M; )L = o
2EI
whence MT = _ MT - - _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - (9)

From the deflection theorem,

x&J @) ++G&(&) = -A - - - - - - (10)

Subt. (9) in (10)

Fig. A12. 7 I
My = - Lg’--
6EIA __- -_ _- - -- (11)
 + 6EIA
=Le------------ ML-, = 2K (28, +e,) +MF, - - - - - - (18a
Ml’ (12)
M 2-1 =2K(28,+8,)+MF a ------ (18b
The combined effect of deflection 4, 0,
and A can now be obtained by adding the separ- A12.3 Hinged End. Slope Deflection Equation.
ate results.
Consider that end (2) of beam l-2 is free-
ly supported or in other words hinged. This
Ml-2 = Ml1f M’: + M’:’ = ?(2$ + ez-3A/L)
means that M,-1 Is zero. Thus equation (18)
can be equated to zero.
Let K = F and fl = A/L
M 9--1 = 2K (2e, + 9, - 3@) + MF, q 0
Then, M,-, = 2K (28,+8.-30) - - - - - - (13) whence
and Ma-,= -2K (28,+8,-3@) - - - - - (14) ZKe, = -K8, + 3K@ - .~MF,
These end moments due to the distortion
of the supports must be added to the moments Substituting this value In equation (17)
due to any applied loads on the beam when
considered as fixed ended. Let these fixed Ml-, = 3K(8, -@) +MF,-. - 0.5MF,-,- - -(lg)
end moments be labeled ME, and ME,. Then
A12.4 Example Problems.
equations (13) and (14) can be written includ-
ing these moments.
Problem 1
ML-, = 2K (28, +8,-3@) - ME, - - - (15)
Fig. A12.11 shows a two span continuous
M,-, = -2K (20, f8, -3@) - MF, - - - (16) beam fixed at ends (1) and (3) and carrying
lateral loads as shown. The bending moments at
points 1, 2 and 3 will be determined. Relat ve
MODIFIED SIGN CONVENTION
values of I are sho;un for each member.
Equations (15) and (16) have been 100 lb.
developed using the conventional signs for I- 12” w = 24 lb/in.
banding; moments. In general there are ad- 1 2ijjjjjj 3
vantages of using a statical sign conventlon L = 24” L = 24”
as ‘,vas used in the moment distribution method I =24 T I =48
in Chapter All. Therefore, the following
sign convention will be used in this chapter: - Fig. A12.11

SOLUTION:
(1) The r,otation of a joint or member is posi-
tive If it turns in a clockwise directlon.
Calculation of fixed end moments due to
applied loads -
(2) An 2nd moment is considered positive if It
tends to rotate the end of the member
clockwise or the joint counterclockwise. MF 1-z = -PL/8 = 100x24/8 = -300 in. lb.

This adopted sign convention is the same MF- = PL/8 = 300

as adopted for the moment distribution method
(See Art. A11.2). The signs as shown are determined from the
fact that the end moment at (1) tends to rotate
When equations (13) and (16) are revised the end of the member counterclockwise which is
for this nev; sign convcntlon they become: - a positive moment according to our adopted sign
convention. By similar reasoning the fixed in
moment at (2) is positive because the moment
ML-, = ZK (20, fez -30) +MF I - - - - (17) tends to rotate end of member clockwise. For
= 2K (28,+8,-3@)+ME span 2-3: -
M,-1 2 - - - - (18)

Equations (17) -ind (18) are referred to as the MF,-3 = wL2/12 = 24x24*/12 = -1152 in.lb.
slonz-deflection equations rihere K = EI/L and
MF,-, = 1152
B = A/L.
K Values K = EI,‘L. Since E is constant it
For no yielding or tr:~nsverse movement Of
will tie considered unity.
supports, A = 0 and equations (17) and (18)
bxome FOB BEAM 1-2, K = I/L = 24/24 = 1
FOR BEAM 2-3, K = 48/24 = 2
A12.4 SPECIAL METHODS - SLC E DEFLECTION METHOD

Substituting in slope-deflection equations 18a Example Problem 2

and 10b. (# = 0 since supports do not trans-
late.)
w E 12 lb/in.
12’
Beam 1-2. 8, = 0 because of fixity at (1). (1)
111111
L=24 t(2) L=24 t(3) L=20 (4)
I=24 t I=48 1 I = 20
Ml-, = 2K (28,+8.)+MF, K= 1 K= 2 K= I

Ml-2 = 2x1 (o+e2)-300 Fig. A12.12

ML--8 = 20,~300 _ _ - _ _ _ - - _ __ (a) Fig. A12.12 shows a loaded 3 span beam

fixed at points (1) and (4). This fixlty at
Me-1 = 2K (288+01)+MF, (1) and (4) causes e1 and 8, to be zero.
M,-, = 2xi (28,+0)+300 Fixed end moments: -
M,-, = 48,+300 - - - - - - - - - - - (b) MF1-e =-PL/8 = 100x24/8 =-300,
Beam 2-3.
~- Ba = 0, because of fixity at (3). MFP.4= 300
M,-, = 2K (28,+8,)+MF MF- = (100x8x X8/24 ) + (100x1 6x8'/24=)
8
M,-, = 2x2 (2e,+0)-1152 = -534

M,-, = 88,- 1152-----------(c) MF,-Z = 534

Ma--, = 2K (20, +e,) +MF 3

MFS-4= wL2/12 = 12x202/12 =-400,

b-2 = 2x2 (o+e,) + 1152 MF‘*-, = 400

SLOPE DEFLECTION EQUATIONS (a 0)
M,-, = 48,+1152 - Cd) q

At joint (2) ZM = 0 for static equilibrium . M,-, q 2x1(0+8,)-300 = 20,-300 - - (a)

Hence M,-, = 2x1(28,+0)+300 = 48,+300 - (b)

M,-, + M,-, = 0 M,-, = 2x2(20, + e,) -534 = 88, +4e,

-534--------------(c)
Substituting from (b) and (c)
MS-, = 2X2(20, + 8,)+534 = 89, +4e,
48, +300+ 88,-1152 = 0 +534----------.----(d)
whence 8, = 71
M,-, q 2x1(28,+0)-400 = 48, -4oo- - (e)
With S8 known the final end moments can be - - (f)
found by substituting in equations (a), (b), Ms-3 = 2x1(0+8,)+400 = 28, +400
(c) and (d) as follows: -
Joint-Moment equilibrium equations: -
Ml-, = 2x71-300 z-158 in.lb.
JOINT (2) M,-, +M,-, = 0
M,-, = 4x71+300 = 584
whence
Me-3 = 8x71-1152 =-584
4e.+300+8e,+49,-534 = 0 or
MS-, = 4x71+1152 = 1436
i20.+48,- 234=0-------- - - (z;
Changing the resulting moment signs to the
conventional sign practice, gives JOINT (3) M,-,+M,-, = 0
80,+40,+534+48,-400 = 0 or
M,-, = -158, M,-, = M,-, = -584,
128, + 48, + 134 =o-------- (h)
Ms-* = -1436
 A12.5

Solving equations (g) and (h) for 8, and 0, or free to rotate we use equation (19) In writ-
gives, lng equations for M,-, and M,-,.

8~ = 26.15, 6~ q - 19.9 PI-1 = 3K8,+MFz-l-0.5 MFL-,. (fl is zero)

Substituting in equations (a) to (f) lnc luslve Ma-1 = 3xlxSe+250-0.5 (-250) =

to find final end moments.
3ez + 375 - - - - - - - - - - - (a)

M,-, = 28, -300 = 2x26. 15 -300 =

Ma-, = 3K0s +MF,-, -0.5 MFnBa
-247.7 In.lb.
Ma-4 = 3x1~8, -500-0.5 (500) = 38,
II-1 = 48, +300 = 4x26.15+300 q 404.6 -750-------------(b)
M,-3 = 88;+48, -534 = 8x26.15+4 (-19.9)
Using equations 18a and 1.8'~ and substituting,
- b34 = - 404.6
M,-, = 2K(28,+ + MF 8,)
M3-z = 88, + 40, +534 = 8 (-19.9)+4.x26.15 2 3
+ 534 = 479.4 Ma-3 = 2x0.5(28,+8,)+0 = 28,+0, - - (c)

= 48 -400 = 4 (-19.9) -400 = M,-, = 2K(28, + 0,) +MF,-,

II-4
- 479.4 M,-, = 2x0.5(28,+8,)+0 = 28,+8*- - (d)

Ma-3 = 20, +400 = 2 (-19.9)+400 = 360.2 For statical equilibrium of joints: -

(Note: - Student should convert to conventional JOINT (2) M,-, +M,-, = 0

moment signs and draw complete bendlng moment
diaEram). Subt. 382+325+28,+0, = 0

Example Problem 3. Beam with Simple Supports. Or 58, +e, +375 = 0 - - - - - - - - _ _ (e)

Fig. AX.13 shows a loaded 3 span contin- JOINT (3) M,-, +Ma* = 0
uous bznsn with hinged supports at points (1)
and (4), which means that M,_, and M,-, = 0. 2e,te,+38,-750 = 0
The moments at supports (2) and (3) will be
dettirmined. Or 5e,+e,-yjp r 0 _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ - (f)

100 lb. 200 lb. Solving (e) and (f) for 8, and 8, gives,

8, q - 109.4, 8, = 172

The end moments at (2) and (3) can now be found

K= 0.5 K- 1 from equation (a) to (d) inclusive.

M,-1 = 38, + 375 = 3 (-109.4)+375 = 46.8

Fig. A12.13
in-lb.
SOLUTION: M,-, = 28, fe, = 2 (-109.4)+172 = -46.8

Flxed end moments: - M,-, = 28, fe, = 2x172+ (-109.4) = 234

MF~-~ =- PL/8 = 100x20/8 =-250, M,-, = 38, -750 = 3x172-750 = - 234

MF,-1 = 250 A12.5 Loaded Continuous Beam with
Yielding Supports.
MF,-3 = MF,-, = 0 (No load on span 2-3)
The movable control surfaces of an airplane,
MF3-4 = PL/8 = 200x20/8 =-500, namely the elevator, rudder and aileron are
attached at several points to the stabilizer,
Ma-, = 500 fin and wlnr* respectively. These supportin<;
surfaces are usually cantilcve;, structlxe.5 and
Slope-deflection equations: - thus the supporting points for the movable con-
trol surfaces suffer a displacement tkus pro-
Since supports at (1) anii (4) are hinged moting a continuous beam on yieltiin[; or deflected
A12.6 SPECIAL METHODS - SLC E DEFLECTION METHOD

supports. The slope deflection equations can = g (5x3.5+1.5) = 507

take care of this support displacement as MF c--a
illustrated in the following example problem.
The beam has a constant section, hence,
EXample Problem. K for all spans equals,

K = EI/L = (10,000,000x0.03339) 40 = 8347

Calculation of fl values.

Span 2-3. The settlement of support (2)

1 Fig.
with respect to support (3) = (0.5- .1875) =
.3125 inches = A
I
3/16” ;
0 =-A/L =- .3125/40 ~-0.007812 sad.
deflected supports.
Fig. A12. 15
(Since (2) moves counterclockwise with respect
to (3) the sign of 0 is negative.
Fig. A12.14 is representative of an ele-
vator beam attached to deflecting stabilizer Span 3-4. A = .1875 inches
structure at the five reaction points as
indicated in the figure. The elevator beam a =-A/L =- .1875/40 =- .004688 r-ad.
is a round aluminum tube l-1/4 - .049 in Size.
The moment of inertia (I) of this tube equals Since the beam, external loading and Support
0.03339 and the modulus of elasticity (E) of settlement is symmetrical about support (4), the
the material equals 10 million psi. The air slope of the beam elastic curve at (4) is horl-
load on the elevator beam is variable as zontal or zero and therefore 8, = 0. Thus only
indicated in Fig. A12.14. one-half of the structure need be considered in
the solution. Due to the fact that (2) is a
Fig. A12.15 shows the shape of the de- simple support with a cantilever overhang, the
flecting supporting structure, which means moment Mae1 is statically determinate and equals
that supports (2) and (3) move downward through 5x3x3.33 = 50 in.lb. Then for static equili-
the distances indicated on the figure. The brium of joint (Z), Ma-= must equal - 50.
problem will be to determine the bending
moment at the supports under the combined Substitution in slope deflection equations
action of transverse loading and settling of (17) and (18): -
supports.
MS+, = ZK(20, + 8, -Sk?) +MF 2-a
SOLUTION: -
- 50 = 2x8347 [2f3* +8, -3(.007812)1 -426
Calculatfon of fixed end moments: - or = 333888, +166948, +15 = 0 - - - - - - - (1)
For a trapeqoidal loading as shown in
Fig. a, the fixed end moments are, Ma- 2 = 2K(29, + 8, -‘S/6) + MFJ-, = 2 X 8347
c 293 + e* -3(-.007812)] +440
Ml--e = g (5u+2v)
whence M,-, = 333888, + 166948, + 831 - - - - (2)

L-1 = ZK(28, + 8, - 3@) f MF,-, (e, = 0)

Me-1 = g (5u+3v)
Ma-4 = 2 x 8347 [ 29, + 0 - 3(-.004688)] - 494
Substituting in these
equations for the loading Fig. a whence M,-, = 333888, - 259 - - - - - - - - (3)
values as shown in Fig.
AZ.4 f M,-, = 2K(28, - 8, -3pI) + MFrTB
40 =
= =(5x3+1) z-426 ln.lb.
MFZ-3 l-L-3 = 2x 8347 [0 + 8, -3(-.004688)-j + 507

whence M 1--5 = 166940, + 742 - - - - - - - - (4)

MF3-e= %(3x3+1.5) = 440
For static equilibrium of joint (3),

M+~+M~-, = 0, hence
MF,-4 = g (5x3.5+ 1) = T494
333888, + 166948, + 831+ 33388% - 259 = 0
 A12.7

whence, 667768,+166948,+572 = 0 - - - - - (5) MF1-S3 = (100x8x12a),‘20a+(100x12x82)/

Solving equations (1) and (5) for 8, and 20a =-480
8, we obtain 8, = 0.00439 and 8, =-0.00967.
MF,-, = 480
Substituting in equations (2), (3) and (4)
MF1-s q 100x24/8 = 300. MFapl = - 300
gives the moments at these points.
MF,-, = 10x20a/12 = 334. MFIW3 = - 334
M,-, = 33388 (-.00967)+16694x.00439
+ 831 = 582 in.lb. Due to symmetry of loading we know that
0, =-8, and 8, =-e,, which fact will shorten
h-4 = 33883 (-.00967) - 259 = -582 the solution.

K-3 q 16694 (-.00967) + 742 = 580 Slope deflection equations: -

Converting these signs to the conventional Ml-* = 2K (28,+8,) + MF1-=

signs would give M, =-50, Ms z-582 and
M, =-580. ML-4 = 2x1 (29,-e,) - 480
A12.6 Statically Indeterminate Frames. Ml-,=2fj,-480 m_____ --__- (a
Joint Rotation Only.

The slope deflection equations can be M,-, = 2K (20, +8,) + MF1 s

used in solving all types of framed structures.
In frames as compared to stralght continuous Ml-, = 2x1.67 (26,+8,) + 300
beams, the axial loads In the members are
usually more important, however the influence Ml-3 = 6.678,+3.338, +300 - - - - - - (b)
on joint displacement due to axial deformation
of members is relatively small and is there- MS-3 = 2K (28,+ 9,) + MFsV1
fore usually neglected in most simple framed
structures. To illustrate the slope-deflection b-1 = 2x1.67 (28,+8,) - 300
method as applied to frames, the structure
shown in Fig. A12.16 will be solved. h-1 = 6.678, +3.33e, -300 - - - - - - (c)

Example Problem 1. M,-, = 2~ (2% + 8, ) + MF,-~

b-4 = 2x1 (ze,-9,) + 334

M,-, = 28, + 334 - - - - - - - - - - - (d)

t t 2
L = 20 Static Joint Equations: -
I = 20
K= 1 JOINT (1).

L = 24 L = 24 M,-, +M,-, = 0 which glves,

I -40 1 q 40-100

K- 1.67 K= 1.67
28, -480+6.678,+3.338,+300 = 0

whence 8.678, +3.338, -180 = 0 - - - - - - (e)

JOINT (3).

w = 10 lb/in. M,-, +MJ+ = 0 which gives,

Fig. A12.16
6.678, +3.336, - 300+2e,+334 = 0
Fig. A12.16 shows a closed rectangular whence 8.678, +3.338, +34 q 0 - - - - - - - (f)
frame subjected to loadings on its four sides
which hold the frame in equilibrium. The
Solving equations (e) and (f) for 8, and
bending moments at the frame jolnts will be 8, glves,
determined.
0, = 26.3, 8, =-13.94
SOLUTION: -

FIXED END MOMENTS: -

A12.8 SPECIAL METHODS - SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD
I
Subt. in equation (a) Due to the fixity at joints (l), (3) and
(5), &+ = ea.-+ = &--B = 0. Therefore, the
MIPe = 2x25.3-480 =-428 in.lb. unknowns are 8a-1, 8,-,, 08--s and A.

Subt. in equation (d) There are three statical joint eqUatlOnS

of equilibrium available, namely,
MS-4 = 2(-13.94) +334 q 306 in.lb.
Me-~ +L-, = 0, M,-, +M,-, = 0, and
Fig. A12.17 shows the resulting bending M,-, +MB--. = 0
moment diagram.
Another equation is necessary because there are
/ 372 four unknowns. This addltlonal eqUatlOn Is
obtained by applying the equatlons of Statics
to the free bodies of the vertical members.
Fig. A12.19 shows the free bodies.

Fig.

3 4
r-7. i A -306
-306/L ---+--

A12.7 Frames with Joint Displacements. M a-.

Fig. A12.19
In the previous example problems, the
conditions were such that Only joint rotations Treating each member separately, we take
took place, or if any transverse joint dis- moments about the upper end and equate to zero
placement took place as In the example problem and then solve for the horizontal reaction at
of Art, Al2.5, these displacements were known, the bottom end. The results are,
or In other words the value of @ in the slope-
deflection was known. HL - ;~_di + Mz-f&-a
1 a 1 a
In many practical frames however, the
joints suffer unknown displacements as for H, = K-f-L-4
example in the frame of Fig. A12.18. The term 5 4
# = A/L in the slope-deflectlon equation was
derived on the basis of transverse displace- &-, + G--e
ment of the member ends when both ends were He= L-6 B
fixed. Thus in Fig. A12.18 under the action
of the external loads, will sway to the right With these horizontal reactions known the
as magnified by the dashed lines. Neglecting static equation ZH = 0 can now be applied to
any joint displacement due to axial deforma- the frame as a whole, which gives,
tion, the upper end of each member will move
through the same displacement A. Then we can P,-&-Ha-H, q 0 _ _ _ _ _ - - - - (20)

write,
Equation (20) Is generally referred to as
A-1 = A/L,-, , %,-, = A/L,-, , @,-, = A/L,- -8 the bent or shear equation and Is an eqUatiOn
that supplies the necessary extra condition to
take care of the additIona unknown A.

A12.8 Example Problems of Frames with Unknown

Joint Displacement.

Example Problem 1

Fig. A12.20 shows an unsymmetrical frame

with unsymmetrical loading. The bending
moment curve will be determined.

SOLUTION: -
Fig. A12.18 The relative moment of Inertia of each
 A12.9

member Is glven on Rfd

__I. M,-4 = 2x1.667(28,+8,-0)-144
the figure. The
relative K = I/L 6-I b-4 = 6.6678,+3.3338,-N& - - - - - (c)
values are also l-2 1=20 4
indicated adjacent L = 12” = 2x1.667(28,+8,-0)+144
6” M*-,
K= 1.667 L = 10”
to each member. 46# 4-f-7 I = 10
K-, = 6.6678,+3.3338,+144 - - - - - (d)
I = 10 K=l
Relative values L = 15” 3
of !d due to sldesway 9” K= .667 Tin ME.--, = 2x1(0+8, -3xO.lld)+O
of frame: - I
k-4 = 2e4-().6pj _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (e)
The angles @
Fig. A12.20
are Droportlonal to M,-, = 2x1(28, +o-3xO.lpl)+O
the h/L-for each
member where A is Ma-, = 4@,-0.6$ij _ _ _ - _ - - - - _ _ (f)
same for members
(l-2) and (3-4) and -/At- +/Aj+ Equilibrium equations: -
zero for member (2-4).
(See Fig. A12.10). JOINT (2). I&.-, +M8-•+ = 0
Hence, Substituting: -

er s-L= 15I. = .0667$ 2.6678, - 0.2667fl+103.68+6.6678, +3.3338,

-144=0
Fig. A12.10

EL,= + = O.lO!a whence, 9.3338, -0.2667@+3.3338, -40.32

=o ----------- --_- -(g)

lba-.= EO = 0 JOINT (4). M,-, +M,-+ = 0

FIXED END MOMENTS: - 6.6678, +3.3330,+144+48,-0.6@ = 0
Member l-2. whence, 10.6678,+3.3338, -0.6@+144 = 0 - (h)

MFL--8 = - (48 x 6'~9)/15' z-69.12 ln.lb. Writing the bent equation (See Eq. 20).

MFS3-1 = (48x9*x6)/15' = 103.68 H,+H,-48 = 0 - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ (1)

Member 2-4. In order to get H, and H, in terms of end

moments see Fig. A12.21.
MF8-4 =-(96x12)/8 =-144
M S--L M.-S
MFI-S =144 4-H,
Member 3-4 has no lateral loads and thus fixed 48 T
end moments are zero.
L-43
The slope-deflectlon equations are: - Ma-,
ML-, = 2K(28, +6, -3fl)+MF M%-,
I - - - - (17) Fig. A12.21

MB-1 = 2K(28,+8, -3#)+MF 9 - - - - (18) For free body of member l-2 take moments
about (2) and equate to zero.
Writing above equations for each member
and notlng that e1 and 0, are zero because M,-,+M,-,-6x48+15H, = 0
frame is fixed at support points, gives,
hence, H, = 288- (M,-, +M,-,)
15
h-2. = 2x0.667(0+0, -3x.06670)-69.12
Subt. values of MB-, and M,-, in the equation,
Ml-. = 1.3338, - 0.2667@ -69.12- - - - (a)
Hi =- 0.26678, + .03555@+16.88 - - - - (J)
MS%-, = 2x0.667(20,+0-3x.0667$)+103.68
For free body of member 3-4 take moments
Ma-, = 2.6678, - 0.2667@+ 103.68 - - - (b) about (4) and equate to zero.
 .-.

A12.10 SPECIAL METHODS - SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD

I
&,_, +?I-= +lOH, q 0 ing the symmetrical distributed load as shown.
I
whence, H, = - (Ma-,+M,-,)

Substituting
equations,
10

values
gives,
of Mae4 and M,-a in above t
10"
w = 12 lb/in.

Ha =-0.60, + 0.12@ - - - - - - - - - (k)

Substituting values of H, and H, in equation

(I), gives, 1
-0.26678,- .60, + [email protected] q 0- - (1) 20”
Fig. A12.23

Solving
unknowns e,,

$ = 196.9,
equations (g),
8, and @ glves,

8, = 12.17,
(h),

8, = -
(1) for

6.22
the
I
The final end moments can now be found by
substituting these values in equations (a) The bending moment diagram under the glven load-
to (f) inclusive. ing will be determined.

M 1-a = 1.333x12.17-.2667x196.9 SOLUTION: -

- 69.12 = -105.4 in.lb.
Relative Stiffness (K values)
M S--I = 2.667x12.17-.2667x196.9
+ 103.68 q -83.6 Members l-2 and 4-5, K = lo/20 = 0.5

M a--+ = 6.667x12.17+3.333 (-6.22) Members 2-3 and 4-3, K = 20/22.4 = 0.892

- 144 = 83.6
Fixed end moments:
MC-= = 6.667 (-6.22)+3.333x12.17+ 144
- 142.9 MF*-, = wLVJ12 = (12x20*)/12 =-400 In.lb.

M,-, q 4 (-6.22)-0.6x196.9 =-142.9 ML-* = 400, MF,-, = 400, MF,-~ = - 400

M a--4 = 2 (-6.22)-0.6x196.9 =-130.45 Relative values of 0: -

I
Fig. AZ.22 shows the bending moment Due to the sloping members, the relative
diagram. The student should also draw the transverse deflectlons of each member are not
shear diagram, find axial load in members as obvious as when the vertical members are con-
since all these loads are needed when the nected to horizontal members as in the previous
example. In this example, joints (1) and (5)
are flxed. Because of symmetry of frame and
loading, joints (2) and (4) will move outward
the same distance A as indicated in Fig. A12.24.
Furthermore, due to symmetry, joint (3) will
undergo vertical movement only.

In Fig. 812.24, draw a line from point (2’)

parallel to 2-3 and equal in length to 2-3 to
locate the point (3”). Erect a perpendicular
to 2’-3” at 3” and where it intersects a vertlca
Fig. A12.22 through (3) locates the point (3’) the final
location of joint (3). The length of 2’-3’
strength of the frame members are computed equals 2-3. In the triangle 3-3’-3”, the side
and compared against the stresses caused by 3’ -3” q a The relative values of fl which
the frame loading. are measured by A/L for each member can now be
calculated.
Example Problem 2.
g,, = -go =- .05@ 0,-, =& = 0.U
.
Fig. A12.23 shows a gable frame, carry-
 Me-, = 2x0.5(-29,+0-3x.O5@)+0

M,-6 =-2e,- 0.15pI - - - - - - - - - (g)

ME-, = 2K(29, + 6, -3pI) +MF,-,

M 6-a = 2x0.5(0-8,-3x.O5@)+0
M.-, =-8e -O.l@ - - - - - - - - - (h)

JOINT (2). Equilibrium equation.

Ms-l+Mad= 0, substituting -
20. +0.15#+3.5688, - 0.5352@-400 = 0
Fig. A12.24 whence, 5.5688, -0.3852@-400 = 0 - - - - (I)

!a 5-4 - - 0.M er,-, = .05@ The joint equilibrium equations at (3) and
(4) will not provide independent equations be-
Substitution in Slope Deflection Equatlons: - cause in the prevlous substitutions in the
slope-deflection equations 8, was made equal to
We know that Q1 = 8, = 0, due to fixlty zero and 8, was equal to-e,.
at joints (1) and (5). Also 8, = 0 due to
symmetry or only vertical movement of joint Shear Equations: -
(3). Furthermore due to symmetry 8, = - 0,
Due to symmetry the horizontal reactions
Ml-, = 2K(28, +Ba -~@)+MF 1-a at points (1) and (5) are equal and opposite
and therefore in static balance. Since we have
M,, = 2~0.5(0+0,+.05~3~)+0 two unknowns 0, and 0, we need another equation
to use with equation (i). This equation can be
ML--,= 0, +0.15@ - - - - - - - - - - (a) obtained by stating that the horizontal reaction
H,-, on member 2-l at end (2) must be equal and
M.-, q BK(20, +@, -3(6)+M~,-, opposite to H,-,, the horizontal reaction at
end (2) of member 2-3.
M 2-1 = 2x0.5(28, +.05x316)+0
Fig. A12.25 and 26 show free body sketches
M.-l = 28, +0.15$- - - - - - - - - - (b) of members 1-2 and 2-3.
M,-, = 2K(28, +8, -3fl)+& 12#/in.
e-a Ma-1 1 , 1 , , !, ,, L ,-+-sI

M e--a = 2x0.892(28,+0-.3x0.1@)-400
MS.4 = 3.5688, -0.5352#-400 - - - - (c) T - -

M,-, = 2K(28, + 8, -~@)+MF 5-9 I

20"

A $-HI
M,-, = 2x.892(0+8, -3xO.lp1+400 M l--8 Fig. A12.26

M s---a = 1.7848, - 0.5352@+400 - - - - (d) Fig. A12.25

I-I3-a = 2K(28, +8, -3/6) +MF3-4 In Fig. A12.25 take moments about (1) and
equate to zero.
M a-, = 2x.892(0-8,+3x0.1$3)-400
M,-,+M.-,-2OH.-L = 0
Ma-, =-1.7848,+0.5352@-400 - - - (e)
whence, He-, = Ma-'2>M8-1
M,-, = 2K(28, +f3, -3@) +MF .-a
M,-, = 2x.892(-28, +0+3x0.1P()+400 and in Fig. A12.26, taking moments about (3),

M,-, =-3.5688,+0.5352@+400 - - - (f) M.+,+M~-,+240x20-20x12x10-10H~~, =0

I

M 1-6 = 2K(28, +8, -S@)+MF .-6 M,+,+M.-,+ 2400

1 whence, H.-,= 10
A12.12 SPECIAL METHODS - SLO PI < DEFLECTION METHOD
T-

Shear equation, Hsml = H 8--9 Fig, AX.27 shows the resultinp bending
moment diacpram, first drawn in parts for each
whence, member of the frame and then added to form the
composite dia:;ram plotted directly on the
M&-z,+M.-z = M.-,+Ms--s+ 2400 frame. The shears and axial loads follow as a
20 10 matter of statics. With the moment diagram
knopm the frame deflected ::l:ape is readily
Substituting values for the end moments: calculated.

8, +O.l5fl+20, +0.15@ = 3.5688, -0.5352@ A12.9 Comments on Slope-Deflection Method.

20 10
The exanple problems solutions Indicate
- 400+1.7840, -0.5352@+400+ 2400 that the method of slope-deflect Ion has two ad-
10 vantages, namely, (1) it reduces the number of
equations to be solved simult:~neously and (2)
whence, it presents equatlons that are easily and
rapidly formulated.
0.38528, -0.122@+240 = 0 - - - - - (J)
Thus for structures with a hIlr,h degree of
Solving equations 1 and j for 0, and a, gives redundancy, the slope-deflection method should
be considered as nossibly the best method of
# = 2805, 0, = 265.8 solution. The solving of the equations in this
method are readily programmed for solution by
Substituting these values in equations (a) to high speed computinq machinery.
(h), the end moments are obtained as follows: -
A12. 10 Problems.

ML-e = 0, + O.lSpl = 265.8+0.15x2805

= 686.5 In.lb. (1) Determiqe the bending moments at Support
points A, B, C, D, for the continuous beam
I-I S--I = 20, +0.15$ = 531.6 +420.7 = 952 shown in Fig. A12.28.

MS--b = 3.56882 - 0.5352@ - 400 100 100 150 lb.

= 3.568x265.8-0.5352x2805-400 w = 10 lb/in.
= - 952 i i i hi iii
I = 60 D
30”-----1
Ma--2 = 1.7848, - 0. jsseer + 400
= 1.784x265.8-0.5352x2805+400 Fig. A12. 28
= 628

Ma-4 =-1.7840,+0.5352@-400 =-628 (2) Same as problem (1) but consider support A
as freelj supported instead of fixed.
M,-, = 952
(3) Determlne the bendin{; moment diagram for
M 1-n = - 952 the various loaded structures in Yie.A12-29.
w = 12 lb/in.
M,-, = - 686.5

100 lb.

A B

1000 1000 lb.

w = 20 lb/in.

I=3

E
i
Fig. A12. 27 Al
A Fig. A12. 29
 CHAPTER A13
BENDING STRESSES

A13.0 Introduction. applied moment the beam takes the exaggerated

The bar AB in Fig. a is subjected to an deflected shape as shown.
axial compressive load P. If the compressive The applied bending moment vector acts
stresses are such that no buckling of the bar parallel to the 2 axis, or in other words the
takes place, then bar sections such as l-1 and applied bending moment acts in a plane perpend-
2-2 move parallel to each other as the bar icular to the Z axis. Consider a beam segment
shortens under the compressive stress. of length L. Fig. d shows the distortion of
this segment when plane sections remain plane
11 I 2 after bending of the beam.
P---j I I &P
A B It will be assumed that the beam section is
1’ ‘2 homogeneous, that is, made of the same material,
Fig. a and that the beam stresses are below the pro-
portional limit stress of the material or in
+*A other words that Hooke’s Law holds.
From the geometry of similar triangles,
I 1 Shear Diagram
+Llxw
e
-- - ec
- or e=Jiec ___-------- (A)
Y c C
Fig. b Fig. c
Moment Dia. \
We have from Youngs Modulus E, that
In Fig. b the same bar is used as a simply
supported beam with two applied loads P as unit stress = -0y
E=
shown. The shear and bending moment diagrams unit strain e/L
for the given beam loading are also shown. The
portion of the beam between sections l-1 and 2-2 where ay is the bending stress under a deforma-
under the given loading are subjected to pure tion e and since it is compression it will be
bending since the shear is zero in this region. given a minus sign.
Experimental evidence for a beam segment Solving for ay,
Ax taken in this beam region under pure bending
shows that plane sections remain plane after ay = --Es?
bending but that the plane sections rotate with c L
respect to each other as illustrated in Fig. c,
where the dashed line represents the unstressed The most remote fiber is at a distance y = c.
beam segment and the heavy section the shape Hence
after pure bending takes place. Thus the top
fibers are shortened and subjected to compress- uy = -E$
ive stresses and the lower fibers are elongated
and subjected to tensile stresses. Therefore at whence
some plane n-n on the cross-section, the fibers
suffer no deformation and thus have zero stress. DC ----------_--
This location of zero stress under pure bending uy=-Ty -- (B)
is referred to as the neutral axis.
For equilibrium of the bending stress perpend-
A13.1 Location of Neutral Axis. icular to the beam cross-section or in the X
Fig. d shows a cantilever beam subjected to direction, we can write Z Fx = 0, or
a pure moment at its free end, and under this

CF,r-0, yda = 0.
C i

however In this expression, the term “: is not

C
zero, hence the term
yda must equal zero and
i
Beam this can only be true If the neutral axis coin-
Section cides with the centroldal axis of the beam
A Fig. d cross-section.
A13.1
A13.2 BEAM BEND1 STRESSES
Thus, yn = (y - x tan @) cos @ - - - - - -
The neutral axls does not pass through the
beam section centroid when the beam is nonhomo- - y cos @- x sin ,@- - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
geneous that is, the modulus of elasticity is not
constant over the beam section and also when Then Eq. (1) becomes
Hooke’s Law does not apply or where the stress-
strain relationship Is non-linear. These beam 3 = k (y cos @ - x sln @) - - - - - - - - - (3)
conditions are described later in this Chapter.
This equation contains three unknowns, u,
A13.2 Equations for Bending Stress, Homogeneous Beams, k, and @. For solution, two additional equa-
Stresses Below Proportional Limit Stress. tions are furnished by conditions of equili-
In the following derivations, It will be brium namely, that the sum of the moments of the
assumed that the plane of the external loads external forces that lie on one side of the
contain the flexural axis of the beam and hence, section ABCD about each of the rectangular axes
the beam Is not subjected to torsional forces X-X and Y-Y must be equal and opposite, respect-
which, if present, would produce bending stress- ively, to the sum of the moments of the internal
es if free warping of the beam sections was re- stresses on the section about the same axes.
strained, as occurs at points of support. The Let M represent the bending moment in the
questions of flexural axes and torsional effects Plane of the loads; then the moment about axis
are taken up in later chapters. X-X and Y-Y Is Mx = M cos 8 and My - M sln 8.
IY m The moment of the stresses on the beam section
about axis X-X is / u da y. Hence, taking
moments about axis X-X, we obtain for equil-
ibrium,

M cos 8 =/aday

- f k (cos 0 y’da - sin @’xyda)

= k cos # / yada - k sin @ / xyda - - - - (4)

In similar manner, taking moments about
the Y-Y axis

Fig. A13. 2 M sln Q = / 0 da x

whence
Fig. A13.1 represents a cross-section of a
straight cantilever beam with a constant cross- M sin 8 = - k sin # f x’da + k cos $ f xyda(4a)
sectlon, subjected to external loads which lie
In a plane making an angle 8 with ax1s Y-Y A13.3 Method 1. Stresses for Moments About the
through the centrold 0. To simpllfy the figure, Principal Axes.
the flexural axis has been assumed to coincide In equation (4), the term f y’da Is the
with the centroidal axis, which In general is moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
not true. about axis X-X, which we will denote by Ix, and
Let NN represent the neutral axis under the the term f xyda represents the product of in-
given loading , and let @ be the angle between ertia about axes X-X and Y-Y. We know, however,
the neutral axis and the axis X-X. The problem that the product of inertia with respect to the
Is to find the direction of the neutral axis and prlnclpal axes Is zero. Therefore, If we se-
the bending stress o at any polnt on the section lect XX and YY In such a way as to make them
In the fundamental beam theory, It Is as- coincide with the principal axes, we can write
sumed that the unit stress varies directly as equation (4) :
the distance from the neutral axis, within the
proportional limit of the material. Thus, Fig. M cos 8 = k cos 0 I - - (5)
A13.2 lllustrates how the stress varies along a xP --------
line such as mm perpendicular to the neutral
axis N-N. In like manner, from equation (4a)
Let o represent unit bendlng stress at any
point a distance yn from the neutral axls. Then M sin 8 - - k sin @I - (6)
yP --------
the stress u on da 1s
To find the unit stress 0 at any point on the
o=ky, ______-w-------v- (1) cross-section, we solve equation (5) for cos 0
and equation (6) for sin 0, and then substitut-
Iwhere k is a constant. Since the pOSltlOn of lng these values In (3)) we obtain the follow-
the neutral axls Is unknown, yn will be express- ing expressing, giving u the subscript b to
ed for convenience In terms of rectangular co- represent bending stress: -
ordinates with respect to the axes X-X and Y-Y.
 A13.3

M cos 8 yp + M sin 0 xp moment of inertia about the neutral axis, hence

Ub =
I”* IYP
ab = [M cos (Q - a)] yn q MnYn
------- (9)
In In
Let the resolved bending moment M cos 8 and
M sin 8 about the principal axes be given the
In can be determined from the relationship ex-
symbols M and Myb. Then we can write
xP pressed in Chapter A3, namely,

MxpyP - MYpxP In = Ixpcos’o + Iy sin2u

P
- - - - - - - - - (10)
Ob = - ------c---- (7)
IXP IYP A13.5 Method 3. Stresses from Moments, Section Prop-
erties and Distances Referred to any Pair Of
The minus signs have been placed before each Rectangular Axes through the Centroid of the
term In order to give a negative value for ob Section.
when we have a positive bending moment, or Mxp The fiber stresses can be found without
is the moment of a couple acting about Xp-Xp, resort to principal axes or to the neutral
positive when it produces compression In the axls.
upper right hand quadrant. is the moment Equation (4) can be written:
MyP
about the Yp-Yp axis, and is also positive when
It produces compression in the upper rin;ht hand M, = k cos fl I, - k sin @ Ixy - - - - - - (11)
quadrant.
where I, = / y’da and Ixy = / xyda, and Mx q

BENDING STRESS EQUATION FOR SYMMETRICAL M cos 8.

BEAM SECTIONS In like manner,

Since symmetrical axes are principal axes My = - k sin @ Iy + k cos @ Ixy - - - - - (12)
(term / xyda = 0), the bending stress equation
for bending about the symmetrical XX and YY axes Solving equations (11) and (12) for sin fl and
is obviously, cos @ and substituting their values in equation
(3), we obtain the following expression for the
ab=-Mxy-~ Mx ------ ----- -- fiber stress ab: -
Pa)
Ix IY
(MyI, - MxIxy) x _ (MXIY - MYIXY)Y - (13)
A13.4 Method 2. Stresses by use of Neutral Axis for Ob=- II IxIy - Ixy
XY - Icy
Given Plane of Loading.
The direction of the neutral axis NN, mea- For simplification, let
sured from the XXI, principal axis is given by
dividing equation (6) by (5). K, = Ixy/(IxIy - 12xy)

Tan a = - I xp tan Q - - - _ - _ _ - - - _ _ (8) KS3= Iy/(IxIy - IBxy)

IyP K, = Ix/(IxIy - Iaxy)

Substltutlng these values In Equation (13): -

ab = - (K,M~ - K,M,) x - (K,M, - K,My)y - (14)

In Method 2, equation (8) was used to find

the position of the neutral axis for a given
plane of loading. The location of the neutral
axis can also be found relative to any pair of
rectangular centroidal axes X and Y as follows: -
Since the stress at any point on the neutral
The negative sign arises from the fact that axis must be zero, we can write from equation
8 is measured from one principal axis and @ is (14) that: -
measured in the same dlrection from the other (K,M~ - KIMx)x = - (K,M, - K,My)y for all
principal axis. points located on the neutral axis. From Fig.
Since equatlon (8) gives us the location of
the neutral axis for a particular plane of load- A13.1 tan @ = s 3

tan’ =- (LM-- LMx)

___- - - _ (15)
ing,the stress at any point can be found by re-
solving the external
dicular to the neutral
moment into a plane perpen-
axis N-N and using the Thus (KSM,”K,My)
 A13.4 BEAM BENDING STRESSES
I
It frequently happens that the plane of the A13.8 Illustrative Problems. Example Problem 1.
bending moment coincides with either the X-X or Fig. A13.3 shows
the Y-Y axis, thus making either Mx or My equal a unsymmetrical one
to zero. In this case, equation (15) can be cell box beam with
simplified. For example, if My = 0 four corner flange
members a, b, c and d.
Let it be required to
tan @ q IXY
I _ _ _ _ _ - - _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ - (16) determine the bending
Y
axial stress in the
and if Mx = 0 four corner members
due to the loads Px
tan@-1x _____ -----------(17) and Py acting 50”
IXY from the section
abed.
A13.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Three In this example
Methods. solution the sheet
Method 2 (bending about the neutral axis connecting the corner
for a given plane of loading) no doubt gives a members will be con- x
better picture of the true action of the beam sidered ineffective in Y’
relative to its bending as a whole. The point bending. The stresses Fig. A13.3
of maximum fiber stress is easily determined by will be determined by
placing a scale perpendicular to the neutral each of the three me-
axis and moving it along the neutral axis to thods as presented in this chapter.
find the point on the beam section farthese away
from the neutral axis. In airplane design, SOLUTION
there are many design conditions, which change
the direction of the plane of loading, thus, The first step common to all three methods
several neutral axes must be computed for each is the calculation of the moments of inertia
beam section, wh;zh is a disadvantage as com- about the centroidal X and Y axes. Table A13.1
pared to the other two methods. gives the detailed calculations. The proper-
In determining the shears and moments on ties are first calculated about the reference
airplane structures, it is common practice to axes x’x’ and y’ y’ and then transferred to the
resolve air and landing forces parallel to the parallel centroidal axes.
airplane XYZ axes and these results can be used
directly in method 3, whereas method 1 requires TABLE A13.1
a further resolution with respect to the prin-
cipal axes. Methods 1 and 3 are more widely 1 Mem. 1 zp ( y’ / x’ 1 A]
used than method 2.
Since bending moments about one principal
axis produces no bending about the other prin-
cipal axis, the principal axes are convenient
axes to use when calculating internal shear flow Totals 2.7 1 16 -28.8 176.0 14Bp.8 -193
distribution.
Calculation of Centroid of Section: -
A13.7 Deflections.
The deflection can be found by using the
beam section properties about the neutral axis g = ZAx’ = -~ 28.8 ; _ 10.667 n
2x 2.7
for the given plane of loading and the bending
moment resolved in a plane normal to the neutral j;=
axis. The deflection can also be found by re-
solving the bending moment Into the two prin-
cipal planes and then using the properties about IX = 176 - 2.7 x 5.9262 = 81.18
the principal axes. The resultant deflection is
the vector sum of the deflections in the direc- IY = 460.8 - 2.7 x 10.667’ = 153.58
tion of the principal planes.
~ Ixy = - 192 - (2.7 x - 10.667 x 5.926) = - 21.33
 Solution by Method 1 (bending about principal axes) (Positive moments produce compression In upper
The angle @ between the x axis and the right hand quadrant).
principal axes is given by the equation,
Calculation of Stresses
2 Ixy = 2 (-21.33) - 42.66
tan 2 @ = ____ 153.58 - 81.18 = 72.40 =
Iy - Ix MxP yP MYP 9
ab=-----p
Ixp *YP
=- .589
Stringer a 6
2 0 = 3o" - 301, 0 - 15O = 15' xp = - 6.74, yp = 4.45
Ixp = I, cos' P, + Iy sln2 !J - 2 Ixy sin fl cos @ hence

Ob = - 268700 x 4.45 - 156200 (- 6.74)

= 81.18 x .9648' + 153.58 x .26368 - (- 21.33 x 75.38 - 159.34

- .2636 x .9648)2 = - 15900 - 6600 = - 22500#/in.'

= 75.56 + 10.67 - 10.85 = 75.38 In.* Stringer b

IYP= I, sin2 @ + Iy cosB 0 + 2 Ixy sin 0 cos 0 xP = 9.75", yp = 4.82

- 81.18 x .2636= + 153.58 x .9647= + 10.85 = 268700 x 4..82 - 156200 x 9.75

Ob = - 75.38 - 159.34
159.34 ln.4
= - 17180 + 9570 = - 7610#/In.a
IY IQ
Fig. AU. 3a Stringer c

xp = - 3.58, yp = - 7.12

5b = --268700 x - 7.12 - 1562OC (- 3.58)

75.38 159.34
= 25400 - 3520 = 21880
and similarly for stringer d, ob = 21900.

Solution by Method 2 (Neutral Axis Method)

Let 8' = angle between yy axis and plane
Flg. A13.3a shows the location of the principal of loading.
axes, as well as the perpendiuclar distances
from each corner member to each of the principal - 80000 = - .2667
axes. These distances are readily determlned tan 8' = 300000
fqom elementary trigonometry. hence
The external bending moment about the X and
Y axes equal, 8' = 14' - 56' and Q = 14' - 56' + 15' - 15' =

= 6000 x 50 = 300,000"# = 3o" - 11

MX

My = - 1600 x 50 = - 80 , OOO"# Let a = angle between neutral axis NN and

the Xp axis,
These moments will be resolved into bendlng
moments about the xp and yp principal axes. Ixp tan Q - 75.38 (- 0.5816)
tan a =- = = .275
IyP 159.34
= 300,000 x cos 15' - 15' - 80000 x
% hence a = 15" - 24' (see Fig. A13.3b).
sin 15O - 15' = 289700 - 21000 = 268700"# Since the angle between the X axls and the
neutral axls is only 9', we can say
IN = I, = 81.18.
MYp = - 300000 x sin 15' - 15' - 80000 X
Resolving the external bendlng moments
normal to neutral axis, we obtain
cos 15' - 15' = - 79000 - 77200 = - 156200"#
A13.6 BEAM BENC 3 STRESSES

MN = 300000 x .9999 + 80000 x sin 0' - 9' = K* = Iy/(IxIy - Iaxy) = 153.58/12016 = 0012794
300200"#. The bending stress at any point Is
given by, K, = Ix/(IxIy - I*,y) = 81.18/12016 = .00674

ab = Mn
- 'n Ob = - (&My - K&& x - (KS% - KLMy) y
In
Stringer a
Stringer a
x=- 5.333", y = 6.074"
yn = 6.074 + 5.33 x .0025 = 6.087"

ub = -- 300 200 x 6.087 = - 22500#/in.* ub = - .00674 (- 80000) + .00177 x 300000] x -

81.18
Stringer b .012794 x 300000 - .00177 (- 80000)] y

yn = 2.055" hence ob = (8) x - (3697)y;

- 300 200 x 2.05 = _ 7570 hence ab = 8 x - 5.33 - 3697 x 6.074 = - 22450
Ob = 81.18
Stringer b
Stringer c
x = 10.667, y = 2.074
Yn = - 5.92
ub = 8 x 10.667 - (3697)2.074 = 85-7660 = -7575
ob = - 300 200 (- 5.92) = 21850
81.18 Stringer c
Stringer d x = - 5.333, y = - 5.926
y = - 5.95 ub =8x- 5.333 - (3697 x - 5.926) = -

Ub = - 300 200 (- 5.95) = 22000 4.2 + 21900 = 21862

81.18
Stringer d
Y x = 10.667, y = - 5.926

4
\ yP
B’ = 14056’
\ 4 = 15015’ Ob = 8 x 10.667 - (3697 x - 5.926) =

= 85 + 21900 = 21985

NOTE: The stresses q, by the three methods

were calculated by 10" slide rule, hence the
small discrepancy between the results for the
three methods.
Fig. A13.3b
Error in Stresses Due to Assumption that Section
Beilds About X and Y Centroldal Axes Due to Mx
Solution by Method 3 (Method Using Properties and M,,.
J
About X and Y Axes)
Ob =a--
Mx y My (Equation 7a)
MX
= 300000, My = - 80000 IX IY

IX
= 81.18, Iy = 153.58, Stringer a

Ixy = - 21.33 Y = 6.074, x = - 5.37

- 21.33 'b = - 300000 x 6.074 - - 80000 x - 5.33 = _ 251go

IL = ldl&' - I%) = 81.18 x 153.58 - 21.33*= 81.18 153.58

-~ 21.33 Stringer b
= - .00177
12016 y = 2.07, x = 10.667
 A13.7

Stringer b - cont'd. s = 14260 x 50 = 713,000"#

300000 x 2.07 - 80000 x 10.667 = _ 2110 M = - 760 x 50 = - 38000"#

ab = - 81.18 - 153.58 Y
These moments are resolved into bendlng
In like manner for stringers c and d moments about the principal axes, as follows: -

= 19130 and fib, = 27440 = 713000 x cos P, - 38000 x sin fl = 700,000"#

"bc MXP
Comparing these results with the previous Myp q - 71300 x sin @ - 38000 x cos @ =-140000"#
results it is notlced that considerable error
exists. Under these eroneous stresses the in- From eqUatlOn (7), the general fOnIIUki for ob is:
ternal reslstlng moment does not equal the ex-
ternal bending moments about the X and Y axls. 0bz-p Mxp yP _~MYp xP

Example P&em 2. IxP IyP

Fig. A13.4 shows a portlon of a cantilever
Z-cell stressed skin wing box beam. In this ex- Stress on Stringer 1:
ample, the beam section Is considered constant,
yP = 1.85"
and the section is identical to that used in and xp = - 17.86" (scaled from full
size drawing).

ub = - (700000 x 1.85) _ - 1400004x37(- 17.86)

181.17
= - 7150 - 5700 = - 12850#/sq. in.

Stress on Stringer 9:

yP = 9.04", xp = 14.24"

ab = _ (700000 x 9.04) _ - 1400y3, 14.24

181.17
= - 34,900 + 4560 = - 3034O#/Sq. in.

Stress on Stringer 12:

yP = - 6.80", xp = - 8.22"

700000 x (- 6.80) - 140000 x (- 8.22) =

Fig. A13.4
ab = - 181.17 - 4.37

= 26200 + 2630 - + 23570%/w. In.

Fig. A3.13 of Chapter A3 for which the section Solution by Method 2 (Neutral Axis Method)
properties were computed and are as follows: - In Fig. A13.5 let 8' be the angle between
the Y-Y axls and the plane of the resultant
IX = 186.5 In. Iy = 431.7 In.' 1,y = 36.41 In.' bending moment. Resultant bendin? momnnt,
@ = 8' - 16.25" I = 181.2 = 437
xP IyP M = \/7130002 + 38000" = 714600" lb.
The resultant air load on the wing outboarC
of section ABC is 14260# acting up In the Y dl- tan Q' = ,,",",","," = _ .0533, hence 8' = - 3' - 3'
rection and 760# acting forward in the X dlrec-
tlon, and the location of these resultant loads Let 8 equal the angle between the pl:?ne of
is 50 from section ABC (Fig. A13.4). the resultant moment and the Yp axls.
The bendlng stress Intensity at the cen-
trolds oi stringers number (l), (9) and (12) Then Q = Q' + fl = 3' - 3' + 8' - 16' = 11' - 19'
will be calculated using all three methods.
From equatlon (8), the angle between the Xp aXlS
Solution by Method 1 (Bending about Principal ties) and the neutral axis = a, and
The bendlng moment at section ABC about the
X and Y axes is, 1,p tan 8 = - 181.17 x (- .200)
tan a = - 437
q

In
A13.0 BEAM BENDING STRESSES

- 36.41
K, = Ixy/(IxIy - Iaxy) = 186.46 x 431.7 - 36.41*
= - .00046

K, = Iy/(IxIy - I*,$ = 186 46 x g;'; . - 36.41'

z431.7 = *005&j
793000
186.46
K, q Ix/(IxIy - IBxy) = p- = .002355
793000

yP
/I Y Fig. A13. 5
Stress on Stringer

YL = 4.39R,
1:
XL = - 17.41"
= .083. Hence, a = 4O - 45'
Ob = - (K,M~ - K,M,)X - (K,M, - K,M~)Y
Fig. A13.5 shows the relative posltlons of
the neutral axis, principal axes, and plane of
loading. = [. 002355 x (- 38000) - (- .0@046 x 713000)-j
ObL
The component of the external resultant
moment about the neutral axis N equals: - (-17.41 )

MN = 714060 x sin 83' - 26' = 709350 In. lb. - c.OO54.5 x 713000 - (- .00046 x - 38000)-j 4.39

IN = Ixp cos’ a + Iyp sin’ a 2 - (238.5)(- 17.41)- (3868) 4.39

= 181.17 x .99668 f 437 x .0878' = 183.37 In.' = 4150 - 17000 = - 12850#/ln.*
Stress on Stringer 1: Stress on Stringer 9:
tan u) cos a = (1.85 + 17.86 x Y 0 = 6.89", xe = 15.39"
y"L = (Yp + xp
.083) .9966 = 3.32"
a ;be q
- [238.5] 15.39 = [3868] 6.89 =-30320#/in.*
QbLZ - Mn Yn = - 709350 x 3.32 = - 1285O#/sq. in.
In 183.37 Stress on Strlnger 12:
Stress on Stringer 9: Yra = - 5.55", XlQ = - 9.11"

= (9.04 - 14.24 x .083) .9966 = 7.84"

yne 'bla = - [238.5] (- 9. 11) - [3868] (- 5.55) =
Ob, = - 709350 x 7.84 = - 30300#/sq. In. = 23620#/ln.'
183.37
NOTE: In the three solutions, the distance
Stress on Stringer 12: from the axis In questIon to the stringers 3,
9, and 12 have been taken to the centroid of
YnLs = (6.80 + 8.22 x .083) .9966 = 6.10 each stringer unit. Thus, the stresses ob-
tained are average axial stresses on the
- 709350 x - 610 - 236OO#/sq. In. stringers. If the maximum stress is desired,
Obls = 183.37 - the arm should refer to the most remote part of
the stringer or the skin surface.
Solution by Method 3
Approximate Method.
M, = 713000"#, My = - 38000"# It Is sometimes erroneously assumed that
the external bending moments M, and My produce
IX = 186.46 IY = 431.7 Ixy = - 36.41 bending about the X and Y axes as though they
were neutral axes. To show the error of this
The constants KI, K,, and KJ are first deter- assumptlon, the stresses will be computed for
mined - stringers 1 and 9.
 A13.9
500
Stringer 1: 1 ob
- TA f
y,. = 4 + .39 = 4.39
~~“” t 2i64 _
-
x1 = - 33.15 + 15.74 = - 17.41
2”
yB’2i6zA,

j-48”
~~
o,,
- 713000 x 4.39 _ (- 38000 x - 17.41) = Fig. A13.8 Fig. A13.9
ab = 186.46 431.7 stress Intenslty at bottom edge of portlon A Is
Ob (2'25/3) = 0.75 Db.
- 18330#/Ina.
TA = CA' q Average stress times area
Str lnger 9:

YO = 6.89, x, = 15.39 = 'b + Iq7-b (1.75 x 0.75) = 1.15~~

( )
- 713000 x 6.89 _ (- 38000 x 15.39) _
Ub = 106.46 431.7 The distance from the neutral axls to the
centrold of the traplzoldal stress loadlng on
- 25000#/ln*. portion A is 2.64 inches. In like manner,

Example Problem 3. TB = CD’ = (y3) 3 x 0.25 = 0.375CJb

The prevlous example problems were solved
by substituting in the bending stress equations.
The student should solve bending stress prob- The arm to Tg is 0.667 x 3 = 2 inches.
lems by equatlng the Internal resisting moment For equilibrium of the beam free body, take
at a beam section to the external bendlng mom- moments about point (0) and equate to zero.
ent at the same section. To illustrate Fig.
A13.6 shows a simply supported loaded beam. The ZM, = - 500 X 48 + 2.64 X TA + 2.64 CA' + 2 TB +
shear and bending moment diagram for the given
beam loading Is also shown. Fig. A13.7 shows
the beam sectlon which Is constant along the 2 CB' = 0
span.
500x 1000 300 Substltutlng values as found for TA, TB etc,
t /--so-+ +
I 1 - 500 x 48 + 2.64 x 1.15 a,, + 2.64 x 1.15 Ob
b8” lk lzO”--$36’~
690 T + 2 x 0.375 ab + 2 x 0,375 ob = 0
610# 6”
390,-----, 24000 _- 3170 psi.
L I hence -
I 300 Ob = 7.58
500 1
Solution using Bending Stress Formula.
pffTis-
Fig. A13. ‘7 ,Mc where M = - 24000
Ob I
Fig. A13.6 c=3 ”
The maxlmum bendlng moment occurs over the I = Moment of inertia about
left support and equals - 24000 In. lbs. Due to Neutral axls.
symmetry of the beam cross-sectlon the centroida Calculation of I.
horlzontal axls Is the center line of the beam
and thus the neutral axis Is at the mldpolnt of For Portlons A and A’
the beam.
Fig. A13.8 shows a free body of that por- I =& x 1.75 (6” - 4.5’) = 18.26 In’.
tion of the beam from the left end to a section
over the left support where the bending moment
Is maxlmum. The trlangular bending stress ln- For Web Portlons b, b”,
tenslty dlsgram Is shown acting on the cut sec-
tlon, wlth a value of ab at the most remote I = +2 x 0.25 x 6' = 4.50 In+.
fiber. The forces TA, TB etc. represent the
total load on the beam cross-sectional areas ITotal = 22.76 In’.
labeled A and B respectively in Flg. A13.9. Thf
A13.10 BEAM BENDING STRESSES

hence ternal force action from this method of solu-

tion. In solving nonhomogeneous beams and
Ob = - 24000
22.76
x 3 = - 3170 psi -, beams stressed above the elastic limit stress,
this method of solution often proves necessary
or advantageous because no simple beam bending
which checks first SOlutiOn. stress formula can be derived.
In Fig. A13.12, let ob be the intenSity On
Example Problem 4. the most remote fiber, or 3.09” above the neu-
Fig. A13.10 shows a loaded beam and Fig. tral axis. Table A shows the calculations of
A13.11 shows the cross-section of the beam at the total stress on each of the portions of the
section a-a’ . Determine the magnitude of the cross-section and their moment about the neutra
maximum bending stress at section a-a’ under the axis, all In terms of the unknown stress, Db.
given beam loading. The beam section is unsym-
metrical about the horizontal centroidal axis. TABLE A
Simple calculations locate the neutral axis as
shown in Fig. A13.11. 1 2 3 4 5 6
12#/in.
Portion Area Average Total y = arm Resisting
A Stress Load to N.A. moment
5#/in. See in = (2) (4) x (5)
Fig. terms x (3)
A13.13 of C7b

1 1.045 -. 337U b -. 353U b 1.39 - .490 Ub

Fig. Al
2 1.00 -.757 -. 757 2.35 -1.780

3 - 3’ 1.00 -. 837 -. 837 2.62 -2.190

4 1.09 .350 .387 -1.44 -0.557

5 - 5' 0.56 .578 .323 -1.93 -0.622

6 1.50 .82lQ, 1.237ab -2.57 -3.180 O,,

Fig. A13.11 Totals 6.19 0. oooa,, -8.82 b,,

Explanation of Table A.
Fig. A13.12 shows a free body of the por- Column 3 glves the average stress on each
tion of the beam to the right of section a-a. of the 6 portions. For example, the stress on
The bending stress intensity diagram is shown by portion (1) varies from zero at the neutral
the horizontal arrows acting on the beam face at 2.09
aXis to 3.0g ob q .674 ob at the upper edge of
section a-a. Flg. A13.13 shows the cross-sec- .674 ob + 0 =
tion of the beam at section a-a. (1). Thus, the average stress -
2
The general procedure will be to determine .337 On part 3 or 3’ , the stress on the
at,.
the total bending stress load on each portion, lower edge = .674 oh and $, on the upper edge.
1 to 6, of the cross-section and then the mom-
ent of each of these loads about the neutral Then, the average stress = -(l + 3,674) ab =
axis, the summation of which must equal the ex- .a37 Oh. Column 5 is the dista&e from the
ternal bending moment. neutral axis to the centroid of the load on
each of the blocks. For portlon (1) the stress
pattern is triangular, and y = 2/3 x 2.09 =
1.39”. On portlons (2), (3), (5) and (6) the
bending stress distribution Is trapezoidal, and
the arm is to the centroid of this trapezoid.

f!!3
The total internal resisting moment of
4
- 8.82 ah from Table A equals the external bend-
ing moment of 36670”#.
/------ 100” -h-+ Thus,
Fig. A13. 13 a - 36670
ab = - = - 4160#/in.‘.
Fig. A13.12 8.82

This method of solution Involves more Cal- For equilibrium, the total compressive
culations than that required in substituting in stresses on the cross-section of the beam must
the bending stress formula, however, the student be equal to the total tensile stresses, or M
should obtain a better understanding of the in- must equal zero. Column 4 of Table A gives the
total load on each portion of the cross-section
and the total of this column is zero.
The bending stress on the lower fiber of
the cross-section is directly proportlonal to
the distance from the neutral axis or, Oblower =
2.91 6”
3 x 4160 = 3930#/in. a
.

SOLUTION USING BENDING STRESS FORMULA.

IN.A. = 27.2 In.’

hence ’ 22.3x1.5=33.4”’ ’
Fig. A13.16
ob (upper fiber) = - 36670 x 3.09 = - 4160 psi. Fig. A13.14 Fig. A13. 15
Transformed Section
27.2
into Equivalent Spruce
which checks the above solution.
ent materlals is: -
A13.9 Bending Stresses in Beams with Non-Homogeneous
Sections, Stresses within the Elastic Ranges. Espruce = 1,300,000 PSI.
In general, beams are usually made of one = 1,600,OOO psi.
material, but special cases often arise where Emaple
two different materials are used to form a beam = 29,000,000 psi.
section. For example, a commerical airplane in Esteel
Its lifetime often undergoes a number of changes
or modifications such as the addition of ad- SOLUTION:
ditional installations, fixed equipment, larger
engines, etc. This increase in airplane weight The first step in the solution is to
increases the structural stresses and it often transform the reinforced beam section of Fig.
becomes necessary to strengthen various struct- A13.15 into an equivalent beam section composed
ural members at the critical stress points. of the same material throughout. This is possl-
Since space limitations are usually critical, it ble, because the modulus of elasticity of each
often necessitates that the reinforcing material material gives us the measure of stlffness for
be stiffer than the original material. Years that material. In this solution the reinforced
ago, ,when spruce wood was a common material for beam will be transformed into a spruce beam
wing beams, it was normal practice to use rein- section as illustrated in Fig. A13.16.
forcements at critical stress points of stiffer
wood material such as maple in order to cut down Gmaple = 1~600~ooo = 1.23
the size of the reinforcements. In aluminum Espruc e 1,300,000
alloy beams, the use of heat-treated alloy steel
reinforcements are often used because steel is
29000,000/10500,000 or 2.76 times stiffer than Esteel
~ -_ 29,000,000 q 22.3
aluminum alloy. Espruce 1,300,000

Thus to transform the maple reinforcing strips

SOLUTION BY MEANS OF TRANSFORMED in Fig. A13.15 Into spruce we increase the
BEAM SECTION. width of each strip to 1.23 x 0.5 = 0.615 inches
as shown in Fig. A13.16. Likewise, to trans-
To illustrate how the stresses in a com- form the steel reinforcing strip into spruce, we
posite beam can be determined, two example prob- make the width equal to 22.3 x 1.5 = 33.4 inches
lems will be DTeSented. as shown in Fig. A13.16.
Thls transformed equivalent section is now
Example Problem 5. handled like any homogeneous beam section which
Fig. A13.14 shows the original beam section is stressed within the elastic llmlt of the
which is entirely spruce wood. Fig. A13.15 materlals. The usual calculation would locate
shows the reinforced or modified beam section. the neutral axis as shown and the moment of in-
T’wo ears of ma-,le wood have been added to the ertia of the transformed section about the
upper part as shown and a steel strap has been neutral axis would give a value of 51.30 in.
added to the bottom face of the beam. The prob-
lem is to find the stress at the top and bottom Bending stress at upper edge of beam Section: -
points on the beam section when the beam section
- Mx Y - 60000 x 3.33
is subjected to an external bending moment of Obc = ___ - 3900 PSl.
60000 In. lbs. about a horizontal axls which IX 51.30 =
causes compression in the upper beam portion.
The modulus of elasticity (E) for the 3 differ- Referring to Fig. A13.15, this stress would be
A13.12 BEAM BEND1 i STRESSES

the stress in the spruce section. Since the re- alloy. The original area of 0.1 sq. in. each
inforcing strips are maple, the stress at the have been multiplied by these stiffness ratio
top edge of these maple strips would be 1.23 values.
times (- 3900) = - 4880 psi. 0.446 0.1615
The bending stress at the lower edge of the
-7-- Ta b’
transformed beam section of Fig. A13.16 would be:

60000 x (- 2.73) = 3200 psi ‘-1’ ~z2.36;13.6-35 -i

abt = - .
51.30

elastic
The stress in the steel
thus equals 22.3 times 3200
Since all these stresses

applicable.

Example
limit stress for the
beam bending stress formula

Problem 6.
reinforcing
= 71500 psi.

3 materials
as used is
strap

are below the

the
I--+
f = 5.35”

-L

The solution
oF
4

0.431

for the beam sectlon of Fig.

Section
Fig. A13.18
Transformed

Alloy.
Beam
into Magnesium

Fig. A13.17 shows an unsymmetrical beam A13.18 is the same as for any other unsym-
section composed of four stringers, a,b,c and metrical homogeneous beam section.
d of equal area each and connected by a thin The first step Is to locate the centrold
web. The web will be neglected 1n this example of this section and determine the moments of
problem. Each of the strlngers is made from inertia of this sectlon about centroldal X and
different material as indicated on Fig. A13.17. Y axes.
The beam section is subjected to the bending
moment M, and My as indicated. Let it be re- ,zx= 2 AY .446 x 10 + 0.1615 x 10 = 5 35R
.
quired to determlne the stress and total load on 1.1385
each stringer in resisting these applied extern-
al bending moments. XA
;;A-AEAx 0.1615 x1.1385
6 + .431 x 4 = 2 . 365R
h 6” ___(
Steel 10 -a -=
; .lO
L b IX = 0.6075 x 4.65 + 0.531 x 5.35 = 28.27 in.’
Stainless IY D
Steel ’ My = 5000”N IY = 0.546 x 2.36: + 0.165 x 3.635 + 0.431 x
I- :
10” x-4+-L M, = 10000”H
1.63; = 6.34 In.‘.

[XY = 0.446 (- 2.365)(4.65) = - 4.90

Magnesium Area of Each
0.1615 x 3.635 x 4.65 = 2.73
I .l Alloy .lO Stringer =.l sq. in. 0.10 (- 2.365)(- 5.35) = 1.27
Ci
v q,, 4 Alum. Alloy 0.431 x 1.635 (- 5.35) = - 3.77
TOTAL - - 4.67 in.’ = Ixy
Fig. A13.17
SOL~ION~ The bending stresses will be calculated
by using method 3 of Art. A13.5.
Since the 4 stringers are made of different
materials we will transform all the materlals From Equation (14) Art. A13.5 --
into an equivalent beam section with all 4
stringers being magnesium alloy. D’-
(KaMy - K,M,)x - (LHx - LMy)y

Esteel = ZZ = 4.46 1 xy - 4.67

hag. = 6,500,OOO K, = I I
Gag. 6.5 XY ’ = 28.27
- Ixy x 6.34 - 4.67’ =
Esteel = 29,000,000
28
-ES.S. z--z 4.31 -4.67
157.4 = _ 0 * 0296
Estaln.steel= 28,000,000 Emag. 6.5
Iy 6.34
%lum.alloy = 10,500,OOO Ealum. _ 10.5 K, = 1x1 - Gy =m= 0.0403
-m-z 1.615 y
Gag. 6.5
28.27
K, = IxIy Ix- IZy = -157.4 = 0.1797
Using the ratio of stiffness values as Indicated
above gives the transformed beam section of Fig.
A13.18 where all materla1 Is now magnesfum % = - 10,000 In. lb. My * 5000 In. lb.
 A13.13

Consider Stringer (c): - to see if they equal zero.

x = - 2.365, y = - 5.35 zp= 6 f 1167 - 162 - 1010 = 1 check.

Substituting in Ob equation Forthermore the moments of the stringer loads

about the X and Y axes must equal the applied
UC= - co.17 97 x 5000 - (- 0.0296)(- 100 00 )] external bending moments.
Take moments about a Y axls through
strlngers (a) and (c).
4 (0.0403 ) (- 100,00 ) - (- .0296 x 5000 )] y
r, My = - 6 x 162 - 4 x 1010 + 5000
=- (898 - 296 ) x - [ (- 403 ) + 148 ] y = - 12 in. lb.

o-602 x+255 y ----------(18 Take moments about X axis through strlngers

UC
(c) and (d),
For stringer (c) x = - 2.365, y = - 5.35 z Mx= 1162 x 10 - 162 x 10 - 10000
hence
= 0 in. lb.
UC = - 602 (- 2.365) + 255 (- 5.35)
(The calculations in this example being
= 1423 - 1360 = 63 psi. done on a slide rule can not provide exact
checks).
The total load PC in stringer (c) thus equals
uc (Area) = 63 x 0.1 = 6 lbs. tenslon. A13.10 Bending Stresses of Homogeneous Beams
Stressed above the Elastic Limit Stress Range.
Stringer (a) : In structural airplane design, the applied
loads on the alrplane must be taken by the
x = - 2.365, y = 4.65 structure without suffering permanent strain
which means the stresses should fall within the
from equation (18) elastic range. The airplane structural design
loads which in general equal the applied loads
ua = - 602 (- 2.365) + 255 x 4.65 = 2613 psi times a factor of safety of 1.5 must be taken
by the structure without collapse or rupture
with no restriction on permanent strain. Many
pa = 2613 x 0.446 = 1167. lb. tension.
airplane structural beams will not fall until
the stresses are considerably above the elastic
Since the true area of this stringer is 0.1 stress range for the beam material.
square the stress in this steel stringer equals Since the stress-strain relationshlp in
1167 /O.l = 11670 psi. tension. the inelastic range is not linear-and also
since the stress-strain curve for a material in
Stringer (b) : the inelastic range Is not the same under ten-
sile and compressive stresses (See Fig. A13.19),
x = 3.635, y = 4.65 the beam bending stress formulas as previously
derived do not apply since they were based on a
ab = - 602 x 3.635 + 255 x 4.65 = - 1006 psi linear variation of stress to strain. Experi-
mental tests however, have shown that even when
Pb = - 1006 x 0.1615 = - 162 lbs. stressed in the inelastic rang%, that plane
sections before bending remain plane after
True stress In stainless steel stringer after bending, thus strain deformation is still
= - 162 /O.l = - 1628 psi. linear which fact simplifies the problem since
the stress corresponding to a given strain can
Stringer (d) : be found from a stress-strain curve for the
beam mater ial.
x = 1.635, y = - 5.35 A general method of approach to solving
beams that are stressed above the elastic range
ad = - 602 x 1.635 + 255 (- 5.35) = - 2345 p: can best be explained by the solution of a
problem.
Pd = - 2345 x 0.431 = - 1010 lbs.
Example Problem ‘7.
- 1010 = Portion (a). of Fig. A13.20 shows a solid
True stress = o 1 - 10100 psi. round bar made from 24ST aluminum alloy ma-
.
terial. Flg. A13.19 shows a stress-strain
To check the results, check total stringer load curve for this material. Let it be assumed
A13.14 BEAM BEND: STRESSES

that the maximum failing compressive stress 13.19 shows that for a given strain in the in-
occurs at a strain of 0.01 in. per inch. The lastic range the resulting tensile Stress is
problem Is to determlne the ultimate resisting igher than the resulting compressive stress,
moment developed by this round bar and then nd furthermore from Internal equilibrium the
compare the result with that obtained by USIng otal tensile stress on the cross-section must
the beam bending stress formula based on linear qua1 the total compressive stress.
variation of stress to strain. The problem as stated assumed that a
ompressive unit straln of 0.01 caused failure.
‘lg. b thus shows the strain picture on the
earn just before failure since plane sections
emain plane after bending in the inelastlc
ange. Table A13.2 gives the detailed calcu-
ations for determining the internal resisting
moment developed under the given strain con-
Itlon.

TABLE A13.2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strip Strip Unit Res.

No. Area Y E Stress F q OA Moment
“A” u M = Fr

.058 0.935 .00867 53000 3075 2760

; .102 0. a40 .00773 52500 5350 4300
3 135 0.75 .00685 52100 7025 5040
4 : 153 0.65 .00591 51500 7870 4820
5 .165 0.55 .00494 51000 a410 4310
6 .lao 0.45 .0039a 43000 7740 3200
7 . la5 0.35 .00302 33200 6140 1920
a .195 0.25 .00205 22800 4450 945
9 .197 0.15 ,ooloa 12500 2460 280
10 .200 0.05 .00012 3200 640 10
11 .200 -0.05 -. 00084 - 7250 -1450 130
.Ol .OOR .006 ,004 .fJO:! I) .002 .004 .OOfj .ffU$ 12 .197 -0.15 -. 00181 -17800 -3510 660
13 195 -0.25 -. 00276 -29500 -5750 1650
14 1185 -0.35 -. 00374 -35500 -6560 2540
15 .lao -0.45 -. 00470 -40000 -7200 3510
(4 1 Fig. A13.20 16 .165 -0.55 -. 00566 -43000 -7100 4170
TCWSCLE 17 .153 -0.65 -. 00663 -44800 -6850 4710
TENSION arlCeSS
la .135 -0.75 -. 00759 -46000 -6210 4880
19 .102 -0. a4 -. 00846 -47200 -4810 4210
20 .058 -0.935 -. 00937 -48000 -2780 2690
Total 3.140 740 56735

Col. 1 Rod divided into 20 strips . 1” thick.

Col. 3 y = distance from centerline to strip e.g.
Col. 4 E = strain at midpoint = (y - .0375)/103.75
Col. 5 Unit stress for E strain from Fig. A13.19
Col. 6 Total stress on strip.
Col. 7 Moment about neutral axis. M = (y - .0375)F.

cOMl’dSSlON
The sunnnatlon of column (6) shculd be
SOLUTION: 5ero. Since the discrepancy Is 740 lbs., it
neans that the assumed position for the neutral
Since the stress-straln diagram in tenslon ixls Is a little too high, however the dls-
Is different from that In compression (See Fig. :repancy Is negligible. The total internal
A13.19) the neutral axis will not coincide with -eslstlng moment is 56735 in. lbs. (Cal. 7).
the centroldal axis of the round bar regardless If we take a maximum unit compressive
of the fact that It is a symmetrical shape. strain of 0.01 we find the corresponding stress
Thus the method of solution Is a trial and error from Fig.Al3.19 to be 48500 psi. If thls
stress is used as the failing stress in the
one since the location of the neutral axis can
not be solved for directly. In Fig. b of Fig. ,eam formula M = oq we obtain,
A13.20 the neutral axis has been assumed 0.0375
inches above the centerline axis of the bar. It
was assumed toward the tension side because ob- M = 48500 x 0.785 = 38000 n. lbs.
servatlon of the stress-strain curve of Fig. (0.785 = i of round bar = m3/4)
 A13.15

Thus using the same failing stress at the given in most books on advanced engineering
far extreme fiber the beam formula based on mechanics and will not be repeated here.
linear stress-strain relationship gives an ul- It is convenient however to express the
timate bending strength of 38000 as compared to influence of the beam curvature in the form of
a true strength of 56735 or only 67 percent as a correction factor K by which the stresses ob-
much. talned by the beam formula for straight beams
Fig. c of Fig. A13.10 shows the true stress can be multlplled to obtain the true stresses
distribution on the cross-section, which ex- for the curved beams. Thus for a curved beam
plains why the resisting moment is higher than the maximum stress can be calculated from the
when a triangular distribution is used. equation
The problem of the ultimate bending
strength of structural shapes is discussed in .=K!%.? ___---___---- -- - (19)
I
detail ir, Volume II.
A13.11 Curved Beams. Stresses Within the Elastic Table A13.3 gives the value of K for
Range. various beam section shapes and beam radius of
The equations derived in the previous art- curvatures. The table shows that for only
rather sharp curvatures is the correction ap-
icles of this chapter were for beams that were
straight. Thus in Fig. A13.21, the element of preclable. In general for airplane fuselage
length (L) used in the derivation was constant rings on frames the curvature influence can be
over the depth of the beam. The strain (AL/L) neglected. However there are often fittings
was therefore directly proportional to AL which and mechanlcal structural units In airplane
had a linear variation. construction whose parts involve enough curva-
In a curved beam, the assumption that plane ture to make the influence on the stress of
sections remain plane after bending still primary importance. The concentration of
applies, however the beam segment of a curved stress on the inside edge of a curved unit in
beam cannot have equal width over the depth of bending may influence the fatigue strength of
unit considerably, thus a consideration of the
the beam because of the curvature as illustrated
in Fig. A13.22, or in other words the length of possible influence of curvature should be a
the segment is greater on the outside edge (L ) regular part of design procedure.
In the inelastic or plastic stress range,
than on the inside edge (Li). Thus in calcu-
the Influence of beam curvature should be
considerably less since the stiffness of a
material in the inelastic range is much less
r-\I
MC
L--- \ 1 1 ‘” Fig.Al3.21
than in the elastic
rather
A13. 12 Problems.
stress range and changes
Slowly as the stress increases.

Straight Beam
(1) Fig. A13.23 shows the cross-section of a
single cell beam with 12 strlngers.
Assume the walls and webs are ineffective
in bendlng. Calculate load in each
stringer by use of beam formula. Also
fJj$s3 F calculate stringer loads by equating In-

8’\\
Curved
0

Beam
Fig. A13.22 Distribution
ternal resisting
ing moment.
moment to external
Each stringer
and equals 0.1 sq. In. applied
moment M, = - 100,000 In.lb.
bending
bend-
area is same

lating the strain distribution over the beam

depth the change in length AL at a point must be
dlvlded by the segment width at that point.
Thus even though plane sections remain plane
the strain distribution over the section will 1 k i h X
not be linear. The width of the segment at any X-
point is directly proportlonal to the radius of
Fig. A13.23
curvature of the segment and thus the strain at
a point on the segment is Inversely to the
radius of curvature. This gives a hyperbolic (2) Same as problem (1) but change external
type of strain diStributiOn as illustrated In bending moment to My = 200,000 ln.lb.
Fig. A13.22, and If the strains are within the
elastic limit the stress distrlbutlon will be (3) Flg. A13.24 shows a beam section with 4
similar. The development of a beam formula strlngers. Assume web and walls in-
based on a hyperbolic stress distribution is effective in bending. Stringer areas
Al3.16 BEAM BENDING STRESSES

TABLE Ala.3 TABLE Ala.3 (continued)

VALUES OF K FOR USE IN THE VALUES OF K FOR USE IN THE

BEAM FORMULA 0 = K +Q BEAM FORMULA CJ = K F

R FACTOR K
R
T FAC OR K T
SECTION INSIDE OUTSIDE g SECTION INSIDE OUTSIDE e’
c c R
FIBER FIBER FIBER FIBER

0.54 0.224 1.2 3.55 0.67 0.409

0.60 0.151 1.4 2.48 0.72 0.292
0.65 0.108 1.6 2.07 0.76 0.224
0.68 0.084 1.8 1.83 0.78 0.178
0.71 0.069 2.0 1.69 0.80 0.144
0.79 0.030 3.0 1.38 0.86 0.867
0.84 0.016 4.0 1.26 0.89 0.038
0.89 0.0070 6.0 1.15 0.92 0.018
0.91 0.0039 8.0 1.10 0.94 0.010
0.93 0.0025 10.0 1 08 0.95 4.0065
1.2 2.89 0.57 0.305 1.2 2.52 0.67 0.408
1.4 2.13 0.63 0.204 1.4 1.90 0.71 0.285
1.6 1.79 0.67 0.149 1.6 1.63 0.75 0.208
1.8 1.63 0.70 0.112 1.8 1.50 0.77 0.160
2.0 1.52 0.73 0.090 2.0 1.41 0.79 0.127
3.0 1.30 0.81 0.041 3.0 1.23 0.86 0.058
4.0 1.20 0.85 0.021 4.0 1.16 0.89 0.030
6.0 1.12 0.90 0.0093 6.0 1.10 0.92 0.013
8.0 1.09 0.92 0.0052 8.0 1.07 0.94 0.0076
10.0 1.07 0.94 0.0033 10.0 1 05 0.95 0.0048
0.54 0.336 1.2 2.37 0.73 0.453
0.60 0.229 1.4 1.79 0.77 0.319
0.65 0.168 1.6 1.56 0.79 0.236
0.68 0.128 1.8 1.44 0.81 0.183
0.71 0.102 2.0 1.36 0.83 0.147
0.80 0.046 3.0 1.19 0.88 0.067
0.84 0.024 4.0 1.13 0.91 0.036
0.88 0.011 6.0 1.08 0.94 0.016
0.91 0.0060 8.0 1.06 0.95 0.0089
0.93 0.0039 10.0 1 05 0.96 0.0057
0.56 0.336 1.2 3.28 0.58 0.269
1.4 2.31 0.64 0.182
1.6 1.89 0.68 0.134
1.8 1.70 0.71 0.104
2.0 1.57 0.73 0.083
3.0 1.31 0.81 0.038
1.21 0.85 0.020
28 1.13 0.90 0.0087
8.0 1.10 0.92 0.0049

l-4t+1 10.0
1.2
1.07
3.55
0.93
0.67
0.0031
0.409

1
1.4 2.48 0.72 0.292
1.6 2.07 0.76 0.224
t2 1.8 1.83 0.78 0.178
it

1
rl 1
;,‘-
t
t/2

k-c-4
t

I
2.0
3.0
4.0
6.0
1.69
1.38
1.26
1.15
0.80
0.86
0.89
0. 92
0.144
0.067
0.038
0.018
8.0 1.10 0.94
I-R-i 10.0 1.08 0.95
0.010
-0 0065
Le ewa.ls distance from centroidal axis to neutral axis.

References: Wilson and Quereau. “A Simple Method of

Determining Stresses in Curved Flexural
Members, I’
“Advanced Strength of Materials”, by Seely.
 A13.17

shown in () on figure. External applied (7) Fig. A13.27 shows 3 different beam SeCtiOnS.
bending moments are; They are made of aluminum alloy whose
stress-strain diagram is the same as that
Mx= -500,000 in.lb. and My = 200,000 in.lb.
plotted in Fig. A13.19. Determine the
Find stress on all four stringers by all ultimate Internal resisting moment if the

I---
l”---
three methods which were explained in this maximum compressive strain is limited to
chapter. 0.01 in./in. Consider that upper portIOn
is in compression. Compare the results

f
obtalned with formula M = obI/,, where ob =
compressive stress when unit strain is
0.01.

x
Fig. A13.24
l/4

(4) The Zee section shown In Fig. A13.25 iS

subjected to bending moments of Mx = 500 1 1 l/4”
in.lb. and My = 2000 in.lb. Find bending 4
stresses at points a,b,c,d.
k l/4

T’
+a-- Fig. A13.27

Y 3/4
L
t- X b
Fig. A13.25 500# 500#

(5) Fig. A13.26 shows a beam section composed

Flnd the Fig. A13.28
of three different materials.
stress at top
and bottom
points on
beam due to a Alum.
bending moment Alloy
4 L.15”
Mx= 80,000 in.lb.
Steel\ 1,1/a
EMag. = 6.5~10’ .4~~~:o.lll @
=f’1/16
ESteel= 29 X 10’ f- 2-i
Sec. 1 Sec. 2 Sec. 3
E~lum.= 10.5x10d Fig. A13.26

(6) Fig. A13.26 shows (8) Fig. A13.28 shows a curved beam, carrying
a cross-section of a w4t 3ts two 500 lb. loads. Find bending stresses
wood beam composed at points C and C”, when beam cross-section
of 3 kinds of wood is made 3 different ways is indicated by
labeled A, B and C, sections 1, 2 and 3. Use Table A13.3.
glued together to
form a composite
beam. If the beam
is subjected to a
bending moment
Mx = 75000 ln.lb.,
find Intensity of
bending stress at Fig. A13.26
top edge of beam.
Also find total end load on portions B
and C.
A= Spruce. E = 1,300,000 PSI
B = Maple. E = 1,500,OOO psi
C = Fir. E = 1,600,OOO psi
 BEAM BENDING STRESSES
A13.18

-
DOUGLAS DC-8 AIRPLANE. Over-all view of the test wing section representing center wing section of DC-8

A ~-1 -~-up view of wing test Tectlon showing details of wing ribs, stringers, etc
 CHAPTER A 14
BENDING SHEAR STRESSES - SOLID AND OPEN SECTIONS
SHEAR CENTER

A14.1 Introduction.
In Chapter AG, the shear- stresses in a
member sribjected to pure torsional forces were
considered in detail. In Chapter A13, the sub-
ject of bending stresses in a beam subjected to
pure bending was considered in considerable de-
tail. In practical structures however, it
seldom happens that pure bending forces (coup- Beam Section
les) are the loading forces on the beam. The i
Fig. A14.1
usual case is that bending moments on a beam dx
u’
uC -it
are due to a transfer of external shear forces. \ c PL
. .
Thus bending of a beam usually Involves both 11 n
bending (longitudinal tension and compression
N. A.
stresses) and shear stresses.
The same assumptions that were made in &&fB; :r,l--
Chapter A13 in deriving the bending stress
equations are likewise used in deriving the
: D F-1,
equations for flexural shear stresses. With ot a a
f lexural shear stresses existing, the assumption Fig. A14.3 Fig. A14.4
that ;?lane sections remain plane after bending
is not completely true, since the shearing is as indicated. The stress ot is greater than
strains cause the beam sections to slightly 02 because the bending moment due to the given
war-g out of their plane when the beam bends. beam loading is greater at beam section DD’ than
This warping action is usual~ly referred to by at FF’ . Now consider that this beam portion dx
the term “shear lag”. however, except in cases Is further cut as indicated by the notch DCEF in
of beams ?!ith wide thin flanges, the error in- Flg. A14.1, and this segment is shown in Fig.
troduced by neglecting shearing strains is quite A14.4 as a free body with the forces as indicated.
small and therefore neglected in deriving the Let 0t = maximum tensile stress at a distance
basic flexural shear stress formula. The prob- c from the neutral axis,
lem of shear lag influence is considered in Then the stress at a distance y from neutral
other chapters. axis is oy = Ot y/c.
The total load on an element of area dA of
A14.2 Shear Center. the beam cross-secticn (see Fig. A14.2) thus
When a beam bends without twisting, due to
equals : f y dA .
some external load system, shearing stresses are
set up on the cross sections of the beam. The Now, referring to Fig. A14.4, the total
centroid of this internal shear force system is tensile load on each face of this segment will be
often referred to as the shear center for the calculated.
particular section. The resultant external
C

J
shear load at this section must pass through ym-----
the shear center of the section if twist of the Total load on face CD = 3 (1)
section Is to be prevented. Thus, if the shear yo
center is known, it is possible to represent the

J
C
external load influences by two systems, one
that causes flexure and the other which causes Total load on face FE = O!? y dA - - - - (2)
only twist. c yo

A14. 3 Derivation of Formula for Flexural Shear Stress. From Chapter A13, the equation for flexural
Fig. A14.1 shows a loaded simply supported stress o was derived, namely at = MC/I. Let M
bnam. When the beam bends downward due to the equal the bending moment at beam section DD’ and
given loading, the beam portion above the neu- M’ that at beam section FF’ and let I and I’ the
tral axis is placed in compression and that be- moment of the inertia of the cross-sectional area
low the neutral axis in tension. Consider a about the neutral axis at these same beam sections

c
short portion dx of the beam at points DF on the respectively. Then substituting value of ot in
beam and treat it as a free body as shown in equations (1) and (2) we can write,

J
Fig. A14.3. The variation of tensile and com- Total load on face CD =r y dA - - - - - (3)
pressive stress on each face of the beam POrtiOr
YO
A14.1
A14.2 BENDING SHEAR STRESSES. SOUND AND OPEN SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

t c
Total load on face FE = 5 y dA - - - - (4)
I YfJ

Now let 7 b dx equal the shearing force on

face CE of the segment in Fig. A14.4 where 7
equals the shearlng stress and b dx the shearing
area. For equilibrium of the segment, the total
forces parallel to x-x axis must be zero. If
the beam Is of uniform cross-section, which is
the case In our problem, then I = I’ and c and
y0 are the same In both equations (3) and (4).
Then the resultant horizontal force on the
k-2-q
sides of the segment equals the difference of
the values in (3) and (4), or Fig. A14.5

1neutral axis are given on the figure.

Resultant horizontal load = - ydA .
LcjOLUTION: -

ZF,=-!i+?
J
For equlllbrlum
C
of segment In x-x

ydA+Tbdx=O
direction, 1 Shear stress at neutral

3.09
axis x-x

hence ‘c = -
y9

0
_----mm--- (5)
Table A shows the calculation
TX-X -A
X
I 0
YM

of the term

However M = dM
I
+ z = V = the external shear on 3.09
the beam section. Y d.A.
0
C
hence 7 = Fb
J YO
yw _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (6)
PORTION
TABLE

Area
A. REFER

d A
TO FIG. a.

Y YU

It Is important to note that equation (6) I 1 2.09 x 0.5 = 1.045 1.045 1.096
applles only to beams of uniform section (con- 2 I 3 x 0.5 = 1.50 1 2.34 1 3.510
stant moment of inertia). In airplane wing 3 1 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25 1 2.64 1I 0.710
structures the common case is for beams to vary 3’ 1 0.5 x 0.5
I ~-

= 0.25 1 2.64 1 0.710 1

in cross-sectlon or moment of inertia, and if
1 ( ISUM 16.026]
this variation is considerable, equation (6)
should not be used and resort should be made to
equations (3) and (4). Thls fact is Illustrated
in example problem 2. This matter of variable
cross-sections is discussed later in this
chapter.

A14.4 Example Problems. Symmetrical Sections.

External Shear Loads Act Thru Shear Center. 7 = 850 x 6.026
hence
27.2 x 0.5 = 377 “‘*
Example Problem 1.
Flg. A14.5 shows the cross section of a Calculation of shear stress at polnt l-l, : -
beem symmetrical about the Y-Y axls. Assume
that a beam with this cross-section Is subjected 3.09
to a loading which produces a shear load in the VY YU.
Y direction = to Vy = 850 lb. Its location is ?-1 = I,b
through the shear center of the section which I 2.09
lies on the centroldal y axis of the beam sec- Flg. b shows the effective areas in this
tion due to the symmetry of the section about lntregration, thus In Table A, we leave out
this axis. Let it be required to determine the portion 1, hence / y dA = 4.93.
shearing stress at the neutral axis x-x and at
points l-l and 2-2 of the CrOSS-SeCtIOn as 850 x 4.93
shown in Fig. A14.5. The neutral axis location Substituting, ‘clBl = 27.2 x o,5 = 308 Psi.
and moment of inertia of the section about the
 A14.3

This shearing stress is at a section just SOLUTION: -

adjacent to portion (2). If it was taken just
adjacent to portion (l), then the width b in the Bending Moments: -
equation would be 3 inches Instead of 0.5 inch Ml32 = -600 X 132 = - 79,2OO”U
and the shearing stress would be 0.5/3 times tha’
shown above, or in other words the shearing Ml75 = -600 x 175 = -105,000”#
stress changes abruptly when the shear area M218 = -600 x 218 = -130,800”#
changes abruptly.
Table A14.1 shows the results of calculating the
Shearing stress at point 2-2 on cross-section: - bending stresses at 3 points on each side of the
Flg. c shows effective area, thus in Table neutral axis for the 3 stations. For example
A, the portions (1) and (2) are omitted and for station 132
3.09

J y CIA equals
2.59
1.42. aMAX. = + (!+2)

(tension
= 2 (7gg6;

at top edge and compression

4) = + 8180 PSI.

at lower
Substituting, 72-2 = ~~“2”,‘~“~ = 44.4 psi. edges).
. .

(The width b = 0.5 + 0.5 for the two portions For a point 1 inch from either edge of the
3, 3’). beam
The shearing stresses as calculated act in the 79200 x 3
plane of the beam cross-section in the Y di- a=+- = f 6135 psi.
38.67 >
rection and also with the same intensity paralle
to the Z axis which is normal to the beam TABLE A14.1
section.
1 2 3 4 5 6 I 8

Example Problem 2. VARIABLE MOMENTOF INERTIA. Bend. Stressob = My/I Total Bending Stress
Load on: -
Fig. A14.6 shows a cantilever beam loaded On Top Point Point
with a single load of 600 lb. at the end and Bending 01’ 1” From 2” From
5 .z Portion Portion / Portion
acting through the centroid of the beam cross- Moment Bottom Top or Top or “A” “B” ‘C”
Kg M t’iber Bottom Bottom
section. The beam section is constant between y = 4” y = 3” y i 2”
stations 0 and 132, then it tapers uniformly to
132 79,200”X +8180 t6135 t4090 11571 5112w 1023Y
the sections shown for stations 175 and 218.
175 105,000”# T8180 ;I3135 t4090 7157 10224 1023
The shear stress distribution on the beam cross- 218 130,800”# +8180 t6135 4090 7157 15336 1023
section at statlons 175 and 218 will be deter-
mined.
600:
/-43”-+43”+~ 132”-j
From the results in Table A14.1, it should be
Fixed noticed that the change in moment of inertia be-
tween the three stations is directly porportional
I
t
to the change in bending moment, hence the same
Sta. :218 Sta: 175 St& 132 Sta. 0 value for the bending stresses for all three sta-
tions. Columns 6, 7 and 8 give the total bending
++
stress load on portions A, B and C of the three
cross-sections (see Fig. A14.6). These values
equal the average stress on the portions times
the area of the portion; for example, for station
132, the load on portion A:

+
load = 8180 6135 x 1 x 1 = 7157 X, and for
2
portion C:

load = 4090 + 0
Sta. 218 sta. 175 Sta. 132
2 x 2 x .25 - 1023#
I=64.0k4 I= 51.33 in.4 I q 38.67 in.4
Fig. A14.7 shows the tension and compressive
Fig. A14-6
stresses acting on a portion of the beam between
A14.4

stations
sulting
175 and 218.
horizontal
BENDING

Fig. A14.8 shows the re-

shear stress pattern
lng from the loads in Fig. A14.7.
rC?SUlt-
For example,
if we take a section along the beam 1” from the
SHEAR STRESSES. SOUND

b
AND OPEN SECTIONS.

shear stresses between statlons

SHEAR

132 and 175

would be the same, since the change In bendlng
I noment and moment of inertia
same as between stations
have been made the
175 and 218.
CENTER.

I
top or bottom edge of the beam and treat this Figs. A14.9 and A14.10 show the shear
portlon as a free body as shown In Fig. A14.12
stress patterns if the formula ‘G = ‘/ydAbe
Ib
applying ZH = 0,
1used for each station. The discrepancy 1s con-
ZH = - 7157+7157+7x43x1.0= 0, hence ‘G = (1 !siderable as the equation does not apply to
oeams of varying sectlon.
To illustrate the calculation by the shear
stress formula, the shear stress will be calcu-
lated at the neutral axis for the beam SeCtiOn
St station 175.

00
r: ;c
where J 4

0
y dA = 1 x 1 x 3.5 + 2 x 1 x 2.5 + 2 x

Fig. A14.7 1 0.25 x 1 - 9.0

J
m 2
600 x 9.0
lence, 7; = = 420 psi. as compared
Fig. A14.8 Fig. A14.10 Fig. A14.9 51.33 x 0.25
to the true shear stress of 477 in Fig. A14.8.

TABLE A14.2

MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS FOR SIMPLE SECTIONS

Max. Shear Stress

Cross Section nKax. Shear Stress

True sta 218 sta 17-5 e=O

Shear Shear Stresses I
Pattern By Equation (6)

CJ-t +-l/4”
15336
-7--T
Fsx43x.25

Fig. A14.13

-N 4v ~D= Dd
+ d=

r-----T--
-l’“t- Fs x 43 x 1

Fig. A14.12
3v
Slmllarly, treating the portion between the j&-
YY--- -vN
7=x
edge of the beam and a point 2” from the edge as
a free body diagram as shown In Fig. A14.13,

ZH = - 7157 + 7157 - 15336 + 10224 + T x 43 x 9v

7; = FA e=$
.25 = 0, therefore ‘I: = 477 psi.
I
Obviously, the shear stress on portion C is con-

6 !
llipse
stant, since the end load on this portion at
both stations is the same, or 1023#. 4v
N ---w--N 7=x e=O
Fig. A14.8 shows the general shape of the
shear stress dlstrlbution on the beam SeCtiOn at
any point between stations 175 and 218. The I
 A14.5

A14.5 Maximum Shear Stresses for Simple Cross-Sections. qyb dy + (C; - Cy) = 0 , hence
Table A14.2 gives the value of the maximum
shear stress on a few simple sections and where
it occurs on the cross section, (e is distance c; - cyJ
from neutral axis to point of maximum shear ‘Yb ‘5 - ( dy
stress). V equals the shear load normal to the
neutral axis and it acts along the centerline
axis, thus no twisting on the section. A is the But (c; - Cy) = MG I, ‘x JIz do (See Art. A14.3)
total cross-sectional area. The maximum shear
stress is given in terms of the average shear
stress which equals V/A. hence ‘Yb =
A14.6 Derivation of Flex’ural dear Flow Equation.
Symmetrical Beam Section. dM
To emphasize further the fundamental re- however - = Vz, the external shear in the Z
0 direction.
latlonships, a second derivation of the equation
for shear stress distribution will be presented.

J
b
Fig. A14.14 shows a portion of a cantilever beam henceq Z-2 Zu -------- - - (7)
carrying a load P at the free end as shown. ‘b IX a
This load Is so located as to cause the beam to
bend in the YZ plane without twist about a Y Equation (7) gives the change In shear flow force
aXiS. The problem is to derive relationships qy between points (a) and (b) and since in figure
which will give the magnitude and sense of the
shear flow distribution on the cross-section of A14.15 the value of qy at (a) is z:ro because of
the beam. a free curface, the value of qyb in equation (7)
Fig. A14.15 shows a free body of a small is the true shear flow force in lbs . per inch at
portion of the beam cut out from the uppe: point (b). The student should realize that
flange of the beam at points (a b) in Fig. equatlon (7) gives the shear flow q in the Y di-
A14.14. Under the given external load P it Is rection. The minus sign in equation (7) means
obvious that the upper half of the beam is sub- that the positive sense as assumed by the arrow-
jected to compressive stresses. In Fig. A14.15, head on qyb in Fig. A14.15 is incorrect or shoul
2; is larger than Cy since the cantilever bend-
ing moment is greater at station Y’. be reversed.
The initial problem was to determine the
shear flow force system in the pl?<ne of the beam
cross-section or the ZX plane. From elementary
engineering mechanics, we know that if a shearing
stress occurs on one plane at a point in a body,
a shearinq stress of the same intensity exlsts on
planes at right an,gles to the first plane, or In
general at a point,
qy = qx = qz - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (8)
Before the shear floiv in other planes is
completely defined its sense (positive or nega-
Free tive) must be known.
surface
Equation (7) gives the mag-
nitude and sense for qy at any desired point on
the cross-saction. The question of the sense of
the associated qx and qz is easily determined from
an observation involvin? equilibrium of moments.
Fig. A14. 14 Fig. A14.16 Fig. A14.15
This fact will be explained by referring to a
number of free body diagrams.
The free edge of beam flange forms the FitS. A14.17 shows a fres body of a small
right side face of the element in Fig. A14.15 element cut from the beam in Fig. A14.14 at point
and thus the shear flow force on this face Is (a) on the cross-section. The forces on this
zero as indicated. The shear flow forces on the free body are the compressive forces C” and C on
internal or cut faces In lbs. per inch are qy the front and rear faces and the shear forces on
and qx as indicated. Since the sense of these the v,-trious faces as indicated. The right side
shear forces is unknown, they will be assumed as face of the element is a free surface 2nd thus q
acting in the positive direction. (See Fig. on this face is zero.
A14.16 for positive sense of forces acting par- The Ch”ar flow qy on the left side face is
allel to each of the coordinate axes XYZ. calculated from equation (7) nalnely
Now consider the equilibrium of forces in
the Y direction for the element In Fig. A14.15 vz
ZFY
= 0, or qy=-G”ZA*
A14.6 BENDING SHEAR STHESSBS. SOUND A NI OPEN SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTEH.

t sck side and through a point on the line of

: ction of C’ and C, the shear flow qz on the
ront face must act c!ownward in order to balance
i he moment lue to qy.
Fig. A14.22 shows the results for a free
I ody of the lower flange plus a small web por-
!on. qy is positive from equation and thus qz
I vst be downward for moment equilibrium.
From the results obtained for these 6 dif-
erent locaLions, a simple ru! e can be stated
elative to sense 0: shear flows in the plane of
he cross-section, namely: -
If the calculated shear flow is directed tolxrard the
boundary line between the two intersecting planes of the par-
icular free body, then the shear flow on the other plane is
tlso directed toward the common boundary line, and con-
,ersely directed away if the calculated shear flow is directed
Iway.

‘T’ Flg.Al4.19 T’ Fig. A14.14 shows the sense of the shear

Fig.Al4.20 ‘low pattern on the beam section as determined
‘or the given external loading.

114. ‘7 Shear Stresses and Shear Center for Beam Sections

with One Axis of Symmetry.
For tt: civan :;eam loaciini; in Fig. 1114.14 the
lO?d P is U?, t?ier,afore V, has a positive sign. cxxmple Problem. CHANNEL SECTION.
For any portion of ar~ia (A) of the cross-section Fig. A14.23 sho’ws a cantilever beam with
the distance z’in the ah,?ve equation i’s ‘uhere- :hannel--shaped cross-section carrying a 100 lb.
fore rlositive. Therefore in substituting in the downward load as sh,wn. The problem is to de-
above eqtiat ion qy comes out negative for any ;ermine the lateral position of this load so that
point above reutral axis, and likS?wise for any ;he beam will bend without twist. This position
poi:;t on be;:n section b’eloiu the neutral axis the vi11 coincide with the lateral position of the
dist:r,c 3 z ;~oul;i nave a negat1ce sign and qy zentroid of the shear flow system on the beam
WOUl:‘, come out positive. Therefore tne sense of zross-section-which holds the external load in
the calculated shear flow qy on t,he left side of equilibrium without twisting of the beam section.
The cantilever beam has been cut at a section
‘cne element in Fig. Al4.17 is negative or 3s abed (Fig. A14.23) which Is far enough from the
Indicated by the arrow on the force vector. NOM fixed end of the beam (not shown) so that the
to find the sense of the shear fl.ow qx on the effect: of beam end restraint against section
front face take momer!ts about a % axis acting ir Narping can be neglected. In Fig. A14.23, the
the plane of the rear ;ace and through point (0) internal forces holding the beam in equilibrium
which is on the line of acticn of the forces C’ ire sketched in. They consist of a longitudinal
and C. Only t#io forces have moments, namely the stress system of tension and compression and
slde shear force qy dy and the front face shear Jariable shear flow system in the plane of the
force (qx/?)dx. It is obvious by observation :ross-section. In this problem we are only con-
that qx on front face must act to the left as sidered with the internal resisting shear flow
shown if the moment is to equal zero. The total system.
shear force on front face is (qx/2)dx because For solution of this problem the moment of
shear flow at right edge Is zero and it varies lnertla Ix must be known. If calculated it
linearly to q, at left edge of front face. Nould be I, = 0.2667 in*.
Figs. A14.18, 19 and 20 show free bodies of
elements taken at the other three corners of the SOLUTION: - From equation (7)
beam section which are labeled c, d, e in Fig.
A14.14. For all free surfaces q is zero. The vz )JzA------------s--(B)
sense of qy as before is given by the equation qy = - G
as explained before, hence qy is negative in
Fig. A14.18 and positive in figures 19 and 20. we know that the shear stress is zero at a free
A simple consideration of moment equilibrium as edge, thus the solution of equation (8) Is
explained for Fig. A14.17 gives the sense of thf started at either points (a) or (d).
shear flow qx as shcwn in the 3 figures. The shear V, is - 100 lb. Thus equation
Fig. A14.21 shows a free body of the entire (8) for our problem reduces to,
upper beam flange and a short portion of the
beam web. qy from the equation is negative and
this acts as shown in the figure. Now if we qY=
-&ZzA=3756zA-------
.
take moments about a X axis in the plane of the
 A14.7

100 lb. boundary line as shown in Fig. A14.24.

Common sense tells us that the resisting
I Free end shear flow qz on the channel web must be directed
upward because it is the only force system that
can balance the 100 lb. load as far as ZF, = 0
is concerned.
In general the shear flow is continuous
around the section and only reverses when it
passes through zero which only happens in closed
tubular sections. In general, it is possible in
most cases by observation only, to determine the
Shear Flow Diagram sense of the shear flow at some one point on the
Fig. A14.25 beam cross-section. The shear flow being like a
\” flow of liquid will continue in the same general.
direction along the center line of the parts that
make up the beam section.
The small arrows on the beam section of
Fig. A14.23 show the sense of the shear flow
2 pattern over the beam section. In Fig. A14.25,
Fig. A14. 23
DC
Fig. A14.24 ,\ g the shear flow values as calculated at the var-
Y ious points are plotted to form a shear flow
diagram for the berim section. Between points a
We will start at point (a) in solving equa- and b or d and c, the arm z in equation (9) Is
tion (9) and proceed around the section. constant and thus q varies linearly as plotted.
Point (a) qy = 0 (free surface) Between b and 0 or 0 and c the arm z changes and
the area is also a function of z, thus q varies
Point (b) z = - 1: A = area between (a) and (b as 2’ or parabolic as plotted.
The initial problem was to locate the
+ 375 .Zb z A
4Yb = qy a a centroid of this final shear flow system which
is generally referred to as the shear center,
= 0 + 375 (- 1)(1 x 0.1) = - 37.5 lb/in. In Fig. A14.25, hab, &bc and Qcd represent the
“b resultant of the shear flow force system on
these three portions of the beam cross-section.
Point (0) on X axis. Each force is equal in magnitude to the area of
the shear flow diagram for the particular beam
section portion. Hence,
4Yo = - 37.5 + C75 E; z A

Qab = 1 x 37.5/S? = 10.75 lb.

=- 37.5 + 375 (- 0.5)(1 x 0.1) = - 56.3 lb./in.
Qtc = 2 x 37.5 + (56.3 -37.5) x2 x 2/3 = 100 lb.
Point (c) .
Qcd = 1 x 37.5/2 = 18.75 lb.
qyc
=- 56.3+375 (0.5)(1 x 0.1) =-37.51b./in.
The resultant R of these three shear forces
will now be determined.
Point (d).
Z F, = 100 lb., z Fx = 18.75 - 18.75 = 0
z-37.5+375 (1) (1 x 0.1) = 0 (free surface)
“d Hence
‘We ‘know that the intensity of shear flow in the R = B Fz’ + Z F, ‘)+ = (1002 + C)+ = 100 lb.
ZX plane at any point equals that ?y the Y di-
rection at the same point. Thus qx or qz equal
The moment of the resultant about any point such
the qy values above. The sense of the qx and qz
as (b) ill Fir?. A14.17 must equal the moment of
shear flows must be known before they are com- the shear flow force system about point (b).
pletely defined i)r known. Fig. A14.24 shows a
Let e be dist-rice from point b to line of action
free body of a small element at point (a) on the of the resultant R.
end of the lower beam flange. For any point be-
lo/v the X czntroidal axis equation (9) ~111 give Hence R e = 2 Mb (of shear flow system) or
a minus sign for qy. Thus in Fig. A14.24 qy
acts as shown, or directed toward the boundary 100 e = 18.75 x 2 , or e = 0.37.5 inches.
line between the side face and the front face.
Then by the simple rule as given in the previous Thus the centroid of the internal shear re-
article q, is also directed toward this common sisting force system lies on a vertical line
A14.8 BENDING SHEAR STRESSES. SOUND AND OPEN SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

0.375 Inches to left of point b as shown in Fig. 1Yethod 3. The k Method.

A14.23. For bending about the centroidal Z axis
without twist the resultant of the internal qy = - (ka V, - k, Vz) I: x A - (k, V, - k, Vx)
shear flow system would obviously, due to sym-
metry of section about X centroidal axis, lie on 2 z A - - - - - - - (14)
the X axis, hence shear center for the given
channel section is at point 0 in Fig. A14.23. EXAMPLEPROBLEMUSING THE THREE DIFFERENT
The external load of 100 lb. would have to be MEI’HODS.
located 0.375 inches to the left of the center-
line of the channel web if bending of the Fig. A14.26 shows a Zee Section subjected
channel without twist is to occur. to a 10,000 lb. shear load acting through the
shear center of the section and in the dlrection
A14.8 Shear Stresses for Unsymmetrical Beam Sections. as shown. The problem will be to calculate the
In chapter A13, which dealt with bending shear flow qy at two points on the beam section,
stresses in beams, three methods were presented namely points b and c as indicated on the figure.
for determining the bendlng stresses in beams The shear flow at these two places will be cal-
with unsymmetrical beam sections. The bending culated by all 3 methods.
stress equations for these three methods will be Since all 3 methods require the use of
repeated here: - bean section properties and since the direction
of either the principa 1 axes or the neutral
Method 1. The Principal Axis Method. axis are unknown the Z
first step in the
Mxp zP Qb xP solution regardless of
u=- - - (9) which method is used
I - I --------
xP =P is to calculate the
section propertles
Method 2. The Neutral Axis Method. about centroidal X and
Z axes. Table A14.3
gives the calculations.
u=_“nI~ __-__- ______--- (10) The section has been
divided into 4 portions
labeled 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Method 3. The Method using section properties
about centroidal Z and X axes. For
brevity this method will be called
the k method. Fig. A14.26

u = - (k, Q - kL M,) x - (k, M, - k, %) Z (11)

where,
1
I xz IX 2 0.14 0.70 0
kl = Ix Iz _ I;z ’ k, = I, I, - I& 3 0.14 -0.70 0
4 0.10 -1.45 0.45 -.06525

k,=q-+-qz Ix = Z A za + Z ix = .6035 ln4.

In referring back to the derivations of IZ = Z A x8 + Z I, = .0574

equations (5), (6) and (7) the above equations = X A xz = - .1305
(9), (10) and (11) can be written in terms of Ix,
beam external shears instead of external bending (Note : In Table A14.3 ix and iz are the mom-
moments as follows: - ents of inertia of each portion about
Method 1. The Principal Axis Method. its own centroidal axis).

SOLUTION BY PRINCIPAL AXES METHOD, (Method 1)

qy = Z xp A - - - - - - (12)
Let $ be angle between Principal axes and
the X and Z axes. From chapter A13,

Method 2. The Neutral AXIS Method.

tan 2 4 = ’ Ix’
1, - Ix
-v”zznA ---- ----- -- - - (13)
qY= 1
n 2 (- 0.1305) = 0 4778
= 0.0574 - 0.6035 '
 A14.9

hence 2 4 = 25O - 32.2' or (I = 12O - 46.1' . Now substituting in equation (15)

sin $ = 0.2210 and cos 4 = 0.97527 .
7348 (1 x 0.1 x 1.5136 1
The moments of Inertia about the principal axes qb = - 0.63316
can now be calculated.
= I, cos' 0 + I, sin' 0 - 2 I,, sin $ cos Q 67g2 (1 x 0.1) (- 0.1184) = - 1756 + 2890
IX 0.02782
P
= 0.6035 x .E; + .0574 x d - 2 (-0.1305) = 1134 lb/in.
x .97527 x .2210 = .63316 in'. Calculation of shear flow at point (c)~
= Ix sin8 Q + I, cos' Q + 2 I,, sin $ cosfi For portion (2) area A = 1.4 x 0.1 = 0.14
Iz
P = .70 x .97527 = 0.6825 in.
zP
= 0.6035 x Od + .0574 x d + 2 (-0.1305:
xP = .70 x .2210 = 0.1547
x .97527 x 0.2210 = 0.02782 in*. The shear flow at point (c) equals the
The equation for shear flow q is, shear flow at point (b) plus the effect of the
portion (2) between points (b) and (c)., hence
(151
9c = 1 34 - oy!g16
. (0.14 x 0.6825) -

In Fig. A14.26 the external shear load is 67g2 (0. .4 x 0.1547) = 1134 - 1109 - 5285 q
10000 lbs. acting in a direction as shown. Re- 0.02782
solving this shear load into z and x components,
we obtain, - 5260 lb./in.
The shear stresses at these two points (b)
Vz = 10000 x cos 30' = 8667 lb.
and (c) would equal q/t = 1134/0.1 and - 5260/0.1
VX
= 10000 x sin 30' = 5000 lb. or 11340 psi and - 52600 psi respectively,
Resolving these z and x components further SOLUTION BY NEUTRAL AXIS METHOD. (Method 2)
into components along the principal axes we n
obtain, In this solution
it is necessary to find k--f
the neutral axis for
vzP= 8667 x .97527 - 5000 x .2210 = 7348 lb.
the given external load- -
ing. In Fig. A14.28,
= 8667 x .2210 + 5000 x .97527 = 6792 lb.
VX
P the angle 8 is the angle zn=.186
between the plane of
Calculation of shear flow at point (b). (See loading and the z prinl
Fig. A14.26). clpal axis, and t Ris
Fig. A14.27 shows the position of the angle 8 equals 30' + 12'
principal axes as calculated. The shear flow _ &v = 42O _ 46':.
at the free edge of the upper portion (1) is Let a equal angle between xp 'P
zero. For the shear flow at point (b), the principal axis and neutral axis n-n.
area to be used in the summations Z zpA and From chapter A13, we find,
Z xpA is the area of element (1). The arms zp
I tan Q
and xp can be calculated by simple trigonometry. tan a = - xP
Fig. A14.27 shows the value of these distances,
namely xp = - 0.1184 and zp = 1.5136. IzP

=- 0.63316 x 0.9245 = _ 21 . 052

0.02782

whence, a = - 87" - 17' (See Fig. A14.28 for

location of neutral axis.

12O - 46’ sin a = 0.9989 , cos a = 0.04742

I, = ~0s' a + I sin2 a , substituting,
xP zP
Fig. A14.27
A14.10 BENDING SHEAR STRESSES. SOUND A 1 OPEN SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

1,=0.63316 x ti + .02782 x ti = .02919 q = - L34.25 x 5000 - (- 7.406 x 8667)] Z xA -

The component of the given external shear load c3.2.57 x 8667 - (- 7.406 x 5OOO))Z z A, whence
normal to the neutral axls n-n equals

V, = 10000 x sin 45' - 2.9' = 7130 lb. q = - 235438 Z x A - 65258 $ z A

Shear flow at point (b)

From equation (13)
For portlon (l), x = - 0.45 in., z = 1.45 in.
q=-hz,A A = 1 x 0.1 = .l
In
Substituting,
Shear flow at point (b): -
The distance from the neutral axis to the qb = - 235438 (- 0.45) 0.1 - 65258 x 1.45 x 0.1
centrold of portion (1) equal z, - - 0.0466 in.
hence = 10597 - 9462 = 1135 lb./in.

Point (c)
qb = - 7130 (1 x 0.1) (- 0.0466) = 1135 lb/in.
.o2919 For portion (Z), x = 0, z = 0.7, A = 1.4 x .l
= .14
Shear flow at point (c): - z, = 0.1868 in.
qc = 1135 - 235438 (0) .14 - 65258 x 0.7 x 0.1
qc = 1135- 7130 (1.4 x 0.1) .1868 = 1135 - 0 - 6395 = - 5260 lb./in.
.02919

= 1135 - 6390 = - 5255 lb./in. General Comments.

The author prefers solution method number 3
SOLUTION BY METHOD3 - (The k Method). since it avoids the calculation of addltional
angles and section properties as required in
In this method, only the section properties methods 1 and 2. Furthermore, in calculating the
about the centroidal X and Z axes are needed. shears and moments on the airplane wing, fuse-
These properties as previously calculated in lage and other major sturctural units it is con-
Table A14.3 are, venient to refer these shears and moments to the
conventional X Y 2 axes, and thus these values
IX = 0.6035, I, = 0.0574, I,, = - 0.1305 can be used in method 3 without further resolu-
tion. From an Investigation of many airplane
The shear flow equation from eq. (14) is, stress analysis reports, It appears that the en-
gineers of most airplane companies prefer to use
q=- (k, Vx - kl V,) Z XA - (k, V, - k, V,) method 3.
2 z A - _ - _ _ _ - _ _ --_ _ - - _ - (16)
A14.9 Beams with Constant Shear Flow Webs.

Ixz - 0.1305 Fig. A14.29 shows a Z

kl=I 1-12 beam composed of heavy R
x z xz = 0.6035 x .0574 - (- 0.130:) =
flange members and a curved Flange

thin web. For bending t/' rl'el

= - 0.1305 = - 7.406 about the X-X axis, the 17-r
.01762 web on the compressive, X--i-, 'Lx,
side of the beam absorbs 4 1
1, 0.0574 = 3.257 very little compressive
k,=I I z q ___
x z - Ix, .01762 stress, since buckling of 9 'r, ' _.I
the web will take place ‘Flange
fc
IX 0.6035 under low stresses, par- Z Fig. A14.29
ka=I I = 34.25 titularly when the curvature of the web is
x z - Ix"z = 0.01762
small. On the tension side, the web will be
Resolving the external shear load of more effective, but if the flange areas are
10,000 into x and z components, we obtain, relatively large, the proportion of the total
bending tensile stress carried by the web is
small as compared to that carried by the tenSIOn
V, = 10000 sin 30' = 5000 lb. flange. Thus for beams composed of Individual
V, = 10000 cos 30' = 8667 lb. flange members connected by thin webs it is
often assumed that the flanges develop the en-
tire longitudinal bending resistance which
Substituting values of V,, V, and k values in therefore means that the shear flow is constant
equation (16) we obtain -
 A14.11

over a particular web. In other words in the EXAMPLE PROBLEM- RESULTANT OF A CONSTANTFLOW
FORCE SYSTEM.
shear flow equation q = VZ
--/ z d A, if the area
IX Fig. A14.30 shows a constant flow force
OI the web is neglected then q is constant be- system thru points A B C D E with q = 10 lb.
tween flange members. per inch. The resultant of this force system
is required.
RESULTANT OF CONSTANTSHEAR FLOW FORCE SYSTEMS
Fig. A14.29 shows a beam assumed to be
carrying a downward shear load (not shown) and R=200#
to cause bending about axis x-x without twist. t I-lOff)-I /---+-A
Assuming the two flanges develop the entire
bending resistance, the shear flow q is con- e=
stant on the web and acts upward along the web
to balance the assumed external downward load.
The resultant of this resisting shear flow
force syst\m will give the lateral posltion of CL’- I
the shear center for this beam section. The 0 Fig. A14.30
problem then is to find the resultant of the SOLUTION: -
shear flow system.
Let q = load per inch along web (constant). Draw closing line between the beginning
and end points of force system. (line AE). The
Let R = resultant of the q force system. length h of this closing line is 20 inches.
From elementary mechancis, From eq. (17) R = q h = 10 x 20 = 200 lb.
The direction of the resultant is parallel
R=Jr,q;+Zq; , where q, and qy are the x to line AE or horizontal in this problem. To
and y components of the q forces along the web. find the location of R take moments about any
Since q is constant, E qx is zero, hence, point such as (0). Draw lines from point (0) to
points A and E. The enclosed area (A) equals
R=Zq,=qh -_-___-______ ( -7) 5x10+5x10+.5nx5a +10x 5 = 189.3 sq. in.

Equation (17) states that the magnitude of From eq. (19)

the resultant of a constant flow force system e _ 2 A - 2 x kg.3 = 18 . g3 ip A.
is equal to the shear flow q times the straight h 20
line distance between the two ends of the shear
flow system. Fig. A14.30 shows the resultant of 200 lb.
Since Z q, is zero, the direction of the acting at a distance e from (0) and parallel to
resultant is parallel to the straight line line AE.
joining the ends of the web.
The location of the resultant force is A14.10 Example Problems for Beams with Constant Shear
found by using the principle of moments, namely, Flows Between Flange Members.
that the moment of the resultant about any
point must equal the moment of the original EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1. Beam Section Symmetrical
force system about the same point. In Fig. About One Axis.
A14.29 assume point (0) as a moment center. Fig. A14.31 shows an open beam section com-
Then R e = q L r posed of 8 flange members connected by thin
but R = q h Z

In equation (18) the term L r is equal to

twice the area (A), where area (A) is the en-
closed area formed by drawing straight lines
from moment center (0) to the ends of the shear
flow force system. Thus

ez2-A ____---__----- (19)

h

The shear center thus lies at a distance e

to the left of point (0), and the external shear
load would have to act through this point if Fig. A14. 31
twisting were to be eliminated.
A14.12 BENDING SHEAR STRESSES. SOUND 1 D OPEN SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

sheet to form the webs and walls. The flange in order to indicate at what point the shear
members are numbered a to h and the areas of flow q is being calculated.
each are given on the figure. It will be as-
sumed that the webs and walls develop no bending kb = - 2.5 2, Z A = - 2.5 X 5 X 0.1 =
resistance and thus the shear flow between ad-
jacent flange members will be constant. The = 1.25 lb./in,
problem is to determine the shear center for the
beam sectlon. The first letter of the subscript refers
to the flange member where the shear flow q is
SOLUTION: - belng calculated and the second letter indicates
on which adjacent side of the particular flange
Since the beam section is symmetrical member. Hence qab means the shear flow at
about the X axis, the centroidal X and 2 axes flange (a) but on the side toward (b),
are also principal axes, since the product of
inertia Ix, Is zero. qab = qba = - 1.25 (Since no additlonal flange
The vertical position of the beam section area is added, and thus
centroid due to symmetry is midway between the shear flow is constant on
upper and lower flanges. sheet ab.
To find the horizontal position of the
centroid, take moments of the flange areas qbc = qba - 2.5 zb z A
about the left end or line bc: =- 1.25 - 2.5 x 5 x 0.4 = - 6.25 lb./in.

jT-ZAx- 0.4 x 15 + 0.2 x 10 + 0.2 x 5 qcb = - 6.25

ZA 1.6 qcd = qcb - 2.5 2, z A
=- 6.25 - 2.5 x (- 5 x 0.4) = - 1.25
= 5.625 in.
qdc = qcd = - 1.25
The moments of inertia for the section about
the centroidal x and y axes are: - qde = qdc - 2.5 Ed z A = - 1.25 - 2.5 (- 5 x 0.1)
=o
IX
= r, A ze = (0.8 x 52) 2 = 40 in4. qed = qde = 0
qef = 0 - 2.5 Z, z A = 0 - 2.5 (- 5 x 0.1) = 1.25
1, = 0.8 x 5.625’ + 0.2 x 0.6252 + 0.2 x
qfe = qef = 1.25
4.375= + 0.4 x 9.375m = 64.4 in’.
qfg = 1.25 - 2.5 Zf z A = 1.25 - 2.5
HORIZONTAL P0SITION OF SHEAR CENTER: - (- 5 x 0.2) = 3.75
The horizontal position of the shear center Qgf = qfg = 3.75
WI11 coincide with the centrold of the shear
flow system due to bending about axis xx with- qgh = 3.75 - 2.5 Zg 2 A = 3.75 - 2.5 X 5 X 0.2 =
out twist. For simplicity, to eliminate large 1.25
decimal values for shear flow values an ex- qhg = qgh = 1.25
ternal upward shear load Vz = 100 lb. will be
assumed and the internal resisting shear flow qha = 1.25 - 2.5 zh z A = 1.25 - 2.5 x 5 x 0.1 =
system will be calculated for this external 0 (checks free edge at h).
loading .
From equation (8) The sign or sense of each shear flow is for
the shear flow in the y direction as explained
“Z
qy=y-$zA, substituting values of Vz and in the derivations of the shear flow equations.
IX The procedure now is to determine the sense of
the shear flow in the plane of the cross-section
sy = -$+A= - 2.5 Z z A or in the xz plane. It Is only necerjsary to
determine this sense at the beginning point, that
We could start the solution at either of Is In sheet panel ab. The surest way to deter-
two points (a) or h since these points are free mine this sense is to draw a simple free body
edges and thus qy Is zero. In this solution, sketch of flange member (a) as illustrated in
Fig. A14.31. The shear flow on the cut face is
we will start at the free edge at point (a) and
go counterclockwise around the beam se&Ion. qy(ab) = - 1.25 and
The area of each flange member has been concen- this value is shown
trated at a point coinciding with the centroid on the free body. By I +-y+ - -/i q (ab)
of each flange area. In solving for the q val- simnle rule given at ,,&?/- _ 1,
ues the subscript y will be omitted, and sub- the end of Art. A14.6,
scripts using the flange letters will be used the shear flow in the qJyp
53
a
plane of the cross- Fig. A14.31
 A14.13

section is also directed toward the common We will again start at the free edge ad-
boundary line in?, thus qx(ab) has a sense as jacent to flange (a) where qy = 0.
shcwn in Fis. A14.31. The sense of the shear qab = - 1.55 2, X A = - 1.55 (- 0.625 X 0.1) =
flo-rv on the cross-section will now continue in
this direction u::til the sign changes In the 0.0971 lb./in.
origional cnlculntion, which means therefore thl
qba = qab = 0. og71
shear flo\ni sense will reverse. Fig. A14.32
shotis a plot of the shear flow pattern with the qbc = 0.0971 - 1.55 .$ X A = 0.0971 - 1.55
sense indicated by the arrow heads.
(- 5.625 x 0.4) = 3.592
vz= lOO#
-1.25 t 1.25
qcb = qbc = 3.592
q,d = 3.592 - 1.55 2, X A = 3.592 - 1.55 X

5.625 x 0.4) = 7.067

-6.25 3.75 qdc = 7.027
qde q 7.087 - 1.55 (- 0.625 x 0.1) = 7.184
q,, = 7.184

-1.25 1.25 qef = 7.184 - 1.55 x 4.375 x 0.1 = 6.504

Fig. A14.32 qfe = 6.504

The results will be checked to see if 9fP; = 6.504 - 1.55 x 9.375 x 0.2 = 3.589
static eq,uliibriB&m exists relative to Z Fx and qgf = 3.589
r, F, = 0.
qah = 3.589 - 1.55 x 9.3?5 x 0.2 = 0.674
Z F, = 100 (ext. load)
- 10 x 6.25 - 10 x 3.75 -I
Fig. A14.33 shows the plotted shear flow
1.25 x 0.5 x 4 - 1.25 x 0.5 x 4 = 0 (check: results. The signs of the calculated shear
Z F, q - 3 x 1.25 + 5 x 1.25 - 5 x 1.25 + 5 x flows are for shear flows in the y direction,
Simple consideration of a free body of flange
1.25 = 0 (check). member (a) will Five the sign or sense of the
shear flow In the plane of the beam section.
The shear flow force system in Fig. A14.32 Thus in Fig. A14.34 qx must act. as shown when
causes the section to bend about axis xx wlth- qy is positive.
out twist. The resultant of this system is 100
lb. acting down in the z direction. The posi-
tion of this resultant will thus locate the
lateral position of the shear center.
Equating the moments of the shear flow
system about some point such as (c) to the mo-
ment of the resultant about the same point we
obtain: -

100 e = 10 x 3.75 x 15 - 1.25 x 0.5 x 2 x 5 -

1.25 x 0.5 x 2 x 10 + 1.25 x 0.5 x 2 x 15
hence e = 562.5/100 = 5.625 Inches.
v, = lOO#
Thus the shear center lies on a vertical line Fig. A14.33
5.625 inches to right of line bc.

c
CALCULATIOK OF VERTICAL POSITION OF SHEAR
CE?,TER.
For convenience as before, we will assume
a shear 10-d V, = 100 lb. and compute the re-
sisting shear flow system to resist this load 5.625 4
in bendin;; :l:,out axis zz without twist. The
a
resultant of this si;ear flow system will give
the vertical locstio;: of the shear center. The I 6.43
Fig. A14. 34 r: c
shear floiv equat,ion is, b. c.

Z x A = - 1.55 .Z x A Fig. A14.35

A14.14 BENDING SHEAR STRESSES. SOUND P OPEN SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

Checking to see if Z Fz = 0 and Z Fx = 0: - Calculation of I,, I, and I,, -

2 Fz = 3.592 x 10 - 3.589 x 10 L .5 x .0971 - -5 IX

= 2 A ze = .5 (5.333' + 2.667') + 1
x .0971 + 5 x .674 - .5 x .674 f .5 x .0971 - .5 (5.333e + 6.667') = 90.667
x .674 - .5 x 6.504 + -5 x 7.087 = 0 (check) I, = C A x2 = 1 (10.667') + 2 (5.3332) = 170.667
IX, = Z A xz = 1 x 6.667 (- 5.333) + 1 (- 5.333)
Z F, = 100 + 5 x .0971 + 5 x .674 - 5 (7.087 +
(- 5.333) + 0.5 x 10.667 x 2.667 + 0.5 x 10.667
7.184 + 6.504) = 0 (check)
(- 5.333) = - 21.333
The resultant R of the internal shear flow
system is a horizontal force of 100 lb. acting The constants k,, k, and k, are now determlned -
toward the left. To find the location of the
resultant take moments about a point 0.5 inch Ixz - 21.333
below point (c). k1 = I, I, - Ix; = 90.667 x 170.667 - 21.333' =

Re=ZM - 21*333 = - .00142

15019
100 e = 5 (.0971 + .674) 11 + 10 x 3.589 x 15 +
.5 x .0971 x 5 - (.5 x .674 x 10) + .5 x .674 x Iz 170.667
= 0.01136
ks = I, I, - 1,; = 15019
15 + .5 x 6.504 x 15 + .5 x .674 x 10 - (.5 x
.0971 x 5) IX 90.667

100 e = 643 kz = I, I, - Ix2 = ~15019 = 0.006037

e = 643/100 = 6.43 inches Resolving the given shear load of 141.14 into Z
and x components, we obtain,
Fig. A14.35 shows the resulting shear center
location for the given beam section. v, = 141.14 x sin 45' = 100 lb.
EXAMPLEPROBLEM2. Unsymmetrical Beam Sectlon. = 141.14 x cos 45' = 100 lb.
vX
Fig. A14.36 shows a four flange beam sec-
tion. The areas of each flange are shown ad- From equation (14) -
jacent to flange. The external shear load V
equals 141.14 lb. and acts in a direction as 4y = - (k, V, - k, Vz) Z x A - (k, V, - k, V,)
shown. The problem 1s to find the line of ZzA
action of V so that section will bend without Substituting -
twisting.

Load = 141.14
4y = - 1..006037 x 100) - (- .00142 x 100 1I: x A -
f
II.01136 x 100 - (- .00142 x loo)] r, z A

whence

qy = - 0.7457 Z x A - 1.278 Z z A

We will start at flange member (a) where qy is

SOLUTION: zero on the free edge side of the member.

To solve this problem, method (3) will be qab = - 0.7457 x 1 (- 5.333) - 1.278 x 1 x 6.667
used. = - 4.544
To locate centroidal x and z axes: -
qba = q& = - 4.544
z=- ZAx-1x12- + 0.5 x 8=5 . 333 In * qbc = - 4.544 - 0.7457 x 1 (- 5.333) - 1.278 x
ZA 3
1 (- 5.333) = 6.249 lb./in.
?=m-.-Z A z _ (0.5 + 0.5) 16 = 5 . 333 In. qcb = qbc = 6.249
 A14.15

Qcd = 6.245 - G.$4.55’: X 0.5 X 10.667 - 1.278 X A14.11 Shear Center Location By Using Neutral AxiS
Method.
0.5 (- 5.333) = 5.650
In a beam subjected to bending there Is a
q& = ‘l,d = 5.6% definite neutral axis position for each differ-
qda = 5.680 - 0.7457 x .5 x 10.667 - 1.278 x 0.5 ent external plane of loading on the beam. The
shear flow equatlon with respect to the neutral
x 2.667 = 5.680 - 3.977 - 1.704 = axis Is,
0 (checks free edge at d where qy
must be zero. ) vn 2 2,~ - - - _ _ - - - _ _ - (20)
qY q - I,

Fig. A14 .37 skiows the resultin; shear flow re- where, V, = Shear resolved normal to neutral axis
sisting pattern. The sense of the shear flow in
In = Moment of Inertia about neutral axis
Zn = Distance to neutral axls

Fig.Al4.37a
In finding the shear center location of an
unsymmetrical section, it is convenient to as-
sume that the Z and X axes are neutral axis and
find the shear flow system for bending about
each axis by equation (20). The resultant of
w - . C each of these shear flow force systems will pass
through the shear center, thus the intersection
Fig. A14.37
of these two resultant forces will locate the
shear center.
the plane of the cross-section is determined in
web at flange member (a) by the simple free Example Problem
body diagram of stringer (a) In Fig,. h14.37a
Check C F, and r Fz to see if each equals The same beam section as used in the
100. previous article (see Fig. A14.36) will be used
to illustrate the neutral axis method.
Z Fx = - 6.249 x 16 = - 99.99 (checks V, = 100)
Fig. A14.38 shows the section with the
Z Fz = - 12 x 4.544 - 8 x 5.68 q - 99.94 (checks centroidal axls drawn in. The X axis will now
v, = 100).
The resultant of the internal resisting
shear flow system equalsL/ 100z + 1002 = 141.14
lb.
To locate this resldltant we use the prin-
ciple of moments. Taking point (b) as a moment
center,
Fig. A14.38 Fig. A14.39
141.14 e = 8 x 5.68 x 16 - 4.544 x 36 n be assumed as the neutral axls for an external
212 plane of loading as yet unknown. We will further
hence e --- 141.14 = 1.50 inch. assume that when this unknown external loading
is resolved normal to the X neutral axis, that
Therefore external load must act at a distance it will give a value of 100 lb., or V, = 100.
e = 1.50” from (b) as shown in Fig. A14.37. The From the previous article Ix = 90.667.
load so located will pass thru shear center of
section. To obtain the shear center location, Since the X aXiS has been assumed as the
another loading on the beam can be assumed, and neutral axis, equation (20) can be written
where the line of action of the resultant of the
resisting shear flow system intersects the re-
QY = - 3I, Z ZA, hence,
sultant as found above would locate the shear
center as a single point. If the shear center 100
location is desired it is convenient to assume qab = - 90.667 x 6.667 x 1.0 = -7.35 lb./in.
a unit Vz and V, acting separately and find the
horizontal and vertical locations of the shear qbc = - 7.35 - *7
.
x (-5.333)1 = -1.47
center from the 2 separate shear flow force
systems. qcd = -1.47 - *7 (-5.333) 0.5 = 1.47

Fig. A14.39 shows the resulting shear flow

values.
Al4916 BENDING SHEAR STRESSES. SOUND 1AN D OPEN SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

ZFX = 1.47 x 16 = 23.52 lb. Take moments about (b) and let (e) equal
distance to resultant R.
ZFZ = 7.35x12+8x1.47 = 99.96 lb. (check)
100.8e = 3.125xnx62+3.13x8x16
R = d 100e+ 23.52’ = 103 lb. e = 753/100.8 = 7.47 in.
tan 0 = 23.52/100= .2352 Q
Fig. A14.40 shows the position of this re-
100 R = 103 sultant force . Where it intersects the previous
hence 8 q 13’ - 16’ resultant force gives the shear center location.
Ti
23.52
Let e = distance from A14.12 Problems
resultant R to point b.
(1) Fig. A14.42
shows the cross-
Equating moments of section of a wood
resultant about (b) to that of shear flow beam glued to-
system about (b), gether on lines
a-a and a-b. The
103e = -7.35x6n2+1.47x8x16
beam is subjected
e=- 644 to a vertical
-= -6.25 in.
103 shear V = 2400
lb. Determine
Fig. A14.40 shows the location of the shearing stress
resultant. We know the shear center lies on on sections a-a
the line of action of this resultant. Thus we and a-b. Find
maximum shearing
Fig. A14.42
stress on beam
section.
Fig. A14.43
(2) Fig, A14.43
shows a Zee sec-
tion loaded by a
Fig. A14.41
1000 lb. load
acting through
Fig. A14.40 the shear center
as shown. Find
must obtain another resultant force which the shear stress
passes through the shear center before we can at sections a-a
definitely locate the shear center. Therefore and b-b by three
we will now assume that the Z centroidal aXiS different methods.
is a neutral axis and that a resolution of the
external load system gives a shear V, = 100 lb.

=-5nA, I, = 170.667
9Y Iz
100
qab = - 17o.667X(-5.333)1 = 3.125 lb./in.

Fig. A14.45
qbc = 3.125 -+$& . (-5.333)1 = 6.25 lb./i] 1 Fig. A14.46
(3) Determine the shear flow diagram and the
100 shear center location for bending about hori-
9cd = 6’25 - -170.66 (0.5)(10.667) = 3.13
zontal centroidal axis for the beam sections
as given in Figs. A14.44 to A14.46.
Fig. A14.41 shows the shear flow results.
Fig. A14.4’7
=Fx = -6.25~16 = -100 lb. /2 “O

f-7 =6

7YLt.il
.20” .150’
ZFz = -8x3.13+12x3.125 = 12.5 lb.
1 !( 11 4” 7
1
R = d-ii?@-+ 12.52 = 100.8
.lO”.P” .08’ .OB”
12.5=
tan 8 =z= .125
(4) Determine the shear center location for the
beam sections in Flgs. A14.47 and A14.48. As-
 T
sume flange members develop entire bending
stress resistance.

y5;5+5qd Fig. A14.4Q

I--
Fig.
50” kj
A14.51
Fig.

(7) In Fig. A14.51, the shell structure

A14.52

is sub-
jected to a torsional moment M = 50,000 in. lb.
The shell skin shown dashed is cut out, thus the
torsional moment is resisted by the constant
(5) Determine the shear center for the beam shear flow on the two curved sheet elements ac,
section of Fig. A14.49. Assume only the 8 and bd. Determine the value of the shear flow.
stringers as being effective in bending. Area
of stringers (a) and (b) = 2 sq. in. each. (8) Determine the moment of the constant flow
All other stringers 1 sq. in. each. force system in Fig. A14.52 about point’!(O).
Also find the resultant of this force system.

.8 sq. in.
A
.5 sq. in.
t 19” (9) In Fig. A14.53, the four stringers a, b, c
Fig. A14.50 and d have the same area. Assume the webs in-
effective in resisting bending stresses, De-
termine the distance (e) to product bending
(6) Determine the shear center for the un- about the horizontal axls without twist.
symmetrical beam section of Fig. A14.50. As- (10) For the wing cell beam section in Fig.
sume sheet connecting the four stringers as 814.54, determine the location of the shear
ineffective. Areas of stringers shown on Fig. center. Assume webs and walls ineffective in
bending.
A14.18 BENDING SHEAR STIJESSES. SOUND AND OPEN_ECTIONS. SHEAR CENJ’ER.

*’ Pa.8 F

Static Test of Douglas

Aircraft Model C- 124

STRUCTURAL TESTING IS AN IMPORTANT PHASE OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN.

 CHAPTER A 15
SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN - WALLED SECTIONS

A15.1 Introduction. The wing, fuselage and em- open sectlons we could start the summation at a
pennage structure of modern aircraft is essen- free surface where q would be zero, thus the
tially a single or multiple cellular beam with summation to any other point would give the true
thin webs and walls. The design of such shear flow qy. In a closed cell there 1s no
structures involves the consideration of the free end, therefore the value of qy is LUlknOWfl
dlstrlbutlon of the internal resisting shear for any point.
stresses. This chapter Introduces the student
to the general problems of shear flow distri- Equation (1) gives the shear distribution
bution. Chapter Al4 should be covered before for bending about the X axis without twist.
taklng up this chapter. The general procedure is to assume a value of
the shear flow qy at some point and then find
A15.2 Single Cell Beam. Symmetrical About One Axis. the shear flow pattern for bendlng without
All Material Effective in Resisting Bending twist under the given external load. The cen-
Stresses.
troid of this Internal shear flow system will
F1g. A15.1 shows a single cell rectangular be the location where the external shear load
beam carrying the load of 100 lb. as shown. should act for bending without twist. Since
The problem is to find the internal resisting the given external shear would have a moment
shear flow pattern at sectlon abed. about this centrold, this unbalanced moment
must be made zero by adding a constant shear
I lOO# flow system to the cell.

To illustrate we will assume qy to be zero

at point 0 on the web ad.

qo = 0. The term F = 100/62.5 = 1.6

X

%o = -1.6 Z;zA = -1.6x2.5x5x0.1 = -2 lb/in.

qba = -2-1.6 +A = -2-1.6x5x20x.05 = -10

qo’b = -10-1.6 +4=-10-1.6x2.5x5x.05 =

-11

%o’ = -ll- 1.6 Zz, zA = -ll- 1.6 x (-2.5)5 x

.05 = -10
Fig. A15-1
qcd = -10-1.6 ZE zA = -lo-1.6(-5)20 x .05
= -2
Solution 1
qod = -z-l.6 2; ZA = -2-1.6(-2.5)5x0.1= 0
Due to symmetry of material the X cen-
troldal axls lies at the mid-height of the
beam. The shear flow equation requires the Fig. A15.2 shows a plot of the shear flow
value of Ix, the moment of Inertia of the results. On the vertical web the increase in
section about the X axis. shear Is parabolic since the area varies
directly with distance z.
IX =-&x.15x103+2[20~.05~5p]= 62.5 in.+
The Intensity of qx and q, in the plane of
From Chapter A14, the equation for shear the cross-section is equal to the values of q
flow IS, found above which are in the y dlrectlon. The
sense of qx and qz is determined as explalned
QY =+zA--e-v-
X
______ a (1) in detail in Art. A14.6 of Chapter A14.

This equation glves the change In shear

flow between the llmlts of the summation. In
A15.1
A15.2 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-W. LED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

Adding this constant shear flow to that of

Fig. A15.2 we obtain the final shear flow
pattern of A15.3.

Fig. A15-2

Fig. A15-3
Fig. A15.2 also shows the resultant shear
flow force on each of the four Walls of the If this constant shear flow of -8.34 was
cell. The resultant shear force on each not added then the external load of 100 lb.
equals the area of the shear flow diagram On would have to be re-located so that It passed
each position. through the centrold of the shear flow pattern
in A15.2. To find this centroid location, we
For example, can equate the moment of the Internal shear
flow pattern about some point to the moment of
the resultant of the system about the same
&ab = ( 2 ; lo )20 = 120 lb.
point.

Qda =+x2x10 = 6.67 lb. Resultant R = d ZF, ‘+ ZFz ‘= \/ 100’ + 0

= 100 acting down.
Qbc = 10 x 10 + 0.667 x 1 x 10 = 106.7
Take moments about point d. Let I equal
distance to resultant.
The internal shear flow force system as
given in Fig. A15.2 will now be checked for-o = md (internal system)
ti
equilibrium with given external shear loading
of 100 lb. as shown in Fig. A15.1.
100 ? = 120 x 10 + 106.67 x 20

ZFz = 100 (external) + 6.67 - 106.67

hence ? = 33.33 in. Thus the external load
= 0 (check) would have to be moved 33.33 inches to right if
the pattern of A15.2 would hold it In equilibrium.
ZFX = 120 - 120 = 0 (check) Since we assume q = zero at point 0, this means
an open cell with the free end at 0 would bend
without twist if the external load was moved the
Equilibrium of moments must also be
distance ?.
satisfied. Take moments of all forces about
point d. The external load has no moment
The student should work this same problem
about d.
by assuming q at some other point is zero in-
stead of pain fl 0 as assumed In the above solu-
2% = 120 x 10 + 106.67 x 20 tion.
= 3344 in. lb. clockwise
Solution No. 2. Shear Center Method.
Thus we have an unbalanced moment which
must be made zero If we are to have equil- In this solution, we determine the centroid
ibrium, of the internal shear flow system for bending of
the closed section about axis X without twist.
The unbalanced moment of 3334 in. lb. This point is called the shear center. The
can be balanced by adding a constant shear external shear load can then be resolved into a
in a counter-clocktiise direction around the shear force acting through the shear center plus
cell. The value of this balancing shear flow a torsional moment about the shear center.
would equal,
We start the solution, exactly as in solu-
M -3334 tion 1, by assumlng the shear flow q = 0 at
q = --ix= 2 x 200 = -0.34 lb/in. point 0. In a sense we are cutting the cell at
0 and making it an open sectlon. The resulting
(A equals area of cell = 10 x 20) shear flow is as given in A15.2. This open
 A15.3
I
section will bend without twist if the ex-
ternal shear load acts through the shear
center of the open section.

The closed section will be assumed to

bend without twist, and the resulting shear
flow pattern will be determined. 6.36
‘in.

The equation for angular twist 8 (See

Chapter A6) per inch length of beam is,

0 d-z+, where L equals the length

of a web or wall.
Fig. Al%4
or 2A8 =&Y+ The right hand side of
G t’ The location of the resultant of the shear
this equation represents the total shearing flow force system of Fig. A15.4 will locate the
strain around the cell which must be zero for horizontal position of the shear center. Due
no twist of cell. Since G is constant, we to symmetry of the section about the X axis,
can assume it as unity as only relative the vertical position of the shear center will
values of strain are needed in the solution. be on the X axis, because for bending about the
Thus the total shearing strain 6 around cell Z axis, the shear flow would be syrnmetric:~l and
is proportional to, thus, the resultant would coincide with the X
axis.
6 =+--------------(a)
Fig. A15.4 also shows the resultant Shear
Using the values of q from Fig. A15.2 load Q on each portion of the cell wall which
and substituting in (2), equals the area of the shear flow diagram for
various portions as shown.
6 =r,AL= C222, (10 + 2) 20 10 x 5
ZF, = - 56.9 - 43.1 = - 100, which balances
t 3x.1 2 2% f.C)5 the external load of 100 lb.
+ (11 - lOIC.667
.05
x 5)
1 2 q 7ooo

point
ZFX q 0 by observation.
0, the intersection
Take moments about
of axis XX and side ad.
Since the section and shear flow pattern
is syrmmetrical about the X axis, the substi- x _ ZMo _ 43.1x20+ (-23.8+16.58)10 =
tution above is written for one-half of the ZFZ 100
cell and the results multiplied by 2. When 7.90 in.
the shear flow q varies over a portion the
average shear flow is used in the above Hence the shear center lies on the X axis, 7.9”
substitution. from side ad.

If the cell is not to twist the relative The moment of the external load of 100 lb.
twist of 7000 must be cancelled by adding a about shear center equals 100 x 7.9 = 790 in.
constant shear flow q around the cell to give lb. clockwise. The moment of the internal shear
a total shear strain of -7000. flow of Fig. A15.4 is zero thus we have an un-
balanced moment of 750. Therefore for equil-
The shearing strain for a constant q ibrium of moments we must add a constant shear
equals, flow q around cell to develop -790 in.lb. or

6 + 2.c
.05 + -s-.05 1 2 = -7000 q === M 2
-
x 790
2oo = - 1.98 lb/in.

7000
--1106 = -6.36 lb/in. Adding this constant shear flow to that of
hence q =
Fig. A15.4, we obtain the final shear flow
pattern which will be identical to that in
Fig. A15.4 shows the resultant shear Fig. A15.3 or the results of solution 1.
flow pattern if the constant shear flow of
-6.36 is added to the shear flow pattern of A15. 3 Single Cell - 2 Flange Beam. Constant Shear Flow Webs.
A15.2.
As discussed in Art. A14.9, the common
aircraft cellular beam is made up of thin sheet
A15.4 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

walls and webs which are stiffened by members hence q, = 15.21 lb/in. (sign comes out positive,
usually referred to as flange members. A hence assumed sense of q, is correct).
simplifying common assumption is to assume
that the flange members alone develop the Fig. A15.7 shows a plot of the internal
resistance to the bendlng moment. This shear flow resisting system.
assumption therefore means that the shear flow
is constant between flange members. A single celi beam having only two flanges
can resist only external loads which are parallel
Fig. A15.5 shows a single cell beam with to the line AB, and thus a two flange box beam
two flanges at A and B. Flnd the internal is not used very often in aircraft structure.
shear flow force system when the beam carries When the bending moment in a plane at rlght
the external load of 100 lb. as shown. angles to line AB is small, the resistance of
the curved panel to compressive bending stresses
may be sufficient to resist such external bend-
ing moments and thus be satisfactory.
100 6.21
A15.4 Shear Center of Single Cell - Two Flange Beam.

Let it be required to find the shear center

of the beam as given In Fig. A15.5. In other
words where would the external load have to be
placed so that the beam would bend without
twist.
.2 1
Fig. Al5-6 Fig. A15-7

Fig. A15-5

It is assumed that the two flanges

develop the entire bending stress reslsta~cti.
This means that shear flow is constant on each
web. Let q, and q, be the constant shear flow
as shown in Fig. A15.6. The sense or dIrection
of these shear flows will be assumed as Indi-
Fig. A15-8 Fig. A15-9 Fig. A15-10
c-?ted by the arrow heads in the figure.

The force system in the plane of the

cross-section has 2 unknowns, namely q, and
q, and thus we can solve for q, and q, by
simple statics.
Fig. A15.8 shows the resulting shear flow
system in resistlng the 100 lb. exterral load
To find q, take moments about point A.
acting as shown in Fig. 1115.5. This shear flow
system will cause the cell to twist. Therefore
mA = 100 x 10 - q, (2 x 80.52) = 0 we add a constant shear flow q to the cell to
hence q, = lOOO/lb 161.04 = 6.21 lb/In. produce zero twlst (Fig. A15.9). The centroid
of the combined shear flow system will then
locate the lateral location of the shear center.
The sign of q8 comes out plus, thus the
‘assumed sense of q, as shown In Fig. A15.6 is To find q we must write an expression
correct.
which measures the twist when subjected to the
shear flows of Figs. A15.8 and 9 and equate the
In the above equation of moments about
result to zero, and then solve for the one un-
point A, the moment of the constant flow
lcnowrl q.
system q, about A, equals q, times double the
enclosed area formed by lines running from A
to the ends of the web which carries the shear 6 =r,*=o (Clockwise q is positive)
t *
flow q,. In this case the area is the area
of the cell, or 80.52 sq. in. using the shear flows of Figs.
Substituting,
A15.8 and A15.9,
To find the remaining mown q, we use
the equilibrium equatlon,

ZFZ = 0 = - 100 - 10 x 6.21 + 10ql = 0

 A15.5

fi=- ---____ x 10 _ 6.21 x 24.28

16.21 f 1oq of the cell, the web and wall thickness oo
.04 .025 .04 influence the amount of twist for a given
torsional load. In the shear certer Solution,
f =.=Q _ o
it is known what portion of the shear flow is
.025 due to torque or pure twist, and ilso that due
to bending without twist, which fact is somc-
hence q = 8.86 lb.ln. times of importance.

Adding this constant shear flow to that TORSIONAL DEFLECTION OF CELL

of Fig. Al.5.8, we obtain the shear flow of
Fig. Al5.10. The angular twist as given by the final
shear flow pattern of Fig. AZ.8 equals
The lateral position of the shear center 2BAG = ZqL/t, whence
is given by the location of the resultant of -6.21x24.28 16.21x10= -1oo02 _ _ (3)
the shear flow system of Fig. A15.10. 2QAG = .025 - .04
The resultant R = d ZFx’ + ZF,’ After finding the shear center location,
we found that the external load had a moment
ZF, = 0 of 1330 in. lb. about shear center, which was
resisted by a constant shear flow of - 8.%3
ZFz = 10 x 7.95 + 2.05 x 10 = 100 lb. The angular twist under this pure
lb/in.
torque shear flow should therefore give the
Therefore R = 100 lb.
same result as equation (3) above.
Equate moments of R about point A to
moment of shear flow system about A. ZQAG = - 8.26 x 24.28 - 8.26 x 10 =- 10082
.025 .04
Ke = ZMA which checks the result of equation (3).
1OOe = 2.05 (2 x 80.52) A15.5 Single Cell-Three Flange Beam. Constant Shear
Flow Webs.
e q 3.30 in.

Thus shear center lies 3.30 inches to 100 lb.

left of line AB. (See Fig. A15.10).

Thus if the given external load of 100 25 lb.

lb. acts through the shear center, it will
produce the shear flow system of Fig. A15.10.
However it acts 13.3 to right of shear center,
hence it produces a clockwise moment of 100 Fig. A15-12
x 1X.3 = 1330 in.lb. on the cell. For
equilibrium, this moment must be balanced by
a constant resisting shear flow around Cell
which will produce a moment of -1330.

The required
q = 2-x1~05p = - 8 .26 lb.in.
. d Area Cell
which if added to the shear flow system of I I
3 128.54 sa. in. Fig. A15.13
A15.10 will give the true shear flow system Fig. A15.11
of A15.8.
Fig. A15.11 shows a single cell beam with
Thus having the shear center location, three flange members, A, B and C, carrying the
the external load system can be broken down external load as shown. A three flange box if
into a load through the shear center plus a the flanges are not located in a straight line
moment about the shear center. The shear can take bending in any direction and therefore
flow due to each is then added to give the is often used in design because of its simpli-
true resisting shear flow. city.

It should be noticed that the web or skin For such a structure, there are slx un-
thickness does not influence the magnitude of knowns, namely, the axial load In each stringer
the shear flow system in a single cell beam. and the shear flow q In each of the three sheet
A change in thickness, however, effects the panels that make up the cell. For a space
unit shearing stress and therefore the shear- structure, we have slx static equations of
ing strain and thus in computing angular twist equilibrlm, thus a three flange single cell
A15.6 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-W& LED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

beam can be solved by statics if we assume

that the three flange members develop all the
bending stress resistance, thus producing
constant shear flow webs.

Fig. AX.12 shows the cross section ABC.

The three unknown resisting shear flows have
been assumed with a positive sign. (Clockwise
flow is positive shear flow). These three Fig. Al 5- 14 Fig. A15-15 Fig. A15- 16
unknown shear flows can be determined by
statics.

To find q,, take moments about point B The three unknown reslst‘ing shear flows
and equate to zero. will be assumed with the sense as Indicated by
the arrow heads.
MB = 100 X 5 - ‘5 X 10 + q,, (128.54 X 2) = 0
To find qac take moments about B
hence q,, = - 2%8. = - 0.972 lb/in.
mMg = 100 x 5 - sac (128.54 x 2) = 0
To find q,b take ZF, = 0
9aC = 1.945 lb/in.
XFZ = 100 - 10 x 0.972 - lo%, = 0
ZF, = - 15 x 1.96 f 15qbc = 0
%b = 3.13 lb/in.
Qbc = 1.945
To find qbc take ZF, = 0
ZF, q 100 - 10 x 1.945 - lo%b = 0
ZF, = - 15 X o.%‘ii - 25 - I.!& = 0
qab = 8.055 lb/in.
hence qbc = - 2.639 lb/in.
The algebraic signs of the unknown q value
The signs of q,, and qbc came out negative, all come out positive, thus the assumed direction
hence the sense of the shear flow on these cell of shear flows in Fig. A15.14 is correct.
wall portlmons is opposite to that assumed in
Fig. A15.12. The resulting shear flow pattern To make the cell twist zero, we must add a
is plotted in Fig. A15.13. constant shear flow q to the cell (see Fig.
A15.15) 0 The relative twist under the shear
The student should realize the thickness flow of Figs. 14 and 15 will be equated to zero.
of the wall elements does not influence the ,&= - 1.945x20.71
shear flow distribution if we assume the three - 1.945x15 + 8.055 x 10
t .03 .025 .04
flanges develop the entire resistance to the
bending moment. 20.71q
+-+-t- 1oq 15q =
.03 .04 .025 ’
A15.6 Shear Center of Single Cell-Three Flange Beam.
Constant Shear Flow Webs. Whence, q = 0.322 lb/in. with sense as
assumed In Fig. A15.15. Adding this constant
Let it be required to determine the shear shear flow to that of Fig. AX.14 we obtain the
center location for the beam In Fig. A15.11. shear flow system of Fig. A15.16. The resultant
The shear center is a point on the beam cross- R of this shear flow system is obviously - 100
section through which the resultant external lb., since the external load was 100 lb. The
shear must act If the cell Is to bend without location of this resultant R will therefore
twist. locate the horizontal positlon of the shear
center. Equate moment of resultant R about
The shear center location will be deter- point B to the moment of the shear flow system
mined in two steps, first its horizontal about B, whence,
locatIon and then its vertical location.
1OOe = 1.623 (128.54 x 2)
Calculation of horizontal location:-
or e = 417/100 = 4.17 in. from line AB.
We will assume any vertical shear load, (Fig. A15.16)
as the example, the same vertical shear as used
in the problem of Art. A15.4, namely, a 100 Calculation of Vertical Position of Shear Center
lb. load acting five inches from A, as
illustrated in the following Fig. A15.14. A convenient horizontal shear load will be
 A15.7

assumed acting on the cell. Since we used a A15. ‘7 Single Cell-Multiple Flange-One Axis of
Symmetry.
25 lb. load in the example problem of Art. 15.5!
we will assume the same load in this solution.
Fig. A15.17 shows the loading and the assumed Fig. A15.20 shows a single cell beam with
directions of the three unknown shear flows. 8 flange members, carrying a 100 lb. shear load.
The resisting shear flow system will be calcu-
lated.

Fig. A15-1’7 Fig. A15-18 Fig. A15-19

Solving for the three unknown shear flows

in Fig. AZ.17.

MB = - 25 x 10 + qca (128..54 x 2) - 0

%a q 0.972 lb/in.
Fig. A15-20
ZF, = - 85 f .971? x 15 + 15q,b = 3

qcb q 0.695 The beam section which is symmetrical about

the X axis is identical to the beam section
ZF, = lo X 0.972 - 1Oqab = 0 relative to flange material which was used in
example problem 1 of Art. -414.10.
qab = 0.972
SOLUTION:-
A const:-tnt shear flow q is now added to
cell to make twist zero (Fig. A15.18). Assuming the 8 flanges develop all the
bending stress resistance, the shear flow will
Writing ZqL/t for both loadings and therefore be constant between flanges. Since
equating to zero:- the beam section is a closed one the value Of
the shear flow q at any point is unknown. Thus
0.972x20.71 0.695x15 + 0.972x10
ZqL/t = we will imagine the top cover cut between flange
.03 - .025 .04 members a and h, thus makin q zero in this
20.71q
t-+-t-- 1oq 15q - o panel due to the free end at the cut. We now
.c)3 .04 .c)25 find the internal resisting shear flow system
for bending of this open section about axis
whence, q = - 0.324 lb/in. x-x under a external shear load V, = 100 lb.

Adding this constant shear flow to that of The calculations would be exactly like
Fig. A15.17 we obtain the values in Fig. those in example problem 1 of Art. A14.10 and
A15.19. will not be repeated here. Fig. A15.21 shows
the plotted resul.ts as recopied from Fig. A14.32.
R (the resultant) = 25 lb.

Equating moment of resultant about B to

moment of shear flow system about B,

Re = MB

25e = 0.648 (128.54 x 2)

Therefore e = 6.65 inches.

Thus shear center lies 6.65 Inches above B,

and 4.17 inches to left of B as previously
found.
Fig. A15-21
A15.6 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WI LED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

If ZF, and ZF, are considered for equil-

ibrium of external and internal loads, they
Pi 1600
~111 be found to equal zero.

To check ZMy = zero take moments about

same point such as C.

.‘;“:c = - 100 x 7.5 + 10 x 3.75 x 15 - 1.25 x 5

- 1.25 x 10 + 1.25 x 15 = - 187.5 in-lb.

Thorel’ore to m&e ZMc = 0, a constant

shear flow q eqilal to M/2A = (lS7.5/2 x 11 x 15
= 0.57 lb./in. Is required. Adding this con-
stant shear flow to that in Fig. A15.21, we
obtain the final shear flow pattern of Fig.
415.22. This final pattern is not much Fig. A15-23
different from that of Fig. A15.21, the
mason being that the location of the Imaginary
cut to make q equal zero, was not far from the Solution 1. Using Section Properties and Ex-
true fact, sin-e the final q In this panel was ternal Shears with Reference to
only 0.57. If we had started the solution by Centroidal Axes (The K Method).
assuming the web bc cut or qbc 2 0, then the
correctlon constant flow that would be needed In Art. A13.8 the calculations for this
to satisfy M = 0 would have come out q = beam section gave -
-5.88, since i!his is the final q In web bc.
Since the shear flow which Is a load on the I, = 81.18, I, = 153.58, I, = - 21.33
cell wall influences the required thickness of
sheet required, it is good practice to try to Fig. A15.23a shows the location of x and z cen-
place the imaginary cut at a point where the troidal axes.
shear is near zero, so that preliminary
estimates in routine design relative to shell
thickness required will be based on shear flow
values that are near the final values.

Fig. A15-23 a

5.88 In Art. A14.8 of Chapter A14, the method

of solution was referred to as the K method.
The shear flow equatlon (see Eq. 14 of Art.
-414.8) is,

sy = -(k,V,-k,V,) ZxA -(k,Vz-k,Vx) ZzA

Fig. A15-22

A15.8 Single Cell - Unsymmetrical - Multiple Flange.

k, = l,L?fi&l,- IXZa = 81
.
18 x ;g;‘$
. - 21.33* =
Example Problem 1 -21.33
12016 = - .001775

Fig, -415.23 shows a 4 flange unsym-

metrical single cell beam carrying two external k, = 1,/1x1, - Ixz8 = 153.58/12016 = .01279
loads as shown. This beam is identical to the
k, = Ix/IxIz - Ix/ = 81.18/12016 = .00674
one used in example problem 1 of Art. A13.8
which dealt with bendlng stresses.
For the given beam loading the external
shear loads at section abed are,

V, = 6000 lb., V, = - 1600 lb.

 A15.9

Substituting In the equatlon for qy as Adding this value of q to those in Fig-

given above, A15.24 we obtain the final shear flow resisting
pattern in Flg. A15.25.
9y = - C .00674 (-1600) - (-.00177 x 6000)1mA
Solution 2. Principal Axes Method
- c.01279 x 6000 - (-.00177)(-15OOflZti
The shear flow system can of course be
found by referring section properties and ex-
whence ternal shear loads to the principal axes of the
beam section. The equation for shear flow is
9Y = 0.16 .%A - 73.91 ZzA - - - - - - (4) (see Eq. 15 of Chapter A14),

In using equation (4) to compute the qy=-~Zz&&Zx~----- (5)

shear flow pattern we will imagine top panel
ab cut, thus making the shear flow qy = zero
In this panel. Subt. in (4) - - - - (The subscript p refers to principal axes.)

The section properties about the XinCipal

9ac = 0 + .16 x 1 (-5.333) - 73.91 x 1 x
axes were computed for this same beam section
6.074 = - 449.78 lb/in. on page A13.5 of Chapter A13. The values are:-

4cd 449.78 + .16 x .8 (-5.333) - 73.91 75.38, IZP = 159.34

= -
IxP q

x .E! x (-5.926) = - 100.05

Fig. AZ.26 <which was also taken from page
qdb = - 100.05 + .16 x .4 x 10.667 A13.5 shows the location of the principal axes
- 73.91 and the distances from the four flange members
x .4 (-5.926) = 75.80 to the principal axes.

9ba = 75.80 + .16 x .5 x 10.667 - 73.91

x .5 x 2.074 q 0

Fig. A15.24 shows the plotted shear flow

results. This pattern satisfies ZF, = 0 and
CF, = 0. To check equilibrium of moments
6000# =vz

1600 = ,
- vx
q-75.8
zP
I Iz

Fig. A15-26

Fig. A15-24 Fig. A15-25

Before substitution in equation (5) can be
made, the given shear loads Vz = 6000, and Vx =
-1600 must be resolved normal to the principal
about a y axis. Assume a y axis going through axes.
point d.
= 6000 cos 15°-15’-1600 Sin 150-15’
vZP
,XQ = 6000 x 8 - 1600 x 8 - 449.78 x 12 = 5367.9 lb.
x 16 = - 51160 in.lb. = -6000 sin 15°-15’-1600 cos 15O-15’
vxP
= -3121.8 lb.
Thus for equilibrium a moment of plus
51160 in.lb. Is required. This Is produced vz
by adding a constant shear flow q around the Hence 2 = 71.21 and -vxP -- -19.59
cell walls, where IxP IZP
Subt. in equation (5),
9 z-zM 51160
= 159.88 lb.in.
2A 2 x 160
9y = -71.21 z z$ f 19.59 C xpA - - - -(6)
(A = area of cell = 160)
A15.10 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-W LED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

Assume qy = 0 in top panel ab.

S olut i on . The K method of solution will
9ac q -71.21 x 4.45 x 1 + 19.59 x (-6.74) be used,
x 1 = -448.92 I,, 36.41
k, = I,Iz-I,,- = 186.5~431.7-36.41~
qcd = -448.92 - 71.21 (-7.12).8 + 19.59 36.41
= ___ = .0004598
(-3.58) .9 = - 99.41 79185

qdb = - 99.41 - 71.21 (-2.90).4 + 19.59 Iz === l 005452

k= = IxIz-IxzZ 79185
x 11.80 x .4 = 75.65 lb/in.
k, = _- Ix lH6.5 = .002355
qba = 75.65 - 71.21 (4.82).5 + 19.19 = -79185
IxIz-Ixz 2
x 9.75 x .5 = 0 (check)
93’ = (k .Vx-k XV, ) ZxA - (k eVz-k lVx ‘rZzA
These shear flows are practically the
same as obtained in solution no. 1 as recorded Substituting In above equation,
in Fig. A15.24. Discrepancies are due to
slide rule accuracy. qy - -(.002355x400- .0004598 x 1OOO)ZxA
For equilibrium of moments, take moments - ( .005452 x 1000 - .0004598x 400)ZzA
about (b).
% = -0.4022 CxA -5.268 ZzA. - - - - - (7)
Mb = 6000 x 8 - 1600 x 8 - 448.92 x 12
Since the value of the shear flow is un-
x 16 = -50993 in.lb. known at any point on the cell walls, it will
be assumed that the cell wall is cut between
A constant shear flow q around cell must flange members 1 and 10, thus making q zero on
be added to produce 50993 in.lb. for equil- the sheet panel numbered (l-10). Then using
ibrium. This balancing shear flow is, equation (7) the shear flow is calculated in
going: cloc’kwise around the panel. c01Llmns 1 to
M 50993 _ 159.35 10 of Table Alh.1 show the calculations in
lb/in.
q=-Z=2x160- solving equation (7). For explanation on how
to determine sense of silear flo~vs q in Columns
which is the saine as in solution no. 1.
9, 10, arid 11, rovie’r; Art. rl.14.6 ofYChapter
A14.
Example Problem 2

Fig. A15.27 illustrates a typical single

The shear flow values in column 11 would
cell wing beam with multiple flange members.
The external shear load on this beam section be the results if the external loads as given
is v, = 1000 and V, = 400 located as shown. were so located as to act through the centroid
of this shear flow force system. Since they
The internal shear flow resisting pattern will
be calculated. do not we will solve for the unbalanced moment
on the beam section about point (0) the cen-
This beam section is the same as that troid of the beam cross-sectlon. The moment of
the shear flow force on a sheet panel between
used in example problem 5 of Chapter A3, where
the calculations of the sectlon properties any two adjacent flange members is equal In
magnitude to q times double the enclosed area
were made.
formed by drawing lines from the moment center
The results were: (0) and the ends of the particular sheet panel.
Fig. Al5 .28 illustrates this explanation. The
= 186.5, I, = 431.7, Ix, = 36.41 value m in column 12 of the table lists the
IX double areas of these various triangular areas.

Takinc- moments of all forces both external

and internal about point (0),

CM, = 1000x2+400x3+17123 = 20323 ln.lb.

---x
(17123 equa1.s summation of column 13)

Thus for equilibrium a negative moment of -20323

lz Fig. A15-27
is needed. This moment Is provided by adding a
 A15.11

laule Alo. I
I I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 fj I 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Arm ZXA qy = -0.4822 qy q -5.268 qXz = Final

1 Member 1xy 1 ^Lrn 1 ZA XA ZZA (co1 9 +
X (2 x-4) (2 zA) sqfnin. qxzm
co1 10) qxzq-:,O. 6
I I I

loI 0 0 0 I 0 1 -20.6

” I I1
i - i 2 17123

constant negative shear flow around cell where A15.9 Two Cell-Multiple Flange Beam. Symmetrical
magnitude equal-s About One Axis.

M 20323 Fig. A15.30 shows a two cell cantilever

= -20.6 lb./In.
9=x=2x493 beam with 10 flange stringers. The cross-sec-
tion is constant. Let it be required to deter-
(493 = area of cell) mine the internal shear flow In resisting the
1000 lb. load acting as shown. For simplifi-
Adding this constant shear flow to that in cation, the top and bottom sheet covering and
column 11, we obtain the final shear flow in the three vertical webs will be considered in-
c011mn 14. Fig. A15.29 shows true shear flow effective in taking bendlng flexural loads.
oattern. Since the beam section is symmetrical about the
X axis, the beam will bend about this axis in
resisting the given external load. The moment
of inertia of the section about the X axis
equals 250 In. 4

Fig. A15-28

Values from col. 14

Table A15. 1 46.98
Fig. A15-30

Solution 1 (Without use of shear center)

The Internal shear flow Is statically in-

Fig. A15-29 determinate to the second degree, since the
 .-

A15.12 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WA LED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

shear flow at any point in each cell Is unknown. zero. Thus the shear flow in the vertical web
Therefore, to make the flexural shear flow CC’ is determined by the stringer c alone,
statically determinate, a value for the shear namely
flow q in each cell will be assumed at some
point, and the flexural shear flow for each qw = -,;‘, = -4x1x5 = -20 lb./in.
cell will then be calculated, consistent with
the assumed conditions. These resulting static He can now continue around cell (2) st?.rting
shear flow systems will, in general, produce a with stringer c’ where we were previously
different total shearing strrln around the stopped.
perimeter of each cell, or in other words,
produce a different cell twist. Since full
qc’ d’ = qbfcl + qcc’ - 4$:ti
continuity exists between cells, this condition
cannot exist, and therefore an unknown constant =o - 20 - 4 x (-5) 1 = 0
shear flow of q in cell (1) and q in cell (2)
must be added t6 make the twist of2both cells qd’ e’ = 0 - 4 x (-5) 0.5 = 10 lb./in.
identical. This fact gives us the basis for
one equation and the other eqilation necessary qe’ e = 10 - 4 x (-5) 1 = 30 lb./In.
for the solution cf the two unknowns q, and q,
is given by the requirement of equilibrium, qed = 30 - 4 x 5 x 1 q 10 lb./in.
namely, that the moment of the external and
the internal shear forces about any point in qdc = 10 - 4 x 5 x 0.5 = 0, which checks
the plane of the cross section must equal zero. the assumed value of q = 0 in panel cd.
In Fig. A15.31 the flexural shear flow has
been assumed as zero just to the left of The shear flows In cell (2) could of
stringer c I.n cell (1) and just right of course been found by starting in panel cd
stringer c in cell (2). The balance of the where the shear has been assumed zero and
f’lexural shear system consistent with this proceeding clockwfse around cell as for example
assumption is calculated as follows:
qde = 0 - 4 x 5 x .5 = -10 lb../in.

y10 #/in. r 10 #/in.

4ee’ = -10 -4x5x1 = -30 lb./In.

qe’ d’ = -30 - 4x(-5)1 = -10 lb./in.

qd’ c’ = -10 - 4x (-5)

50 #/in. - - 30 #/in. 0.5 = 0 lb.,/in.

The magnitude of the resu1t.s are the same

as :)reviously calculated but the signs are
t- 10 #/in. L 10 #/in. opposite. As emphasized previotlsly t,he shear
flow calculated together with its si -n is in
Fig. A15-31 the y direction or qy. The cllrect ion of tha
The general shear flow equation is, shear flow along the ccl1 ~wnlls in the xz
plane can be determined by the simple rule as
given in Art. A14.6 of Charter 1114. To illus-
trate, refer‘ to the free bodies in Figs. A, S,
and i: . The shear flow q in panel b? was
Cell (I). Starting in panel cb where the oaiculated to be -10. This value is shown in
shear has been assrmetl zero and proceding Fi,g . A with its calculated sense and acts
counter-:lock;dise around cell toward the intersection point (0). Then by
the rule of Art. A14.6, qbax ImISt also act
%b q zero (assumed)
toward point (0), thus giving the sense as
shown in Fig. A.
qba = -&T,zA = 0-4x5x0.5 = -10 lb./in.
TO obtain the shear flow in web panel c3 ‘,
qaar = -10-4x5x2 = -50 lb./in. the calculations started at ?olnt c and went
toward point “, ‘, q on this panel was -,-?lcu-
‘h’b’ = -50-4x(-5)x2 = -10 lb./in. lated to be -20. Tse free body In Fig. B
= -10-4x(-5)x0.5 = 0 13./ln. ;;;;ss;z;~ ~l~~t~~~q~o~a,,“O-I,o~,),~if~ ,lytthT;;;
4b’c’
qccz must also act toward point (0’): as
We cannot 2rocced beyond stringer c’ be-
cause tl;?re are ~:YO connecting webs with un- shown in Fig. B. The free body in Fig. 1
known shear fios,:s. b/e c'm gst around t‘his ShOWS hard the Sense of qde .‘jas obtained.
x
difficulty by going b-ck to Stringer c, where
t:he shear flow on each sicle of c was assumed
 A15.13

Fig. (A) Since there is continuity between cells, 8, =

Fig. (B) Q, * Also since area of each cell is the same,
AL = A, . Equating (1) and (2),

1533q L - 1583q 8 - 10840 = 0 - - - - - - - - (3)

One other equation Is necessary to solve for

unknowns qL and q8 , and it is given by the
moments of the external and internal shear
forces about any point in the plane of the cross
section, which must equal zero for equilibrium.
Fig. (C) o ”
Take moments about point (b) of the shear
flow system of Figs. A15.31 and A15.32 and also
the external shear load of 1000 lb., which in
this case has no moment about our assumed
moment center.

mb = -5ox~ox5+2ox~ox5+~ox3ox~5+2ooq~
Fig. A15.32 Illustrates the unknown con-
stant shear flow systems qL and q8 which must + 2ooq, = 0
act on cells (1) and (2) respectively to pro-
duce the same cell twist when added to the hence, 200q 1 +200q e +3000 = 0 - - - - - - - (4)
snear flow system of Fig. A15.31. The sense
of 9, and qB has been assumed clockwise or Solving equations (3) and (4) for qZ and qs, we
obtain
positive in each cell.
ql = -4.07 lb./In. Q8 = -10.80 lb./In.

The final or true internal shear flow sys-

tem then equals that of Fig. A15.31 plus that of
Flg. A15.32 when q, = -4.07 and qs = -10.80 lb./
91 in., which gives the shear flow diagram of Fig.
A15.33.

Fig. Al5-32

The equation for the angular twist 8 per

unit length of beam is,

2AGQ = 2qk

using the shear flow values in Figs. A15.31 (Values in lb./in.)

and 32, the angular twist of each cell will Fig. A15-33
be calculated by substituting in the above
equation. Solution 2 (By use of shear center)
For cell (1) In this solution, we find the flexural
shear flow for bending about axis X-X without
2&G&I,= -10x5
-----+x3-+Toe+
50x10 10x5 20x10 10 twist. The centroid of this internal shear
.03 .05 .03 system locates the shear center. The moment of
the external shear load about the shear center
.q -3. Hence, 2A,G0, = 1200q, - 333q, produces pure torsion on the 2 cell beam. Thus,
addlng the shear due to thls pure torsion to
-6670------- --^- _&--_-_ (1) that of pure bending, we obtain the final re-
sisting internal shear flow.
For cell (2)
In bending about axis X-X without twist,
2&G%,= the shearing straln for each cell as given by
equations (1) and (2) must equal zero. Hence :
Hence, BA,GQ, = -333q1 + 1250q,+ 1200 q, -333q,-6670 = 0 - - - - - - - (5)
4170------ ----- -------- (2) -333qi + 1250q, + 4170 = 0 - - - - - - - (6)
 THIN-WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.
A15.14 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED

Solving equations (5) and (6) for q ,and q2, the resisting internal torque must therefore
we obtain qz q - 2.0 lb./in. q1 = 5.00 lb./in. equal -3600. Therefore,
Therefore, taking these values of q1 and qa
in Fig. A15.32 and adding the results to that qt(l) = .00254(-3600) = -9.17 lb./in.
of Fig. A15.31, we obtain the shear flow
pattern of Fig. A15.34 which is the shear flow Solving for qt(2)
system for bending without twist about X axis.

qt(2)I $$g;o;b”A]T
The centroid of this shear system locates the
shear center.

In Fig. A15.34,
QG.10.10)loo+10 .03 x2oo
1 (.03 .03 .05)
q
T= .00245T
zv = 0 = -10x45-10x28-10x27 = - 1000 2 C 31190000 I
lb., which checks the external shear of 1000
lb. ZH q 0 by observation of Fig. A15.34. hence : qt(2) = .00245x-3600 = -8.85 lb/in.
. v = lOOO#
Therefore, If we add to the shear flow sys-
tem of Fig. A15.34, a constant shear flovd Of
-9.17 lb./in. to cell (1) and -8.85 lb./in. to
cell (2), we will obtain the true internal re-
sisting shear flow of Fig. A15.35, which checks
solution 1, any discrepancy being due to slide
rule accuracy.
s in lb./in.)

Fig. A15-34

To find the horizontal position of the centroid

of the shear flow in Fig. A15.34 take moments
about point ‘a:

Z”a = 10x27~10 +10x28x20

+ 5x8x10-5x2x10 = 8600 in.lb.
8600 Fig. A15-35
hence, ? = - = 8.6” to the right of web aa’ .
1000 Torsional Deflections
The external shear load of 1000 lb. acts 5” to The angular twist of each cell is the same.
the right of aa’ , and therefore causes a moment The value of the an,-ular twist Q per unit length
about the shear center equal to (8.6-5.0) of the beam can be found using the shear flow
1000 = 3600 in.lb. To resist this torsional pattern of Fig. A15.35 which Is the true result-
moment, a constant torsional shear flow qt(1) ant shear flow, or the pure torsional shear flows
and qt(2) must act on cells (1) and (2) -9.17 lb./In. and qt(2) = -8.85 lb./in.
respectively. of qt(1) =
may be used If desired.
The values of qt(l) and qt 2) can be found The results will, of course, be the same.
by using equations (29) and (30 f of Art. A6.11 For example :
of Chapter A5. Thus
For cell (1) due to qt(l) = -9.17 lb./in.
and qt(2) = -8.85 lb./in.

2BCrA - SqL - (9.17x10) 3+9.17x1O-8.85x1O

L t ( .03 ) .05 .03
= 8000

Cell (2)
2Q-,A _ ZqL _ (8.85~10)~+ 8.85x10-9.17x10
e t -( .03 j .04 .03
(10 +x+x) 1008] T .00254T
(.03 .05 .03)
= @;“,;$jT q
= 8000

Since the external torque equals 3600 ln.lb., I

Cell (1) Final stresses - Fig. AZ.35 cell the same, since If any twisting takes
place, all cells must suffer the same amount.
28GA _zqL,(14.17x5)2+(4.17x5)2+54.17x10
Furthermore, for equilibrium, the moment of
1 t ( .03 ) ( .03 1 .05
the internal shear flow system plus the moment
26.68~10 = Sooo of the external shear load must equal zero.
.03
For bending about axis XX, the flexural
Cell (2) Final stresses shear flow will be assumed as zero at a point
just to the left of stringer a In cell (3) and
2QGA -BqL-(10.85x5)2+ (0.85x5)2+26.68 x 10
S---F-( .03 ) .03 just to the left and right of-stringer c In
( .03 1
cells (1) and (2) respectively. One miEht con-
-19.15x10 = 8ooo sider the cells as cut at these three points.
^.
.u4 Fig. A15.37 shows the flexural shear flow under
these assumptlons. Since the leading edge cell
A15. 10 Three Cell - Multiple Flange Beam. Symmetrical (3) has no stringers and the covering Is con-
About One Axis.
sidered ineffective in bending, the shear flow
Fig. A15.36 shows a 3-cell box beam sub- will be zero on the leading edge portion since
jected to an external shear load .of 1000 lbs. the shear flow was assumed zero just to the left
as shown. The section is symmetrical about of stringer a. The resulting flexural shear
axis XX. The area of each stringer is shown flow for the 3 cell section will therefore be
in parenthesis at each stringer point. The identical to Fig. A15.31 and the calculations
internal shear flow system which resists the for the flexural shear flow will be identical to
external load of 1000 lbs. ~111 be calculated those in Art. A15.7.
assuming that the webs and walls take no
bending loads, or, the stringers are the only 10 #/in. 10 #/in.
effective material In bending. The moment of
inertia about the XX axis of effective material
equals 250 In ? (Note: this beam section is
identical to the two cell beam of Fig. A15.30
plus the leading edge cell (3).

.03
J.5) 4 A1.0) J.5) + (1.0
73 ‘d t .e 10 #/in. 10 #/in.
to3-c A

Fig. A15-37

Fig. A15.38 shows the un!~~own constant

shear flows q,, q,, and q, which must be added
to the flexural shear flow of Fig. A15.37 to
make the twist 8 of each cell the same. The
sense of each has been assumed positive in each
cell.

~f--y--+~---,i3- -+

Fig. A15-36
+f
I

Solution No. 1 (Wlthout use of shear center) +f

+
(1) (2)
The system is statically indetermlnate, to
II
the third degree, since the value of the shear
flow q at any polnt In each cell is unknown. --a--t-e.- +t -t -A

The value of the shear flow will be as- Fig. A15-38

sumed at a polnt in each cell and the flexural
shear flow for bending about the XX axis will The angular twist 8 for each cell equals 8 q

be determlned consistent with this assumption.

A constant unknown shear flow q 1, q 2, and q -&z q L/t
for cells (1) and (2) and (3) respectively ’
will be added to the static flexural shear Using the values of q in Figs. A15.37 and
flow so as to make the angular twist 8 of each A15.38, the value 8cTwill be computed for each
cell.
 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.
A15.16
I
Cell (3)

28A,G = 7ZqL

_ 10x50+15.71 +2.,%-I 1oq

20x39.43
l 05 .025 qB .05 .05
or a = 10.5q,- 2.55q,+127 - - - - - - - - (1

Cell (1)

2QA,G = tZqL

-50x10-2(10x5)+10x20+3(10q~)
2QxlOoG = .05 .03 .03 .03

+1oq,-.
.05 1oq 1oq
.05 -ahence
.03 W = 6q, - q,- 1.67q, A15. 11 Shear Flow in Beam with Multiple Cells. Method of
Successive Approximations.
-33.34 ____ -___-- _____ ---(2)
The general trend in airplane structural
Cell (2) design appears to be to the use of a relatively
large number of cells. There are various
20A,G = y reasons for this trend some of which are:
(1) using multiple Interior webs, the detri-
20x10 2(10x5) +10x30+ mental effect of shear deformation on bending
23xlOOxG = --+ .040 stress distribution Is decreased; (2) the fail
.C3 .03
safe character&tic of the wlng is increased
3x lo xqe + loqa _ loql hence & = 6 * 25q e- because the wing Is made StatiCally indeter-
.03 .04 .03 minate to a high degree and thus failure of
l.67q1+20.83 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3) individual units due to fatigue or shell fire
can take place without greatly decreasing the
Taking moments of the internal shear flow over-all ultimate strength of the wing;
systems of Fig. A15.37 and A15.38 and the ex- (3) the ultimate compressive strength of wing
ternal load of 1000 lbs. about stringer a and flange units is usually increased because
equating to zero:- column action is prevented by the multiple webs
which attach to flange members.
ma= 10x20x10+10x30x20-5x1000
In Chapter A6, Art. A6.13, the method of
+ 78.6q, + 200q1 + 2OOq, = 0
successive approximation was presented by de-
= 3000+ 78.6q, + 200q1 + 2OOq,=O - - (4) termining the resisting shear flow system when
a multiple cell beam was subjected to a pure
Solving equations (1) (2) (3) and (4) for the torsional moment. This method of approach has
unkIl0w-n 91, Q*, q, and QG we obtain: now been extended to determine the resisting
shear flow when the beam is subject to flexural
91 = - 2.12 lb./in. bending without twist*. Using these two methods
the shear flow in a beam with a relatively large
qn = - 7.09 lb./in.
number of cells can be determined rather rapidly
9s = -14.5 lb./in. as compared to the usual method of solving a
number of equations.
CG = - 19.9
PHYSICAL EXPLANATION OF THE METHOD
Adding these constant shear flows to the flex-
ural shear flow of Fig. A15.37, we obtain the Fig. A15.40 shows a 3-cell beam carrying
true Internal resisting shear flow as shown in and external shear load V acting through the
Fig. A15.39. shear center of the beam section but as yet un-
known in location. In other words, the beam
bends about the symmetrical axls X-X without
twist. The problem is to determine the internal
resisting shear flow system for bending without
I

* “The Analysis of Shear Distribution for Multi-Cell Beams

in Flexure by Means of Successive Numerical Approxi-
mations.” By D. R. SAMSON. Journal of the Royal
Aeronautical Society, Feb. 1954.
 A15.17

twist. In this example, it Is assumed that the Now consider each cell as ‘? Separate Cell.
bending moment is resisted entirely by the The static shear flow qs acting on each cell
flange members as represented by the small will cause each cell to twist. Since zero
circles on the figure, which means that the twist is necessary a constant shear flow qi to
shear flow will be constant between the flange cell (l), q: to cell (2), and qk to cell (3)
members. must be added as shown in Fig. A15.42, and the
magnitudes of such value as to make the twist
The first step in the solution is to make of each cell zero. However, the cells are
the structure statically determinate relative actually not separate but have a common web be-
to shear flow stresses for bending without tween adjacent cells, thus the shear flow qS,
twist. In Fig. A15.41 imagine each cell cut acts on web 2-l which is part of cell (1)) and
at points a, b and c as shown. For the given thus causes cell (1) to twist. Likewise cell
shear load V, the static shear flow qs can be (3) is twisted by q: and cell (2) by both q:
calculated, assuming the modified section bends and q;. Therefore to cancel this additional
about axis X with no twist. Fig. A15.41 shows cell twist, we must add additional constant
the general shape of this static shear flow shear flows q,“, qi and q: as shown in Fig.
pattern. A15.43, and considering each cell separate
again. However, since the cells are not separ-
ate these additional shear flows effect the
twist of adjacent cells through the common web.
As before this disturbance in cell twist is
-x Fig. A15-40 3gali-l cancel.?ati or made zero by addin,g f u&her
closinp she.7 r j’lo;;s (1”’ qlR, q m as shown in
Fig. AI5.44. This priied&e 7s repeated until
the closing shear flob~ become negligible. In
general the converginFp of this system is quite
rapid and only a few cycles are necessary to
give the desired accuracy of results.
Fig. A15-41
The totrl closing shear flosvs q,, q, and
q, are tklen equal to -
q, = q; + q; t q:” t - - - -
q, = q; + q; t q,” t - - - -
q, = q; + q,” t qf t - - - -

The final shear flow on any panel then

equals, (See Fig. A15.45)

q = ‘:s + q, + q, t q, - -- - - - - - -(1)

The ccntroid of this final she-tr flo~v

system locates the shear center of the section,
relative to bending about the X axls.

DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS FOR USE IN SUCCESSIVE

~PPROXIIWTIOK METHOD

Fig. A15.46 shows cell (2) of the 3-cell

beam shown in Fig. Al5.45. q, is the static
shear flow and q, , q2
and s, are the re-
dundant or unknown 9s
-T----c
shear flows. Since
cell (2) does not twist
under these shear flows
we can write in general,

Substituting the vari- Fig. A15-46

ous shear flows on cell
(2) iri Fig. AL15.46 into eq. (l),
 and thus equation (7) becomes,

The subscript (P) on the summation symbol (22 = s’z + c l--2 (q:+q’;)+C.-,(q;+q”,) - - - (8)
implies sum;nation completely around cell (2)
Thus by repeating the above procedure, a
whereas the subscripts 1-a and 3-a implies
summation only along webs l-2 or 3-2 respect- power series of the carry over influence factor
is obtained. In general the convergency is
ively . L is the length of a sheet panel and t
rapid and only a relatively few cycles or oper-
its thickness.
ations are needed for sufficient accuracy for
final shear flows. A solution of a problem
Solving equation (2) for q
will now be given to show how the necessary
operations form a very simple routine.

A15.12 Example Problem Solution. Problem NO. 1.

Fig. A15.47 shows a cellular beam with
five cells. The flange areas and the web and
The first term in equatlon (3) represents wall thicknesses are labeled on the figure.
the proportion of the static shear flow qs
The problem will be to determine the internal
which must act as a constant shear flow around shear flow pattern when resisting an external
cell (2) to cancel the twist due to qS. The = 1000 lbs. without twist of
shear load of Vz
resulting value of this first term will be the beam. Having determined this shear flow
given the term q’,. system the shear center location follows as a
simple matter.
The second and third terms in (3) repre-
sent the constant closing shear flows required Flg. A15.48 shows the assumed Static
in cell (2) to cancel the twist of cell (2)
condition for determining the shear flow System
due to the Influence of q1 and qB In the ad-
in carrying a Vz load of 1000 lb. without twist.
jacent cells acting on the common webs between The static condition is that all webs except
the cells. The ratio in equation (3) before
the right end web have been imagined cut as
qI will be referred to as the carry over indicated thus making the shear flow qs at
influence factor from cell (1) on cell (2) and
these points zero.
~111 be given the symbol C,-,, and the ratio
before qa in equation (3), the carry over
In this example problem it will be assumed
influence factor from cell (3) to cell (2) and
that the flange members develop all the bendlng
it will be given the symbol C,-,. Thus stress resistance, which assumption makes the
equation (3) can now be written as, shear flow constant between adjacent flange
qe = q;+c*--8ql+c5--2q3 - - - - - - - - - (4) members.

As explained above, q: is the value of the The total top flange area equals 5.5 ln.e,
necessary closing shear flow for zero twist and also the total bottom flange area. Due to
when the adjacent cell shear flows are zero. symmetry the centroidal X axis lies at the
Hence first approximations to the final shear mid-depth point.
flows in each cell can be taken as neglecting
the effect of adjacent cells, or in other words Hence, Ix = (5.5x5=)2 = 275 in.r
each cell is considered separate. Hence the
first approximations are, 9s = -VZZz* = -g+= -3.636 ZzA
IX
Starting at the lower left hand corner,
the static shear flow qs will be computed going
counter-clockwise around beam.

By substituting (5) in (4) a second ap- qab = - 3.636(-5)2 = 36.36 lb./in.

proximation for qg is obtained, namely, qbc = 36.36-3.636(-5)l = 54.55 lb./in.

9, = q;+C,,q:+C.-,q: - - - - - - (6) qcd = 54.55-3.636(-5)0.5 = 63.64

or, q, 2i qh + qi - - - - - - - - - - (7) Continuing in like manner around the beam, the

values of q, as shown in Fig. A15.48 would be
obtained.
where q: Is the correction added to the first
approximation. In a similar manner correctlons The solution from this point onward is
qy and qz are made to the approximations for made in table form as shown in Table A15.2
9, and 4, . Therefore as a third estimate for
which should be located below a drawlng of the
q 2, these further corrections should be added
cellular beam as Illustrated,
in the Table should be lined
to the cells as indicated.
and the numbers
up with respect
c._,=+=-= 0t-
L
200
856
l 2336
it
The solution as presented in Table A15.2
is carried out In 17 simple steps. The first We are now ready to start the solution
step as given In row l.of the Table is to proper by successive approximations. In row 5
compute for each cell the value for Z qs z , of the Table, the first approximation Is to
t assume a value q’ added to each cell which will
where q, is the static shear flow on each cancel the twist due to the static shear flow
sheet panel of a cell; L the length of the when the cell webs are not cut, but each cell
panel and t its thickness. Values for qs are is consldered separate or independent of the
taken from Fig. A15.48. other. This constant closing shear flow q’
equals,
For example, for Cell 1
ms~
q’ = --* The minus sign is necessary
Z q&= 2(,36.36 x lo)-&= 18180 .z+

The sign is positive because qs is posi- because the twist under the static shear flow
tive. (Clockwise shear flow on a cell is must be canceled. The values for q’ are re-
positive.) Row 1 in the Table shows the values corded in row 5 of the Table.
as calculated for the 5 cells.
For example for cell (1))
The second step as indicated in row 2 of
the Table is to calculate the value of the 9’ q _ -18180 = _ 21 . 238
856
expression Z L/t for each cell.
For cell (2),
For example, for Cell 1,
27275 _
q’ = -950 - - 28 . 71
L --+-+-=
10 (10)2 10 856
;t- .064 .04 .05
Steps 6 to 13 as recorded in rows 6 to 13
For cell 2, of the Table are identical in operation, namely,
the carry over influence from one cell to the
adjacent cell because of the common web between
/+= 10
-+- 2(10) +- 10 = 950 the cells.
.05 .04 .04 As a closing shear flow is added to
at each cell to make the cell twist zero when they
The third step as indicated in row 3 is to are considered separate, this result is contin-
calculate the value for the L/t of the common ually disturbed because of the common web.
web between two adjacent cells. Gradually these corrective shear flows become
smaller and smaller until the cells reach their
For example, for web bb’ between cells true state and possess zero twist. In the
(1) and (21, Table, arrows have been used for two cycles
to help clarify the operations.
10
0
t
L
La
= .05 = 200
flow
For example in row 6, the carry
from cell (1) to cell (2) Is,
over shear

The fourth step is to determlne the

carry over factor from one cell to the adjacent - 6.700 x .2105 = - 1.414
cell. T’ne results are recorded in row 4 of
the Table. From cell (2) to cell (l), the carry over value
IS

Referring to equation (3) for general

explanation, the carry over factor from cell (-4.480 - 8.330) 0.2336 q - 3.000
(1) to cell (2) is,
From cell (2) to cell (3),

(-4.480 - 8.330) 0.250 = - 3.216

C i-z .2105

and the carry over factor from eel 1 (2) to

cell (1) equals,
A15.20 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

i- t ~lOOOlb.=V,

Fig. A15-47
Flange and I Cell
Web Data (1)
10” X .064 .05 (2)

pi_ L-..!?!-..&1?4 I .03 1 .03 i

.5c .5d
ypp- 5 Cells at 10” = 50”
““III

72.73 Tel 81.82 f?

Fig.
Assumed
A15-48
Static
cut I I L r
Condition
Shear Flow
for
qs
7”
Cell
(1) T”
rut
(2) To
cut
(3)
T”
cut
(4) ]Uut (5) loo0
Table A15. 2

Row OPERATION

I. zq, L/t for each cell 18180 27275 I 91 Don

dL”Y” I AR”*,
l”l” I I “,YY”
I I I
2. 2 L/t for each cell 856 950 I A”“”
1 nnn I I1.J
1 “CO I 1333
3. L/t of cell web 200 250 250 333
4. Carry Over Factor (C) .2105 1 .2336 .250 1 .2633 .200 1 .250 .250 1 .266
5. 1st Approx. q’ = -Zqs L/t/Z L/t -21.238, ,-28.71\ ,-31.82, -38. “0,a, , -“a.RF YI”
o,n

6. n“ - 6.700/-=-..-4.480 1-8.38~7.170 j-9.70- “’ ’ “1 K’n-- ’ “’

-. 1 = Co’
-1 (Carrv
\-----o over) .A
7. q”’ = Cq” (Carry over) - 3.oooJL-1.414 [email protected] -5.975d-,.,,a
8. ETC (Carry over) - 1.362 -0.631 -2.518 -1.460 -1.489 -1.837
9. Carry over - 0.736 -0.287 -0.777 -0.787 -0.872 -0.590
10. Carry over - 0.248 -0.155 -0.436 -0.266 -0.246 -n =‘-
- ^ __ ^ _ .^ ^ _.-
11. Carry over
12. CdL, rv over I - 0.044 -0.029 1 -0.076 -0.04 '1 1-t

13. Carry over - 0.003 -0.009 ( -0.003 -0.003 1-c

14. q = q’ t q” t q”’ t - - -) -33.41, /-52.52, , -63.36, - 4.3. Jb -0-x. J”
--.
15. --- Reiteration
1st __--_---.-~~. I -12.27 e-----b -1.05 1 -16.6wl3.13 j-18.4=12.68 1 -22.44&-l& 48
16. q’ from row 5 1 -21.238 -28.71 01 DA0” 10 vn -CT,
-VU. 01
.,I
-JI. -0”. ICI

17. q -33.51,. /-52.45 \ -“II.c1 -2.J

AQ
,-73.91, ,-84.39
18. 2nd Reiteration 12.23e-7.05 1 -16.7w13.10 I-18.48=,,. vv , -a”. 1x- - L”. 1v
19. q’ from row 5 -21.238 -28.71 -31.82 -38.79 -65.91
20. q -33.41 -52.46 -63.40 -73.92 -84.39

t-t- -t--t -+-Ct ---v --_-

Fig.
Closing
A15-49
Shear
1 tr tl tl. tC t
Flows to Make t tC tt t
Twist of Each q= 33.51 q-52.45 q= 63.43 11 q=73.91 1; q-84.39
Cell Equal Zero 1 11 tl El
t
1 -w-e tl ---- tt fl ---_ tl _____
---- t

2. 85 2.10 0.27 1.18 2.57

I

Fig. A15-50 ~-‘---~-=-~~=-~

Final Shear Flows. l/33.51 18.94 10.98 10.48 10.48 15.61
(Fig. A15.48 plus Fig. A15.49) /
1’ \” 1’
/ ,
2.85 _ -2. l_o I _ 7 _ -0._27_ _ 1,18 _ _ _ 2.57s _

CALCLUTION OF SHZAR CENTER LOCATION

In Fig. A15.4'7 let 2 = distance from left end of beam to shear center. Taking moments about
upper left ccrner of the shear flow forces in Firs. A15.48 and 1115.49 and equatiiv to 1000 z.
1000: = 10(36.36+54.55+63.64+72.73+81.82)10+ 100~10~5~- 2x100(33.51+52.45+63.43+73.91
+ 84.39), hence 1000% = 19472 or 2 = 19.47 inches.
 A15.21

In row 13 of the Table, the carry over condition where the static shear flows in the
values are so small that the process is termin- webs should be much Closer to the final ValUeS
ated. The flnal constant shear flow that must and thus hasten the convergency in the succes-
be added to each cell to cancel the twist due sive approximation procedure.
to the static shear flow equals the algebraic
sum of the values from the beginning row 5 to Thus in Fig. A15.51, we have assumed the
ro::’ 14 . The results are shown in row 14 of the top panel in each cell as cut to give the static
Tab1.e. condition. The static shear flow is now con-
fined to the vertical webs and zero values for
Tilt: results in row 14 are obtained after a top and bottom sheet, Table A15.3 shows the
considerable number of multiplications and calculations for carrying out the successive
3dditiGnS of numbers, thus it is easy to make a approximations and needs no further explanation.
numerical mistake. To check whether any It should be noticed that after the first ap-
appreciable mistakes have been made, we take proximation was made In row 5, only three carry
the values in row 14 and consider these values over cycles were needed In rows 6, 7 and 8 to
of constant shear flow in each cell as that obtain the same degree of accuracy as required
causing zero twist if cells are separate. Then In 8 cycles in Table A15.2 for solution 1. Fig.
bringing the cells together, through the common A15.52 shows the final shear flows which equal
webs causes a disturbance in twist and this is the constant shear flows in each cell from row
made zero by the carry over values. This step 9 of Table added to the static shear flows in
in the Table Is referred to as a rej.teration Fig. A15.51. These values check the results of
and is indicated In row 15. Then adding the solution 1 as given in Fig. A15.50, within slide
values in row 15 to the initial approximation rule accuracy. In Table A15.3 no refteratlon
q’ in row 5, which value Is repeated In row 16, steps were given. The student should make it a
we obtain the final value of q in row 17. The practice to use such checks.
values In row 17 are practically the same
magnitude as in row 14, thus no appreciable A15. 13 Example Problem 2.
mistakes have been made. If the difference All Material Effective in Bending Resistance.
was appreciable, then a second, and if needed,
even a greater number of reiterations should The general trend in supersonic wing struc-
be carried out. In the Table a second relter- tural design Is toward a large number of cells
ation is shown in rows 18, 19, 20 and the and relatively thick skins, thus In general, all
cross-sectlonal material of the wing Is effective
results In row 20 are practically the same as
in row 17. in resisting bending stresses and thus the shear
flow varies in Intensity along the walls and
It will be assumed that the solution was webs of the beam cells. Fig. A15.53 shows a ten
stopped after first Iteration, and thus the cell beam with web and wall thicknesses as
values In row 17 are the constant shear flows shown. It will be assumed that all beam mater-
that must be added to the static shear flows la1 is effective in bending. The shear flow
to produce bending without twist. Fig. A15.49 reslstlng system for bending about the horizontal
shows these final closing constant shear flows. axis without twist will be determined. The den-
Adding these values to those in Fig. A15.48 we troid of this system will then locate the shear
obtain the final shear flows In Fig. A15.49. center.

The lateral locatlon of the shear center Fig. A15.54 shows the static condition that
for this given 5 cell beam coincides with the has been assumed, namely, that the upper sheet
centrold of the shear flow force system in panel in each cell has been imagined cut at its
Fig. A15.50. The calculations for locating midpolnt, thus making the static shear flow zero
the shear center are given below Fig. A15.50. at these points. The static shear flow values
qs are shown on Fig. A15.54. To explaLn how
they were calculated, a sample calculation ~111
Solution 2 of Problem 1
be given.
In SOlutiOn 1, the assumed static condi-
tion involved cutting all vertical webs except The moment of inertia of the entire cross-
section about the horizontal centroidal axls is,
the right end web. Thus the static beam
section became an open channel section and the I, for top and bottom skins,
resulting static shear flows must obviously be = (5OxO.125x2.5”)2 - 78.0
far different than.the final true shear flow I, of all webs q (0.912x5’)/12 = 9I5
values, since the webs always carry the greater Total I, = 87.5 Ina
shear flows In bending without twist. This
fact Is indicated by the relatively large num- For convenience an external shear load
ber of steps required in Table A15.2 to reach VZ = 8750 lb. will be assumed acting on this
a state where successive corrections were small beam section.
enough to give a desired accuracy of final re- q
Hence, q -&ZzA- - -E . ZzA = - 100 ,%A
suit . Thus It Is loglcal to assume a static Ix
A15.22 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.
I
Now consider Fig. A15.55 which shows a Starting at point (a) in cell (1) where the
sketch of cell (1) plus half of cell (2). As shear flow Is zero and going counter-clockwise
prevlously explained the upper cell panels were around the cell, the static shear flows are
assumed cut at their midpoints (a) and (m). as follows: - (Cont. on pg. A15.23 -
Solution II cut cut cut cut cut

Fig. A15-51
Assumed Static
Condition for ~qI+6ir]z--fro:.‘~/
Shear Flow qs and
Resulting qs Values.

Table A15. 3

Fig. A15-52
Final Shear Flows
(Row 9 Plus Fig. A15-51)
~~~Ii;-:::~~~~
Compare Results with
Solution I (See Fig. A15-50)

Example Problem 2 Ten Cell Beam - All Material Effective In Bending.

Top Skin = .125 Inches Thick

Fig. A15-53 $ (1) 5 (2) 8 (3) g$ (4) g (5) g (6) if$ (7) g (8) % (9) !g (10) g
T
5”

‘1
Bottom Skin - . 125 Inches Thick c 5”-j

-78 p, 78 -18 p, 18 -78 p, 78 -78 p, 18 -18 z 78 -78 ” ‘78 -18 p, 18 -78 7, 78 -78 p, 18 -78 9 78
-78 - "-156 - '-156 - '1156 - 'A156 - "156 - '-156 - 'kl56 - '1-156 c"Ll56 c “-7
I I’ ,‘ ,’
I
Fig. A15-54 -98, 185.4’ 185.41’ la5.4>’ 185.4,’ 185.41’ 181.3’ la1.3r* 178.51’ 1’78.5,
1
-78-o- -ot -vo<- -ot NO- ---L~---~- tot PO- --co
-78 -78 78 -78 18 -18 18 -78 78 -18 78 -18 78 -78 78 -78 18 -18 78 -78
Table A15.4

109.31 117.66 183.16 185.24 181.11 191.59 176.5,; 1R2.07 167.91 161.44 120.61
1, <
4- a - *- c-----c
-89.31 66.69 -8% 774? -7y33 I& -79.11 76.83 -80.88 ;;.I2 -87.37 68.93 -ii.27 73.73 -83.04 72.96 -72.45 83.55 -55.39 100.61
Fig. A15-57. Final Shear Flow Values.
(Note: Shear Flow at Ends of Webs Equal Sum of Shear Flows in Adjacent Skin Panels. )
 Proceeding to (g)

qg = qhg + 1oozgzA = 156+100 (1.25x2.5x

h
.094) = 156+29.4 = 185.4 lb./in.

Qfg = 185.4 + 100ZfZA = 185.4+100 (-1.25)

(2.5 x .094ij: = 156 lb./in.

+iId e fl
k qfk = qfg-c6fe =- 156 + 78 z-78
Fig. A15-55
qa=o qkf =-78-100;kZA =- 78-100 (-2.5)(2.5x
qb =-lOo$bzA =-100x2.5x2.5x0.125
0.125) =-78+78 = 0
= -78 lb./in.
Fig. A15.56 shows a plot of these calcu-
lated values. The arrows give the sense of the
qc = 41, - ‘OO~cZA =-78-100 (1.25x2.5

x 0.064) z-78-20 q -98 lb./in.

98-ZdZA =-98-100 (-1.25)(2.5x

qd=- c
0.064) = -98+ 20 = -78 Fig.
A15-56
qe =-7a-ZezLA =-78-100 (-2.5)(2.5 x
d
0.125) = -78 + 78 = 0

qfe - O-.&LA = O-100 (-2.5)(2.5 x 0.125)

e
= 78
Fig. A15.54 shows the calculated static
At point (f) there are two other connecting shear flow values for the entire 10 cells. The
sheet panels so we cannot proceed past this values are recorded at the ends of each sheet
panel and at the midpoints of each sheet panel,
joint in calculating the shear flow in the two
Clockwise shear flow in a cell is positive shear
connecting sheets at (f).
flow. Since an interior web is part of two ad-
Thus we go back to point (a) and go jacent cells, the sign of the shear flow on
clockwise, vertical webs is referred to the left hand cell
in order to d etermlne whether sense is positive
or negative.
qa=o
Having determined the static shear flows
qha = O+lOOZhzA
a
= O+lOO (2.5x2.5x0.125)
which will be referred to as qs, we can now
start the operations Table A15.4. The first
= 78 lb./in.
horizontal row gives the calculations of the
With two other webs intersecting at joint twist of each cell under the static shear flows,
(f) the shear flow summation cannot continue which is relatively measured by the term
past (f), hence we go to point (m) in cell (2) Q3 &for
t each cell.
where shear flow is zero due to the assumed
cut at point (m).
With all material effective in bending the
4,=0 shear flow varies along each sheet. Fig. A15.56
shows this variation on the sheet panels of cell
(1). The term Zq, L/t is nothing more than the
am = o-100ZhzA =-100(2.5x2.5x0.125)
area of the shear flow dlagrem on each sheet
m
divided by the sheet thickness. To illustrate,
= -78
consider cell (1) in Fig. A15.56.
Now at joint (h) we have the shear flow of 78
Upper sheet panel: -
magnitude on each top panel, thus the shear
flow in the vertical web at (h) equals the sum -(0+78) -- 2.5 +(0+78) 2.5 = o
of these two shear flows or 156.
0.125 2 0.125
A15.24 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

For lower sheet panel: - listed in last row in Table A15.4: -

L M= +(-11.31-3.57-1.33-1.17-2.88-9.07
m,t= 0 (Same figure as for upper sheet) -4.27-5.04+5.55+22.61) 2x25 =-520

For left hand vertical web: - Total Moment = 175000+22520-520=197000

hence X = 197000/8750 = 22.5 in., which equals
Treating the shear flow dlagram as a the distance from left end of beam to shear
rectangle with height 78 and a parabola with center location.
height 98-78 = 20,
78x5 (20x5x0.667) =-7142 Referring to the final shear flow values
0.064 in Table A15.57, it will be noticed that the
flnal results are not much different from the
For right hand web of cell (l), assumed static shear flows with the possible
exceptlon of the two end webs. If we had
The shear flow diagram is likewise made assumed all the webs cut except one to form the
up of a rectangle and a parabola. static condition, then Table A15.4 would have
required several times as many carry over CyCleS
L 156x5 0.667 = 9342
=qsy =---+(186.5-156)5xo~og4
0.094
to obtain the same accuracy of final results.
A15.14 Use of Successive Approximation Method for Multiple
Therefore for entire cell (1) Cell Beams when Subjected to Combined Bending and
Torsional Loads.
L
zqs t = -7142+ 9342 = 2200, which Is the
I The Internal shear flow resisting force
value in row (1) of Table A15.4 under cell (1). system for a beam subjected to bendlng and twist-
The results for the other nine cells as calcu- Ing loads at the same time is carried out in two
lated in a similar manner are recorded in row dlstlnct steps and the results are added to
1 of the Table. The procedure as followed in given the true final shear flow system. First,
the remaining rows of Table 4 is the same as the shear flow resisting system IS found for
explained in detail for example problem 1. In being without twist as was explained in thls
Table A15.4 only one reiteration Is carried chapter. The results of this first step locates
through as the values in the bottom or last the shear center. The external load system is
row are practically the same as arrived at after then transferred to the sheat center, which
the fifth carry over cycle. Adding the con- normally would produce a torsional moment about
stant shear flow values in the last row in the the shear center. The internal resisting shear
Table to the static shear flow values In Fig. flow system to balance this torsional moment is
A15.54 we obtain the final shear flow values then handled by the successive approximation
of Fig. A15.57. The resultant of this shear method as explained and Illustrated in detail
flow pattern is a force of 8750 acting down in Art. A6.13 of Chapter A6.
in the Z direction. Its locatlon would be
through the centroid of the shear flow force A15. 15 Shear Flow in Cellular Beams with Variable Moment
system. Let ? equal distance from upper left of Inertia.
hand corner of beam to line of action of shear The previous part of this chapter dealt
flow resultant force. entirely with beams of constant moment of iner-
tia along the flange direction. In airplane
Taking moments of shear flow force system wing and fuselage structures, the common case
of Fig. A15.54 plus the constant shear ClOSing Is a beam of non-uniform section in the flange
values in each cell as given In the last row direction. In cases where the change of the
of Table A15.4 and equating to 8750 2, we cross-sectional areas is fairly well distributed
obtain; between the various flange members which make up
the beam cross section, the shear flow results
Due to uniform static shear flow on each as given by the solution for beams of constant
web: - moment of inertia are not much In error. For
beams where this Is not the case, the shear flow
M= (156x5)(5+10+15+20+25+30+35 results may be considerably different from the
+40+4.5)+78x5x50 = 175000 actual shear flows. This fact will be illus-
trated later by the solution of a few example
Due to parabolic static shear flow In eachwebz-
I problems.
M = (29.4x5x0.667)(5+10+15+20+25) A15.16 The Determination of the Flexural Shear Flow
+ 25.3x5x0.667(30+35)+22.5x5x0.667 Distribution by Considering the Changes in Flange
(40+45)+20x5x0.667x50 = 22520 Loads. (The AP Method.)

Due to constant closing shear flows as I Fig. A15.58 shows a single cell distributed
flange beam. Consider the beam acts as a canti- flange members, see Fig. A15.60. Again ZFy = 0,
lever beam with the bending moment existing at
section (A) being greater than that existing at whence AP, + AP, + qyd q 0
section (B) and that the bending moment produces
(AP, + AP, )
compression on the upper surface. By the use of or qy = -
d
the flexural stress equations, the bending
stress on each stringer can be found, which if
multiplled by the stringer area gives the Therefore startlng at any place where the
value of qy is known, the change in the average
stringer axial load. Thus at beam section (B), shear flow to some other section equals
let P,, Pld, P=, etc. represent the axial loads
due to a bending moment M. The external bendlng
4y = -+----------- - -(l)

i If the summation is started where q is zero

then equation (1) will give the truz average
shear flow qy.

Fig. A15.61 shows sheet panel (3,3’ ,4,4’ )

isolated as a free body. Taklng moments about
corner 4’ and equating to zero for equilibrium,

q,=
d(AP,)b
d
_ q,bd = 0

whence, qx = AP,/d - - - - - - - - - -(2)

Thus for rectangular sheet panels between

flange members the shear flow qx or qz equals
the average shear qy.

Fig. A15-58 The same rules as previously presented to

determine the sense of qx or qz after having qy
can be used and will not be repeated here,

To show that equation (1) reduces to the

shear flow equation previously derived and used,
consider a beam with constant cross-section and
take a beam length d = 1 inch. Then,

AM= V,d = V,(l) = V,

AP =%?,A =-k ZA (where A = area of

Fig. A15-59 Fig. A15-60 Fig. A15-61
IX IX stringer)

moment at section (A) is M + AM, hence the From equation (1) qy = - ZAP
stringer axial loads at section (A) will equal
P, + AP,, P, + AP,, P, + AP,, etc. These Substitutlng value of AP found above,
stringer axial loads are shown on Fig. A15.58.
qY = -5ZZA
IX
- - - - - (3) which Is the
Imagine the upper sheet panel 2, 2’, 3,
3’ is cut along line (a-a). Furthermore con- shear flow equation previously derlved for beams
sider stringer number (3) cut out and shown as with constant moment of inertia.
a free body In Fig. A15.59. Let qy be the
average shear flow per inch over the distance A15.17 Example Problem to Compare Results in Using
Equations (1) and (3).
d on the sheet edge bb. It has been assumed
positive relative to sense along y axis.
Fig. A15.62 shows a square single cell beam
with six flange stringers. Between pOintS B and
For equilibrium of this free body,
C, the beam has a constant flange sectlon which
Is shown in Section B-B. The numerals beside
ZFY = 0, hence AP, + qyd = 0 each stringer represent the area of the stringer.
Between points B and D, the flange material
whence qy q - AP*/d tapers uniformly with the flange material at
point A as indicated in Section A-A. It should
For a free body lncludlng two strlngers or be noticed that the increase in flange area Is
A15.26 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WA LLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

with the shear flow system of Fig. A15.63, which

therefore is the flnal shear flow system for
this method of solutlon.

Fig. A15-63 Fig. A15-64

SECTION
Ii-d
c’

1,

I,= 5x52x2= 250in4

a’

A-A
5”
“2 4 ‘t5+5t,q

SECT10
Ix=3x5 Y
B-B
x2=
TO C-C
150in4
Solution

Bending
No. 2.

moment at section
Considering
Stringers.
AP Loads in Flange
(Equatlon 1)

AA = 1000x50 = 50000
in,lb.
Fig. A15-62 Bending moment at section BB = 1000x30 = 30000
obtalned by increasing only corner stringers b ln.lb.
and c. The shear flow on section A-A will be
computed using equation (3) which applies only Considering Section B-B:
to beams with constant section and also by Bending stress Intensity at mldpoint of
equation (1) which applies to beams with vary- stringers by the flexural formula:
ing moment of inertia.
(yb += 3oooox5 = 1000 psi .
Solution 1. Using Shear Flow Equatlon for X 150
Beams of Constant Cross-Section. Axial load In each of the stringers a, b, and
(Equation 3) c q 1000 x 1 = 1000 lb.

Since q at any point on the cell is un- Considering Section A-A:

known, it wi 1 1 be assumed that the upper Sur-
50000 x 5
face on Section A-A is cut through the midpoint q) z-z MZ = 1000 psi.
of flange stringer (a), thus making the shear Ix 250
flow qy equal to zero on this free surface. Axial load in stringer (a) = 1000x1 = 1000 lb.
One-half of stringer (a) thus acts with each
slde of the top surface. In this solution the Axial load In stringer (b) or (c) = 1000x2 =
webs and walls will be assumed ineffective In 2000 lb.
resisting bendlng stresses, thus the shear flow
is constant between adjacent stringers. These resulting axial loads are shown act-
ing on the portion between points A and B in Fig.
Starting at mldpoint of stringer (a) and A15.65, which equals the results as shown in Fig.
going counter-clockwise around cell, A15.66.

qa = 0 (assumed cut) I
1000
%c = -v,)JzA
I, = -=x5x0.5=-10 lb/in

qCA = -10
Qcc’ = -10-ggx5x2=~ 50 lb/In.

Proceeding around the cell the balance of the

shear flow could be calculated, but due to sym-
metry enough values have been found for the
shear flow to draw the complete shear flow pic-
ture for bending about the X axis when it is Having found the AP flange loads over a
assumed that one-half of the area of stringer length (d) of 20”, the shear flow can be com-
(a) acts with each adjacent web. Fig. A15.63 puted by equatlon (1).
shows the resulting shear flow diagram. The
resultant of this shear flow pattern is a It will be assumed that one-half of the AP
1000 lb. force in the Z direction and its load in stringer (a) will flow to each adjacent
location through the mldpoint of the box since web. However, there is no AP load in stringer
the flow is symmetrical. The external load of (a) hence qab = qac = 0. Then from equation (l),
1000 lb. also acts through the midpoint of the
cell hence the external load is in equilibrium = o-+= O-igL - 50 lb./in.
qbb’
 A15.27

Vdtan a
APb -1000
qbfa' = -50+2d = -5o- ;?o= 0

Due to symmetry the left side of cell would

give the same results. The results are plotted
in Fig. A15.64. Since the increase in section
moment of inertia between beam points B and A is
increasing at the same rate as the external
bending moment, the average shear of 50 lb./in.
is constant between the two beam section A and
B. Comparing Figs. 63 and 64, we find the
first method gives a shear flow of 10 lb./in.
A15-70
in the top and bottom webs, whereas actually it
is zero. This seems reasonable since the entire
increase of flange area was placed in stringers
b and c.

Example Problem No. 2

I
The same beam as in Problem 1 will be used
except that the cross-sections at beam polnts B Fig. A15- 71
and A are as shown in Fig. A15.67. The increase
in flange area between beam points B and A has whence q1 =3
been placed entirely in stringer (a) which 1
changes from 1 sq. in. at B to 3 sq. in. at A.
But V = q,b,, whence

From Fig. A15.71

s, =2 =F , hence q, = F

The results of using equations (3) and Substituting value of q in (4)

(1) relative to the shear flow pattern
given in Figs. A15.68 and A15.69 respectively.
are
q, =-_eb b
a,-------------(5)
(Tfle student should check these results.)
should be noticed that the true shear flow is
It 1 ( )
Thus having the shear flow on the stringer
greater In the top and bottom skin than that edge of the sheet panel, the shear flow on the
given by equation (1) which applies only for large end of the tapered panel can be found by
beams of constant cross-section. equation (5).
A15.19 Example Problem of Shear Flow in Tapered
Multiple Flange Single Cell Beam.
5: ::
II II II II
CT 6ep cf Fig. A15.72 shows a tapered single cell
beam wlth 6 spanwise stringers or flange members.
The beam is loaded by a 1000 lb. load located as
Fig. A1548 Fig, A15-69
shown. Assuming the webs ineffective in bending
A15.18 Shear Flow in Tapered Sheet Panel. the internal resisting shear flow pattern will
I
be determined.
Major aircraft structural units such as
the wing, fuselage, etc., are tapered in both In this Solution the shear flow at Station
plan form and depth and therefore the sheet 120 will be determined by considering the AP
panels between flange members usually are flange loads over a length of 30” or between
tapered in width. Fig. A15.70 shows a canti- Stations 90 and 120.
lever beam tapered in depth and carrying a
load V at its end. The flange reactions at Consider section at Station 120:-
the left end have been found by Statics. A
free body diagram of the web is shown in Fig. Bending stress Ob =F = 1000x120x5 = 1333 33
.
A15.71. Take moments about point (0) and 4.50
psi.
equate to zero.
The horizontal component of the axial load
b, - q,bld = 0 in a stringer equals CJ~A (where A = area of the
stringer ) .
 THIN-WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.
A15.28 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED
I
Since panel ab is tapered in width from 6"
I at station 120 to 5.5" at station 90, the shear
Fig. A15-72
f1ow qx(ab) at station 120 can be found from
S-In pl”+

equation (5).

'x(ab) = - 24.87x5.5/6 = - 23.2 lb./in.

= - 24.87-471/30 q - 40.57
'y(bc)
$F2
qx(bc) = - 40.57x5.5/6 = - 37.2
a b c-l-- = - 40.57-196.6/30 = - 47.12
1,= 450 lo” qy(ccl )
a’ b’ c’ 1
El qz(,,*) = - 47.12x8.5/10 = - 40.0 lb./in.
4~“3_/_6”_1 2 Since the AP loads are the same on the
Sec. Sta. 120 lower strlngers but tension the shear flow cal-
hence, the horizontal components, of stringer culations if continued would give the same
loads are, values as found on the top surface. Fig. A15.74
shows the shear flow pattern on statlon 120.
Pa = 4 x 1333.33 = 5333.33 lb. IN PLANE FORCESPRODUCEDBY INCLINATION
pb = 3 x 1333.33 = 4000 lb. OF FLANGE MEMBERS
PC = 2 x 1333.33 = 2666.7 lb.
Since the box tapers in depth and width, the
Consider bear? section at Station 90:- flange stringers are not normal to section 120,
thus X and 2 force components are produced on
03 = 1000x90x4.25 = 1411 . 5 psi . section by the strlnger loads.
271
hence stringer loads are, These in plane force components are:-
For strlngers a and a',
pa = 3.25x1411.5 q 4587.4
Pb = 2.50x1411.5 = 3528.7
PX = 5333.33x2/120 = 08.9 lb.
PC = 1.75x1411.5 q 2470.1 pz = 5333.33x3/120 = 133.3 lb.
The change in axial load AP in the For stringers b and b',
stringers between stations 90 and 120 equals
the difference between the above loads, whence PX = 4000x0/120 = 0
Apa = 746, Apb = 471, AP, = 196.6 PZ q 4000x3/120 = 100 lb.
Fig. A15.73 shows these AP loads acting For stringers c and c',
on wing portion. Since shear flow is unknown
at any point, assume q equals zero In web 88'. = 2666.7x2/120 = 44.4 lb.
PX
The average shear flow in each sheet panel
over a length d = 30 inches.can now be calcu- pz = 2666.7x3/120 = 66.7 lb.
lated by using equation (1).
Fig. A15.74 Shows these in plane force
ZAP components due to the flange axial loads.
4Y = %'a. -7 9 qa'a = 0 (assumed)
lOOO#
746 _ 24.87 lb./in.
qY(ab) = ’ -Fe -

Fig. A15-74

e
Y
k X

Fig. A15-73
J /
746 471 Ed.6
 A15.29
I
The forces in Fig. A15.74 will be checked Taking moments about point a of the forces
for equilibrium. in Fig. A15.74 but replacing the shear flows In
the top and bottom panels by the values found
ZFZ = 1000-266.6-200-133.4-10x40= 0 above, we would obtain an unbalanced moment of
7970 in.lb. instead of 8670 previously found.
=Fx = 0 by observation. The correcting shear flow would then be q =
-7970/240 q -33.2 instead of -36.1 as previously
Take moments about stringer (a), found. The final shear flow pattern would be
as shown in Fig. A15.76, which values should be
q =-3x1000+200x6+133.4x12+10x40 compared to those In Fig. A15.75.
x12+(+88.9-44.4)10+23.2x6x10
+37.2x6x10 = 8670 in.lb.

For equilibrium a 6.8 Fig. A15-76

moment of -8670 Is
needed, which is
provided by a constant 12.9 1.1
shear flow q = M/2A =
-8670/240 = -36.1 lb./in. A15.20 Problems
36.1 3.9
Adding this constant r-7
shear flow to that of
Fig. A15.74 gives the ti,,j 2000 lb.
final shear flow as Fig. A15-‘75
shown in Fig. A15.75.

Solution No. 2

This same beam and loading will now be

solved using the shear flow equation derived Fig. A15-77 Fig. A15-78
for beams of constant cross-section.
(1) Determine the resisting shear flow pattern
Since the stringers are not perpendicular for the loaded single cell beam as shown in
to the beam cross-section they have a z force Fig. A15.77. Assume load P = zero in this
component which thus assists in carrying the problem. Assume all material effective in bend-
external shear load in the z direction. These ing. Make two solutions, one of them involving
Pz components at station 120 have been calcu- the use of the shear center.
lated in the other solution.
(2) Same as problem (1) but add load P = 1000 lb.
ZP, = - (2x133.3+2x100+2x66.7)=-600 11
(3) Fig. A15.78 shows an unsymmetrical single
Total Vz (external) = 1000 lb. cell beam loaded as shown. Assume all material
effective in bending. Determine resisting shear
be shear load to be taken by flow diagram.
Let vz (net ) 500 lb.
cell walls,

Vz(net)= vz-zpz= 1000-600 = 400 lb.

Calculation of static shear flow assuming Fig.

q in sheet panel aa” is zero. A15-80

Vz(net) XX =*x5x4=17.8
‘y(ab) = Ix
450 lb.in. I

This corresponds to value of 23.2 in

previous solution (see Flg. A15.74). (4) Figs. A15.79 and A15.80 show two loaded
single cell - 2 flange beams. Assume the flanges
400
= 17.8+=x5x3 develop all the bending resistance. Determine
= 31.1 lb./In.
‘y(bc) the shear flow resisting pattern by two solu-
tions, namely, without and with use of shear
As compared to 37.2 in Fig. A15.74.
center.
= 31.1+$$x5x2 = 40.0 lb.ln.
Qqcc’ ) (5) Fig. AX.81 shows a single cell - 3 flange
beam subjected to loads as shown. Assume the 3
which is the same as in Fig. A15.74.
A15.30 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN- WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER.

flanges develop the entire bending resistance. (11) Fig. A15.84 shows a multiple flange-circu-
Determine the internal shear flow resisting lar beam section. Find the resisting shear
system. flow pattern when carrying the external shear
load of 5000 lb. as located In figure. Assume
cell skin ineffective in resisting beam bending
stresses.

102 1000 lb.

f V q 3000 lb.
- 500 lb.

Fig. A15-81

(6) Find shear center location for beam in

F:g. AX.31 if the 3 flanges provide the entire
Fig. A15-82 T
15”

-L-+-l
i“‘i
yIoyGoy
fig%;

.3
’ -
-1
.1 .l .l .2

--+I= 20”
bendinv 7 resistdance. Fig. Al5-85 Fig. A15-86

(:‘) %nd the internal resistin? shear flow (12) Determine the shear flow resisting system
pattern fc: t::c 3 ilanye-single cell beam of for the beam section of Fig. A15.S.5. The 6
Fly. A,1,,.H;:. ASSLX~ webs or walls Ineffective flanges have areas of 0.2 sq. in. each. Skin
in bec:iInr;. is .032 thickness. Assume skin Ineffectlve in
bending.
(a) DetermIne shear center location for beam
of Fi:;. A15.82. Webs and walls are ineffective (13) Find the shear flow resisting system for
in bending. the unsymmetrical beam section in Fig. A15.86.
Flange areas and skin thicknesses are given on
figure. Assume skin ineffective in bendlng.

(14) Determine shear center location for beam

section in Fig. A15.86.
Fig. A15-83 .3 .:.*f+
500 lb.
tI .

6 panels at 5” = 30”
c ---I

(9) Fig. AX.83 shows a multiple flange-single

cell beam section. Find resisting shear flow
system if webs and skin are ineffectlve In Fig. A15-87 Fig. A15-88
resisting bending stresses. All skin flange
members have area of 0.1 sq. in. each. (15) Fig. A13.87 shows a 2 cell beam section.
Consider all material effective in resisting
(10) Find shear center location for beam bending stresses. For the given beam loading
section in Fig. A15.83, if webs and skin are determine the Internal resisting shear flow
Ineffective In’ bending. system.

(16) Find shear center location for beam section

in Fig. A15.87. All material effective In bend-
Ing .

(17) For the 2 flange-2 cell beam In Fig. A15.88,

All flange areas determine the resisting shear flow pattern when
q 0.1 sq. in.
each. Skin
beam sectlon is loaded as shown. Webs are in-
thickness = ,035
effective In bendlng.

(18) Fig. A15.89 shows a 4 cell beam sectlon

with 6 flange members. Assume walls and webs
6” Ineffective In bending.

(a) As a first problem assume that the left

Fig. A15-84 and right curved sheet panels are removed,
 A15.31

flow equation for

beams of Constant
section. Compare
the results. All six
flange members have
0.2 sq. in. area
each at section A-A
,.+12”~-“mm 8” -4
and tapers uniformly
to 0.1 sq. in. at
end C-C.
Fig. A15-89

leaving a 2 cell beam section. Find the

resisting shear flow system under the
given loading.

(b) Now add the left curved sheet to form

cell (1) thus giving a 3 cell beam. Find
shear flow system.
(22) Add two Interior webs to the beam of Fig.
(c) Now add the right curved sheet to A15.92, connecting flange members a-a” ano b-b”,
form cell (4), thus giving a 4 cell beam thus making it a 3 cell beam. Find the shear
section. Find the shear flow system. flow resisting pattern at section A-A by the
AP method.
.~~ V = 2000 lb.
2 --
t Top Skin .04
Fig. A15-90

(19) Fig. A15.90 shows a 10 cell multiple Fig. A15-93

flange beam section. Area of each of the 22
flange members equal 0.3 sq. in. Assume webs
and skin ineffectlve in resisting bending (23) Fig. A15.93 shows a circular single cell
stresses. Find internal resisting shear flow beam with 8 flange members. The area of each
system for 2000 lb. shear load acting through flange member is 0.1 sq. In. throughout the beam
shear center of beam section. Find location length. For the given 400 lb. external loading
of shear center. For solution use method of determ!ne the reslstlng shear flow pattern at
successive approximation. section A-A using the AP method over a distance
of 25 inches between sections A-A and B-B.
Assume cell wall ineffective in resisting bend-
ing stresses.
-x- 55 &!G$yYqo.l -x-

fO.l t.08 J
7 cells a 6” q 42”

Fig. A15-91

(20) Find the shear center for the 7 cell beam

sectlon of Fig. A15.91 for bending about xx
axis wlthout twist. All beam material effect-
ive in bending. For solution use method of
successive apnroximation.

(21) Fig. A15.92 shows a single cell-6 flange

tapered beam carrying a 1000 lb. load as shown.
Calculate resisting shear flow pattern at
sect ion A-A by two methods. (1) By AP method
over a distance of 20 inches between sections
A-A and B-B, and (2) By using general shear
 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED THIN-WALLED SECTIONS. SHEAR CENTER
A15.32

-.. ‘I_ -. .-”

-I \I’
^;- I”’
x i -* m. ._” ,-’ 1.’
-7 i’ /
-. 1-+’ \-
I’ *. . _. _. -’
” /-f”
-/I DC-8 Fuselage Lower Cargo Compt.
,Y:’ Basic Structure
/ *’ -. -. .-’
- .
“\,
DOUGLAS DC-8 JET AIRLINER. BASIC FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTlON
 CHAPTER A-16

MEMBRANE STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS

ALFRED F. SCHMITT

A16. 1 Introduction. of adjacent meridian curves and a pair of ad- a

The structural designer is often called jacent parallels.
upon to develop a vessel which is to contain a IO

fluid under pressure. Occasionally the design

of such a vessel is not critical from either a
weight or shape standpoint and almost any suit-
ably strong sealed vessel will suffice. More
often, the strength, weight and form of such a rallel
unit are closely prescribed and rigidly con-
trolled. Thus, the pressurized cabin of a
modern aircraft is a sealed pressure vessel con-
taining an atmosphere at near sea level pres-
sures and whose functional requirements include:
i - the transmittal of heavy loads from
the tail surfaces and from internal dead loads,
ii - the necessity for nonstructural cut-
outs for doors and windows,
iii - an efficient shape from both the aero- Fig. A16. I
dynamic and spce utilization points of view,
iV - a minimum of weight . The radii Rm and Rt shown on the figure
are found by erecting local normals to the sur-
Structurally, the most efficient form of face of the element at its corners. Rm is the
pressure vessel is one in which the lateral radius of curvature of the meridian curve: it
pressures are supported by tensile stresses may be either positive (inward pointing), nega-
alone in the curved walls of the vessel. Ex- tive (outward pointing as in Fig. A16-l), or in-
amples of such shapes are those assumed by f Mite (at inflection points or straight-line
pressurized rubber balloons and canvas fire meridian segments). Rt is the radius of curva-
hoses and by the free surface of a drop of ture of the section normal to the meridian
water (in which the surface tension forces pro- curve. For simple forms of pressure vessel Rt
vide the support). The walls of these vessels is always positive; all radii Rt point inward
have zero bending stiffnesses and hence have the and intersect the axis O-O, although not gen-
properties of a membrane. The stresses develop- erally normal to O-O (see radius Rt erected from
ed, lying wholly in tangential directions at point C of Fig. A16-1).
each point, are called mabrane stresses. Fig. A164 is a detail of the surface ele-
In shells of technical importance, the ment . The forces per unit length* in the merid-
walls do, of course, have some bending stiffness ional and tangential directions are denoted by
and hence may carry some transverse loadings by N& and Nt> respectively. Shear stresses are
flexural stresses. Indeed, the boundary con-
ditions Imposed on the shell may be such as to
necessitate some localized
and seams. An efficient
bending near edges
pressure vessel design
d8t t
Nm
is one in which the conflguration
departures
Le., minimizes the degree of local bending
stresses induced.
minimizes these
from a true membrane stress system, Nt -
cl 1%n
drm - *t

A16. 2 Membrane Equations of Equilibrium: Shells of

Revolution Under Rotationally Symmetric Pressure
Loadings.
Fig. A16.2
Consider the equilibrium of a differential
element cut from the shell of revolution of Fig.
A1691. (The figure is drawn to resemble a
familiar folding paper Christmas bell, since
such an object may a1d in visualization.) The * Hereafter referred to as “stresses” although their
element is cut out by the intersection of a Pair units are pounds per inch rather than psi. -
A16.2 MEMBHAN E STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS

absent due to the symmetry of the problem. The its support, is neglected.) In the lower hem-
included angles between the pairs of meridi.onal
and tangential forces are dSm/Rm and dst&-,
respectively.
Summing forces normal to the differential
element, one has Nm
dsm dst
/“I
dst Nm em + dsm Nt Rt = p dS, dSt w

Fig. Al6.4a Fig. A16.4b

%l+Nt=p---- ---- - -1-1- -- (1
Rrll K
ispherical portion meridional stresses are re-
Here p is the internal pressure, positive out- quired as shown in Fig. A16-4b. Hence, in this
ward. Note that the shell wall thictiess does
class of problems it is best to derive the nec-
not enter eq. (1). The pressure p may vary in essary second equilibrium equation (correspond-
the meridional direction but is constant in the ing to eq. 2) by considering the individual
tangential direction by hypothesis (rotational characteristics of the structure.
symmetry assumed).
Eq. (1) is one equation containing two un- A16.3 Applications to Simple Pressure Vessels.
knowns . Another equation may be obtained by the
condition of equilibrium of a portion of the Example Problem 1
shell above or below a parallel circle. Thus in Determine the membrane stresses in a cylin-
Fig. A16-3, the pressures acting downward on the drical pressure vessel of circular cross section
lower portion of the shell are equilibrated by (radius R. ), having hemispherical ends, if the
the upward vertical components of the meridional internal gas pressure is p. Also find the
stresses, Nm. greatest combined normal stress.

Nm Nm
b
/ P' 2
PI
% kT=P Fig. A16.5
3
Fig. A16.3 SOLU’I’ION:

Summing forces vertically In the hemispherical ends Nm = Nt by

symmetry and, of course, Rm = Rt = Ro.
P n (Rt sin 0)” = 2 n (Rt sin 4) Nm sin + Hence eq. (1) i s sufficient to determine the
stresses in this portion of the structure. One
has
Solving,
Nm Nt
zR=2r=p
Nm=pT Rt a--------------- (2 1 0 0

s = Nt = P
2 R.
Eqs. (1) and (2) determine completely the
membrane stress state in the rotationally sym-
metric shell problem: the problem is thus seen Nm Nt P Ro
to be statically determinate. Stress t t 2t
We note that eq. (2) should not be used in
cases of hydrostatic pressure loadings, The In the cylindrical portion the radii are
basic concept is that of shell equilibrium, and
consequently for this class of problems the Rm = O” (the curve of Fig. A16-5 is the meridian
curve and this is a straight 11ne for
manner of shell support must be considered. the cylindrical portion).
Thus, in the tank of Fig. A16-4-a, the upper cy-
lindrical portion requires no meridional stress-
es since the load is reacted at the supporting Rt = R,
ring O-O. (In these analyses the structural Eq. (1) becomes
weight, which always requires some stresses for % + Nt = D - I

= R,
 A16.3

= p Ro From eq. (l), with Nm = Nt = Nb,

Nt

Q- PRO 2.7 R, p
Stress z---z --- Nb= 2
t t
Therefore
The meridional stress in the cylindrical portion
is found from eq. (2): Nb COS 0 = 2*7;o p (.929)

Nm= P 2R. = 1.25 Ro p

Finally, the compressive ring load, F, is (ref.

Stress = P
- R” Fig. A16-6c)
2t
n
Since shear stresses are absent everywhere 2F = 1.25 R, p sin 8 R. d 8 = 2.5 Rt p
in the meridional and tangential directions, i 0

these are the directions of principal stresses.

Hence the greatest combined normal stress is In computing reinforcing ring stresses
identically equal to the greatest meridional or from this result it is necessary to include
tangential stress as just computed. It is seen some effective skin from the adjacent shell
to be walls when the ring cross sectional area is
figured.
smax = p Ro/t .
Example Problem 3.
Example Problem 2. Another form of bulkhead used to close a
An important problem in pressurized cabin circular pressure cylinder is elliptical in
design concerns the shape of the end bulkheads. section as shown in Fig. A16-7. Such a bulk-
While hemispherical bulkheads (such as used in head shape provides tangential meridional forces
EWmple Problem 1) are highly desirable from a at the seam (requiring no reinforcing ring as in
stress standpoint, such forms are uneconomical the last example) and yet is reasonably efficient
as regards space utilization. On the other ex- as regards space utilization. Problem: de-
treme, a flat bulkhead, while providing far more termine the membrane stresses in such a bulk-
useful volume, cannot resist the pressure load- head.
ing by membrane stresses and hence is structur-
ally inefficient. A compromise configuration is
that shown in Fig. A16-6, in which the bulkhead
is a spherical surface of low curvature, a
(“dished head”) supporting the pressure loading PW b
-Y
by membrane stresses. A reinforcing ring, Rt
placed at the seam, resists the radial component
of these stresses. Problem: find the com- -
pressive load acting in the reinforcing ring. Fig. A16.7 1%

Solution: In Cartesian coordinates the equation

of the bulkhead meridian is

Nb - x2 + -=
Y2
2 2a b2 ’

From the calculus, the radius of curvature of

this meridian curve is
Rb- 2.7 R.
uu
Fig. A16.6
[1 + (q2y2
(a4y2 + bra’)‘/’
Solution: as shown in the exploded view, Fig. Rm = Z
A16-6b, the radial components of the bulkhead d2Y a4b4
stresses are resisted by the reinforcing ring, dx2
the cylinder wall being presumed to offer no
resistance to concentrated transverse forces. The radius Rt 1s found most readily by ob-
serving that it is normal to a tangent to the
For this case 9 = arc sin & = 21.7’. meridian curve (see figure). After finding the
.
A16.4 MEMBRANE STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS

slope of the tangent (angle $), one computes SOLUTION:

Rt = x/sin +. The results are
From eq. (1) the *‘hoop” loadings in the
b2x upper and lower cylindrical lobes are
sin C/I= (a4y2 + b4x2)li2
% = p RU
(a4y2 + b4X2)li2
Rt =
b2 NL =pRL 0

The meridional stress is found from eq. (Z), Summing forces horizontally at the floor joint:
Thus,
Nf = p (RU cos a, + RL cos u,) .
- P Rt - p (a4y2 + b4x2)‘i2
%I’ ---2 2
-
b2 Assume all stresses are equal and are given by
s.
Substituting the expressions for Rm, Rt and Nm
into eq. (1) one finds sU =S = P RU/tU

sL =S = P RL/tL
Nt
= p (a4y2 + b4x2)li2
- b” l-
a4b2
2 (a4y2 + b4x2) 1 Sf =s= -$- (Ru cos a, + RL cos a,)
f
Of particular interest are the stresses at Letting the weight density of the material
the seam. Here y = 0 and x = a. One finds be w, the weight per unit length (axially) along
the cabin is (w times the developed length of
walls and floor).
Nm= pa
2
Nit =pa

This last result

c 1
1-m

is important
a2

since It in-
W= w

Solving for the various

I
2 tURU (n - al)

+ 2 tf
+ 2 tLRL

RU sin al
i
thicknesses
.

from above
(n - a=)

dicates that compressive tangential stresses are and substituting, one finds (to obtain a result
possible if a> b fl. As will be seen below, symmetric in appearance use was made of the
such a situation is undersirable because of the fact that Ru sin al = RL sin a2)
large resultant difference in radial expansions
between the cylinder and bulkhead (the bulkhead 1
actually contracts radially if Nt is negative) n - u1 + - sin 2 u3, $-
2
producing high secondary bending stresses in the
vessel walls. Rt - a, + Z1 sin 2 a,
mample Problem 4. Since one may show that the cross sectional area of this
Determine the weight per unit length of the fuselage is
double-cylinder fuselage cross section as a
function of the inter.nal pressure, allowable sin 2 &) t Ri (fl - ~2 + f sin 2 CLS),
stress and the geometric parameters of Fig.
an important consequence of this calculation is that the ratio
A16-8. For structural efficiency it is desired of shell weight to shell volume is
to maintain equal membrane stresses in the skin
and floor. w = 2wp
A s
and is therefore independent of the combinations of Ru, RL,
U, and a, used. The designer is thus free to choose these
shape parameters so as to satisfy other requirements.

Elxample Problem 5.
Determine the membrane stresses in a
conical vessel of height h and half apex angle
Fi a. The cone forms’the bottom of a large vessel
filled with a liquid of specific weight w and
having a head of liquid H above the cone. The
completiunit is supported from above.
 _ - -_ .-“_-.--
--- --

these secondary stress peaks, arguing that local

yielding of the material will level them out.
However, such stress peaks may prove to be of
great importance in cases of repeated loadings
wherein
_ fatigue
- -failure -is considered likely.
To point up the major weakness in the mem-
brane analysis one need only compute the radial
displacements in the two different elements that
make up the pressure vessel of Fig. A16-5, viz.,
Fig. 816.9 the cylinder and the hemispherical bulkhead. By
Hooke’s law, the tangential strain in the cyl-
inder is
(cl = Poisson’s
SOLUTION: &tCYL-i?- IL (St - P Sm) ratio, = .3 for
aluminum)
The meridian curve of the cone has a
radius of curvature Km = 00 and, at any point a
distance y down from the top of the cone, the
radius Rt is

(h - y) tan a By integration the radial displacement of any

Rt = point on the cylinder is seen to be (ref. Fig.
cos a
A16-10).
Tlrlen from eq. I., at any level y
n/a
Nt
= p Rt = w (H + y)

To find the meridional

cone, the equilibrium
stresses Nm in the
of a segment of height
(h - y) tan a
cos a %YL =
J 0
%cyL

.85
cos 8 R,dQ =

P- R.
Fig. A16.10
h -I y is considered (Fig. A16-9b). Summing Et
forces vert Ically,
Adjacent to the seam, the tangential strain
Nm * 2 TI (h - y) tan a cos a = in the hemispherical bulkhead is

n (h - y)” tan a a l w (H + y) +
stBLKHD
n
+wZ(h- y)” tan% l (h - y)
d
Hence, by integration
Solving
p R:
‘BLKHD = l 35 it
_ w tan a
N m- -
2 cos a (h - Y) H + Y + 5 (h - Y 1
1 Thus the cylinder
the bulkhead - a situation
tends to expand more than
prevented by the seam
between these elements. It follows then that
AX. 4 Displacements, Boundary Conditions and Local
Bending in Thin Walled Shells.
the seam experiences a transverse shearing action
It is appropriate at this point to examine as indicated in Fig. A16-11. These shear forces
some of the foregoing illustrative cases to de- in turn produce bending moments in the shell
termine whether or not the membrane stresses wall as shown on the figure.
computed gave satisfactorily accurate measures
of the shell stresses. Anticipating the answer,
we state that, while the membrane analysis will ’ blkhd
give the primary stress system in a shell-like
pressure -----
vessel, a careful (and often lengthy)
analysis of induced bending caused by boundary
effects will reveal localized secondary stress
peaks. In static strength analyses of properly
des i gned * vesez it is the practice to neglect

*various codes and standards give proportions of common Fig. Al6.11

vessels which will correctly limit secondary stresses.
See for example reference (I.),
A16.6 MEMBRANE STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS

While it is not our purpose here to take up shell bending 13%~above the membrane stress (as against only
in detail, some indication of the character and magnitude of 3% above for the hemispherical bulkhead) (ref-
these bending stresses should be available to place them in
proper perspective. The most striking thing about these wall erence 2, p. 410). For this type of bulkhead,
moments is that they are quickly damped out, becoming neg- boiler codes sometimes permit a ratio of a/b as
ligibly small (down to 1”~ of their maximum value) at a distance high as 2.6, however.
of about 4;ilm from the seam. Thus, for an instance, in a
circular cylindrical shell of 40” radius and .065” wall thick- A16.4 Special Problems in Pressurized Cabin Stress
ness, these moments are so damped at 6.5” from the seam. Analysis.
The next important consideration is an appreciation of Because of functional requirements over
the magnitude of these secondary bending stresses. For the and above those of a simple pressure vessel,
case of the pressure vessel of Fig. A16-5, the meridional the pressurized cabin shell of an airplane has
stresses are increased about 30”/ at the point of maximum a number of stress analysis problems peculiar
moment, while the tangential stresses are increased only to its configuration. Several of the more
about P/o. Fortunately, in this class of vessel, the tangential general of these will be considered here.
stresses are the ones designed by (they are twice as great as
the meridional stresses) and hence the secondary stresses
have little importance for this case (see Chap. 11, pp. 389422 DISTRIBUTION OF STRESSESBETl?rEENSHELL
‘If reference 2). In other configurations one is not always so
AND STRINGERS.
fortunate, and detailed analysis may be required. (see refer-
ences 3, 4, 5 and 6). To stabilize the shell wall in transmitt-
Tne situation qt the seam of the above ing heavy tail loads through the fuselage,
vessel Is typical of many seams or boundaries longitudinal stringers are added, These
where elements are joined which would experience same stringers will also help to carry the
dif f 3r \nt ex;;ans i 3ns if loaded separately. meridional pressure loads. The skin and
Among such sexrns and boundaries are those: stringers must, of course, have equal strains --
in the longituditudinal directions but, because
i - where the meridional curvature changes the skin is in a two-dimensional state of stress,
abruptly. It changes from Rm = R, they cannot have equal longitudinal stresse?:
t0 Km =-at the seam in Fig,, A16-5. -__--- -
hence the following analysis.
ii - where a sudden change in direction of Let the meridional (longitudinal) stresses
the meridian curve occurs. In Example in the skin and stringers be Sm and sL, respect-
Problem 5, above, considerable shell ively. st will be the tangential (hoop) stress
wall bending would be induced near the in the skin. From eq. (1) we again have
setam. In fact, a reinforcing ring
would probably have to be added at the P R.
seam as was done in Example Problem 2, St = t
above. *
iii - at which structural members of differ- If N is the total number of stringers, each of
ent stiffnesses. and different loadings cross sectional area AL, then equilibrium longi-
join. In Example Problem 2, the cyl- tudinally requires
inder tends to expand the most, the
bulkhead quite a bit less and the re-
P n R: = 2 n Rot Sm + NALsL.
inforcing ring, being loaded in com-
pression, tends to contract. Other
seams and/or boundaries of this type The condition of equal longitudinal strain in
are those where an abrupt change in the skin and stringers yields
shell wall thickness occurs (addition
of a doubler) or where a shell is fast- E c = SL = Sm - p St
ened into a foundation.
Good design tends to minimize the magnitude where p is Poisson’s ratio (= .3 for aluminum 1Q

of the secondary bending stresses by avoiding Solving these three equations one finds
combinations of elements which would have highly
Mcompatible distortions. Thus, the analysis of P R.
Example Problem 3 shows that if one closes a St = t
circular pressure cylinder with an elliptical
bulkhead in which a = 2 b, compressive tangen- Sm = “2 (l(; f $a) = P2 (
tial stresses would develop in the bulkhead. In
such a case the bulkhead would tend to contract
radially while the main cylinder would tend to p Ro (1 - 2 p) _ p Ro .4
expand as always. Thus, the shear and induced sL = 2t (1 + a) - 2t (1)
moment at the seam would be aggravated, produc-
ing (as it happens) a tangential maximum stress where a = NAr,/2n Rot is the ratio of total
stringer areg to skin area. A little study will
show that t(1 + a) is a sort of “effective shell
*certain details of the design of such reinforcing rings are wall thickness” : it is the result of taking all
given in the codes and standards. the cross sectional area (skin plus stringers)
and distributing it uniformly around the peri- ations of these effects in a SpeCifiC case are
meter. On this basis, the results are a little to be found in references 2 (pp. 395-406), 6
disappointing: the stringers are carrying Only and 8.
40% of the stress one might expect if the net One proposed solution to the ring-shell
longitudinal load (p n RE) were distributed interaction problem is the floating skin.
evenly over the entire cross sectional area Basically, the idea is to reduce the radial
(2 n Rot (1 + 0)). stiffness of the connection between the shell
The meridional skin stresses are reduced by and the rings so as to allow the shell to ex-
the factor (1 + .6 u)/(l + a) from what they pand freely under the pressure loading. The
would be without the stringers. For structures connection between rinK and skin must still re-
of usual proportions this decrease may amount to tain its shear stiffness so that ring loads may
20 to 30% but clearly can never exceed 40%. In- be transferred to the shell wall by tangential
asmuch as the bending stresses due to tail loads shear flows. Fig. A16-13 shows the basic idea
will be superposed on these pressure membrane of the radially flexible connection. Many
stresses, the reduction is certainly beneficial*.
INTERACTION BETWEENRINGS AND SHELL.
Because of the necessity for transmitting
various concentrated loads from within the cabin
Fig. A16. 13 Ring skin cross
and from the wings and tail to the main shell section showing the action of
and because it is also necessary to provide some a radially flexible connection.
lateral restraint which will stabilize the
stringers and skin against an overall instabilit
failure, the pressurized fuselage of an airplane
contains a considerable number of rings and variations of this type of “mount” suggests
frames distributed along the length of the shell themselves, some of which may have merit for
Tilese rings are seldom, if ever, spaced closely other reasons. For instance, the transmittal
enough such that they can be considered effect- of wind and other vibration noise into the
ive in carrying a part of the hoop stresses (in cabin of a high speed transport is a problem
the way the stringers were effective in carrying which might be treated simultaneously by the
proper choice of connection between the ring
part of the meridional stress). Rather, they
act more like widely spaced restraining bands and the shell.
having the effect shown exaggerated in Fig. DOORSAND ‘XINDOWS.
A16-12.
The various cutouts in the shell of a
pressurized cabin require special considera-
tion if an excessive weight penalty is to be
avoided.
Consider the panel removed from the pres-
surized cylinder of Fig. A16-14a. Following a

Fig. A16.12 Restraining rings along a press-

urized tank. The action is representative of a
fuselage with widely spaced rings inside.

It is obvious that the rings in this case

will produce secondary bending stresses in the
skin and hence may have a detrimental effect on
the simple membrane stress system. Equally
hrirniful are the tensile loadings developed in
the rivets joining the skin and rings. Detailed
analyses which will permit quantitative evalu-
Fig. A16.14 d
* If one looks
stiffened shell,
at the problem
loaded
from
primarily
the point of view of a
by bending and shear loads
/
from the tail, on which the pressure membrane loadings are common practice in dealing with cutouts, we
to be superposed, an interesting effect appears. Because determine what forces the panel-to-be-removed
the internal pressure tends to stabilize the curved skin applies to the main structure around the border
panels on the compression side, the effective width of skin of the cutout, and then superpose a set of
acting with the stringers is increased. The section proper- equal but opposite, self-equilibrating stresses
ties of the cross section may then change in such a way as
to produce little or no variation in the maximum fiber
to cancel these. The cutout border is then un-
stresses. Indeed, the maximum tensile stresses may actu- stressed and the panel may be removed without
ally be reduced by the addition of the internal pressure load- disturbing the new stress system in the main
ingl (see reference 7). structure.
A16.6 MEMBRANE STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS

In examining the figure to determine what Fig. A16-16 shows the typical cutout
sort of canceling stress system must be supplied, structural arrangement. ‘N’hile analytical
we see that the tangential hoop stresses border- approaches have been tried, it is probably
ing the cutout cannot be canceled by a self- safe to say that the true elastic stress dis-
equilibrating set since they have a radial com- tribution in such a confi(guration cannot be
ponent . However, the radial component of these computed. The necessity for avoiding “ligh
stresses will actually be supplied by the door intensity stress concentrations (with their
or window pressing outward against its frame. attendant fatigue likelihood) makes empirical
Hence, it is only the component of the hoop information most useful in such case?. On
stresses along a chord which need to be canceled the other hand, a simple rational analysis,
(Fig. AX-14b)*. based on principles outlined above, will very
The immediate problem becomes one of de- likely suffice for a static strength check and
signing a structure to effectively support a set for most design purposes.
of uniformly distributed self-equilibrating The above discussion has concentrated
stresses acting in the plane of the chord con- attention on the problems of carrying the hoop
necting the upper and lower edges of the opening stresses around a cutout. The longitudinal
pressure stresses, while being smaller them-
selves, are intensified by bending stresses
from the tail loads. Hence, the longitudinal
stresses across the cutout may make this con-
dition (or the combination) most severe.

Fig. A16. 15

All that appears necessary to support the

stress system is to provide horizontal headers
at the top and bottom of the cutout, which, as
beams, will carry the loads across to the sides
of the frames where the loads cancel (Fig. A16-
15b). For cutouts of usual sizes in pressurized
fuselages, the stress system to be supported in
this manner is quite large and it proves un- Fig. A16.16 Structural arrangement
economical to design a single horizontal frame around a cutout. Most or all of the
member of sufficient bending stiffness to resist shaded skin area would probably be
them. Instead, the shell wall itself is em- doubled.
ployed to help carry these loads across. The
skin is used to form a beam of considerable
depth, the skin being the web of this beam, with
the horizontal frame member and one or more LARGE DEFLECTIONS OF PLANE PANELS; “QUILTING”.
longitudinals forming the beam flanges (Fig. A16- The use of flat skin panels in a pressur-
15c). ized fuselage cannot always be avoided. Since
Because of the heavy shear flows and direct the thin skin has little bendinc; stiffness, it
stresses developed, the skin is usually doubled cannot support the lateral pressure as a beam
in this reglon. Additional stringers may also ( “plate”, more correctly) and hence must deflect
be added to relieve the stresses. The rings to develop some tensile membrane stresses which
bordering the cutout (and forming part of t:he will then carry the loading. The resultant
frame) are extended some distance above and be- bulges of the rectangular skin panels between
low the cutout proper (unless they coincide with their bordering stiffeners give a “quilted” ap-
a regular ring location, in which case they pearance to the surface.
carry all the way around). Even in the case of curved skin panels
quilting will occur: if the internal stiffening
*Clearly one of the design requirements will be to make the
framework (transverse rings and frames and
frame sufficiently stiff in bending against radial forces so longitudinal stringers) is relatively rigid and
that the door or window can bear up evenly against the is everywhere tightly fastened to the skin,
frame. then each skin panel is restrained along its
 A16.9

four sides (borders) against the radial expan- REFERENCES

sion normally associated with the shell membran
stresses. The result is a sort of three-dimen- (1) BPI-ASME* Unified Pressure Vessel Code
sional-case of the behavior depicted in Fig. 1.~*51 Edition, et. seq.
A16-12*.
From a structural viewpoint, the unfortun- (2) Timoshenkc, S. “Tiieory of Plates and
ate aspects of quilting lie in the high concen- Shells”
tration of stresses occurring near the panel McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1940
edges and in the tensile loadings on the rivets (3) Watts, G. and Lang, H., Stresses
.-~.- in a
which join shell to stiffeners. The aerodynam- Pressure Vessel With a Conical Hs,-
ic characteristics of a quilted surface are Trans. AS!%, vol. 74, 1952, pp. 3X5-324.
highly undesirable in a high performance air-
plane; hence again quilting is to be avoided. (4) , Stresses in a
Computations of stresses in quilted panels Pressure
-- Vessel With a Flat Head
~-__ Eosure,
inasmuch as they involve large, nonlinear de- Trans. ASME, vol. 74, 1952, pp. 1083-1090.
flectlons, are difficult. An additional (and (5) , ~
Stresses --in a
quite necessary) complication is that of having Pressure Vessel With a Hemispherical Head,
to introduce the stiffness properties of the Trans. ASME, vol. 75, 1953, pp. 83-89.
bordering members. The reader is referred to
Chapter A.17 for a further discussion of the (6) Roark, R. J. “Formulas for Stress and
problem. A simplified approach, indicative of Strain”, McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 3r_d Edition,
trends, is given there along with further ref- 1954.
erences to the literature. (7) Howland W. and Reed, C. Tests
~-- of Pres-
surized Cabin
__________ Structures, Journ. Aero.
A16.5 Shells of Revolution Under Unsymmetrical Loadings.
Scl. vol. 8, Nov. 1940.
Problems in which the shell of revolution
experiences unsymmetrical loadings are not un-
common in aircraft structural analysis. The
nose of a fuselage, the external fuel tank and
the protruding radome are shells of revolution Designs by Krafft
which may be loaded unsymmetrically by external Ehricke of Convair
aerodynamic pressures. Again, the same externa for Space Travel
fuel tank shell receives an unsymmetric interna
hydrostatic pressure load from the weight of
fuel directed normal to the shell axis.
Because of the unsymmetry of the problem,
membrane shear stresses are now present and so
the analyst must solve not two, but three equa-
tions in three unknowns (Nm, Nt and Ns). More-
over, these become differential rather than
algebraic equations.
Because the derivation of the differential
equations of equilibrium is rather lengthy, and
because their general solution cannot be writte
(rather, only specific solutions for certain
cases may be be found), no details are repro-
duced here. The reader is referred to pp. 373-
379 bf reference 2 for the derivation of the
equations and for an example problem.

Outer Space Vehicles will Present Many New Problems to

* One design which reuuces quilting in the curved skin, the Aeronautical Structures Engineer.
fastens rings and frames to the inner surface of “hat” sectio
stringers only. Thus the ring is not directly fastened to the
skin which is therefore not continuously restrained around
each ring circumference. The result is a modified floating * American Petroleum Institute - American Society of
skin. Mechanical Engineers.
 MEMBRANE STRESSES IN PRESSURE VESSELS
A16.10

Fuselage is Pressurized to Permit High Altitude Flight.

Douglas DC-6 Under Construction and Assembly.

Section of DC-8 Fuselage being Lowered into Hydrostatic Test Tank.

 CHAPTER A- 17
BENDING OF PLATES
ALFRED F. SCHMITT

A17.1 Introduction.
It was seen in the last chapter that thin with another such, we write the equations down
curved shells can resist lateral loadings by by a direct appeal to past experience and
means of tensile-compressive membrane stresses. intuition.
As will be seen later, thin flat sheets, by de- Fig. AU-1 shows the differential element
flecting enough to provide both the necessary of a thin, initially flat plate, acted upon by
curvature and stretch, may also develop mem- bending moments (per unit length) M, and My about
brane stresses to support lateral loads. In the axes parallel to the y and x directions respect-
analysis of these situations no bending strength ively. Sets of twisting couples Mxy (= - My-x)
is presumed in the sheet (membrane theory). also act on the element.
In contrast to the membrane, the plate is
a two-dimensional counterpart of the beam, in
which transverse loads are resisted by flexural
and shear stresses, with no direct stresses in
its middle plane (neutral
~ surface).
-
The skin may also be classified as either a
plat 3 or a membrane depending upon the magnitude
of transverse deflections under loads. Trans-
verse deflections of plates are small in compar-
ison with the plates’ thicknesses - on the order
Y*
of a tenth of the thickness. On the other hand, Fig. Al7. I
the transverse deflections of a membrane will be
on the order of ten times its thickness .* As in the case of a beam, the curvature in
Unfortunately for the engineers’ attempt at an orderly the x,z plane, a2w/ax2, is proportional to the
catalo ging of problems, most aircraft skins fall between the moment Mx applied. The constant of proportion-
above two extremes and hence behave as plates having some ality is l/EI, the reciprocal of the bending
membrane stresses. stiffness. For a unit width of beam I = t3/12.
Plate bending investigations have for a In the case of a plate, due to the Poisson
longtime been important in aircraft structural effect, the moment My also produces a (negative
analyses in their relation to sheet buckling curvature in the x, z plane. Thus, altogether,
problems. Recently they have assumed new im- with both moments acting, one has
portance with the introduction of thick skinned
construction and still more recently with the a2w 12
use of very thin low aspect ratio wings and ax”=Et3 (Mx - P MY)
control surfaces which behave much like large
plates, or even are plates in some cases. where p is Poisson,s ratio (about .3 for alumin-
It is the purpose of this chapter to pre- J-Jd. Likewise, the curvature in the y, z plane
sent briefly the classic plate formulas and iS
some applications. Appropriate references are
cited in lieu of an exhaustive treatise, which a2w 12 (M
could hardly be presented in one chapter (or a=Et” Y - PM,) l

even one volume) as witness the voluminous

literature on the subject. These two equations are usually rearranged to
give the moments in terms of the curvature.
Al 7.2 Plate Bending Equations **. They are written
Technical literature in this field abounds
with many excellent and elegant derivations of =D a2w 2+p,y, a2 w
the plate bending equations (references 1 and 2, Mx -
( dX
---------- (1)
)
for Instance). Rather than labor the subject
= D aa w -a2 w m---------
MY (2)
*As will be seen later, the presence or absence of mem- c a Y2 + p a x2 )
brane stresses is not wholly dependent upon the magnitude
of deflections, but is also determined by the form of de-
flection surface assumed by the sheet (in turn dependent upon where D = Et3/12 (1 - 1”)
the shape of boundary and loading).
The twist of the element, a2w/ax3y
** the assumptions implic it in the following analysis are (= a%/ayaX) is the change in x-direction-
spelled out in detail in Art. A17.5, below. slope per unit distance in the y-direction (ar1d
AH. 1
AN. 2 BENDING OF PLATES

(and visa versa) ***. It is proportional to the In a similar manner, a moment summat ion about
twisting couple Mxy. A careful analysis (see the x axis yields
references 1 and 2) gives the relation as
a My + a Mxy --------w-w- (5)
=D(l-+& - -----_-_- - QY = ay ZIX
(3)

(Equations (4) and (5) correspond to V = dM/dx

Equations (l), (2) and (3) relate the applied in beam theory).
bending and twisting couples to the distortion One final equation is obtained by summing
of the plate in much the same way as does forces in the z direction on the element:
M= EI d2y/dxZ for a beam.
While a few highly instructive problems may u qx
q-T+ 3 ay -----------a- (6)
be solved with these equations (see reference 1,
pp. 45-49 and reference 2, pp. ill-113), they
are of little technical importance. Hence we Equations (4), (5) and (6) provide three
move on to consider bending due to lateral loads. additional equations in the three additional
Fig. A17-2 shows the same plate element as quantities Qx, Qy and q. The plate problem is
in Fig. A17-1, but with the addition of internal thus completely defined.
shear forces Qx and Qy (corresponding to the “‘\r” To summarize, we tabulate below the quan-
of beam theory) and a distributed transverse tities and equations obtained above. For com-
pressure load q (psi). With the presence of parison, the corresponding items from the
these shears, the bending and twisting moments engineering theory of beams are also listed.
now vary along the plate as indicated in Fig.
A 17.2a. (For clarity, the several systems of
forces on the plate element were separated into BEAM
CLASS ITEM PLATE THEORY THEORY
the two figures of Fig. A17-2. They do, of
course, all act simultaneously on the single Coordinates x Y X
element). Cfeometry Deflections W Y
M +dM
PW a% a% day
Distortions dx2
axa 9 aYe 9 axdy
.dM*Y Structural Bending Et=
D = 12 (1 - /.A") EI
Characteristic StlffneSS
-
C.ouples Mx, My, Mxy M
Loadings Shears Qx, Qy V
Lateral Q q or w

Fig. Al?. 2. The differentials are increments which "Hooke's Moment- Mx = D '2 + p '$
(
should be written more precisely as, for instance, Law" Distortion
dQ Relation = D a% M=
a2w2 + P a? EI '2
Y = @Qy/ay) dy. MY ( ay )
a%
The next relations are obtained by summing MxY =D (1-p) a=
moments in turn about the x and y axes. For ex-
ample, we visualize the two loading sets of Fig. Qx = -aMX + aMw
A17-2 acting simultaneously on the single ele- ax ay
Equilibrium
ment , and sum moments about the y axis.
Qy = aMy + a”,y
ay ax
Mx dy + (My-x + d Mm) dx + (Qx + d Qx) dx dy = dV
q = dx
(M, + d Mx) dy + Myx dx
Dividing by dx dy and discarding the term of Finally, one very important equation is
higher order gives

Qx= a Mx- should obtain by himself as an exercise) is a

ax aY relation between the lateral loading q and the
05 deflections w*:

Qx = a
E Mx+ aMxy I - a - -

(4) a4 w a4 w
ax”ay” +a4w
ay’= 9 ------
aY -------- ax” + 2 (7)

*** If w, the deflection function, is a continuous function of

x and y (as it must be, of course, in any technically im-
portant plate problem) then at each point a’w/?Jxdy = * the corresponding equation for a simple beam is
&@ydx, as is proven in the calculus. q/E1 = d*y/dxt
 AH. 3

The plate bending problem is thus reduced

to an integration of eq. (7). For a given
lateral loading q (x, y), a deflection function
w (x, y) is sought which satisfies both eq. (7)
and the specified boundary conditions. Once Hence the required deflection surface (and the
found, w (x, y) can be entered into eqs. (1) to solution to the problem*) has the equation
(5) to determine the internal forces and stress-
es.
W %n sin
rnnx sin nflY (la
A17.3 An Illustrative Plate Bending Analysis. D n4 a b
Assume a lateral loading applied to a rec-
tangular plate having all edges simply supported The maximum deflection is seen to occur
(hinged). The coordinates are chosen as in Fig. where the trigonometric functions have values
A17-3. With foreknowledge of the general use- of unity and q is also a maximum.
fulness of the result, we assume a sinusoidal If eq. (10) is substituted into eqs. (l),
loading of the form (2) and (3) one obtains

Q” ~sin?.L!+Lsin~-------- (8)

m, r-l = 1, 2, 3, - - - - -

Fig. A17.3 Sinusoidal loading on a In a similar manner the transverse shears

rectangular plate. Sections through may be found from eqs. (4) and (5).
the loading shown for m=3, n=2. With such results as these the plates’
stresses may be determined as desired. For
example, the maximum direct bending stresses
To find the resulting deflected shape of are seen to occur where the shear stresses (due
the plate we try a solution of the form to Mxy) are zero. Thus

W =A,,sinm~s-jnn~ ------- (9)

where Am is the unknown deflection and hence

amplitude.
This trial deflection function is known to sat-
isfy the boundary conditions on the plate since
at x = 0, a and at y -= 0, b we have (11)
W = 0 (zero deflection at the supported
edges ) The reader having a familiarity with Fourier series
- P
methods will recognize immediately that the above analysis
a2 w a” w (zero moment at the hinged provides the key to the solution of the problem of any general
a = a = 0 y2
edges : see eqs. 1 and 2) loading q (x, y) on the same plate. Such an application is
made by determining the proper combination of sinusoidal
pressure terms (each of the form of eq. 8) such that their sum
It remains only to find the value of Amn which
will closely represent the desired loading. The sum of the
will satisfy eq. (7). Substituting (8) and (9) corresponding deflection functions (each of the form of eq. 10)
into (7) one obtains gives the desired solution. Details of this type of analysis are
to be found in reference 1 on pp. 113-176 and 199-256.
m4n4 m2n2 n2na +A,,~Q=n4n4 In common with all problems which are
Am a4 +2A mn --a2 b2 formulated in terms of a partial differential

= qm/D *
** the uniqueness of solutions to the differential equation of
or the form of eq. (7) is a classical proof appearing in num-
erous advanced texts on mathematics and mathematical
physics. Since the equation is known to have a unique
mnx solution, then any solution found for it is the one and
*the common factor sin a sin nw has been divided out. only car rect solution.
A17.4 BENDING OF STRESSES

equation, the solution of the plate bending prob-

lem depends strongly upon the boundary conditions
I TABLE Al7.1 I

(both the shape of the boundary and the types of Stress and Deflection Coefficients for ‘a Uniformly
support provided there). The above example may Loaded Rectangular Plate Having Various Edge
Conditions
be said to have been deceptively easy because of
both the simple shape of the boundary a.nd -the Long Sides
type of support. Plate problems wherein the All Sides Pinned,
Pinned Short Sides
plate planform is not a simple geometric figure 1 Clamped
must be solved by numerical means. As to the
type of support, a full discussion of boundary
conditions for plates is to be found in refer-
1.0 .0443 / .2874 .0209 .420 .0209 .420 .0138 .3078
ence 1, pp. 89-95.
1.2 .0616 .3756 .0340 .522 .0243 .462 .0188 .3834
Al?. 4 Compilations of Results for Plate Bending Problems. 1.4 .0770 .4518 .0502 .600 .0262 .486 .0226 .4356

Fortunately for the practicing engineer, it 1.6 .0906 .5172 .0658 .654 -0273 .500 .0251 .4680
is not necessary to perform analytic computations 1.8 .1017 .5688 .0799 .690 .0279 .502 .0267 .4872
as discussed above for the great majority of 2.0 .1106 .6102 .0987 .714 .(I284 -504 -0277 .4g74
practical plate problems. Problems of the type 3.0 .1336 .7134 .128 .750 - - - -
illustrated above, plus the myriad variations 4.0 .1400 .7410/ - - - - - -

possible, became very fashionable exercises 5.0 .1416 ,7476 - - - - - -

w .1422 .7500 .1422 ,750 .0284 .498 .0284 ,498
amongst mathematicians following the discovery
by LaGrange of eq. (7) in the year 1811. The
Rectangular Plates Under Various Loadings
results of many researchers’ labors have been
compiled in various forms for handy reference. 0 S. Timoshenko, “Theory of Plates and Shells”,
A common and important case is that of a pp. 113-176, 199-256.
uniformly loaded rectangular plate (Fig. A17-4).
0 J. P. Den Hartog, “Advanced Strength of
The major engineering results are the values of
Materials”, pp. 132-134.
the maximum deflections and the maximum stresses
developed. These may be put in the form (a is @ R. J. Roark, “Formulas for Stress and
the length of the short side): Strain”, pp. 202-207.

9 a4
wm=(-JEt”-------------- Circular Plates Under Various Loadings
(12)
(same three references, in order

sPIELX=pte 9 a2 ----- ---- ------ @ ppa 55-84, 257-287.

(13)
@ pp. 128-132.
where the coefficients a and J3 are given in 0 pp. 194-201, 209-211.
Table A17.1 for the four most common edge
conditions. Al?. 5 Deflection Limitations in Plate Analyses.
In the introductory remarks of this chap-
ter it was stated that a plate may be distin-
guished from a membrane by the s:nall order of
its deflections (on the order of a few tenths
of its thickness). We will re-examine this
statement here to show that this is not so
much a definition as it is an accuracy limita-
tion imposed by one of the assumptions made in
the plate analysis.
Fig. A17.4 There are several familiar assumptions
from beam theory which, of course, carry over
here, inasmuch as the plate analysis resembles
Similar presentations may be made for many the beam analysis rather closely. These “beam
dozens of other cases. With the ready availa- theory assumptions” are:
bility of comprehensive catalogings of these
problems in references devoted to the purpose, i - elastic stresses only are presumed,
there appears to be little virtue in duplication ii - small slopes (so that a2w/ax2 and
here. ,Lience the following list of selected a2w/ay2 are good approximations to
references is presented. Additional references the curvatures),
are to be found in turn within these works. We
note that, because of the linearity of the plate iii - at least one transverse dimension
(length or width) be large compared to
bending problem, superposition of solutions is
the thickness so that shear deflections
possible to extend even further the usefulness may be neglected.
of these extenslve listings.
 A17.5

However, the beam --_- theory

-- assumptions --- do not
place ____ very severe~ restriction
-PI--- on the magnitude
of deflections permitted.
- -- Deflections of se+-
Gal times the plate thickness would be per-
missible if these were the only restricting
assurnpt i ons .
In deriving the plate bending equations it
was assumed that no stresses acted in the middle
(neutral) plane of the plate (no membrane Fig. A17.5
stresses). Thus, in swmi.ng forces to derive
eq. (6L no membrane stresses were present to
help support the lateral load. Now in the sol- Fig. A17-5b shows the desired one-dimen-
utions to the great majority of all plate bend- sional problem which now resembles a loaded
ing problems (solved as in Art. A17.3)) the de- cable. The differential equation of equllib-
flection surface solution found is a non-de- riurn is obtained by summing vertical forces on
velopable surface, i .e., a surface which cannot the element of Fig. A17-5c (draw with all
be formed fmflat sheet without some strech- quantities; loads, deflections, slopes and
ing of the sheets’ middle surface*. But, if curvatures shown positive). One obtains
appreciable

invalidating
was derived.
middle surface strains
then large middle surface stresses will result,
the assumption upon which eq. (6)
must occur,
stFg x + dx
-- dw
dx
II X
+qdx=o

Thus, practically all loaded plates deform

into surfaces which induce some middle surface or
stresses. It--I_-___--~--____
is the necessity for holding down
the magnitude of these very powerful middle d2w
-=- st9 -- ---- --- ------ (14)
surface stretching
--_ ___----.- forces that results in the dx”
more severe rule-of-thumb restriction that plate
bending formulae apply accurately only to prob- where s is the membrane stress in psi.
lems in which-deflections are a few tenths of Eq. (14) is the differential equation of
the
--- plates’ thickness. a parabola. Its solution is
A17.6 Membrane Action in Very Thin Plates.
w z- 2st
qx (a - x) - - - - - - - - - - - - - (15)
There is still another source of middle
surface strains in plates: this is the re-
straint against in-plane movements offered by The (as yet) unknown stress in eq. (15)
the edge supports. While not important in prob- can be found by computing the change in length
lems wherein deflections are limited in accord- of the strip as it deflects. This “stretch” is
ance with the restriction of the last article, given by the difference between the curved arc
such restraint does assume great importance in length and the original straight length (a).
the case of large deflections of very thin Thus:
plates which support a major share of the load
by membrane action. It is, in fact, useful to
consider the -- limiting case
- of the flat membrane a
which cannot support any of the lateral load by
bending stresses and hence has to deflect and
stretch to develop both the necessary curvatures
and membrane stresses.
The two-dimensional membrane problem is a
nonlinear one whose solution has proven to be
very difficult. Rather than attempt to treat
the complete problem, we can study a simplified
version whose solution retains
general features . The one-dimensional
of a narrow (unit width) strip will be treated.
This strip is cut from an originally
the desired
analysis

flat mem- Since

=

J ‘j-e

the slope dw/dx is small compared with

- a

brane whose extent in the y-direction is very unity, we use the binomial theorem to write
great (Fig. A17-5a).
(1 + ($)3”2 h/ 1 + ; ($)’

* The cone and cylinder are examples of developable sur-

faces, the sphere is a nondevelopable one. It is a familiar *here “ds” is the differential arc length of the calculus
experience that the skin of an orange cannot be developed in- and has no kinship with the s which denotes the membrane
to a flat sheet without tearing. stress throughout the remainder of the analysis.
A17.6 BENDING OF PLATES

Hence at the middle of the long side of the panel.

We. note that the limiting case, a/b = 0, cor-
responds to the one-dimensional case analyzed
6= earlier. Unfortunately, an extrapolation of
these two-dimensional results to that limit
does not show agreement with the one-dimen-
sional result. Presumably the discrepancy may
be traced to the excessive influence of inac-
curacies in the assumed deflectIon shape of the
membrane as used in the approximate two-dimen-
Substituting through the use of eq. (15 ) and in- sional solutions.
tegrating we find Experimental results reported in reference
4 show good agreement with the theory for
6 = q2 a3 square panels in the elastic range.
24 s2 t2 *
TABLE Al?. 2
Now by elementary considerations
Membrane Stress and Deflection Coefficients

a/b 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0

“1 .318 .228 .16 .125 . 10 .068 .052

Equating these last and solving we find
n2 j’.‘m .37 .336 .304 .272 .23 .205

s = l 347 [E (y)2]1!3- - - - - - - - - - - (16)

A17 7 Large Deflections in Plates**.
In the previous articles of this chapter
If eq. (16) is substituted into eq. (15) the results of analyses were outlined for the
two extreme cases of sheet panels under lateral
one gets for the maximum deflection (x =: i )
loads. At one extreme, sheets whose bending
stiffness is great relative to the loads applied
‘/” - - - - - - - - - - (17) (and which therefore deflect only slightly) may
be analyzed satisfactorily by the plate bending
solutions. At the other extreme, very thin
Equations (16) and (17) display the essen- sheets, under lateral loads great enough to
tial nonlinearity of the problem, the stress and cause large deflections, may be treated as mem-
the deflection both varying as fractional ex- branes whose bending stiffness is ignored.
ponents of the lateral pressure q. As it happens, the most efficient plating
Solutions of the complete two-dimensional designs generally fall between these two ex-
nonlinear membrane problem have been carried tremes. On the one hand, if the designer is
out *, the results being expressed in forms iden- to take advantage of the presence of the in-
tical with those obtained above for the one- terior stiffening structure (rings, bulkheads,
dimensional problem, viz., stringers, etc.), which i$ usually present for
other reasons anyway, then it is not necessary
= n, a z$ “’ - _ - - - - - - - - - to make the skin so heavy as to behave 11ke a
wmx (18) “pure” plate. On the other hand, if the skin
( )
is made so thin as to necessitate supporting
SW = n, [E (y}‘] I”- - - - - - - - - - (19) all pressure loads by stretching and developing
membrane stresses, then permanent deformation
results , producing “quilting” or “washboarding”.
Here ‘a” is the length of the long side of the The exact analysis o f the two-dimensional
rectangular membrane and nl and n, are given in plate which undergoes large deflections and
Table A17.2 as functions of the panel aspect thereby supports the lateral loading partly by
ratio a/b. its bending resistance and partly by membrane
The maximum membrane stress (SIX) occurs action is very involved. A one-dimensional

** The discussion to follow will be concerned primarily with

*The work of Henky and Foppl is summarized in reference 3, problems dealing with the support of a uniform pressure
pp. 258-290 and in reference 4. The partial differential load on a flat skin panel. It may, therefore, help the
equation solved is given in reference 1 on p. 344 (eq. 202) reader to fix his ideas if he visualizes the discussion as
and the approximate method of solution usually employed is applied to the problems of analysis of a single rectangular
sketched out on pp. 345, 346 of this same reference. The skin panel taken between the stringers and bulkheads of a
reader who would compare presentations amongst these ref- seaplane hull bottom. Equally useful is the picture of the
erences should note the differences in the definitions of the very nearly flat panel between rings and stringers in the
plate dimensioning symbols “a” and “b”. slightly curved side of a large pressurized fuselage.
 A17.7

analysis, parallel to that of Art. A17.6, is to The approximate large-deflection method

be found in reference 1, pp. 4-10. A more outlined above has serious shortcomings insofar
elaborate two-dimensional analysis is shown on as the prediction of stresses is concerned.
pp. 347-350 of this same reference. For simply supported edges the maximum combined
An approximate solution of the large de- stresses are known to occur at the panel mid-
flection plate problem can be obtained by adding point. Fig. A17-7 shows plots of these stresses
together the flat plate and membrane solutions for a square panel as predicted by the approxi-
in the following way: mate method (substituting q’ and qn into eqs.
Solve eq. (12), the plate bending relation, (13) and (14) respectively and cross plotting
for q; call it q’ , with the aid of Fig. Al?-6*). Also shown are
the maximum stresses computed by the exact
q’ = w E t3 large-deflection theory (reference 5).
a a4
exact
approxe-- -
Now solve eq. (18), the membrane relation, for
q; call it g”,

q”=*Et
np aa

The sum of these two pressures gives the total

lateral pressure, called simply, q.

q = q’ + q” ‘2 -0 50 100 *4 150 200 250

-ET
---a-- Fig. A17.7 Large-deflection theories’ mid-
panel stresses; simply supported square panel.
Because of the obvious desirability of
Eq. (ZO), we see, is based upon summing the in- using the results of the more exact theory, some
dividual stiffnesses of the two extreme be- of these are presented in Table A17.3. The
havior mechanisms by which a flat sheet can treatment of additional cases (other types of
support a lateral load. No interaction between edge support) may be found in reference 6, pp.
stress systems is assumed and, since the system 221, 222.
is nonlinear, the result can be an approximation TABLE A17.3
only. Large Deflection Rectangular Plate Coefficients
Eq. (20) 1s best rewritten as (Uniform Pressure Load, i. Simply Supported Edges)

Deflection Pressure Coefficient, qa4/Et 4

a/b or Stress
Coefficient 12.5 25 50 75 100 150 200 250

w/t 0.4055 0.6083 0.846 1.0031 1.1240 1.3104 1.4557 1.5770

1 sb a/Et a 3.191 5.158 7.770 9.720 11.339 14.055 16.364 18.424

Fig. A17-6 shows eq. (21) plotted for a
sMb=/Et= 0.609 1.377 2.683 3.792 4.785 6.542 8.103 9.533
square plate using values of a and n, as taken
from Tables A17.1 and A17.2. Also plotted are w/t 0.6958 0.9463 1.241 1.440 1.596 1.840 2.033 2.196
the results of an exact analysis (reference 5).
sb2/Et2 4.871 7.164 10.26 12.62 14.61 18.01 20.93 23.55
As may be seen, eq. (21) is somewhat conserva-
tive inasmuch as it gives a deflection which is, SMb ‘/Et2 1.293 2.403 4.155 5.612 6,911 9.220 11.28 13.16

too large for a given pressure. Notes: 1. s = t0b.l Stress = SB + sM

2. SB = “bending stress” component of stress
250 3. “M= “membrane stress” component of stress
exaat
approx.-- - -
200 A17.8 Considerations in the Applications of Large-De-
flection Plate and Membrane Analyses.
4 150 Before concluding this chapter it is
a
P; pertinent to note several serious omissions in
Et 100 the developments outlined above with regard to
their application to flat pressure-panel
analyses within a ship hull or fuselage. The
50

0
0 0@5 1.0 1.3 2.0 *butusingn2 = .260 in eq. (19), This value gives the
r/t stresses at the center of a square panel whereas n2 =
Fig. A17.6 Deflections at the midpoint of a simply .356 in Table A17.2 is for stresses at the panel edge.
supported square panel by two large-deflection
theories.
AN. 8 BENDING OF PLATES

large-deflection plate and the membrane analyses REFERENCES

were developed for applications where the plate
bending analysis appeared -- inadequate. However, 1, Timoshenko, S, “Theory of Plates and Shells”,
theseanalyses themselves presumed conditions McGraw-Hill, N, Y., 1940.
seldom encountered in practice.
FIRST, the analyses assume unyielding sup- 2. Den Hartog, J. P. “Advanced Strength of
ports on the boundaries of the sheet panel. In Materials”, McGraw-Hill, N. Y., 1952.
practice, the skin is stretched across an elas- 3. Sechler, E. and Dunn, L. “Airplane Struc-
tic framework of stringers and bulkheads. It tural Analysis and Design”, John Wiley,
follows, therefore, that the heavy membrane No Y., 1942.
tensile forces developed during large deflec-
tions will cause the supports to deflect towards 4. Heubert, M. and Somrner, A., Rectangular Shell
each other thereby increasing the plate de- Plating
- Under
- Unlforrnly Distributed Hydro-
flection and relieving some of the stresses. static Pressure, NACA TM 965,
A simple one-dimensional analysis for a (selected large-deflection plate references).
membrane strip having elastic edge supports
(parallel to the analysis of Art. A17.6), shows a) Moness, E. Flat
- -Plates Under Pressure,
errors on the order of 25 per cent are likely if Journ. Aero. Sci., 2, Sept. 1938.
the framework elasticity is neglected (reference b) Ramberg, W., McPherson, A. and Levy, S.,
7). At this writing no two-dimensional treat- Normal Pressure Tests of Rectangular
ment of this problem is known to the writer. - w
Plates, NACA TR 748, 1942.
SECOND, it is seldom that the analyst has
to check a panel for lateral pressure loads c) Levy, S, Square
- PPlate With
--- Clamped Edges
alone. Most often, the entire “field” of panels Under
- Normal
P Pressure Producing Large
on the framework of stringers and bulkheads must Deflections, NACA TR 740, 1942.
simultaneously transmit in-plane loadings from d) Levy, S. Bending
the tail load bending stresses and the cabin - -of Rectanzular Plates
With
-- Large Deflections, NACA TR 737, 1942,
pressurization stresses.
Inasmuch as the large-deflection plate and e) Chi-Teh Wang, Nonlinear Large Deflection
membrane analyses are nonlinear, it follows that Boundary-value Problems of Rectangular
correct stresses cannot be found by a straight Plates, NACA TN 1425, 1948.
superposition. The magnitude of the error in- f) Chi-Teh Wang, Bending
troduced by such a procedure is difficult to - -of Rectangular
Plates With Large Deflections, NACA TN
estimate in the absence of an exact analysis. A 1462,19X -
one-dimensional analysis, parallel to that of
Art. A17.6, but with elastic supports and axial V. Roark, R, J. *‘Formulas for Stress and Strain;
load, is given in reference 7. These results, McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 3rd Edition, 1954.
which indicate the effect of the axial load to 7. Flugge, W. Stress Problems in Pressurized
be quite important, may be used as a guide in
Cabins, NACA TN 2612, 1952.-
lieu of more complete two-dimensional studies.
The interested reader is referred to the orig- 80 Engineering Research Bulletins of Oklahoma
inal work for details. State University.
a) No. 150 Influence Coefficients for
Circular Plates.
b) No. 17. Analysis of Thin Plates Sup-
ported on their Corners,
c) No. 1180 Analysis of Flat Plates by
Algebraic Carryover Method.
 CHAPTER Al8
THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS
(BY DR. GEORGE LIANIS)

PART 1
ELASTIC AND INELASTIC INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS
Al 8.1 Introduction. Thus the total bending moment at section Z
will be:-
Part 1 of this chapter will be confined
to the theoretical treatment of the instability M= Pu + y on upper portion - - - - ((1
of a perfect elastic column and an imperfect
elastic column. The column is the simplest of
the various types of structural elements that M= pu + Q(l-a)(I-z)
on lo\Ner portion (e)
are subject to the phenomenon of instability. 1
The theory as developed for columns forms the From mechanics of simple bending, we have
basis for the study of the instability of thin the deflection equation,
plates, which subject is treated in Part 2.
d2u M
A18.2 Combined Bending and Compression of Columns. -m-m--- (1
dz2- - EIY - - - - -
Consider a column with one end simply
supported and the other end hinged (Fig. A18.1 Thus the deflection u(Z ) of the colunn
under the simultaneous action of a compressive 1%
load P and a transverse load Q. Uthout the d2u Qaz
load P the bending moment due to Q would be:- EIp=-Pu-y, (0 2 z z 1-a)

dau (1-a) (1-z)

EIz=-Pu-Q 9
1

(1 - a 5 z 2 1) - - - - - (2)

If we introduce the notation,

P =K2--------------
EI - (3)

The general solution of eq. (2) is:

U
Qaz
= C, cos Kz + C, sin Kz - p1 ,

(0 =zl-a) -----_--_ (4a)

(l-z) (l-a)
U = C3 cos Kz + C, sin Kz - Q 9
1
(1 - a 1zz ,’ 1) - - - - - - - - (4b)
Fig. A18. 1 where C,, C,, C,, and C, are constants of
integration to be determined from boundary
On the lower portion of the column conditions.
PI,=? -------------(a) For eqs. (4), sirke u = 0 for z = 0 and
Z = 1, it follows that:
On the upper portion
(1-z) Cl = 0 and C, = - C, tan Kl - - - - - (f
M1, = Q&a) 1
o-------o w
At z = (1 - a) the two portions of the
Due to the deflection u(z), the axial deflection curve given by @a) and (4b)
load P contributes to the bending moment by respectively must have the same deflection and
thl? amount: - slope. From these two conditions we determine
C, and C,.
M, = pU _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - (c)
Al
A18.2 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS

Q sin Ka Q sin K&a) the body would cause only infinitesimal changes
C*= PK sin Kl ’ “=- PM tan Kl - - - - (g in the displacements and the body recovers if
the added loads are removed. When the dis-
Substituting (f) and (g) into eq. (2), placements are continuously increased with
we obtain: little or no further increment of loads, the
system is unstable. If the body will remain
U=
Q sin Ka sin m _ &a in the displaced position after the removal
PK sin Kl p1z Y of the disturbance, the body is said to be in
(OS Z 5 1 - a) - - - - - - - - - _ -(5a) neutral equilibrium. Having these definitions,
we will not investigate the behavior of the
column before and after the critical load is
Q sin K(l-a) sin K(lwz) _ Q&-a)&-~> reached.
U=
PK sin Kl Pl Y

(1 -a~z”1)-----------(5b) P A B P
/--“z
0
If load Q is applied at the middle of the .#--=-+
column the maximum deflection is:-
& tan y &1 Fig. Al8. 2
Umax = ---w-m--- (6)
2 PK - 4P Assuqe, as shown in Fig. A18.2, that a
simply sunported column lqaded by an axial load
It is obvious that Kl -_ 2n ,
for 2- P is bent by a small disturbance. If the
deflection at a distance s along the deflected
axis is u, the bending moment due to P is Pu.
tan -$$ - 00. Thus the maximum deflection of From engineering theory of b#?nding, we
know that,
column becomes infinite for KI = n and from
EI = -M
eq. (3). R , whence

n”E1 EI
R=-pu ------I-----
Per = - ---w--w----- (7) -b)
l2
The exact expression for the curvatuve of
Equation (7) is an important equation the neutral axis is:-
derived first by Euler. It gives the critical
compressive load which causes infinite deflect- 1 d0
R=ds’ where s is the arc length of the
ion in a column and it specifies the ultimate
strength of a column in compression. deformed axis, and 8 the angle between the
tangent to the curve and the z ax1s. Thus,
It is obvious from eq. (7) that Euler’s
critical load is independent of the magnitude -mm--------
of the transverse load Q. It seems, therefore, EI =+
ds Pu = 0 (8b
that even in the absence of the transverse
load Q, the maximum deflection becomes infinite Differentiating (8b) with respect to s
under the action of only a compressive load as du
given by eq. (7). and since z = sin 0, we obtain:

A18.3 Elastic Stability of a Column. EI ds2

d”Q f P sin 8 = 0 - - - - - - - -(8c

The above conclusion as to the critical Multiplying (8~) by dQ and noting that:-
load was based on purely mathematical reasoning,
We have found a critical value of a compressive
load which causes infinite deflection. $$ dQ = and integrating

Far more important, however, is an in-

vestigation of the stability of a column which EI/ g d (g) + P/sin Qd0 = C, or
should be based on physlcal arguments. The
questlon arlses as to what happens before the F (g)2 - P cos 8 = C - - - - - - -(8d)
load P reaches 1ts critical value as given
by eq. (7) and also how the column behaves if
this critical value is exceeded.
Since at end A, 8=-a and M = EX Gd0 = 0,
L/
An elastic system is called stable under we find that C = - P cos a.
given loads when infinitesimal loads added to
 Now let k =: J EIP (8e
---------

Then eq. (8d) becomes, (80)

-- 1 dQ
a ds = k 4 cos 0- cos a , or
Let us now write the bending moment M =
P0 at the middle point in non-dimensional form:
ds = d0 ----- @f)
J 2ka (cos 8 - cos a) m= -.--
p d-= --------I (8P)
Per 1 Re
The total length of the column in the
deflected shape is given by:- Since p = sin $ is a function of CLso is the
P 6
elliptic integral K and the ratios -and1
1 = jAB ds = [; dQ I - - 03h) Per
calculated from equations (8a) and (80).
fi k &OS 8 - cos a
6
d0 a--- Thus his’ a function Of 1 calculated by
(80
sir? g -sin2Q/2 means of tables giving elliptic integrals.
a Thus m can be plotted against 6/l as shown in
Denoting sin 2 by p and introducing a new Fig. A18.3.
variable fl :-
6 /l
sin 20 = p sin jZ
S./l
Equat i on (81) then becomes,
-n
%
/0
d/ZI = 2K (83)
J l-p2 sin2 515 k ------

where K = / 2 dQ
is called the
6,/l
0
J l-p2 sin2 pI

complete elliptic integral of the first kind, m

and it can b e found in tables. If a and
therefore p is very small, then pa sin2 fl can Let us now examine the stability of
be neglected in equation (8J) and then various equilibrium configurations. Assume
that a load P’ is acting on the column and
the column has a certain maximum deflection 6
where P’ does not correspond to 6.

The non-dimensional maximum bending

whence P = -n2EI ----a------- (8k moment is : -
l2
ml =-- P= ( 6 > ---m------m (W
The deflection at the midpoint of calm Per l-
is:- 8 = 0, du = ds sin 8, and from Eq. (8f)
1 1 The ml versus 6/l curves are straight lines.
u( z= $=6=zjoa sin QdQ The column is in equilibrium if m = ml, or in
(1. 8 -- - (81)
sin2 - sin’ ‘-3 other words, if the m”(ti/l) curve intersects
the m(6/1) curve.
or in terms of @:- We see from Fig. A18.3 that these curves
n intersect at the origin only if P1c Per. The
_ 2P column, therefore, has only one possible
6 = k22 iro2sin (Ird@-- --------a md equilibrium form, for example, that for which
k
6/l = 0, which is the straight form. When
From equatlon (8j and equation (8k), we obtain P1 ) Per, there are two points of intersection,
Al& 4 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS
I
one when 6/l = 0 and the other (point A) for b) At P/Per = 1, or at point (A), a bifurcation
which 6/l # 0. The column thus has two of equilibrium occurs and the co1um.n starts
possible equilibrium forms, one straight and to acquire two possible neighbor positions
one bent, of equilibrium, the straight and the bent.

Let us now assume that at 6 = 0, the (c) Above P/Per = 1, the column has two possible
column is displaced by a small disturbance equilibrium positions 6/l = 0 and 6,/l # 0.
and acquires a deflection ol. For P’ < Par,
we see from Fig, 3 that m ==ml. Thus P’ is Thus as far as initiation of instability is
not sufficient to mainta.in the column in concerned, the Euler load as given by Eq. 7 can
equilibrium in the bent form and it will spring be consldered as the critical load. The question
back to its straight form. Thus for P’ c Per, arises whether this load has a practical use
the straight form is stable. for design purposes. A logical design criterion
is obviously the maximum load which a column can
If P1 - Per, then ml B m. Thus ml will sustain. We observe from Fig. A18.4 that the
bend the column still further. Thl. s means load P increases for increasing displacement 6.
that if P’ a Per, the straight form of This behavior 1s due to the development of large
equilibrNm is unstable. The column will deflections due to bending. However, over a
continue to bend until m’ becomes equal to m considerable range of deflections 6, the P + 6
(point A in Fig. 3). If the column is dis- curve is practically horl_zontal (for Instance,
placed further from A, the deflection becomes between points A and B the ratio 6/l varies
larger than 6, and m = ml at the new position. from zero to = 0.4). For such large deflections
The column will spring back to point A. Point for which the column load does not change
A is therefore stable. practically, it is obvious that the column
ceases to function properly. Therefore, from
At P = Per, the IT? versus 6/l line is this point of view, the Euler load can be con-
tangent to the m curve at the origin. There- sidered that which characterizes the maximum
fore, for an infinitesimal disturbance, the strength of the column.
column will remain in equilibrium at the
displaced position since for such small The rising part of the curve BD holds as
disturbances ml remains equal to m. The column long as the material behaves elastically. At
is therefore in neutral equilibrium. some point B, however, inside the almost flat
portion of the curve, the inner fibers of the
A18.4 The Failure of Columns by Compression. column acquire maximum stress equal to the
yield stress. If we carry out an elastic-
In d&cussing the stability of a column plastic analysis of the subsequent behavior,
in the previous section, it was shown that we observe that the curve drops almost
below the critical Euler load (Eq. 7), the immediately. Again this maximum load PB Is
straight form 1s stable, above the Per the very near the Euler load. For design purposes,
bent form is stable and at Per the equilibrium therefore, the Euler load, which is a buckling
is neutral. By plotting the curve P/Per versus load, is a very good approximation to the
6/l as shown in Fig. A18.4, we observe the ultimate load which the column can sustain.
following behavior.
Another argument will confirm the above
(a) Below P/Per = 1, there is only one conclusion. In discussing the buckling of
equilibrium position, 6/l = 0. columns in the previous paragraphs, we have
assumed that the column is initially straight,
P centrally loaded and made of
homogeneous material. Actual
J columns, however, are Imperfect
\ due to initial crookedness (for
\ instance, due to unavoidable
\ tolerances in their manufacture),
\ due to slight load eccentricities
T\ I and due to lack of complete
1 I homogenlty. Therefore, a certain
amount of bending is always
.u present even for small loads.

Let us now examine the

behavior of such initially ix&-
perfect columns by assuming a
certain initial deflection 11~
of the column axis (see Fig.
Fig. A18.4 A18.5). For small deflections,
 A18.5

the change of curvature due to subsequent approaches the horizontal line P/Per = 1
bending (after loading) is:- asymptotically. This curve, however, is valid
for small deflections for which the approxi-
mation:-
1 z dau d2U0

is valid.
In the differential equation of deflection
6 ‘ij;’ -
dz2 - dz2
one can prove that l/R is thle change of
curvature which for an initial straight column By a treatment similar to that in the
coincides with the curvature itself. Thus in previous paragraph, we will find that for
the present case, where the bending moment is large deflections the load deflection curve
Pu, the equation of deflection becomes:- raises after the point I (curve FIH). Due to
the onset of plasticity, the actual curve
d’u dauO drops at the point I1 (curve FIIIH1) O The
w k2u - w - - - - - - (9) failing load at I1 can be either greater or
dz2 - dz2 = smaller than Per, but it is usually very near
to it,
Let us express u. in Fournier series:-
In the above discussions we have shown
Uo =yW, sin y _ _ - _ - - _ -(lo) that for all practical purposes the Euler
1 buckling load can be considered as the ulti-
mate load which a real or practical column
Substituting (10) in (9), we find the can sustain. Besides its closeness to the
solution which satisfies the boundary
actual ultimate load, the critical load can
conditions (u = 0 for z = 0, z = 1) is:- be easily calculated from equation (7) with-
out the necessity of carrying out a lengthy
U=Z O” 6, sin y - - - - - - - (lla) calculation which will include the initial
n=l imperfections and plastic effects.

‘n -----w--w It should be noted, however, that the

where 0n = (lib) buckling load given by equation (7) is valid
1 - P/P, when the uniform stress due to a compressive
load (O = P/A, where A is cross-sectional
n2n2EI area) is below yield stress.
Pn = p If o is above
l2 the yield stress, the theory of plasticity
predicts another value for the buckling load.
The deflection of the column at the center Referring now to equations (11) we find:-
is:-
pn = n2Pcr (Per from equation 7)
Gmax = 6l - 6, + 6, - - - - - - - 42)
6n = 62
If we plot the deflection versus the load 1-p
we obtain the curve (Fig. A18.6), which n2Pcr
Thus as P approaches Per, we see that

Thus 6, =rw 02=-7 6, and:- *

1. (

I \ In a buckling test we measure 6 = 0max

HL
- 5, where 5 is the initial deflection at the
middle point. Thus : -

and,

- GM-- -/1
1 F
6
Fig. A18. 6 Per p- 6 = 5, - - - - - - - - - - (13)
A18.6 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY F COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS

If in a buckling test we plot 6/P versus 0 1 0 1

6, we can obtain the critical load experi- 0 1 0 0
‘mentally without knowing the initial deflection ‘:
0
sin kl cos kl 1 1
6,. It is simply the inverse of the slope of
this curve. - sin kl - cos kl 0 0

A18.5 Buckling Loads of Columns with Various End

Conditions. or sin kl = 0 or kl = nn (n = 1, 2, 3 - - -)

From the conclusions reached in the whence p, = -n2n2EI - - - _ - - - - - - ma)

previous discussion, we can consider the l2
buckling problem as an instability problem of Thus for Pn equal to the right hand side
an initially straight column. Thus we assume of equation (Isa), we have a possible form of
a certain deflected position near the straight equilibrium of the bent form. The smallest
configuration as another possible equilibrium value of Pn occurs at n = 1, and this IS the
form and seek the loads under which the non- buckling load:
straight form is possible. Furthermore, only
a small deflection analysis is necessary.
pcr=T n2EI -------____ - (16b)
The general differential equation of
bending-buckling is:- The buckling load for other end conditions
can be derived in similar manner.
d4u d2u 0
s + k2 -=
dz2 -------a- (14)
INELASTIC COLUMNSTRENGTH
and the general solution is:-
A18.6 Inelastic Buckling. Introduction.
U = C, sin kz + C, cos kz + C,z + C, - - (15)
Euler’s theory of buckling is valid as
The coefficients C,, C,, C, and C, long as the stress in the column nowhere ex-
depend on the conditions of the end supports. ceeds the elastic limit of the column material.
The various end conditions are:- We have seen that the analysis for perfect and
imperfect elastic columns leads to the same
d2u d3u result, namely, equation (7).
Free end:- dZ2= 0 , w= 0
The case of the inelastic buckling, that
d2u is, instability under axial load exceeding the
Pin end: - u = 0 , dz2 = 0
elastic limit stress, presents some difficulties.
As we will see, the perfect column analysis
du leads to a different expression for the critical
Fixed end:- u = 0 , dz= 0 load than for the perfect column. This is due
to the fact that in the plastic stress range,
Thus we have 4 end conditions, These the material behaves differently under loading
give systems of four linear homogenous and unloading, as illustrated in Fig. A18.7.
equations. A trivial solution of these is Let us now examine the two cases:
the zero solution. For the buckling state,
however, C,, C,, C,, C, are not all zero.
The condition of non-zero solution
above system is that the determinant
of the
of the
I---W=-
coefficients of C,, C,, C, and C, is equal to
zero. From this equation, we calculate the
buckling load. / ‘/ Unloading

For example, in a simply sunported beam,

0, at both ends), the end
Deformation E
conditions furnish give
Fig. A18. ‘7
c, + c, = 0 , c, = 0
A18.7 Perfect Column. Reduced Modulus Theory.
C, sin kl + C, cos kl + C,l + C, = 0
Let us assume that the perfect column is
For buckling we must have:- first compressed uniformly up to the stress 0.
To study the critical value, Gcr, of CTfor wtiich
the column becomes unstable we assume:- 6 s2 = E 6 cz - - - - - - - - - - - (19)

(1) That the displacements are small so that The distribution of the compressive (-)
the relation between the radius of stress and the tensile (+) stress due to
curvature R and the deflection u of the bending is shown in Fig. A18.8a. The stress
elastic axis is, becomes zero on line (a al), which is at a
distance e from the centroid c. For
1 _ d”u
----& ---------- --- equilibrium of stresses on the cross-section
R (174 we have,

(2) Plane sections remain plane, therefore

the change of strain due to bending at a
distance h on the plane of bending is, and for equilibrium for moments,

h dau
6&=ij;=hd22 ------____ Wb) -da1 dSl(h,+e)dA+~ae 6s
53
(h
2-
e)u=m - II (21)

(3 ) The stress-strain relation follows the Due to the linear distribution of stress,
simple tension curve for the material. we have:-

(4) The plane of bending is a plane of

symmetry of the cross-section.

Assume now a column with the cross-section

as shown in Fig. A18.8a be compressed in the OS, = - h,
aa
Introducing now (17b), (18), (19) and
(22) in equation (20), we obtain,
-Et Ql + EQa = 0 - - - - - - - - - 23)
where,

Ql = dalh,dA , Qz = da’h.dA - - - (24)

are the moments of the cross-sectional areas

to the right and left of line a a’.
Fig. Al& 8b From eq. (21) we obtain,

EI -=
d2U Pu --w------w-- (25 >
dza
Fig. A18.8a
where,
plastic stress range and that the compressive
stress prior to instability be CT. To consider EI, + Et I,
jj= -------w-w (26)
the condition of buckling, let the column be I
slightly deflected transversely. The stress
on one side of the column will then increase E is the so-called reduced modulus, and
due to the bending following the stress-strain I, and I, being the moment of inertia of the
curve, while on the other side the stress will two sides.
decrease and will therefore follow the un-
loading elastic line shown in Fig. A18.8b. We observe that the position of the
neutral axis in terms of the axial stress is
For small changes of the stress, on the given by eq. (24), while the buckling eq. (25)
first side, the variation of stress is related is similar to the elastic buckling eq. (14).
to the variation of strain by:- However, the value of K here is not given by
eq. (3), but by,
6 Sl = Et (a) 6~~ - - - - - - - - - (18)

where Et (a) is the slope of the stress-strain

curve at stress 0. On the second side the
K
J A0
E (27)

changes will follow the elastic relation, Therefore all the results of the previous
that is, analysis will be valid for the case of in-
elastic buckling. For instance, for a simply
A18.8 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY IF COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS

supported column according to eq. (7), we will

have,

qrzAl, n2EI ----vu...--m---(28)

d

Since E 1s a function of ocr given by eq. (28) b

and the value of Et at the unknown Ocr, the
calculation of the critical stress requires a
trial and error simultaneous solution of
equations (23), (26) and (28).

A18.8 Imperfect Column. Tangent-Modulus Theory.

The tangent-modulus theory, originally

proposed by Engesser (Ref. l), 1s based on the Fig. A18.9
assumption that at the critical state, no
stress reversal takes place, and the critical ing the effect of a load P above the critical
stress, therefore, is determined only by the load Pt corresponding to tangent-modulus,
tangent modulus Et 0 This theory was abandoned Shanley proves the relation,
early since according to the previous dis-
cussion with the classical definition of
instability (perfect column, bifurcation of P=Pt (l+;d;;I;) ------ (32 >
equilibrium) strain reversal does take place.
In recent years, however, this tangent modulus
theory has been proved useful,

Under the assumption of no strain reversal z= Et/E

both sides of the cross-section in Fig. A18.8a,
will be characterized by the same linear stress It must be emphasized that the buckled con-
distribution, corresponding to the tangent- figuration is a stable one similar to that
modulus Et o Thus the buckling equation will be, consIdered in the refined Euler’s theory.
Shanley has recognized the fact that such a
d"U +pu=o----..------(2g) stable configuration ‘may exist after exceeding
Et1 dz2 the tangent modulus load,

and the critical stress for simply supported If R = P/Pt , Shanley found that the
end conditions becomes, relation between the variation of stress due
to bendIng and the compressive strain et
#Et1 -a---------- corresponding to atis:-
at = - (30)
Al2
6&, 2 ($- - R)
Since I, + Is 7 I and E 7 Et, it follows Concave side: - -
l-
I,

from (26) r-t -g$- (1+‘6)

E-Et ando,, ot - - - - - - - - - (31)

---- (W
% 2 (R-l)
The critical stress at, therefore pre- Convex side: --II_

1- r

dicted by the tangent-modulus theory is &t g+ (1+2)

smaller than Or from the reduced modulus

theory. Although for perfect columns, the In Fig. A18.10, 6~~/&t and &,/Et are
assumption of no strain reversal is in plotted against R for ?; = 0.75. We observe
contradiction to the material behavior in the that while the stra1.n on the concave side
plastic range, most experiments have given increases very rapidly and reaches an infinite
results more closely to the results by the value at the reduced-modulus load, the strain
tangent-modulus theory. on the convex side decreases initially very
slowly a Due to this picture we can conceive
To resolve this controversy, Shanley that in a real column, which has initial im-
(Ref. 2), proposed the following explanation. perfections, the compressive strain will
For simplicity, let a two-flange buckled increase more rapidly. Furthermore, the
column be formed by two rigid legs (see Fig. rapid increase of 6~~ will cause a fast re-
A18.9) joined in the middle by a plastic duction of Et. The column, therefore, loses
hinge. Assume that this column starts to its usefulness after the tangent-modulus has
buckle as soon as at is reached. By consider- been slightly increased, Thus the tangent-
 A18.9
.

SLENDERNESS RAT 10 (L/f)

on 17S-T .rdid rotrrrd rod (O.BZ in. diameter).

Fig. A18.11

OFLAT END TESTS

l ROUN0 END TESTS
6oooo L”

Fig. A18. I.0

I
modulus, even though it does not actually
define an unstable confIguration, it repre-
sents the lower limit of a spectrum of possible
buckled configurations, the upper limit of
which is the reduced modulus load which
corresponds to infinite deflections.
loooo~

Thus to summarize, sufficient experl-

mental results are available to show that the 0 20 40 60 80 loo 120 140 _ 160 180 200 220 240
failing stress of a column in the inelastic ( ‘ulttttttt trr/ w.vttItR
SiENDERHSS RATIO, (‘/c)
tttt 17.C T attglu ( I x.itt by I~Z in L,tl so irt. ).
range can be found by replacing E by the
tangent modulus Et 1n Euler’s equation, or, Fig. A18.12

n2 Et References:
CJcr = -(L,r)29 r = x - - - - - - - (34) Ref. 1. Engesser F., Schweezerlche Bauer
Zeitung. Vol. 26, pm 24, 1895.
Figs. A18.11 and 12 show how experimental Ref. 2. Shanley, F .R., Inelastic Column
results check the strength as given by the I Theory, Jour. Aeronautical Sciences,
Euler equation using the tangent-modulus Et. 1947, p. 261.
Al8.10 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS

PART 2

THEORY OF THE ELASTIC INSTABILITY OF THIN SHEETS

A18.9 Introduction. curvature of the middle surface can be found

approximately by omitting powers of ax
aw , -aw ,
Thin sheets represent a very common and aY
important structural element in aerospace as compared to unity, as it has been done for
structures since the major .units of such the curvature of beams. Thus the curvature
structures are covered with thin sheet panels. of the deflected middle surface in planes
Since compressive stresses cannot be eliminated parallel to xz and yz planes respectively are:
in aerospace structures, it is important to
know what stress intensities will cause thin 1 a”w 1 a%
R, = - axa , 5zBaf ------- (1a )
sheet panels to buckle. Equations for the
buckling of thin sheet panels under various
load systems and boundary conditions have Another quantity used in the problem of plates
been derived many years ago and are readily is the so-called twist of the middle surface
available to design engineers o Part C of this given by:
book takes up the use of the many buckling
equations in the practical design of thin -SELL
1 ---- - (lb)
sheet structural elements. The purpose of RXY axay
this chapter is to introduce the student to
the theory of thin plate instability or how The strains can now be expressed by means of
these buckling equations so widely in use by curvatures and twist of the middle surface,
design engineers were derived, For a broad In the case of pure bending of prismatic bar
comprehensive treatment of the subject of a rigorous solution was obtained by assuming
instability of structural elements, the student that cross-sections of the bars remain plane
should refer to some of the references as after bending and rotate so as to remain
listed at the end of this chapter. perpendicular to the deflected neutral axis.
Combination of such bending in two perpen-
Al8.10 Pure Bending of Thin Plates. dicular directions brings us to pure bending
of plates.
To derive the theory of instability of
thin plates, we must first derive the theory
of the pure bending of thin plates.

In the following the analysis will be

confined to small deformations. Let x, y be
the middle plane of the plate before bending
occurs and z be the axis normal to that plane.
Points of the x,
y plane undergo Z
small displace- Fig. 2a
ments, w in the
z-direction,
which will be
referred as the
deflection of
the plate. The
slope of the
middle-surface
in the x- and
y-directions
.x
-- dx ----
after bending are

d:
F W
iY
aW

yI 7I8
i,=ax, = ay
Fig. 2b

For small de- Let Fig. (2a) represent a thin rectangular

Fig. 1 flections, the plate loaded by uniformly distributed bending
 _-_- - ..^_.

PIx, M per unit length at its edges. These

moment s are considered posit9ve when they are &XY
directed as shown in the figure, i.e. when
they produce compression in the upper surface Since we treat the problem of plates as a plan:
of the plate and tension in the lower. Let stress problem, we find by means of Hook’s law
also (Fig. Zb) be a rectangular element cut
out of the plate with sides dx, dy, t. The Ez 1 --u
thickness t is considered very small compared 0, =
(l-v”) ‘Rx + RY) -
with the other dimensions. Obviously the
stress conditions at the edges of all such P Ez -a”w a2W we-----

elements will be identical to that of Fig, Za. - (l-V2) (ax” + 2/ ay2 1 (&

Assume now that the lateral sides of the

element remain plane during bending and rotate Ez 1 -=v
about the axes so as to remain normal to the CJZ= -
(1-U”) (F + Rx)
deflected middle surface. Due to symmetry
the middle surface does not undergo any Ez
PclMva) - saw + 3"W
- (,,z 1/z) - - - - - - -
extension and it is therefore the neutral
surface.
These normal stresses are linearly distribute:1
From the geometry of the above described over the plate thickness. Their resultants
form of deformation the displacements in the must be equal to Mx and My respectively:
x, y, z directions can be found as follows:
h/2 ox z dydz = Mxdy
/
A point B on the middle surface has been -h/2
displaced to B1 by W in the z-direction, An
element of surface dzdy has rotated by an h/2
angle equal to the slope of the deflected J cry z dxdz = Mydx
middle surface in the dIrection so as to -h/2
remain normal to the middle surface. See
Fig. 3. Substituting from (4) we find:

M, = -D($+&$----o- (5 a

aaW aaW
My=-D++Uax”‘------ (W

where D = Eha
12(1-u”) = the flexural rigidity of

the plate. If besides the flexural moments M,,

My, there are uniformly distributed twisting
moments Mxy and Myx along the sides of the
Fig. 3 plate of Fig. 2a, these must be equal to the
resultant of distributed shear forces oxy, axz
This angle for small displacements is obviously along the sides of the element of Fig. 2b.
dW
equal to z . Thus the horizontal displacement
From eq. (3) we obtain:
ux in the x-direction of a point at distance z
from the middle surface 1s: = 2Gz = 2Gz ----me
OXY = oyx =Y
saw
axay (4c
ux=-Zax aw (The sign - indicates
Mxydx = / h/2 crxyz dxdz ) Myzdy =
negative displacement for positive z).
-h/2
In a similar manner we find the displacement h/2
in the y-direct ion. The complete displacement f oyxz dydz , Mxy = Myx =
system is: -h/2

ux = -zz
aW
9 uy = day,
8W
uz --w (X,Y) - - (2)
D(l+)$ - - - - - - - - - - - - (5c)

The corresponding strains are : Equations (5) give the moments per unit length
for pure bendIng and twisting of a plate.
a2w z
Ex=-ZzF=- J
A18.12 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY. IF COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS

A18.11 The Differential Equation of the Deflection Surface. aM,y aMY

--g- dxdy - ay dxdy + Qy dxdy = 0 or
To develop th e theory of small deflections
of thin plates we make one more assumption.
At the boundary of th% plate we assume that a”xy aMy
its edges are free to move in the plane of the ax - -+Qy=O
ay ---
plate.
From the moment equilibrium in the y-direction
we find:

aM,y a&
+ ax -Qx=O v-v--v-v
WC
aY

By eliminating Qx, Q from 6 a,b,c, we find

adx the equilibrium rela t 1on between the moments:
aY
a”M, a2My a2Mxy
9 2 axay = - q - - - - (7)
a? + ay2

To represent this equation in terms of the

deflections w of the plate, we make the
assumption that the expression (5) derived for
pure bending holds approximately also in the
case of laterally loaded plates, This
Fig. 4 assumption is equivalent to neglecting the
effect on bending of the shearing forces and
Thus the reactive forces at the edges due to the compressive stress +, This is an ex-
the supports are normal to the plate. With tension of the engineering theory of bending
these assumptions we can neglect any strain of beams. As in the case of beams it gives
in the middle plane during bending. good approximation for bending of plates under
transverse loads.
Let us consider, Fig.4, an element dxdy
of the middle plane, Along its edge the Introducing equation (4) into (7) we find:
moments Mx, My, Mxy are distributed. These
are the resultants of the bending and twisting a% a% a%4 q
stresses distributed linearly along the +2- ax2ay2 =
-D - - - - - - (8)
ax4 + ay4
thickness of the plate (see eqs. 4 and 5) o
If the plate is loaded by external forces
normal to the middle plane in addition to the The problem of bending of plates is thus
above moments there are vertical shearing reduced to integrating eq. (8) for w. The
corresponding shearing forces in terms of th3
forces Qx, Qy, acting on the sides of the displacements are found from eqs. 4 and 6b
element of Fig. 4.
and c:

Qx = f h/2 ~xzdr, Qy = f h/2 oyzdz -- (6)

Qx-
-- am,,
ay
aM,
+~=-D~~+ay2
a
(
a% a%
) -- - @a)
-h/2 -h/2
aMY a”xy a a% a2w
Let q be the transverse load per unit area P
acting normally to the upper face of the ‘y = ay - ax = - D$ (axa + a3) - - - (9b)
plate. Considering th e force equilibrium in
the z-direction of the element of Fig. 4 we The above analysis is sufficient to seek
find: solutions of specific problems, The general
procedure is to find approximate solution of
aQX aQY the fourth order differential equation (8)
dydx + qdxdy = 0 or = which satisfies the given boundary displacement
ax dxdy + ay
and force conditions.
aQY
ax +ay+q = 0 - - - - - (&)
aQX A18.12 Strain Energy in Pure Bending of Plates.

In evaluating the strain energy of a thin

Taking the equilibrium of the moments acting plate we shall ignore the contribution of the
in the x-direction we obtain: shear strains which are generally small for
small deflections.
 A18.13

dVx + dVy + dVxy + dVyx

v, =
dxdy

2
1
[
-Mxz-
aSW PW 2W
My aya + 2MXy axay 1 - - - 410)
Substituting Mx, My, M y in terms of the dis-
Fig. 5a placement from eqs. (57 we find:

2(1-v) -$ .+- ( a2w a

-
[ axay )I - - - - - - -
This expression will be modified later when we
will consider the superposition of compressive
loads in the plane of the plate which are
Fig. 5b related to the problem of plate buckling.

The strain energy stored 1n a plate A18.13 Bending of Rectangular Plates.

element is obtained by calculating the work
done by the moments Mxdy, and M dx on the The general differential equation for
element during bendIng. Since it he sides of bending plates was given in section C2.3
the element remain plane during bending the bq. 8). Two very useful methods of solution
work done by Mxdy is obtained by taking half have been widely used, namely, the Fourier
the product of Mxdy and the relative angle Series Method and the Energy Method. Both
of rotation of the two sides of the element. methods will be developed in the following
Since the curvature in the x-direction is for rectangular plates and various edge-
-- a2w supporting conditions, The edge support
AYQ ' the relative angle of rotation of the
conditions are classified as follows:
?PW
sides 1 and 2 of distance dx will be -xdx.
Thus the work due to Mxdy is: a) Built-in edge or Fixed: The deflection
along the built-in side is zero and the tangent
plane to the deflected middle surface is
d2W
dVx = - -$ Mx ax2 dxdy -------(a) horizontal, Thus if for instance the x-axis
coincides with the built-in edge these con-
ditions are:
Similarly the work due to Mydx is:

dVY = - + My $ tidy - - - _ - - - w (wY> = 0 = 0 pw)

ayy= 0
=o -- - -(12a)

The twisting moment Mxydy also does work b) Simply supported edge: The deflection
against rotation of the element about the along the simply-supported side is zero and the
bending moment parallel to this side is also
x-axis. The relative angle of rotation of the
zero. Thus if the plate is simply supported
two sections a2W
1, 2 is obviously--- bxay dx. Thus along the x-axis we have:
the work done by Mxydy is:
(W1y=o=O (My)y-o=($+ $)y-o = 0 - - -(12b)
--&I 2 -dx(jy - - - - - - - (c)
dVxy xy axay
c) Free edge: The bending moment,
twistI.ng moment and shear force along the free
and the work due to Myxdx = Mxydx is: side is zero. Thus if the free side coincides
with the straight line x = aL we have:
1 - PW - - - - - - -
dVyx =
2 Mxy axay
dxdy (d)
(Mx)x=a = 0 (Mxy )x=a =0 (Qx) =0
x=a
(It 1s noted that the twist does not affect
the work produced by the bending moments, However, as was proved by Kirchoff two boundary
neither the bending affect the work produced
conditions are only necessary to find a unique
by the torsional moments). solution of the bending problem. He has shown
that the two last equations of the above
Thus the total strain energy per unit conditions can be replaced by one condition.
volume of the plate is:
Ala. 14 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS

These boundary conditions are satisfied if we

(g$+ (2-u) axaya
a3w)~=a =0
take :
00 06
E%presslng the condition (Mx)xBa = 0 in terms w= i?l sin -nnY - (144
b --
of w we find the final form of the boundary m=l n=l
conditions along the free edge:
By substituting in eq, (18) with q given by
a2w a2w1 a% eq. (13) we find:
(-SF+ =o, gg+ (2-v) = 0
af x=a C axaye 1 x=a 00 00
*rn2 2 mnx
I3 2 Cmn (-+‘1-)” sin a sinb- nnY -
a b2
m=l n=l
--m----m
02c)

In the following solutions for various m7uc

edge conditions will be developed. sin - sin -nnY (lab)
a b
1. Simply supported rectangular plates
This relation is identity if:
Let a plate with sides a and b and axes
x, y, as shown in Fig. 6, be simply supported cm = amn
around the whole periphery and loaded by a m2 n22
n*D \a2+ b2/
distributed load q = f (x,y).

Two methods of solutions will be and thus:

developed:
m7oc
IL YY
w =pjj- amn sin a sin bnm
a) Navier solution by means of double m=l n=l ($ + $)2
Fourier Series:
- - - - - WC)
We can always express f (x,y) in the form
of a double trigonometric (Fourier) series: In the case of a load q. uniformly distributed
over the whole surface we have:
00 00
9 = f(x,y) = 2 Z Zimn sin F sin y -(13a) f (x,y) = q0 = const.
m=l m=l

where: amn = -$ foahb f (x,y) sinysin?dxdy amn = % /oa/ob sin y . sin y dxdy =

169,
w-----w-
-( 13b) - - - - - - (15a)
n%n

where m, n are both odd integers. If either

or both are even amn = 0 and substituting in
(14c):
169, go 00 sin- mRx sin -nw
w=yqj- 2 3 b
m=1,3,5 n=1,3,5

e---v

(15b)

with maximum deflection at the center,

Fig. 6

‘mkx = n6D 2 I: (-1) k

The boundary conditions are: m=1,3,5 n-1,3,5
W=O,Mx=O atx=O,x=a
W = 0 , My = 0 at y = 0, y = b , or:

(1) w = 0 (2) --a2w - 0 atx=O,x’=a This is a rapidly convergIng series and a

axa
satisfactory approximation is obtained by
(3) w = 0 (4) $ = 0 aty=O,y=b talking only the first term. For a square
 A18.15

plate this approximation becomes:

bax Z 4qoa4 = ooo4!34 9c84 (for U = 0.3)

CD Eh=
Fig. 7
which is by 2-l/2% is error with the exact
solution,

The expressions for bending and twisting

moments are not so quickly convergent. To
improve the solution another series solution
can be developed as follows: where for symmetry m = 1,3,5 . . l

b) Levy alternate single series solution: 1 This equation can be satisfied for all values
of x if:
The method will be developed for uniform
load q. = const. Levy suggested a solution in 32, 2m2n2 yi + m*n4 ym = 0
the form: Ym - - - - - m(lgb)
aa a*
og
W= 2 Ym (y) sin F - - - - - - - (16) The general solution of (19b) is:
m=l

where Ym is a function of y only. Each term Y-m (y) = g Am COS h Fsln h?!?!$
of the series satisfies the boundary conditions
w = 0,

determine
d2W
-=
3X"
0 a t x = a0
Ym so as to satisfy
It remains
the remaining
to + Cm sin h ?!%
a
+ h &!!?! ~0s h ??!
a a 1
two boundaryxonditions w = 0,-=daW 0 at y = b.
aYe
Since the deflection is sym?letric with
A further simplification can be made if respect to the x-axis it follows that Cm =
we take the solution in the form Dm = 0. Thus:
00
W = w1 + w2 - - - - - - - - - - - - (17a) w =- Q (x4 - 2ax3 + a’x) + qa4 2.
24D
D m=1,3,5
where
Qo
w = - (x4 - 2ax” + a”x) - - - - - (l?b) (Am COS h -mnY + em 7 sin h F) sin F
24D a

is the deflection of a very long strip with or

the long side in the x-direction loaded by a
uniform load q o supported at the short sides w=+ (L+A, cos h
x = 0, x = a, and free at the two long sides. m 7PIn”
Since (17b) satisfies the differential
equation and the boundary conditions at x = o, sin h
X = a, the problem Is solved if we find the
solution of:
where m = 1,3,5 b b . Substituting this
a%, a%, a%, expression into the bouidary conditions:
ax* +2axaaya + ay* =O ---- +b
W 0 for g = - 2 we find:
with w, In the form of (16) and satfsfying
together with w1 of eq. (17b) the boundary
+b Am COS h Um+ cm ESmsin h am +RT4 = 0
conditions w = o,-=a% 0 at y = - 2 (see
aYa - -(2la)
Fig. 7). (An+2&,) COS h Clm+Um &1 sinha, = 0

Substituting (16) into (18) we obtain: where Um = mnb/Za

(ym”- zm2nay; +rn4Y4 Ym).sin y= 0 From these equations we find:

m=l a2 a4
M m - -(19a)
Al8.16 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY F COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS

2(am tanham + 2) a-1

*m = 9 00
?rn’ COS h Um + ( l-U)qaen2 C
(Mxjmax = g (-1) 2
m=1,3,5
2 n---n-- -(Zlb
&r-l=
n6m6 cos ham 2v
ma (Am- l-2/ %I)
Thus:
m-l
00
4qa4 y (am tanham+ 2) (My)max = UT d - (l-U)qa2n2
w=- z C-1) 2
nED m=1,3,5 m6 2 cos ham m=1,3,5

cos ,2umy +
b 2 coshUm
am o2
b
sin hzamy
b 1 c) Solution
2
m’(Am+lUg”) - - - - - - - (21f

by means of the principle

TITJIX
sin a _ _ - - - - - - - _ - - _ -(21c of vIrtua1 work

From the discussion of the method (a) we

The maximum deflection occurs at the middle can represent w In double Fourier Series:
-a
x--.y=o:
2 00 m
m-l nnY
w= z 2 Cmn sin Fsin b - - - (22a)
4qa4 urn tan h am + 2 m=l n=l
Wmax = -
n6D 2 COS h am The coefficients Cmn may be considered as the
------- co-ordinate defining the deflection surface.
- (21d) A virtual displacement will have the form:
The summation of the first series of terms
corresponds to the solution of the middle of 6w = 6C,, . sin F . sin nny
b - - - - - (22b)
a uniformly loaded strip, eq. (17b). Thus :
m-l
The strain energy VI can be found by substi-
5 qa4 4qa4 2 C-1) 2
%lax = --_-
384 D tuting (22a) into eq. (6). After a few
n3D m-1,3,5 m6 algebraic manipulations we find:
am tanhUm+ 00
.
2 COS h Um
----n--- me) vi = dai’ob V,dxdy =+D 7 Z Cmn2
m=l n=l
This series converges very rapidly. Taking a 2 a
square plate, a/b = 1, we find from (2la): (
m.qa-
aa b”
- - - -
(23)

a, =-,7-r a, =
3n e.t.c. Let us now examine the deflection of the plate
2 2 of Fig. 6 with a concentrated load P at the
point with co-ordinates x =[ , y = n. The
5 qa4 increment of strain energy due to the Incre-
%ax=~~-- 4qa4 (0.68562.0.00025+ . ...)
n6D ment of the deflection by:

= 0.00406 c 6w = 6Cmn sinysln F - - - - - - (24a)

We observe that only the first term of the is found from (23)
series In (Zle) need to be taken into con-
sideratIon. n4ab a
OVl =-Can
4 (=-+
a2 5)" 0 Cmn - - - - (24b)
The bending moments are found by substi-
tuting (21~) into eqs. (5). The maximum The increment of the work of the load P Is:
bending moments at x =: , y = 0 are:
6W = P6Cmn sin% 5 sin -2
“z - - - - - - (24~)

From 6Vl - 6W = 0 we obtain:

 a a
Let us consider the case of a uniform load q@
Cmn (s+ +)’ - P sin 7md . sin nnvl
b we write the deflection in the form:
I
6q-pJ-l = 0 W = w1 + w, - - - - - - - - - - -(2&

Since 6Cmn is zbitrary its c:~eff icient must where w, is the deflection of a simply
be zero. Thus: supported strip of Icngth, a, which for the
system of axes of Fig. 8 can be written (see
-2nn
--L Levy’s method in previo-ds section):
4p sin -m71 . sin
Cmn = --- a b
4qa4 7 1
n4abD (-$-+ -$)a w, =- sin x$- ,
n 6D m=1,3,5 m6

00 00 sin 1Inn . sin 27

nn and w, is represented by the series:
W =-SE- 2 .?I a b
n*abD In=1 ;1=1 ma + n2 a
(2a 2b ) w, = 2 *m y) sin F - - - -(26c)
m=1,3,5
m7uc
. sin- . sin -nnY 424-a
a b ------- where w, being a solution of

This series converges rapidly. For a square a4~, a4~, a4W,

plate (a/b = 1): -= 0
axa + -3-Zay4 ax2ay2
4Pa” y y 1 - - - -(24e)
Wmax = nQD is found as in the previous section:
m=l n=l (ma + n2)2
qa4
By taking only the first four terms we find
Ym = D (A m COSh7mnY + Bm y sin h7mnY +

Cm sinh E+D,Fcosh %)a - -(26d)

Wmax 2 0.01121 F a

It is obvious that the two first boundary

which is 3-l/2% less than the correct value. conditions are identically satisfied by w =
w, + w, . The coefficients Am, Bm, Cm, Dm
(2)
. , Rectangular plate with two opposite
^-
edges simply supported, the third edge free must be determined so as to satisfy the last
four boundary conditions. Using the conditions
and the fourth edge built-in or simply (25b) we obtain:
supported.
4
A,=-= 9 Cm=-4n

By the conditions (25~) we find:

b

L’ Bm _ 4 . (3+U) (l-u) cos h2 h + 2U cos h& -V(l-U)B, sin h E$&l-U”)

n6m6 (3+$4(1-U) cos ha &1+ (l-V~2&le + (l+?lja
(3+1/)(1-u)slnhh ens hBm+U(l+V)slnhSn-l/il-2/)Bro cOS~~-?ll$‘~
l&=4.
nsma (3+U) (1-V)cos h*B, + (1-u)” ha + (l+v)”
j,Y Fig. 8

SubstitutTng Am, Bm, Cm and Dm 1n eq. (26d) we

Assume that the edges x = 0 and x = a are find the deflection.
simply supported, the edge y = b free and the The maximum deflection
occurs at the middle of the free edge.
edge Y = 0 built-in (Fig. 8). In such a case
the boundary conditions are: Al8.14 Combined Bending and Tension or Compression of
Thin Plates.
w=o,-----= aaW 0, for x = 0, x = a (a)
aXa
In developing the differential equations
0, for y = 0 (b) of equilibrium in previous pages, it was
- 0 assumed that the plate is bent by transverse
(25) loads normal to the plate and the deflections
= 0,
were so small that the stretching of the middle
plane can be neglected. If we consider now the
- a"W zase where only edge loads are active coplanar
ax”ay I = 0 for y = b (c)
A18.18 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY OF COL?JMNS AND THIN SHEETS

with the middle surface (Fig. 9) we have a

plane stress problem.
stresses are uniformly
If we assume that the
distributed over the
l----+-x
dx
thickness anti denote by Nx, Ny, Nxy, Nyx the aw a%->-

2’
resultant force of th%% stresses per unit dx
ax’ax2
length of linear element in the x and dW

y-directions (Fig. 9) it is obvious that:

N, = ha, 9 Ny = boy
_------0 (27
Nxy = Nyx = boxy = hayx
Fig. 1Oa

Consider an element of the middle surface

dx, dy (Fig. lOa). The conditions of force
equilibrium in the x, y-directions are given
by eq. (28). Consider now the projection of
the stresses N,, NY, Nxy in the z-direction:

(a) Projection of N,: From Fig. 10a it

follows that the resultant projection is:

- N, aY g+ (Nx+g dx)(g+gdx)

and neglecting terms of higher order:

Fig. 9

a2w + aNx
(Nx .ax aw > -----1----- (a >
Thle equations of equilibrium in the absence ax2 ax
of body forces can be written now in terms of
these generalized stresses Nx, Ny, Nxy by (b Projection of NY: By similar argument
substituting from eq. (27) to the equations we find that this projection is equal to:
of equilibrium
a2W + aNy aw
(NY ay2
ay ay ) - - - - - - - - - - - w
aN, avxy
- ay --0,ayf aNY aNxy
-g-+ ax =o----- (28

On the other hand if the plate is loaded by

transverse loads the stresses give rise to
pure bending and twisting moments only. The
equations of equilibrium for the latter have
been given in before (see eqs. 6, 7, 8). If
.dX
both transverse loads and coplanar edge loads
are acting simultaneously, then for small
vertical deflections the state of stress is
the superposition of the stresses due to
N NY9 N,y and $9 My, M,y. For large
&tlcal deflection of the plate, however,
there is interaction of the coplanar stresses
and the deflections. These stresses give rise
to a=lditional bending moments due to the non-
zero lever arm of the edge loads from the Fig. lob
deflected middle surface, as in the case of (c) Projection of Nxy and Nyx: From Fig. lob
beams 0 When the edge loads are compressive we find:
this additional moments might cause instability
and failure of the plate due to excessive aw
-+(Nxy+~~) (aw,a”w W
vertical deflections, - NXY ay ay axay

In this chapter the problem of instability and neglecting terms of higher order:
of plates will be examined,
a2W +aNxy
When the edge loads are compressive and (N
XY axay ax
. ?!t) (&dy - - - - - - - ( C1
give rise to additional bending moments eq. (8)
must be modified. Similarly we find the projection of Nyx = Nxy:
 d2W
(NXYaxay.
,!!!!!zLg)~dy
w
---I--- (d) viN = -$‘-/ (NXe; + NY&; + Nxyrow) dxdy =

Thus in eq (6a) the terms given by (a), (b), &/I (N~+N&2UNxNy+2(l+V)NXy2) - - (a)
(c) and (d should be added (divided of course
by dxdy): During bending due to transverse loads
or/and due to buckling we assume that the edge
--aQX f it% + q + PT a2w - a”W - a2W loads and consequently Nx, NY, Nxy, remain
ax ay -'X ax2 + NY ay2 + 2NXY axay + constant. Its variation is thus zero and we
do not consider 1-t in the following. Let us
apply now the transverse load that produces
bending. (We can also consider bending due to
But due to the equation of equilibrium (28) the other transverse disturbance, which is the
two terms inside the parentheses in (e) are case of buckling).__ If u, v, are the displace-
zero o Thus : merits of the middle surface due to the coplanar
loads (which are assumed constant across the
3QX +a&y+q+N a2w+
thickness) and w the bending deflection of the
ax ay x ax2 plate it can be shown that the strains are:
a2w a”w
-=() ----I--- (29) =x+au
2
NY ay2 + 2Nxy axay Ex $- (;;I
Eq. (29) replaces eq. (6a) when edge loads are - a~ + i aW 2
present. Eqs. (6b) and (6~) are, however, still 9 - ay 2 ‘%j+
valid since they exnress moment equilibrium
au av a~ a~
of the element dxdy in which the contribution &xy=ay+ax+ax.ay -----o(b)
of N,, NY, Nxy is zero. Thus eliminating Qx,
Qy between (6b), (6~) and (29) we find: Let us apply now bending with constant coplanar
stresses. Due to stretching of the middle
a% a4w a%
v”w =z+ay”+ 2----------- surface the energy is:
ax2ay2-

u (*x&x + *y&y +Nxybrxy)dxdy ---- (c>

+ (q+Nx$-+Ny-$+2Nxye) - - - - (30)
Introducing (b) into (c) and adding the strain
energy due to bending, eq. (ll), we find the
Eq. (30) replaces eq. (128) when edge loads total change of strain energy due to bending
are present and the deflections are large so
which is:
that instability might occur.

The distribution of the coplanar stresses vi = au au av

Nx,,+ * yayav + *xy &-- + ax dxdy +
.lY- [ )I
*x9 Ny., *xy can be found from eqs. (28) by
solving the plane stress problem. In the
following the above theory will be applied to + j-1 [NX (,“+Ny (~)2+2NXy~.$#xdy+
rectangular plates.
+)// ($+$)2-
A18.15 Strain Energy of Plates Due to Edge
Compression and Bending.

The energy expression for pure bending,

2(1-u)
[
$.$- ($f
)I dxdy - - (d)

eq. (ll), must be complemented to include the Here u, v are the additional coplanar displace-
contribution of the edge coplanar loads. ments after bending has started. It can be
Assume that first the edge loads are applied. shown by integrating by parts that the first
Obviously the strains due to the stresses integral is the work done during bending by the
N,, NY, Nxy are: edge loads. For instance taking a rectangular
plate this integral becomes:
1 (N +Ny), F; =j--g
4 =-hE 1 (*y +*X)9 au av au av
x FJXax’* y -+*xy
aY cay+= )I dxdy =

if0X Y = Nxyhc ------------ 431)

*xyvl”d ) dy +/,” (I*yv/; + I*xyu(+-

The strain energy is: aNxN\ +v(aNs.aN,,) - - (e 1

w ay ax
Obviously the first two integrals represent buckled configuration (deflections different
the work done by the edge loads while the from zero) is possible. It was found in the
second integral is zero due to the equilibrium case of column that this latter solution
equations (28). Thus the work of the edge (Euler’s solution) approaches asymptotically
loads is: the first at the limit where the deflections
become extremely large but for even small
au av deflections the edge load acquires a value
w)J = N &.,
* ax
a’
y ay +Nxy cay+= )I dxdy- - (f)
very near the Euler’s
latter technique
critical
is mathematically
value.
more
The

W? assume now that for small deflections convenient and it gives for plates also a very
the stretching of the middle surface of the good estimate of their compressive strength.
plate is negligible0 (This is the so-called In the following we shall use this latter
inextensional theory of plates). In this case approach by assuming a plate vYith edge loads
by zeroing the strains in eq, (b) and substi- and no transverse load. Eq. (30) becomes in
tuting in (f) we find: this case:

1 a4w+ 3 a% a4w 1 a2w a2;4i a2w

Nx (2) 2 + NY ($)2 + 2Nxy g. g]dxdl --ay4 - -(Nx,xz+Ny2+2N xY -axay .>
\)JN = - 2 /f
3X4 cJ ax23yB D ay
-w-e----

(32a) - - .:,. - - - - - (33)

In the strain energy expression, eq, (a) By solving eqO (33) we will find that the
the fi 3-t t!m Lcixr-msCZJ-X~~ each other and the assumed buckling made is possible (w # 0) for
strain energy is due only to bendlng: certain definite values of the edge loads, the
smallest of which determines the critical load.
a2w 3% The energy method can also be used in investi-
vi = 2%-I/
t (ax”+ay”)z- gating buckling problems. In this method we
assume that the plate is initially under the
z(L-3) $g.$- a% 2
(axay .\1 dxdy - - (32b) plane stress conditions due to the edge loads
[ and the stress distribution is assumed as known.
In the absence of transverse loads the work We then consider the buckled state as a possible
of exterrztl forces is simply due to the edge configuration of equilibrium. The change of the
loads: work is given by eq, (32a). We interpret here
w as a virtual displacement though we do not use
the variation symbol 6, Thus the increment of
W =wl\J _- _____--- ----(32c)
work 6W is given by (32a) and the increment of
Expressions (32b) and (c) will be used in strain energy 6Vi is given by eq. (32b). If
solving the buckling problem by rneans of the 6!+6Vi for every possible shape of buckling the
principle of virtual work. flat equilibrium is stable. If 6W=6Vi for a
certain shape of buckling then the flat con-
Al8.16 Buckling of Rectangular Plates with Various Edge figuration is unstable and the plate ~111 buckle
Loads and Support Conditions. under any load above the critical load. If
6W = WI, the equilibrium is neutral and from
General discussion this equation we find the critical load. The
critical load therefo:>e is found from the
equation:
In calculating critical values of edge
loads for which the flat form of equilibrium
becomes unstable and the plate begl.ns to
buckle, the same methods and corresponding
reasonings as for compressed bars will be $$+$-$)2 - 2(1-V) [$ .$$- ($&-) j)dxdy
employed o

The critical values can be obtained by

-a------

(34)
assuming that the plate has a slight initial
curvature or a small transverse load. These Here w is a certain assumed deflection which
satisfies the boundary conditions (virtual
values of the edge loads for which the lateral deflection).
deflection w becomes infinite are the critical
values (see Part 1 for similar treatment in
A18.17 Buckling of Simply Supported Rectangular Plates
columns). Uniformly Compressed in One Direction.
Another way of investigating such Let a plate of sides a and b (Fig. 11)
instability is to assume that the plate buckles simply supported around its periphery be com-
due to a certain external disturbance and then pressed by load Nx uniformly distributed
to calculate the edge 1mds for which such a along the sides x = o and x = a. From the
 Al8.21

a + c + e + ...OO..O
-------

This fraction has some intermediate value

between the maximum and the minimum of the
fractions (a). It follows that if we wish to
make the fraction (b), which is si_milar to the
fraction of eq, 35d, a minimum, w2 must take
Fig. 11
only one term in the numerator and the corres-
ponding term in the denominator, Thus to Rake
obvious solution of the corresponding plane the fraction of eq. (35d) minimum, we must put
stress problem we find that the state of all t.he parameters C,, , C,. 9 Czl . . . . except
stress 1s every-&x-e (a..simple compression one, zero O This is equivalent to assuming that
equal to Nx ( the load at the periphery). the bucklinE configuration is of simple
sinusoidal form in both directions, i.e.
The deflection surface of a simply mnx nnY
Wmn = Cmn sin a . sin - . The minimum
supported plate when bending takes place have b
been found previously (see eq. 14a). Its expression for Cmn obtaIned by dropping all the
general expression can be written in a double terms except Cmn becomes:
series form:
n2a2D m2
M 00 “x=T(p+$)2

I
a------
(35e
w= z 2 Cmn sin y . sin- nnY - - - (35a
b
m=l n=l It is obvious that the smallest value of N, is
The increment of strain energy found by obtained by taking n = 1, This means that the
plate buckles always in such a way that there
substituting (35a) in the right-hand side of can be several half-waves in the direction of
(34) is: compression but only are half-wave in the
perpendicular direction. Thus for n = 1, eq.
n4 ab
6vi =- 8 DY (35b (35e) becomes:
m=l
(Nx)cr ZJZ% (m +i$)2 - - - - - -
The increment of work done by the external
forces is found by substituting (35a) into the
left-hand side of eq. (34) and Nx = const, The value of m (in other words the number of
NX = Nxy = 0, Thus : half-waves) Iwhich makes this critical value
the smallest possible depends on the ratio
a/b and can be found as follows:
6w = + Nx da6 b ($$%xdy =
00 Let us express (36a) in the form:
n2b 2 m2 Clnn2 - - - - - - (35c
8aN
m=l n=l
(Nx >cr z&$- -_- (36b
From the equality 6W = 6vi, solving for N,, we
obtain: where k is a numerical factor depending on (t)
From (36a) and (36b) we have:
00 00

n2a2D Z
m=l n=l k =-$- (m + fb,” - - - - - - -- - (36~)
N-v
A = --- (35d)
00

;I: 2 m2 Cmn2
m=l n=l If we plot k against $ for various values of the
integer m = 1, 2, 3, . . . . . we obtain the curves
Here Cmn is arbitrary. We are Interested, of Fig. (12). From these curves the critical
however, to find that values of Cmn which make load factor k and the corresponding number of
N, minimum. To that effect we use the follow- half-waves can readily be determined. It is
ing mathematical reasoning: only necessary to take the corresponding point
(t) as the axis of abcissas and to choose that
Imagine a series of fractions:
curve which gives the smallest k. In Fig. 12
a c e the portion of the various curves which give
-ppf,.....o.. ------- b the critical values of k are shown by full
lines. The transition from m to (m + 1) half-
If we add the numerators and the denominators waves occurs at the intersection of the two
we obtain the fraction: corresponding lines. From eq. (36~) we find:
Al& 22 THEORY OF THE INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS AND THIN SHEETS

I I
I I I
I I I
I I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I vY Fig. 13
- /.
0 II/-z 2fim4 5
m2n2 n2n2 m2n2 + n2n2 2
Fig. 12 MXT +Ny~=D(az - b2) - (37a)

a+ a =h+l)b+ a or:
and by introducing the parameter:
a mb a (m+l)b
oe=-& n2D ----.------- - (37b)
(36d)
We obtain:
Thus th$ transition from one to two half-waves 2 2
2 a
oxm2+oyn y=CJe
b (m2+n2-+)2 - - (37c)

Taking any integer m and n the corresponding

deflection surface of the buckled plate is given
from two to three for by:
m7u[
Wmn = Cm sin -.sin-
a nnY ----
b (38)

and the corresponding ox, ay are given by (37~)

. . . ..o.ce... and so on. which is a straight line in the diagram oy, c~x
(Fig. 14) 0 By plotting such lines for various
The number of half-waves increases with the pairs of m and n we find the region of stability
ratio a/b and for very long plates m is very and the critical combination of ox, ay which is
large. on the periphery of the polygon formed by the
full lines of Fig. 14.
a
-wrn
b

This means that a very long plate buckles in

half-waves the lengths of which approach the
width of thle plate. The buckled plate is
subdivided into squares,

The crItica value of the compression

stress is:

axv = - ocr = krr2E t2 - I - - (36e)

h 12( 1-v2) l b2
(t = thickness) Fig. 14

A18.18 Buckling of Simply Supported Rectangular Plate A18.19 Buckling of Simply Supported Rectangular Plate
Compressed in Two Perpendicular Directions. Under Combined Bending and Compression.

Let (Fig. 13) Nx, Ny the uniformly distri- Let us consider a simply supported
buted edge compressions. Using the same as rectangular plate (Fig. l5). Along the sides
before expression for the deflections (eq. 35a) X = 0, x = a there are linearly distributed
and applying the energy equation (33) with edge loads given by the equation:
N NY = constants (which is the solution of
t”hi corresponding plane stress problem) we find N, = No (1 - A%) - - - - - - - - - (39a)
 _ i-___--
.I-

A18.23

which is a combination of pure bending and We examine for each value of m th$ solutions of
pure compression. Let us take the deflection the system (38f). Starting from m = 1 and
again in the form: denoting:

w= 2 qr = -(No)w - - - - - - - D - - (3gg)
m=l h

we obtain from (39f):

a” h
(l+n2$-)-=0Crfi (1-A)
2 1 -

\ q2h 00 Clini
8Xacr x 2i (n2-j2)2- - - - - - - - (39h)

These are homogeneous equations in all, a,, . . .

Y etc. The system possesses a non-zero solution
Fig. 15 (which indicates the possibility of buckling of
the plate) if the determinant of eq. (39h) is
zero. From this condition an equation is
Substituting in the right-hand side of
eq. (34) we find the variation of strain obtained for ocr. Obviously the system (39h)
energy: is of infinite number of equations (n = 1, 2,
3 e.. ). A sufficient approximation is
obtained by taking a large but finite number
Avi = D qyyCmn2($+$)2 - - - - - (39c) of terms and find the solution of the finite
determinant (using for example digital
Iwhile the increment of work is: computers ) o Thus a curve of CJcr versus a/b is
obtained for m = 1 like that of Fig. 12,
Repeating the same calculation for m = 2, 3 . . 0
AW = $- dad” No (1 -A$) ($)2 dxdy = etc., we find similar curves of two, three, etc.
half-wave lengths. The regions of the curves
with minimum ordinates define the region of
A
-+Y man2
stability as in Fig. (12).
aa
m=l

n2 n=l
O” Cmn Cmi ni
2 -
i=l (n2-ia)2
--(39d
> Al8.20 Inelastic Buckling

The problem of the inelastic

thin sheets has been extensively
of Thin Sheets

buckling
studied by
of

Equating (39c) and (39d) and solving for No various authors. The main difficulty in such
we find: studies is in reference to the stress-strain
relations of plasticity under complex states
of stress. Many controversial discussions
(yJ,,” = have appeared in literature without resolving
bI

O” 32 Grin l Cmini the theoretical difficulties, For this reason

Z Cmn"-p 22 we will not develop the theory of inelastic
n=l (n2-i2)z I
buckling in this chapter. Some of the better
(I) - - 0
references on this subject are listed below.
We 1

The coefficients now C,, are so adjusted that Chapter C4 presents the plasticity
correction factors to use in calculating the
(No)cr becomes minimum. By taking the inelastic buckling strength of thin sheets.
derivative of expression (38e) with respect
to each coefficient Cmn and equating these to Al8.21 References.
zero we find:

m"TI" 11) Bleich, F: Buckling Strength of Metal

- ---X man2 Structures. Book by McGraw-Hill.
a” 2 a2

-----
(2) Stowell, E.Z., A Unified Theory of Plastic
Buckling of Columns and Plates. NACA

n2
16 O”
- - 24 Cmi ni
1 (n2-i2)2
- - (39f)
(3)
Report 898, 1948.
Gerard and Becker:
Stability.
Handbook of Structural
NACA T.N. 3781, 1957.
(4) Gerard: Introduction to Structural
Stability Theory. Book by McGraw-Hill
co., 1962.
 PART 3
STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WITH STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS
(BY PROFESSOR E. F. BRIJHN)

A18.22 Methods of Column Failure. Column Equations. The range AB in Fig. 16 is for a range
of L/p values of below 20 to 25, and repre-
In Part 1, the theory of the elastic and sents a range where failure is due to plastic
inelastic instability of the column was pre- crushing of the column. In other words, the
seI;ted 0 The equations from Part 1 for a pin column 1s too short to buckle or bow under
end support condition are:- end load but crushes under the high stresses.
This column range of stresses is usually
For elastic primary failure, referred to as the block compression strength.

n”E ------MB---- A column, however, may fail by local

Fc = - (1) buckling or crippling due to distortion of
(L/p >” the column cross-section in its own plane.
For inelastic primary failure, The horizontal dashed line in Fig. 16
represents the condition where the primary
column strength is limited by the local weak-
#Et
F, = -(L,p)a - ----- ------ ness. This line moves up or down according
(2)
to the value of the local weakness. The
determination of the column strength when
Where F, = compressive unit stress at failure is due to local weakness is covered
failure = P/A stress. in volume 2,
E = Young’s modulus
A18.23 Column End Restraint. Fixity Coefficients.
Et = tangent modulus Column Effe ctive Length
L = column length
The column strength is influenced by the
P = radius of gyration of cross- end support restraint against rotation and by
section any lateral supports between the column ends.
The letter c is commonly used to indicate the
Fig. 16 shows a typical plot of Fc versus end fixity coefficient, and C = 1.0 for zero
L/p ’ If the column dimensions are such as to end restraint against rotation, which can be
cause it to fail in range CD in Fig. 16, the produced mechanically by a pin or ball and
primary failure is due to elastic instability socket end support fitting. Thus including
and equation (1) holds. This range of L/p the end restraint effect equations (1) and (2)
values is often referred to by engineers as the can be written,
long column range.

A B C D F, = - cn” E ,Q+neEt m-_-w (3)

I I I I (L/p Y (L/p 1”

~~ Local Crippling Limit Let.L’ = effective length of the column

which equals the length between inflection
points of the deflected column under load.

Then L’ = L/&-- - - - - - - - - I - (4)

Thus equation (3) can be written as,

T?E , F, = naEt - - - (5)

Fig. 16 F, = -
(L’/(dB W/pY
The range BC represents the range of L/p
If we let P = failing or critical load,
values where failure is due to inelastic in-
stability of the column as a whole and equation equation (5) can be written as equation (6)
by realizing that P = F,A and p = dm
(2) applies D This range BC is often referred
to as the short column range. naEI naE+I
p=,, , p=-+ ------(6)
CL > b >
 AH. 26 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WI: H STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig, 17 shows the deflected column curve TABLE A18.1

under the load P for various end and lateral 17-7 PH(TH1050) Stainless Steel Sheet
support conditions. The effective lengths L’ Ftu = 180,000
and the end fixity coefficients are also listed. E = 29 x lo8
FCY = 162,000

20,000 x lo8 119.56

-;.~:~l~~~~~~~
29
30,000 29 x lo* 97.62
40,000 29 x 10 6 84. 54
50,000 29 x 10 f3 75.62
60,000 29 x 10 8 69.03
70,000 29 x 10 6 63.91

t
80,000 29 x 10 6 59.78
89,600 29 x 10 8 56.49
96,000 27.55 x 10 es 53.19
102,000 26.10 x 10 6 50.22
107,400 24.65x 10 g 47. 57
tP tP t P tP 112,200 23.20 x 10 6 45.15
P I? 42.81
117,000 21.75 x 10 6
C=l c=4 c=9 c=4 c=1/4 c=2.05 121,500 20.30 x 10 6 40.58
125,800 18.85 x 10 6 38.43
Fig. 17 130,000 17.40 x 10 6 36.32
134,000 15.95 x 10 6 34.25
A18.24 Design Column Curves for Various Materials. 137,700 14.50 x 10 6 32.22
147,000 11.60 x 10 6 27.89
For routine design purposes it is con- 158,100 8.70 x 10 6 23.29
venient to have column curves of allowable 167,600 5.80 x 10 6 18.47
173,800 2.90 x 10 6 12.82
failing column stress Fc versus the effective
slenderness ratio L’/p. In equation (5) we
will assume values of F,, then find the *Values of Et calculated from stress-strain
tangent modulus Et corresponding to this diagram for this material.
stress and then solve for the term L’ /p.
Table A18J shows the calculations for
17.7 PH (TH1050) stainless steel sheet at 180
room temperature. The results are then plotted
in Fig. 18 to give the column strength curve.
Similar data was calculated for the material
160
under certain exposure time to different
elevated temperatures and the results are also
plotted in Fig. 18. Figs, 19 to 22 give
column curves for other materials under various
temperature cond1Mons.

120
A18.25 Selection of Materials for Elevated Temperature
Conditions.
110

Light weight is an important requirement 100

in aerospace structural design. For columns
that fail in the inelastic range of stresses, k” 90
a comparison of the Fey/w ratio of materials
gives a fairly good picture of the efficiency
of compression members when subjected to
elevated temperature conditions. In this
ratio Fey is the yield stress at the particular
temperature and w is the weight per cu. inch
of the material. Fig. 23 shows a plot of
F, /w for temperature ranges up to 6000 F. 40

wi t h l/2 hour time exposure for several im- 30

portant aerospace materials a

Fig.
20

A18.26 Example Problem.

PROBLEM
24 shows a forged (I) section mem- Fig. 18
ber 30 inches long, which is to be used as
 :

170 R. T. * :
I(

?0?8wT6 Abm. Alloy Hand Forging

160 tr 6.OIn.
17-4 PH Stainless Steel Temp. Exp, = l/2 HR.
150 (l3are & FoPgiilgs) Fb t 67000
Temp. Exg. ug to l/2 HR.
Fhr = 180000 Fey = 50000
140 Fey = 165000

130

80

,
ann*m

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L’/Q

Fig. 20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 '70 80 90 100
L'/P

Fig. 19

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
L’/P
L'/P
Fig. 21 Fig. 22

Values of Fc in KSI. The horizontal dashed line is the compressive yield stress. Values
above these cut-off lines should be substantiated by tests.
 Fig. 23 Solution:
(1) AISI Steel, Ftu = 180,000
Since the column may fail by bending about
(2) 1%7PH. Stainless Steel, Ftu= 210,000 either the X or Y axes, the column strength for
(3) 70’75-76 Alum. Alloy bending about each of these axes will be calqu-
(4) AZ3lB Magnesium Alloy lated. Since the column strength is a function
of the radius of gyration of the cross-sectlor,
(5) 6AI,-4V Titanium Alloy the first step in the solution will be the cal-
culation of I, and Iy, from whichp, and py r:an
be found.
800
Calculating Ix: In Fig0 25 the sectJon will
700 be first considered a solid rectangle 2.5 x
2.75 and then the properties of portions (1)
600 and (2) will be subtracted.
0
1
5&& 500 Ix (rectangle) = ox 2.5 x 2.753 = 4.32

3 Portions (1) and (2)

k 400
ic 1
Ix = -lTx1.5x1.25B- 4( .625 x .25 x 1.292’) =
300 -1.29

200 (1o of (2) about its x centroldal axis is

negligible)

Ix = 4.32 - 1.29 = 3.03 1n.4

IO0 200 300 400 500 600

TEMP. OF Px = = 2.5x2.75-2x.75x1.25-
A
4x .25x.625) = 4.375 sq.
a compression member. Find the ultimate in.
strength of the member if made from the
px = d 3.03/4.375 = .83 in.
following materials and subjected to the given
temperature and time conditions.
Calculation of Iy:
Case 1. Material 7079-T6 Alum, Alloy hand
forging and room temperature. Iy (solid) = & x 2.75 x 2.5’ = 3.58

Case 2. Same as Case 1, but subjected l/2 Portion (1) = -(1.25x.75x.875’)2 -(1.25x
hour to a temperature of 300°F. .75”/12)2 = - 1.52

Case 3. Same as Case 2, but for 6000F. PortIon (2) = -(.25x .625x.833=)4-4(.25x
1.25’/36) = - .488
Case 4, Naterlal 17-4 PH stainless steel,
hand forging at room temperature. IY = 3.58 - 1.52 - .488 = 1.58 in.4

Fig. 24 py = I/ 1.58/4.375 = .60”

Column strength is considerably influenced

by the end restraint conditions. For failure
by bending about the x-x axis, the end restraint
against rotation is zero as the single fitting
bolt has an ax1s parallel to the x-x axis and
thus c the fixity coefficient is 1. For
failure by bending about the y-y axis we have
end restraint which will depend on the rigidity
of the bolt and the adjacent fitting and
structure. For this example problem, this
-x restraint will be such as to make the end
fixity coefficient c = 1.5.

Fig. 25
 Ala.29

For failure about x-x axis, these end conditions depend on the type of end
fitting or connection to the adjacent structure.
L’ = L/c= 3O,‘v’-i= 30, L’/pX = 30,‘.83 ?urthermore, to save weight columns are often
tapered in cross-section, that is, a variable
= 36
noment of inertia along the column length,
For faSlure about y-y axis, these equations (1) and (2) which assure con-
stant moment of inertia do not apply, Since
L’ = 30/m= 2406, L’/py = 24.6/.60 elevated temperature conditions effect the
= 41 strength of a material, the column strength of
a structural member is likewise influenced.
The,efore failure Is critical for bendlng (See Figs. 26, 27, 28).
about y-y axis, with L’/p = 41.
Since this Volume 1 is concerned primarily
Case 1. The matcrlal is 707%T6 Alan. Alloy Nlth stress and straln analysis of structure,
hand forging. Fig. 20 gives the failing the subject of column strength is or.ly slightly
stress Fc for this material plotted against considered or presented. However, Volume 2,
the L’/p ratio. Thus using L’/p q 41 and the which deals primarily with materials and
room temperature curve, we read Fc = 50500 psi. strength analysis and design of structure,
Thus the falling load if P = FcA = 50500 x presents a very complete and broad coverage of
4.375 = 220,000 lbs. column design, involving over 180 pages of
theory, design charts and many samvle design
Case 2. Using the 3000F curv? in Fig. 20 problems.
for the same L’/p value, inie read Fc = 40,400,
and thus P = 40,400 x 4.375 = 177,000. A18.28 Some Mechtical and Physical Properties of a
Few Typical Aircraft Materials.
Case 3. Usins the 600°F curve, Fc reads 6100
and thus P = 6100 x 4.375 = 26700 lbs. Thus In order to d etermine the true deflect ions
subjecting this member to a temperature of or distortions df structures under a given load
600°F for l/2 hour reduces its stren@h from system, the values of the stiffness properties
Z:O,OJO to 26,700 lbs., which means that of the material used in the structure must be
Al,~cn. Alloy is a poor material for carrying known. Chapters A7 and A8 Involve the deflec-
loads under such temperatures sl.nce the tions of Ftructures, thus the value of (E),
reduction in strength is quite large. modulus of elasticity and (G), modulus of rl-
gldity must be known if true deflsctions are
&::&I., ‘cc. Ysterial 17-4 PH stainless steel to be wanted. Table A18.2 gives these stlff-
1’rfI-pi l;!<. E’ig. 19 gives the collurm curves ness vallles for a few common aircraft structur-
for this mterial. For L’/p = 41 and using al materials and also several other stren@ii
th= room temperature carve we read Fc = properties.
135,200 and thus P = 135,200 x 4.375 =
591,000 lhs. When a material is subjected to elevated
temperatures for various periods of time, the
A18.27 Comprehensive Treatment of Column Strength. strength and Ftiffness properties are cc.jn-
slderably influenced as illustrated in Figs.
Columns with st?hle cross-sections fail as 2.(-ito 28
, , w:lich have been taken from Volume 2.
d:s:cribed in Art. A18.22. However, compression
members having open sections such as angle, For a comprehensive treatment of the tc-
channel and zee shag,?s, often fail by twisting havior of aircraft materials and their mechani-
or by local buckling or crippling of one or cal and physical properties, the reader is re-
more of the elements that make up the shape of ferred to Chapter Bl and B2 of Volume 2, where
the cross-section. Furthermore, the end fixity over 50 pages are devoted to this important
condition influences the column strength and subject.
A18.30 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WITH STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

Temperature, F

Fig. 27. Effect of temperature on Ftu, Ft and

E of 6Al-4V annealed titanium al Toy
(sheet and bar)

Temperature, F

Fig. 26. Effect of Temperature on Ftu, Fty

and E of AISI alloy steel

TABLE A18.2

!
Material Symbol

AISI Alloy Steel

AISI Steel - Heat Tr.
Stainless Steel
Aluminum Alloy
Aluminum Alloy
Magnesium Alloy AZ3lB Sheet 32 15 6. 5
Titanium Alloy 6Al-4V Sheet 130 120 16 n
1 1 I I ~-.-

Inconel Steel X Sheet 155 100 31.0

Ftu = Ultimate Tensil Str. Fty = Yield Tensile Sk-.

E = Modulus of Elasticity. G = Modulus of Rigidity.
 Al8.31

EFFECTOFTEMPERATUREON7075ALUMINUMALLOYS

0 loo 200 300 400 500 600 700 600 P 80

Temperature, F
c
E 60
Effect of exposure at elevated temper- If
‘5 40
atures on the room-temperature tensile
yield strength (Fty) of 7075-T6 alumi- L-g

= 20
num alloy (all products). 3

tf 0
300 400 500 0 loo xx) 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature, F Temperature, F

‘Effect of temperature on the ultimate Effect of temperature on the bearing

tensile strength (FtU) of 7075-T6 yield strength (Fbry) of 7075-T6
aluminum alloy (all products). aluminum alloy (all products).

Temperature, F

Effect of temperature on the compres-

sive yield strength (Fey) of 7075-T6
aluminum alloy (all products).

bC)o -400 0 200 400 600

Temperature, F

Effect of temperature on the tensile Effect of temperature on the tensile

yield strength (Fty) of 7075-T6 alumi- and compressive modulus (E and EC)
num alloy (all products). of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy.

EWOS!lre up to 10,000 hr
300 400 500 600
Temperoture, F

Effect of temperature on the ultimate

shear strength (F,,) of 7075-T6
aluminum alloy (all products).

Temperature, F Temperature, F

Effect of exposure at elevated temper- Effect of exposure at elevated temper-

atures on the room-temperature atures on the elongation of 7075-T6
ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) of 7075- aluminum alloy (all products except
T6 aluminum alloy (all products). thick extrusions).

300 400 500

Temperature, F
Fig. 28
Effect of temperature on the ultimate
bearing strength (Fbru) of 7075-T6
aluminum alloy (all products).
 CHAPTER A17
INTRODUCTION TO WING STRESS ANALYSIS

A19.1 Typical Wing Structural Arrangement relatively thin. In general the wing structural
flange arrangement can be classified into two
For aerodynamic reasons, the wlno: cross- types; (1) the concentrated flange type where
section must have a streamlined shape commonly flange material is connected directly to in-
referred to as an airfoil section. The aero-
ternal webs and (2) the distributed flange type
dynamic forces in flight change in magnitude, where stringers are attached to skin between
direction and lOCatiOn. Likewise in the various
internal webs e
landing onerations the loads change in magni-
tude, direction and location, thus the required Fig. A9.3 shows several structural arran-e-
structure must be one that can efficiently ments for wing cro ss-sections for supersonic
resist loads causing combined tension, com- aircraft. Supersonic airfoil shapes are
pression, bending and torsion. To provide
relatively thin compared to subsonic aircraft.
torsional resistance, a portion of the airfoil
surface can be covered with a metal skin and
then adding one or more internal metal webs to Distributed Flange Type of Wing Beam.
produce a single closed cell or a multiple cell
wing cross-section.
which is relatively
is efficient
The external skin surface
thln for subsonic alrcraft
for resisting torsional shear
Fig*
d m------7
stresses and tension, but quite inefficient in
resisting compressive stresses due to bending
of wing. To provide strength efficiency, span-
wise stiffenlng units commonly referred to as
flange stringers are attached to the inside of
the surface skin. To hold the skin surface to
airfoil shape and to provide a medium for
transferring surface air pressures to the
cellular beam structure, chordwise farmers and
ribs are added. To transfer large concentrated
loads Into the cellular beam structure, heavy Fig. f c;I;-----]
ribs, commonly referred to as bulkheads, are
used.

Figs. A19.1 and A19.2 illustrate typlcal

structural arrangements of wing cross-sections
for subsonic aircraft. The surface skin is

Concentrated
Fig. A19.1
Flange Type of Wlng Beam.
Fig.
‘;I
Dashed line represents secondary structure. In Fig. A19.2 Common Types of Wing Beam Flange
many cases this portion is fabric covered. Arrangement.
A19.1
A19.2 ANALYSIS OF WING STRUCTURES

ment (Fig. A19.2), a portion of the covering on

the compression side is made effective since it
is attached to closely spaced stringers or ccrru-
gations. However, the f lani:e stringers be’cween
cell webs are supported only at rib or bulkhead
points and thus suffer column action normal to
the cell covering. This factor reduces the
flank;e allowable compressive stresses since it
Fir. j is not practical to space wing ribs less than
12 to 18 times the flange stringer depth. Thus,
if there were no other controlling factors, one
could easily make calculations to determlne
which of the above would prov.: lightest. In
Keneral, if the torsional forces on the ‘:;ing
FI -: . k are small, thus requiring only a thin co7Jerin;:,
the concentrated flange t-pe of vIlnr structure
should prove the 1io:hteet.

In general, the flange material should be

placed to cive the largest mom?nt of inertia in
F i ,-.. 1 the Z direction, which means in general that the
Plan-e material should be placed bctNeen the 15
and 50 per cent of win? chord from the leading
edw -
Fig.Al9. 3 lirly SI-ctions - Su;~ersonic Ai rcraft The secondary or dlstrihutine structure aft
I
of the structural box beam should be made as
In a cant i lf:ver win v, “, the \vinrP
V! bending
li!;ht as possible and thus in general the farther
moments ” c c r‘d
r‘d -As i: :‘<?*
:‘3 ppij d!.:;
d1.i. Ic:
sparM::e from the
forward the rear closing web of the box beam, the
maximum values at the 31sela:c ~1
sllp?ort Tloints.
1iF:hter the wing structure as a whole.
Thus t-lick skin ConstrUction must ho ranidly
UJ ~-aii~ury I
tapered to thin skin :or woi<Qt efficiency, but In the layout of the main spanwlse flange
thinner skin decre?ses allowable compr~~sslve members bends or changes In direction should be
strrisses. To promote bettor ef<iciency sand-
wich constr-uction can bc used in outer portion avoided as added weight is required in splicing
or In transverse stiffeners which are necessary
of wing (Fir. 1). A llzht weight sand:vich core
to change the direction of the load in the flange
is ?lu?d
I1 to thin skin an-! thus the thin -kin is
cagxble of resist ini: hi -ii compra~ti c-c 1.,,rp, Bt r ,‘:T,.?e s mnmbers. If flanf:e members must be spliced, cart
should he taken not to splice them in the region
since the Core preT:cnts sheet froln huzkli!iK. Furthermore, in
of a maximum cross-section.
A19. 2 Some Factors Which Influence Wing Structural general, the smaller the number of fitting:;, the
Arrangements lighter the structure.

(1) Light Weight: (2) Wing-Fuselage Attachment:

The structural de~ii;ns;’ always st,rives f’or If the airplanc is of the lobv wing or the
t‘:;2 ,*:lnimum waiCht Iwhich is i?rnct,ic?l from .a high wins type, the sntire win;C strixcturc can
2:,3?1ction aci Cost st:induoint. The hi-.hrr the continue in the way of the airplane body. Hoii-
ultimate allowable stresses, the lighter the ever, in the mid-wing type or semi-lo;v wing
structures e Thz concentrated fInnire type of type, limitations may prevent extending the
,ving structures as illustrated Fip. (a, b and c) entire win2 through the fuselage, and so:.e Of
Of Fis. Xl?.1 permits high allowable compressive the shear webs as well as the wing covering
flange stresses since the flano;e members are must be terminated at the side of the fuselage.
stabilized by both ;yeb and coverin? sheet, thus If a distributed flange type of cell structure
climinstin< colr;mn action, which permits design were used, the axial load in the flange strin?-
stresses agyrap.chin- the: crip:!linc stress of the ers would have to be transferred to the members
f 1 ‘3~1y3 :y..?m’s,zr s ~ Since the flan,:e members are extendin? through the fuselage. TO prz-;i5e Z’CI
few ir, numbsr, the size or thickness required is this transfer of large loads requires structural
relatively large, thus ,:iving n high Cri93ling weisht and thus a concentrated flr,nge type of
stress. On the other hand, this type of design box structure might prove the best type of
ezes nst devslop the effectiveness of the metal structure.
co;*?rin; on the comprersivc side, which must be
balanced a:;alnst the savin, cp In the weight of the (3) Cut-outs in Wing Surface:
f l::n::e members. The ideal arrangement where continuity of
structure is maintained over the entire surface
In the distributed type of flan-e arrange-
 A19.3

of the structural box Is seldom obtained in ac- the lower side of the wLng. They are usually
tual airplane design due to cut-outs In the fastened to two spanwise stringers with screws
wing surface for such items as retractable and the re.movable panels are effective in re-
landing gears, mail compartments and bomb and sisting bending and shear load. (See Fig.Al9.5)

c
gun bays. If the distributed flange type of
box beam is usad, they are interrupted at each 2 z 2 z
cut-out, which requires that means must be
provlded for drifting the flange loads around
Removable panel for
the opening, an arrangement which adds weight Fig. A19. 5 assembly and inspection
because conservative overlapping assumptions purposes.
are usually made in the stress analysis. The
additional structure and riveting to provide
for the transfer of flange load around large
openings adds considerably to the production
cost. Cutouts in the wing structural box destroys
the continuity of the torslonal rcsist:ince oi
For landing gears as well as many other the cell and thus special consideration must be
Installations, the win$; cut-outs are confined tc given to carrying torsional forces around the
the lo;yer surface, thus a structural arrangement cut-out. This special problem is discussed
as illustrated in Fig. A19.4 is quite common. later.
The upper surface is of the distributed flange
type whereas the lower flange material Is con- (4) Folding- Wings:
centrated at the t)wo lower corners of the box.
In the normal flyiny: conditions, the lower sur- For certain airplanes, particul.arly Carrier
face Is in tension and thus cell sheet covering based Naval aIrplanes, it is necessary that pro-
between the cut-outs is equally effective in vision be made to fold the outer w1ny panels up-
bending if shear lag influence is discounted. ward. This dictates dofinite hinge points be-
For negative accelerated flyin;: conditions, the tween the outer and center wing panels. If a
lower surface Is In compression thus sheet cov- distributed flange type of structure is used,
ering between corner flanges would be ineffec- the flange forces must be gathered and trans-
tive in bending. However, since the load fac- ferred to the flttin? points, thus a compromise
tors in these flight conditions are approximate- solution consisting of a small number of span-
ly one half the normal flight load factors, this wlse members is common practice.
Ineffectiveness of the lower sheet in bending is
(5) Wing Flutter Prevention:
usually not critical.
With the high speeds now obtained by modern
Cut-outs likewise destroy the continuity of airplanes, careful attention to wing flutter
intennodiate Interior shear webs of such prevention must be given in the structural lay-
sections as illustrated In Figs. (c and i), and out and design of the wing. In general, the
the shear load in these interrupted webs must critical flutter speed depends to a great ex-
be transferred around the opening by special tent on the torsional rigidity of the wing.
bulkheads on each side of the cut-out, which When the mass center of r;ravlty moves aft of the
means extra weight. 25 per cent of chord point, the critical flutter
speed decreases, thus it is important to keep
weight of the wing forward. At high speeds
where “compressibility” effects become important,
the torsional forces on the wing are increased,
Fig. A19.4 which necessitates extra skin thickness or a
larger cell. DesigninK for flutter prevention
is a highly specialized problem.

(6) Ease and Cost of Production:

In many cases, cut-outs in the leading edge
are necessary due to power plant installations, The airplane industry Is a mass production
landing gear wells, etc. Furthermore, in many industry and therefore the structural layout of
airplanes, It is desirable to make the leading the Wing must take into account production
edge portion removable for inspection of the methods. The general tendency at this tlme is
many installations which occupy this space In to design the wing and body structure, so tr.at
the portion of the wing near the fuselage. If sub-assemblies of the various parts can be mide,
such is the case, then an interior web should which are finally brour;ht together to form the
be located near the front of the wing section. final assembly of the wing panel. To make this
process efflclent requires careful consideration
Inspection doors for the central portion of In the details and layout of the win:: str!;ctl:re.
the box beam structure are usually located on Photograph A19.6 illustrates the sub-ssse::bly
19.4 ANALYSIS OF WING STRUCTURES

:t

Assembly (B) -

i,.,.- t *&
Assembly (Cl

Designing To Facilitate Production.

Photographs by courtesy of North American Aviation Co.

 A19.5

break-down of the structural parts of an alr- is necessar:;. Another important distinctlon is

plane of a leading airplane company. Fabri- that a statically c!etom?inate wing structure
cation and assembly of these units permits the ha:; just enough members to produce stabi.lity
installation of much equipment before assembly and if ona member is removeri or falls, the
of the units to the final assembly. entire structure will usually fail, ,whereas a
statically indeterminate structure has one or
A19.3 Wing Strength Requirements more additional members than are necessary for
Two major strenc;th require.Tents must be static stability and thus some members could
fail without causing the entire structure to
satisfied in the structural design of a wing.
collapse. In other words, the structure has
They are: - (1) Under the applied ~ or limit
- a fail safe characteristic in that a redistri-
loads, no part of the structure must be bution of internal stress can take place if
stressed beyond the yield stress of the mater- some members are over loaded. In general,
ial. In general, the yield stress is that statically indeterminate structures can be
stress which causes a permanent strain of
0.002 inches per inch. The terms apnlied or designed ll,ghter and with smaller overall de-
flections.
limit refer to the same loads, which are the
maximum loads that the airplane should en-
counter during its lifetime of operations. METHODSOF STRESS ANALYSIS FOR STATICALLY
INDE’IEiWINATE XING STRUCTURES
(2) The structure shall also carry Deslgn Loads
without rupture or collapse or in other words
failure. Two general methods are commonly used,
The magnitude of the Design Loads namely,
equals the Applied Loads times a factor of
safety (F.S.). In general, the factor of
(1) Flexural beam theory with simplifying
safety for aircraft Is 1.5, thus the structure
must withstand 1.5 times the applied loads assumptions .
without failure. In missiles, since no human
passengers are involved, the factor of safety (2) Solving for redundant forces and stresses
is less and appears at this time to range by applying the principles of the elastic
between 1.15 to 1.25. theory by various methods such as virtual
work, strain energy, etc.
Aircraft factors of safety are rather 1.0~
compared to other fields of structural design, The second method is no doubt more accu-
chiefly because weight saving is so important rate since less assumptions are necessary. A
wing structure composed of several cells and
in obtaining a useful transportation vehicle
relative to useful load and performance. many spanwise stringers Is a many degree re-
Since safety is the paramount design require- dundant structure. Before the development of
ment, the correctness of the theoretical design high speed computing machinery, so-called
must be checked by extensive static and dynamic rigorous methods were not usable because the
tests to verify whether the structure will computing requirements were impossible or
carry the design loads without failure. entirely impractical. However , present day
computer facilities have changed the situation
AlS. 4 Wing Stress Analysis Methods and rigorous methods are now being more and
more used In aircraft structural anal.ysis. Art.
In many of the previous chapters of this A7.9 and A8.10 in Chapters A7 and A8 present
book, internal forces were calculated for both matrix methods for findin; deflections and
statically determinate and statlcally inde- stresses to be used with computer facilities.
terminate structures. The internal loads in a
A19. 5 Example Problem I. 3-Flange - Single Cell
statically determinate structure can be found Wing.
by the use of the static equilibrium equations
alone. The over-all structural arrangement of Fig. A19.7 shows a portion of a cantilever
members is necessary, but the size or shape of wing. To provide torsional strength a single
no individual member is required. In other closed cell (1) Is formed by the interior web
words, design consists of finding internal AB and the metal skin cover forward of this
loads and then supplying a member to carry this web. Thin sheet is relatively weak in resist-
load safely and efficiently. In a statically ing compressive stresses thus 3 flange Stringers
indeterminate structure, addltlonal equations A, B and C are added to develop efficient bend-
beyond the static equlllbrlum equations are ing resistance. The structure to the rear of
necessary to find all the Internal stresses. spar AB is referred to as secondary structure
The additional equations are supplied from a and consists of thin metal or fnbrlc covering
consideration of structural distortions, which attached to chordwise wing ribs. The air load
means that the size and shape and kind of on this portion Is therefore carried forward
material for members of the structure must be by the ribs to the single cell beam.
kno/,n before internal stresses can he deter-
mined. This fact means a trial and error method A wing Is subJected to many flight condi-
A19.6 ANALYSIS OF W: G STRUCTURES

22” ---=A (-1”

tions. The engineers who calculate the applied A+-z
loads on the wing usually refer the resulting I CZ 3/8”
shears and moments to a set of convenient x, y
and z axes. Fig. A19.7 shows the location of
these reference axes. The job of the stress
engineer is to provide structure to resist
these loads safely and efficiently. The general
procedure is to find the stresses or loads In Xa.
all parts of the cell cross-section at several 0
stations along the spanwise direction and from
these loads or stresses proportion the required Fig. AlS. 8
areas, thicknesses and shapes.
SOLUTION.
In this example, the internal loads will
be calculated for only one section, namely, ASSUMP’I’IONSS:- It will. be assumed that the
that at Station 240. It will be assumed that 3 flange stringers A, B and C develop the entire
the design critical loads from the crltical resistance to the bending moments about the Z
flight condition are as follows. and X axes. For skin under compression this
assumption is nearly correct since the skin will
Mx = 1,100,000 in.lb. Vz = 11,500 lb. buckle under relatively low stress. Since sheet
c<an take tensile stresses, this assumption is
Mz q 80,000 in.lb. vx = 700 lb. conservative. However, since the thin sheet
My = 460,500 in.lb. cover must resist the shear stresses we will
make this conservative asswlijtion. The main
Fig. A19.8 shows these shears and moments advantage of this approximate assumption is
referred to the reference axes with origin at that it makes the structure statically deter-
point (0). Moments are represented by vectors ml nate .
with double arrow head. The sense of the
moment follows the right hand rule. Fig. A19.8 shows the wing cut at Station
240. The unknown forces are the three axial
loads In the s,tringers A, B and C and the three
shear flows qab, qac and qbc on the three sheet
pane Is, maklng a total of 6 unknowns an1 since
there are 6 static equilibrium equations aVall-
STA. 0 able for a space structure, the structure is
statically determinate.

Since the size and shape of flange members

A, B and C are unknown, we guess their centroid
locations as indicated by the dots in Fig.Al9.8.
The axial load in each of the 3 strlngers has
been replaced by Its x, y and z components as
shown on the figure. The external applied loads
are given at the reference orlEin (0) as shown
in Fig.Al9.8. y axis is normal to cross SectIon.

xe now apply the equations of equilibrium

to find the 6 unknowns.

To find Cy take moments about Z axis through

points A and B. Cy is normal to cross section.

mz(ab) = - 22 Cy + 80000 = 0, whence

Cy = 3636 lb.
_-- - The result comes out with a plus sign thus
STA.240 indicating that the assumed sense of tension
was correct.

1 z To find By take moments about an X axis

c‘>+ , prigin;;fs thru (A), By is normal to section.
I
ilO+- Z”x(A) q - 11 By + l,lOO,OOO + 3636 X
Fig. A19.7
0.125 = 0
 A19. I

+9oa
whence, By = 100,043 lb. tension as whence qbc = - 665 = + 13.66 lb./in. and
assumed. havin,g the sense as as:,u-ned.
To find Ay take ZFy = 0 In the above moment equation the moment of
the shear flow qbc about noint (a’ ) equals qbc
ZFY = - 100,043 - 3636 + Ay q 0, times twice the area of the cell or 665.
whence, Ay q 103679 lb. and com-
To find c&c take ZF, q 0
pression as assumed.
ZFx q - 2679 + 2584 + 316 + 22 qac ~- 22 x
Since the direction of the 3 stringers is 13.66 - 700 = 0
known, we can find the X and Z components of
the stringer loads by simple geometry. whence qac = 35.45 lb./in. with sense as
assumed 0
The y, x, and z length components of the
three stringers from the dimensions given in To find qab take ZFz = 0
Fig. A19.7 are Sound to be,
ZFz = - 1296 - 1250 + 45 + 35.45 x 0.5 -
11.5 x 13.66 + 11500 - 11 %b = 0
Member Y X z
whence, qab = 805 lb./in.
A 240 6.2 3

B 240 6.2 3 The loads on the stringers and sheet panels

have now been determined. The axial load in the
C 240 20.93 3 stringers is practically equal to their y com-
ponent since nxinl load equals their y force
component divided by the cosine of a small
The force components are therefore: - anfl:le . The stress engineer would find similar
stresses at a number of stations along; the span.
AZ = 103679 x 3/240 = 1296 lb. These 6 stresses arc yeneral1.y referred to as
= 2679 lb. primary stresses. Usually in most structures
Ax = 103679 x 6.2/'240 there are secondary stress effects which must
Bz q 100043 x 3/240 = 1250 lb. be considered before final member sizes can be
determined. For example, internal webs of a
B, = 100043 x 6.2/240 = 2584 lb. box type beam are designed usually as scmi-
Cz = 3636 x 3/240 = 45 lb. tension field beams. Tension field beam theory
shows that the flange members are subjected to
cx = 3636 x 20.93/240 = 316 lb. additional stresses besides the primary stresses
as found above. The subject of secondary
Fig. A19.9 shows these forces applied in
stresses and the strength desi[;n of members
the plane of the cross-section at Station 240,
and their connections to carry -given stress
together with the unknown shear flows and the
external forces acting in the plane of the loads is taken up in detail In later chapters.
cross-section,
A19.6 Example Problem 2. Metal Covered Wing With Single
External Brace Strut.
1296
In Chapter A2, the stress analysis of an
externally braced fabric covered monoplane wing
was considered ~ To provide sufficient torsion-
al strength and ripidity, two external brace
struts were necessary. However, if a wing is
metal covsred, a single external brace strut
can be used, since the closed cell or cells
formed by the metal sheet coverin? and the in-
Fig. A19.9
ternal webs provide the torsional resistance
and the wine can be designed as a s imply sup-
ported beam with cantilever overhang. An
To find qbc take moments about point (a’ ) excellent example of this type of )ving struc-
ture is the Cessna aircraft Model 180 as shown
zM,r = + 2679 x 05 - 2584 x 11.5 - 316 in the photograph. An excellent airplane
x 0.375 - 45 x 22 + 700 x 12 relative to performance, ease of manufacture
- 11500 X 39 + 460,500 - qbc and maintenance a
(665) = 0
To introduce the student to the general
approach of stress analyzing such a wing struc-
A19.8 ANALYSIS OF b G STRUCTURES

ture, ‘! ?Imit,;d disc:;::slon with a few calcula- Flg. A19.10 and A19.11 shows the Wing
tions v~ill be presented. lmenslons and General structural layout of a
onoplane wing wlth one external brace strut.
#he wing panel is attached to fuselago by
Ingle pin flttlngs at points A and B with pin
.xes parallel to x axis. The matIng lugs of
#he fittings at point A are made snug fit but
,hose at B with some gap, thus drag reactlon
)f wing loads on fuselage is resisted entirely
.t fitting A. Since the fittings at A and B
:annot resist moments about x axIs, It IS
rnecessary to add an external brace strut DC to
IIlake structure stable. The panel structure
:onsists of a maln spar ACE and a rear’ spar BF.
!I‘he entlre panel Is covered with metal skin
f ‘orward of the rear spar.
Cessna Aircraft Model 180
Metal Covered Wing with A simplified air load has been assumed as
One External Strut shown In Fig. A19.12, namely, a ~u~lform load
Vv = 30.27 lb./in. of span acting at the 30 per
:ent of chord point. When this resultant load
1s resolved into z and x components the results
ire wz = 30 lb./in. and wx = 4 lb./in. as shover
In Fig. A19.12.

The general physical action of the wing

structure in carrylnc; these air loads can be
zonsldered as 3 rather distinct actions,
namely, (1) The front spar ACE resists the
oending moments and shears dlue to load wz.,
(2) The skin and webs of the two-cell tube
reslsts all moment:; about y axis or broadly
speaking torslonal moments, (3) the entire panel
cross-section resists the bending moment and
Fig. A19. 10 flexural shear due to drag load wx, with the
top and bottom skin acting as webs and the two
spars as the flanges of this box beam.

3eneral Calculations: -

The unknown external reactions (see Fig.

A19.11) are Ay, AZ, Ax, By, BZ and DC., or a
total of 6. Slnc;i 6 ctatlc equat,lons of
equilibrium ar’e assailable, the roactlons are
statIcally detarm!natc. Reaction DC is also
the load in brace strut DC.

To find reaction DC take moments about x

axIs through points A, B
t ‘///I / 4#/in.. \\kO#/in

Z”x(AB) = (- 170 x 30 x 170/2) + DC(80/99.4)60

=o
Ax Fig. A19.12 whence, DC q 8979 lb. (The sl-?n c?r~os oiut
plus so the sense assumed in Fit:. Al9.11 was
correct.) The load in the strut is therefore
8979 lb. tension.

To find By, take moments about a z axis

through point (A).

1DC Z”z(A) = - (4 x 170 x 170/2) + 27 By = 0

whence, By = 2141 lb. acting with sense

Fig. A19.11 assumed.
 A19.9

To find Ay take ZFy = 0 points A and B. This couple force equals the
moment divided by distance between spars or
ZFy = 2141 - 8979 (80/99.4) + Ay = 0 15300/27 = 566.7 lb.

whence Ay = 5085 lb. Front spar (ACE) loads due to wz = 30lb/in:

To flnd B, take moments about y axis w = 30 lb./in.

through (A).

ZMy(A) = + (30 x 170 x 3) - 27 BZ = 0

7,
Ayff;
whence BZ = 567 lb. acting as assumed.
-Y
To find AZ take ZF, = 0

ZFz = 170 x 30 - 567 - (8979 x 59/99.4)

+ A, = 0

whence AZ = 796 lb. acting as assumed. Fig. A19.14 shows free bcdy of front spar
ACE. To find strut load DC take moments about
The fittings at A and B should be designed (A).
to take the reactions at these points as found
above. The external strut DC and its end ZMA = (- 30 x 170 x 170/2) + 60 (DC x 80/99.4)
fittings must carry the tenslon load of 8979 lb. =o

The next step Is to find the stresses and whence DC = 8979 lb. Tension which checks
loads on the structural parts of the wing panel. value previously found.

Since the spar ACE must resist the bendlng The y and z components of the strut re-
moments about x axis the airloads in Fig. action at C will then be,
A19.12 are moved to the spar centerline as
shown In Fig. Ai9.13. CY = 8939 (80/99.4) = 7226 lb.

Cz = 8979 (59/99.4) = 5329 lb.

These values are indicated on Fig. A19.14.

Fig. A19. 13 To find Ay take ZFy = 0

ZFy = - 7226 + Ay = 0, hence Ay = 7226 lb.

The torsional moment of 90 in. lb. per
inch of span Is resisted by the cellular tube In finding the reactlon Ay previously, the value
made up of two cells (1) and (2). In many was 5085 lb. The difference Is due to the drag
designs the leading edge cell is neglected in bending moment which tends to put a tenslon load
resisting the torsional moments due to many on front spar and compression on the rear spar.
cutouts, etc., thus cell one could be assumed w,=d#/in.
to provide the entire torsional shear reslst-
ante and the shear flow for this case would be
9 = /2A where My equals the torsional moment
at a2 iven panel sectlon and A the enclosed
area of cell (1). If both cells were con-
sidered effective then the sheet thickness is
necessary before solution for shear flow can Fig. A19. 15
be computed. Refer to Chapter A6 for computing
torslonal shear flow in multiple cell tubes. Fig. A19.15 shows the air drag load of 4
lb./in. The bendlng moment on panel at a
The maximum torsional moment would be at distance y from the wing tip equals wx (y)(y/2)
the fuselage end of the wing panel and its = 4y=/2 = 2ya. The axial load Py in either
magnitude would be 170 x 90 = 15300 in. lb. spar at any distance y from tip thus equals
Since the top and bottom skin is not attached bending moment divided by arm of 27” or Py =
to fuselage, this torsional moment must be 2y =/27 = .074y “. The axial load at polnts A
thrown off on a rib at the end of the panel and B thus equal .074 x 170’= 2141 lb. (tension
and this rib In turn transfers this moment in in front spar and compression In rear spar).
terms of a couple reaction on the spars at Thus each spar is subjected to an axial load
A19.10 ANALYSIS OF WING STRUCTURES
I
increaslng from zero at tip to 2141 lb. at would have to be replaced by two flttlngs, one
fuselage attachment points and varying as ye. on the upper flange and the other on the lower
At point C on from spar the axial tension load flange in order to be able to resist a M,
would be .074 (gOa) = 600 lb. moment. Fig. A19.16 shows thls modlflcation.
The fitting at B could remain as before, a sing le
The design of the front spar between pin fitting.
points C and E would be nothlng more than a
cantilever beam subjected to a bending forces
plus an axial tensile load plus a torsional
shear f low. The design of the spar between
points C and A is far more complicated since
we have appreciable secondary bending moments
to determine, which must be added to the pri-
mary bendlng moments 0 Fig. A19.15a shows a
free body of spar portion AC.
w = 30
t t f t t t t t t(j Mc=30x90x45 I

5@35--“‘+-‘+~ Fig. A19. 16

T P
Fig. A19.15a The stress analysis of this wing would consist
of the spar AE resisting all the Mx moments and
The lateral load of 30 lb./in. bends the the Vz shears and acting as a cantilever beam.
beam upward, thus the axial loads at A and C The torsional moment about a y axis coinciding
will have a moment arm due to beam deflection with spar AE would be resisted by shear stresses
which moments aze referred to as secondary In the cellular tubes formed by the skin and the
moments . To find deflections the beam moment spar webs. The drag bending and shear forces
of inertia must be known, thus the design of would be resisted by the beam whose flanges are
this beam portion would fall in the trial and the front and rear spars and the web being the
error procedure. Articles A5.23 to 28 of top and bottom skin.
Chapter A5 explaln and illustrate solution of
problems lnvolvlng beam-column action and such A19. 6 Stress Analysis of Thin Skin - Multiple Stringer
a procedure would have to be used in actually Cantilever Wing. Introduction and Assumptions
designing this beam portlon.
The most common type of wing constructlon
is the multiple stringer type as illustrated by
The rear spar BF receives two load systems,
the six illustrative cross-sections in Fig.
namely a varying axial load of zero at F to 2141
lb. at B and the web of this spar receives a A19.2. A structure with many stringers and
sheet panels is statically Indeterminate to
shear load from the torsional moment. The
rear spar Is not subjected to bending moments, many degrees with respect to internal stresses.
Fortunately, structural tests of complete wing
In Fig. A9.10 the secondary structure structures show that the simple beam theory
consisting of chordwIse ribs and spanwise light gives stresses which check fairly well with
stringers riveted to skin are not shown. This measured stresses If the wing span Is several
times the wing chord, that sweep back Is minor
secondary structure Is necessary to hold wing
and wing Is free of major cutouts and dlscon-
contour shape and transfer air pressures to
the box structure. This secondary structure tinuities. Thus it is comnon procedure to
is discussed In Chapter A21. The broad subject analyze and design a wing overall by the beam
of designing a member or structure to wlthstand theory and then investigate those portions of
the wing where the beam theory may be In error
stresses safely and efficiently is considered
in detail in later chapters. by using more rigorous analysis methods such as
those explained and illustrated In Art. A8.10
A19. 7 Single Spar - Cantilever Wing - of Chapter A8.
Metal Covered
ASSUMPTIONS- BEAM THEORY
A single spar cantilever wing wlth metal
coverlng 1s often used particularly In light In this chapter the wing bending and shear
commercial or prlvate pilot aircraft. stresses ~111 be calculated using the un-
symmetrical beam theory. The two main assump-
Suppose In the single spar externally tions in this theory are: -
braced wing of Flg. A19.11, that the external
brace strut DC was removed. Obviously the wlng (1) Transverse sections of the beam originally
would be unstable as It would rotate about hlnge plane before bendlng remain plane after bending
fittings at points A and B. To make the of beam. This assumption means that longltudi-
structure stable the single pin fitting at (A) nal strain varies directly as the distance from
 A19.11

the ne~utral axis or strain variation is linear. corner flange members (a) and (b) are stabilized
in two directions by the skin and webs and
(2) The longitudinal stress distribution is usually fail by local crippling.
directly proportional to strain and therefore
from assumption (1) is also linear. This Now continuing the loading of the Wing
assumption actually means that each longitudinal after the skin has buckled, the stringers and
element acts as If It were separate from every corner members will continue to take additional
other element and that Hook’s law holds, compressive stress. Since the ultimate strength
namely, that the stress-strain curve is linear. of the stringers is less than that of the cor-
ner members, the stringers (c) will start to
Assumption (1) neglects strain due to shear bend elastically or inelastically and will take
stresses in skin, tihlch influence is commonly practically no further stress as additional
referred to as shear la? effect. Shear lag strain takes place. The corner members still
effects are usually not important except near have conslderable additlonal strength and thus
major cut-outs or other major discontinuitles additional external loading can be applied until
and also locations where large concentrated finally the ultimate strength of the corner
external forces are applied. members is reached and then complete failure of
the top portion of the beam section takes place.
Assumption (2) Is usually not correct if Therefore, the true stress - strain relationship
elastic and Inelastic buckling of skin and does not follow Hook’s Law when such a structure
stringers occur before failure of wing. In is loaded to failure.
applying the beam theory to practical wings,
the error of this assumption is corrected by In the above discussion the stringer: (c)
use of a so-called effective section which is were considered to hold their ultimate buckling
discussed later. load during considerable additional axial
strain. This can be verifled experimentally
AlQ. 9 Physical Action of Wing Section in Resisting External by testing practical columns. Practical col-
Bending Forces from Zero to Failing Load. umns are not perfect relative to straightness,
uniformity of material, etc. Fl::. A19.18
Fig. A19.17 shows a common type of wing
shows the load versus lateral deflection of
cross-section. structural arrangement generally
referred to as the distributed flange type. column midpoint as a column is loaded to failure
and fails by elastic bending. Fig. A19.19 shows
similar results when the failure is inelastic
bending.

Fig. A19. 18 Fig. AlQ. 19

I I

Fig. AlQ. 17
The corner members (a) and (b) are considerably
larger in area than the stringers (c). The
skin is relatively thin. Now assume the wing v v
6 = Central Deflection 0 = Central Deflection
is subjected to gradually increasing bending
forces which place the upper portion of this
wing section in compression and the bottom The test results show that a compression
portlon in tension. Under small loading the member which fails in bending, normally con-
tinues to carry approximately the maximum load
compressive stresses in the top surface will
be small and the stress will be directly pro- under conslderable additional axial deformation.
portional to strain and the beam formula Thus in the beam section of Fig. A19.17 when
the stringers (c) reach their ultimate load,
UC = Mxz/Ix will apply and the moment OF
inertia I, will include all of the cross- failure of the beam does not follow since cor-
section material. ner members (a) and (b) still have remaining
As the external load is in-
creased the compressive stresses on the thin strength.
sheets starts to buckle the sheet panels and
AlQ. 10 Ultimate Strength Design Requirement
further resistance decreases rapidly as further
straln continues, or in other words, stress is The strength design requirements are: -
not directly proportional to strain when sheet
buckles. Buckling of the skin panels however (1) Under the applied or limit loads, no
does not cause the beam to fail as the stringers’ structural member shall be stressed above
and corner members are lowly stressed compared the material yield point, or in other
to their failing stress. The stringers (c) words, there must be no permanent de-
are only supported transversely at wing rib formation or deflection of any part of the
points and thus the stringers act as columus and structure.
fail by elastic or inelastic bending. The
A19.12 ANALYSIS OF W JG STRUCTURES

Under the design loads which equal the

applied
no failure
loads times a factor
of the structure
of safety,
shall occur.
r
The usual factor of safety for conventional
aircraft is 1.5, or the structure must
carry loads 50 percent greater than the
applied loads without failure. The higher
the stress at failure of a member the less
material required and therefore the less
structural weight. The stress engineer
thus tries to design members which fail in
Fig. A19. 21
the InelastIc zone.
stress equal to the stringer stress. In Fig.
The bending stress beam formula oc = MC/I A19.21 2w Is the effective sheet wldth to go
does not take care of this non-linear stress- with each stringer. The total stress on the
strain action and thus some modification of the effective widths carrying a uniform stress equal
moment of inertia of the beam cross-section is to the stringer stress equals the total load on
necessary If the ultimate strength of a wing the sheet panels carrying the actual varying
section Is to be computed fairly accurately. stress distribution. The equation for effective
The stress engineer usually solves this problem width is usually wrltten in the form,
by using a modified cross-section, usually
referred to as the effective cross-section. * 2%~= kt (E/c&+
A19. 11 Effective Section at Failing Load. a widely used value for K = 1.9, whence
In order to use the beam formula which
2W= 1.90 t (E/c& - - - - - - - - - (1)
assumes linear stress-strain relation,
corrections to take care of skin buckling and
stringer buckling must be formulated. The ast = stress in stringer
effectiveness of the skin panels will be con-
sidered first. Therefore if we know the stress in the
stringer we can flnd the width of sheet to use
When a compressive load is applied to a with the stringer to obtaln an effective section
sheet stringer combination, the thin sheet to take care of the sheet buckling Influence.
buckles at rather low stress. For further
loading the compressive stress various over Effective Factor for Buckled Stringers.
the panel width as Illustrated in Fi,o;. AlQ.20.
The stress in the sheet at the stringer attach- Consider the beam sectlon in Fig. A19.17.
If we take a stringer (c) and attach a piece of
ment line is the same as in the stringer since
sheet to it equal to 2w, the effcctlve width
it cannot buckle and therefore suffers the same
strain as the stringer. Between t,he stringers and test it In compression and brace it In a
plane parallel to the sheet, the resulting test
the sheet stress decreases as sho,uvn by the
stress versus strain shortening curve (c) of
dashed line in Fig. AlQ.20. This variable Fig. A19.22 will result. The length of the test
stress condition Is difficult to handle so the
stress engineer makes a convenient slcbstltutlori specimen would equal the rib spacing In the
by replacing the actual sheet with its varlable wing. The corner members (a) or (b) In Fig.
A19.17 being stabilized in two directions ~111
stress by a width of sheet carrying a uniform
fall by local crippling, thus if a short piece
Stress Distribution on Stress Distribution on
of this member is tested to failure In com-
presslon the test curve (A) In Flg. A19.22 is
obtained. Curve (C) shows that the stringer
holds approximately Its maxlmum load for a
considerable strain perlod. Curve (A) shows
that for the same unit straln member (a) can
take considerable higher stress. If we take
a unit strain of .006, the point at which the
maximum stress of 47000 Is obtalned in member
(a) (see polnt (3) on Curve A) then the stress
at the same strain for member (C) will be SSOOG
(see point (2) on Curve C).

Fig. A19.20

* The buckling of sheets is taken up in detail in

Chapter C5.
 A19.13

sheet to use with each rivet line depends on

the stress In the stringer to which it is
attached. The failing stress for the stringer
will be used, which means that the failing
stress of the stringers and corner flanges must
be known before the effective width can be
found. For this example the zee strlngers have
been selected of such a size as to give an
ultimate column failing stress of 38000 psi,
and the corner flange members have been made of
such size and shape as to give a falling stress
of 47000 psi. These falling stresses can be
computed by theory and methods as given in
Chapter C7. The sizes have purposely been
. .._.._... &I &xLin...l- : : : __. selected to given strengths represented by the
Fig. A19.22 test curves of Fig. AlY.22.

The effective wldth with each rivet line

from equation (1) would be,
For stress analysis procedure using the
beam formula, ;rie assume a linear stress vari- For zee stringer 2w = 1.90 x .04 (10.5 x
ation from zero to 47000 psi. Since stringers
(c) can only take 38000 psi at the same strain, 108/38000)~ = 1.25 Inches
or in other words, strin;:er (c) is less effect-
ive than members (a) and (b). The cffective- Thus the area of effective skin q 1.25 x
ness factor for strino;er (c) equals its ulti- -04 = .05 In.“. The area of the zee stringer
is 0.135 sq. in. which added to the effective
mate strength divided by the ultimate strength
of member (a) or 38000/47000 = .808. skin area gives 0.185 sq. in. which value is
entered in Column (2) of Table I opposite zee
A19.12 Example Problem stringers numbered 2, 3 and 4 in Fig. Al.9.23.
The same procedure is done for the corner mem-
The Ning section in Fi;. A19.23 is sub- bers 1 and 5 with the resulting effective areas
jected to a design bending moment about the x as given In Table I. On the bottom side which
axis of 500,000 in.lb., acting in a direction is in tension all material is effective. The
to put the upper portion in compression. The skin width equal to one-half the distance to
problem is to determlne the margin of safety adjacent stringers Is assumed to act with each
for this design bending moment. The material stringer. Taklng the area of the angle section
is 2024 aluminum alloy. as 0.11 and addlng skin area equal to 6 x .035
= .21 or a total of 0.32 sq. in. which value is
shown in Column 2 of Table I opposite stringers
t-- 6" -la-- 6" .*- 6" --at+ 6" + 7, 8 and 9. The areas of the lower corner
L 4 z L members plus bottom skin and web skin would
(2) (3) (4) (57 come out as recorded in the Table.

The next step Is to correct for stringer

effectiveness in compressIon. The failing
stress for the zee stringer was given as 38000
and for the corner members 47000 psl. The
effectiveness factor for the zee stringer thus
equals 38000/47000 = .808. This factor is re-
Fig. A19.23
corded In Column 3 of Table I. For the corner
members 1 and 5 and all the tension members the
SOLUTION factor Is of course unity. The balance of
Table I gives the calculation of the effective
Tne beam formula for bending stress at any moment of inertia ZAz* about the x neutral axls.
point iS ab = Mxz/Ix. To solve this equation
we must have the effective moment of inertia The compressive stress intensity at the
of the beam cross-section. The bottom surface centroid of the zee stringers thus equals,
being In tension under the given design bending
moment is entirely effective, however the too Ob = M,z/Ix = 500,000 x 5.57/59.80 = 46600 psi.
surface has a variable effectiveness since the
skin, stringers and corner flange members have The true stress equals the effectiveness
different ultimate falling stresses. factor times this stress = .808 x 46600 =
37400 PSI. The failing stress equals 38000
From equation (1) the effective width of hence margin of safety = (38000/37400) - 1 =
.Ol or one percent.
A19.14 ANALYSIS OF W IG STRUCTURES

TABLE A19.1 The stress analysis of this wing would

show the resulting bending and shear stresses
for a number of spanwise stations for the critl-
cal design load conditions. In this example
solution the bendlng longitudinal stresses will
be determlned on cross-sectIons at two stations,
namely, stations 20 and 47.5, and the shear
stresses will be determined for StatIon 20. In
this example problem, the leading edge cell will
be considered Ineffective as well as any struc-
ture to rear of rear beam, hence structure is a
one cell beam with multiple stringers. A second
solution including the leading edge cell to form
a two cell beam will also be presented.
6 0.417 1.0 0.417 -4.60 -1.920 -3.63 5.50
7 0.320 1.0 0.320 -4.63 -1.480 -3.66 4.28 ANALYSIS FOR BENDING LO~GI”LXI:;.~L STRESSES
8 0.320 1.0 0.320 -4.63 -1.480 -3. 66 4.28
0.320 -4.63 -1.480 -3.66 1 4.28 Longitudinal stresses (tenslon or com-
pression) arc produced by external forces normal
0.417 1-4.631-1.9201 -3.63 1 5.50 to the cross-section and by bending moments
about x and z axes. The stress equatlons are:

Un = p/A - _ _ _ _ _ - _ - - _ - - - _ (2)
Z = Z Az’/ZA = -2.897/2.981 = -. 97 in.
where on = longitudinal stress

On corner members (I) and (5) the com- P = external load acting through cen-
pressive stress = 500,000 x 5.47/59.80 = trold of effective Wing CrOSS-SeCtiOn
45000 psi. With the falling stress being
47000 the margln of safety is 2 percent. A = effective area of cross-section.

Nolv suppose we would have omitted con- For any given flange member with area (a)
sideratlon of the stringer effectiveness factor the load Pn on the member would be,
and omitted column (3) of Table I. Carrying
through the calculations of Table I, the value pn = ana - - - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (3)
of z would be -0.76” and Ix would be 63.08.
The stress intensity on the zee stringers The stresses due to bending moments are
would then be 500000 x 5.36/63.08 = 42500 psi. from Chapter A13, Art. A13.5: -
Since the failing stress for stringer is 38000
the margln of safety would be (38000/42500) - 1 ab = -(K, Mz-K, Mx)x - (K, M,-K, Mz)z- (4)
= a negative 10.5 percent. The previous result
was a plus 1 percent, thus a difference of 11.5 where Ob = bending stress with plus being ten-
percent in the results. sion

The purpose of this simple example problem Kz = 1x,/(1x I, - Ixz2)

was to emphasize to the student that failure of
real aircraft stiffened skln structures occurs K, q Iz/(Ix I, - I,,‘)
under non-linear stress-strain condltlons and
the elastic theory must be modified if fairly Ks = I,/(I, I, - I,,‘)
accurate estimates of the failing strength of
a composite structure Is to be obtained. The normal component of the axial load In
A19.13 Bending and Shear Stress Analysis of Tapered - a flange member equals ob a) where (a) is the
Multiple Stringer Cantilever Wing. Unsymmetrical area of the flange member. Since the angle be-
Beam Method. tween the normal to the beam section and the
centroidal axis of a stringer Is generally quite
In general cantilever wings are ‘canered in
both depth and planform. Fig. A19.24 illus- small, the difference between the cosine of a
small angle and unity is negligible and thus
trates a ty;?ical structural layout of the outer
wing panel for a small airplane. The structure the normal component can be considered as the
axial load in the stringer.
consists of a front ar.d rear beam (spar) with
spanwise stringers bctwe?n the two beams.
Taper-in? in cro?s-section?,1 material is obtainer Before equations 2, 3 and 4 can be solved,
the offcctlve cross-section area must he known
by decreasin<: size of members by cuttiny off
as well 4s the moments 0:' inertia 3x3 product
portion:: of the ~~;an,~ise strin,ners rind corner
of inertia about x and z cerltroidal axes.
fiances cind decreasing the ckin snd Deb thick-
ne::s~ e
 A19. 15

WING BODY SECTION PLAN VIEW LOOKING INBOARD FROM TIP

UPPER SURFACE STRINGER AND SKIN ARRANGEMENT

40% of chord line

is normal to air-
plane ZX-Plane

,032 - .ots Skin thickness

between beams

LOWER SURFACE STRINGER AND SKIN ARRANGEMENT

41.5 70

+L32~-.ol~+--.ooro _______f
Skin thickness
between beams

Fig, A19. 24 Structural Layout of Tapered Cantilever Wing

A19.16 ANALYSIS OF WING STRUCTURES

Upper Rear Flange

= .050
.648
area skin - = .096
.353
LI area
area
area
of angles
of skin
of web
= .508
= .090
= .032
u No. 3, 4 & 5 (t = . 050)
area stringer = .205
t
.630

area skin = .096

, Z’ .04 upper skin> .301

4 X’ reference axis

x
X Centroidal Axis’
I
z z3
x -g-c
s2 2
0
&13 v
- 11, &F 103 92
Z .032 19wer skinf

I
Lower Surface Stringer
-T---n
I( area of bulb angle = . 11
area skin = . 16

Lower Front Flange

area of angles = . 508
area of skin = .160 IT

Fig. A19.25 WING SECTION AT STATION 20. EFFECTIVE AREAS.

Z’ T .025 lower skin

Fig. A19.26 WING SECTION STATION 47.5

 AlS. 17
1
Fig. A19.25 shows the cross section at Substituting in equatlon (4)
Station 20 divided into 14 longitudinal units
n&mbered 1 to 14. Since the external load con- ob = - II .00098 x - 285000 - (-.0002125 x
dition to be used places the top surface in 1300000)] x - [. 004378 x 1,300,OOO -
compression, the skin will buckle and thus we
use the effective width procedure to obtain the (-.0002125 x - 285000)] z
skin portion to act with each stringer. Fig.
A19.25 shows the effective skin which is Used whence, Ob = 3.3 x - 5639 z - - - - - - - - (5)
with each flange member to give the total area
of numbers (1) to (7). The skin on the bottom Column 12 of Table A19.2 gives the results
surface being in tenslon is all effective and of this equation for values of x and z in
Fig. A19.25 shows the skin area used with each columns 10 and 11. Multiplylng these bending
bottom flange member. stresses by the stringer areas, the stringer
loads are Eiven In column 13. The sum of the
The next factor to decide is the stringer loads in this column should be zero since total
effectiveness as discussed and explained In the tension must equal total compression on a sec-
previous example problem. For the structure of tion in bending.
Fig. A19.25 we i~ill assume that the compressive
failing stress of the stringers is the same as Stresses at station 47.5:
that for the corner members, thus we will have
no correction factor to take care of the IX = 157.4, I, = 700, I,, = -35.4 (Table
situation of flange members having different A19.3)
ultimate strengths.
K, = 35.4/(157.4 x 700 - 35.4a) =
Table A19.2, columns 1 to 11, and the -35.4/108950 = -.000324
calculations belo;v the table give the calcula-
tions for determining the section propertles K, = 700/108950 = .00643
at Station 20, namely A, Ix, I, and I,,.
Table A19.3 gives the same for wlnq section at K, = 157.4/108750 = .001447
Station 47.5. The areas in column (2) are less
SinCe SlZeS have changed between Stations 20 Ob =- c
.001447 x -215000 - (-.000324 x
and 47.5.
1,000,000)1 x - [(.OOGU x l,OOO,COO -
Calculation of longitudinal stress due to (-.00324 x -215000)] z
M, and My bending moments: -
whence
The design bending moments will be assumed
and are as follows: - Ub = -14.5 x -6360 z

Station 20 Mx = 1,300,OOO in.lb. Column 12 of Table A19.3 gives the results

of this equatlon and column 13, the total
MZ = - 285,000 in.lb.
stringer loads at station 47.5.
Station 47.5 M, q 1,000,000 In.lb.
The stresses in column 12 of each table
Mz = - 215,000 In.lb. would be compared to the failing stress of the
flange members to obtain the margin of safety.
The moments about the y axes are not
needed In the bending stress analysis but are ANALYSIS FOR SHEAR STRESSES IN ;JEBS AND SKIN
needed in the shear analysis which will be made
later. The shear flow distribution will be cal-
culated by using the change In axial load in
To solve equation (4) the constants K,, the stringers between stations 20 and 47.5, a
K, and K, must be known. method commonly referred to as the AP method.
For explanation of this method, refer to Art.
For Station 20 from Table A19.2, Ix = A15.16 of Chapter A15.
230.3, I, = 1030 and I,, = - 50, whence -
The shear flow in the y dlrection at a
K, = I,,/(I, Iz - Ixz") = -50/(230.3x10.30 point n of the cell Wall equals,
- 508) = -50/235500 = -.0002125 n AP e-e___
qyn=qo-z- ---m-(6)
K, = Iz/235500 q 1030/235500 = .OCX378 0 d

K, = I,/235500 = 230.3/235500 = .00098 where q. is a known value of shear flow at some

I point o and the second term Is the change in
shear flow between points o and n.
A19.18 ANALYSIS OF WING STRUCTURES

TABLE A19.2
SEmION PROPERTIES ABOUT CENTROIDAL X AND Z AXES

IVlnf Section at Stntion 20 (Compression on upper surface)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Flange Area
Z’ AZ’ ‘42’2 X’ AX’ AX’2 AX’Z’ z = Z’ -ZX,X’-x
No. A cI, P q a,, A

1 .648 5.50 3.56 19.61 -0.10 -0.06 0 -0.36 6.68 -17.4 -37660 -24390
2 .353 5.90 2.08 11.30 5.G5 1.99 11.30 11.78 7.08 -Al. 65 -39940 -14070
3 .300 5.85 1.76 10.28 11.20 3.36 37.60 19.67 7.03 - 6.10 -39620 -11830
4 .300 5.55 1.66 9.25 16.85 5.05 85.00 28.10 6.73 - 0.45 -37950 -11370

5 .300 5.05 1.52 7.65 22.40 6.72 150.50 34.00 6.23 5.10 -35115 -10510
6 .353 4.40 1.55 6.83 28.00 9.89 277.00 43.50 5.58 iO.70 -31450 -11090
i .630 3.55 2.24 7.95 35.72 23.15 826.00 80.00 4.73 18.42 -26560 -16700
8 .692 -8.40 -5.81 48. 90 35.72 24.70 881.00 -208.00 -7.22 19.42 40750 28230

9 .270 -8.50 -2.30 19.55 27.80 7.50 208.00 - 64.00 -7.32 10.50 41280 11180
10 .270 -8.50 -2.30 19.55 22.60 6.10 138.00 - 52.00 -7.32 5.30 41250 11170
ii .160 -8.30 -1.33 11.05 16.70 2.67 44.60 - 22.20 -7.12 - 0.60 40100 6430

12 .27 -8.00 -2.16 17.30 10.90 2.94 32.00 - 23..:0 -0.82 - 6.40 38400 10390
13 .27 -7.50 -2.02 15.20 5.60 1.51 8.45 - 11.35 -6.32 -11.7 35570 9600
14 . 768 -6.50 -5.00 32.50 - 0.10 .08 0 0.50 -5.32 -17.40 29950 23020

J d

z
.:.584

=
-G. 56
,s4= -1.176
-6.56 238.0 96.44 2700

General
See Fig.
-163.8

Notes:
A19.25 for Section at Station LO.
0.00

x= gL&;17.3 Reference axes X’X’ and 2’7’ are assumed as shoun.

PropertIes are calculated with respect to these
axes and transferred to the centro,dal X and
Ix = :?38 - 5.584 x 1.176:< = !?30.3 in.4
7 axes.
1: = ‘:700 - 5,584 x 17.32 r 1030 in.4

Ixz = -163.S - 5.584 x-1.176 x 17.3 = -50 “b = 3.3 X - 5639 L

TABLE A19.3
SECTION PROPERTIES ABOUT CCNTROIDAL X AND Z AXES
Win:: Section at Station 47.5 (Conpresslon on upper' Surface)

1 z 3 5 9 10 11

‘lnn:,c Area b.Z, 2

NO. A 2' AZ' AX'Z' ?=Z --F x _ X’ -x P=q,A
~-
1 .470 5.co 2.66 14.95 - 0.10 - 0.27 6.21 -15.60 -39275 -18700
2 .318 5. 83 1.8C 10.80 4.40 8.16 6.44 -11.10 -40790 -12990
3 . 2C6 5.;5 1.53 8.80 10.00 15.30 6.36 - 5.50 -4025 -10710

4 ,266 5.4:’ 7.81 15.60 22.40 6.03 0.10 -38400 -10200

5 .266 4.90 6.40 “1.20 27.60 5.51 5.70 -35075 - 9320
6 .318 4.30 5.88 26.70 36.60 4.91 11.20 -31360 -10000

7 ,476 3.60 6.17 31.70 54.40 4.21 16.20 -27030 -12880

8 .553 -7.10 27.90 31.70 -124.50 -6.49 lG.20 41050 22770
9 . :?jr -7.40 12 90 26.50 - 4G.10 -6.79 11.00 43090 10140
10 . -3.5 -7.40 12:90 21.30 - 37.18 -6.79 5.80 43180 10160
-.-
11 . 1::5 -7.20 -0.90 6.48 15.10 - 13.60 -6.59 - 0.40 41900 5240
1 ‘; . ::3: 4.90 -1.62 11.20 9.60 - 15.60 -6.29 -55.90 40085 9410
13 ,235 -6.25 -1.47 9.20 4.50 - 6.61 -5.84 -11.00 36060 8470
1.4 . 605 -5.40 -3.17 17.70 - 0.10 0.33 -4.79 -15.60 30725 18600

5 4.61 -2.80 159.1 - 79.0 0

t
r = -:'.80/4.61 m -0.61"
General Notes:
a I 71.3/4.61 - 15.50" See Fig. A19.26 for section at Station 47.5.
Reference axes X’X’ and 7’Z1 are assumed as shown.
Ix = 159.1 - 4.61 x.61 2 = 157.4
q, = -14.5 X - 6360 Z
2
Iz = 1304 - 4.61 x 15.5 P 700

Ixz = -79 - 4.Gl x -.61 x 15.5 - 35.4

 AP equals the change in stringer axial oat reas are referred as m values (See Fig. A19.27).
over -i distance d in the y dir,ection. :olumn 6 of Table A19.4 records these double
lreas which were obtained by use of a planlmeter.
Sim*n the ~213 In our problem is closed thf :olumn (7) gives the moment of each shear flow
value q, 3t sny point is unknown. tie assume it tbout the c.g. and the total of this column
EI-O on web l-14 by imagining that the web Is ;ives the moment about the c.g. of the complete
cut as sho,,;n in Fig. A19.27. Equation (6) thus shear flow system of Fig. A19.27 or a value of
redllces to, ‘56060 in. lb.

AP
qy = - c 27.5 - - - - - - - - - - - -- (7) The double areas (m) can be found approxi-
riately as follows:

Columns 1 to 5 of Table A19.4 show the sclutlon The moment of

of equztion (7). The shear flow values of qy ;he shear flow q on
in colimn 5 ?re plotted on the cell wall in ;he web (Z-3) about
Fi%. r219.27, r-ememberinp; that qy = qx = qz. Fo ?oint 0 equals q
rules glvlnr: direction of qx and qz refer to clmes twice the area
Wapter Al-r, Art e Al/l. 6. (A 1 + AZ). In most
zases, the area A,
3an be neglected.

By simple
geometry, the area
4, q l/2 (X3 Z, - X,Z,). The moment of the

~~~1~~~~
shear flow q on web (2-3) thus equals q (X s 2,
- x, z, ). Since values of X and Z for all
flange points with reference to sectlon (e.g.)

__ 236.8 280.0 316.7 354.5

are given in the Table A19.2, it is unnecessary
to use the planlmeter
sharp curvature.
except for regions of

Fig. A19.27 MOMENTOF EXTERNAL LOADS

ABOUT c.g. OF STATION 20
TABLE A19.4
As stated before the engineers in the
Cxlculntlon of Flexural Shear Flow Assuming q zero in applied loads calculation group supply the shears
Web Uetween Flange Members (1) and (14). and moments at various spanwlse stations. We
(Shear values are average between stations 20 and 47. 5) will assume that these loads are: V, = 12000
T-j-q-T lb., Vx = +2700 lb., My = - 390,000 In.lb. The
3 145
q,
=
2 6
location of the reference y axis used by the

II loads group will be assumed as located at point

P In
‘lX?g
It Statio
NO. 7.0
sq.
in.
mq 91
¶ + 41
0 In Fiz. A19.28 relative to cross-section at
~- Station 20.
1 -24390a -18700 206.8
206. I 48. (
2
3
-14010
-11890
- 12990
10710
39.1
42.9 245.! 43. t I=
4 -11370
-10200 42.5 288.8 42.Q
v, = 12000# ‘ur
331.3 42. 6 0
5 -10510 9320
-10000 43.3
39.6 374.6 43.6 x X
6 -11090 c. g.‘J
7 - 16700
-12880 139.0 414.2 42. 0 t u.i
8 28230
22770 -198.7 553.2 191.0 Vx= 27OOQ .O, 11i8
41.4
9 11180
10140
10160 : g:; ::z 37.2
10 11170 M Y =39&k& 33.3 4
5240 43.2 280.0 40.8
11 6430
9410 - 35.6 236.8 42.2
12 10390
8410 - 41.1 201.2 38.0
13 9600
18600 -160.3 160.1 54.0
Fig. A19.28
14 23020 o
204.0
1 / I
Therefore moment of external loads about
Total mq =
e.g. is,

For equilibrium of all the forces n the mc.g. = 12000 x 33.3 - 2700 x 11.8 - 390000
plane of the cross-section ZMy must equal zero. = 41800 ln.lb.
For convenience we will select a moment y axis
tr;rolii:h the c . g . of the cross-sectlon. The Moments Produced by Inclination of Flange Loads With
morn-nt o!’ the shear flo\v q on any sheet element Beam Section.
equal ,.I ?,I.w:~ tioubl.? t,ho area of the triangle
1‘~,i ::‘~,_‘‘, i ,I‘~’ Joinin:': t11.3 I'.)?. :Jlti? lirlcs pwlr&~ to Since the flange members in general are not
eazn exr! ‘9:’ t.i?t? sheet eliirni?rlt. These double normal to the beam sections, the flange loads
 A19.20 ANALYSIS OF \ ‘G STRUCTURES

have components In the Z and X directions. Due to external loads q 41800 In.lb.
Columns (4) and (7) of the Table A19.5 give the
values of these In plane components. The slope Then the total unbalanced moment = 4936 +
dx/dy between stations 20 and 47.5 are found by 256060 + 41800 = 302796 in.lb.
scaling from Fig. A19.24. Flg. A19.29 shows
these induced in plane forces as found in Table For equilibrium, this must be balanced by
A19.5. a constant shear flow ql.

TABLE A19.5 hence

In Plane Moments About Section c. e. Produced by in Plane 3027g6 = _ 328 1.b./in.
Components of Flange‘Loads 2 x 461.5
StatIon 20
(Note: 461.5 = total area of cell)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-
P, = 1MC.& P, = M c.g. = The shear stresses q, are listed In Column
Flange
P
dx dz (8) of Table A19.4.
NO. dy dx dy dz
= P, z -05 w
PTiy pdy
The final,or resultant shear flow qr at any
7480 ,025 -610 - 10600
1 - 24390 -.046
0
1120
0 0 022 -310 - 3610
point therefore equals
2 - 14070
3 -11890 0 0 0 :022 -262 - 1600
4 -11370 0 0 0 022 -250 - 112
9r = 9 + q,
5 -10510 0 0 0 :022 -231 1160
6 -11090 0 0 0 .025 -278 2970
I -16700 021 - 350 -1660 025 -411 7770 The resulting values are given In Column 9
8 28230 :021 594 -4300 : 018 -506 9350
9 11180 0 0 0 ,017 -190 2000
of Table A19.4. Fig. A19.30 illustrates the
10 11170 0 0 0 015 -167 685 results graphically.
11 6430 0 0 0 :015 - 96 - 57
12 10390 0 0 0 .017 -177 - 1130
13 9600 0 0 0 01.9 -173 - 2020
14 23020 -.046 -1060 5640 : 018 -416 - 7250
-
7160 - 2224

NOTES:
1

Column (21: P from Table A19. 2

Column (5) and (8): Values of 2 and X are found in
Columns 10, 11 of Table A19.2

610 417 Fig. A19.30 Final shear flow diagram. For val-
ues see Column 9 of Table A19.4.

Haviny determined the shear flows, the

shear stress on any panel would be q/t. In
checking the sheet for strength in shear and
combined shear and tension, Interaction rela-
3 12 ‘p ; 8_Lt594 tlonships are necessary. The strength design
I c$ i 1:t 1 1 of sheet panels under combined stresses is
416 173 177 96 ’ 7 190 508 covered in considerable detail in Chapter C5.
A19.14 Bending and Shear Stress Analysis of 2-Cell
Fig. A19. 29 In plane forces produced by flange Multiple Stringer Tapered Cantilever
axial loads. wing.

The moments of these In plane components about A two-cell beam is also quite common in
the section c.g. are given in Columns (5) and Wing structural design. A two-cell structure
(8) of Table A19.5. In general, these moments in bending and torsion is statically indeter-
are not large. mlnate to the second degree since the shear
flow at any one point in each cell Is unknown.
Total Moments of All Forces About Se&Ion c.g. However, due to continuity between cells the
at Statlon 20: angular twist of each cell must be the same,
which gives the additional equation necessary
Due to flanges = 7160 - 2224 = 4936 in.lb. for solving a two-cell beam as compared to the
(Ref 0 Table A19.5) single cell analysis.

Due to assumed static shear flow = 256060 Example Problem

in.lb. (Ref. Table A19.4) To avold repetition of slmllar type calcu-
 A19. 21

lations as was used in the previous single cell The first 7 columns of this table are the same
r?rcblro::!
, , the bending and shear stresses will be as in Table A19.4, since no strlngers have been
deter::,inz,: for the same structure as in the added to cell (l), and the shear q Is assumed
prnvIo~c exa::nle except that the leading edge zero in cell (1).
cell is considered effect!ve, thus making a
2-cdl1 structure. Since there are no spanwlse To make the twist of each cell the same and
str,in,;ers In the leading edge, very little skin also to make the summation of all torsional
on the compressive side will be effective. On forces zero will require two unknown constant
the tension side , the leading edge skin would shear flows, q1 in cell (1) and q, In cell (2).
be effective In resisting bendlng axial loads Thus two equations will be written, namely:
and thus the moment of inertia would be slightly
dffferent from that found In example problem 1. Q, = Q, _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ (8)
Since this problem is only for the purpose of
Ill~~;stratin~; the use of’ the equations, the ~c*g*=o---------- ---- (9)
leadiE" Gdf:e skin ;vill be ne[;lectecl in computing
the b-riding fl-:xural stresses. ‘Xith this The twist 8 per unit length of a cell
assumption, the bending stresses and flange equals
lands at stations 20 and 47.5 are the same as
for the pravi ous nrobl.em e (See values in column Q= L..-ZqL/t -----------
1% 2nd 13 of Tables Al5.2 and A19.3. ) (10)

Shear Flow Calculations: - The modulus of rifridity G will be assumed con-

stant and thus will be omltted.
TO compute the static shear flow, each cell
is lissixied cut 2. t one point as shown In Fig. Consider cell (1): (Refer to Table A19.6,
hl5.31, and thu:: the shear flow Is zero at Columns 10 and 11)
?o:!;ts (a) and (b).
Area of ccl (1) q 83.5 sq. .n.
Fig. A19. 31

Q1 = &- 1 r z q L/t + r, q, L/t + Z q 8 L/t

1
Q,= l 0 + 1278 q, - 230 9, ,whence
2 x 83.5 - 1
\I 14 .
13 12 *. 11
-
10 ? lfl
Q, = 7.65 q1 - ..378 qg- - - - - - - - (a)

For cell (2):

Table A19.6 (Column 5) gives the value of
the stritlc shear flow under these assumptions. Area of cell (2) = 461.5 sq. in.

-I
TABLE A19.6
SHEAR FLOW - 2 CELL - MULTIPLE FLANGE TAPERED E
Flow Bet ween xtio
7
2

P
3
P
7 8 9
c
I 12 13

4*
14

I
at stn. at sta. mq L :ell Gii- 91 92
20 47.5 (in. 1 (1) (2) p+91"12
1 - 24::90 -18700 206.8 206.8 48.4 10000 5.75 29800 0 -317 -110.2
2 -14070 -12990 39.1 .04 144
-1lR90 -10710 42.9 245.9 43.8 10780 5.50 .04 137 33700 -317 - 71.1
3 288.8 42.8 12120 5.50 137 39600 8 -317 - 28.2
4 -11370 -10200 42.5 .04
331.3 42.6 14100 5.50 .04 137 45400 0 -317 14.3
5 -10.510 9320 43.3 374.6 43.6 16340 5.50 -317
6 -11090 l10000 39.6 .04 137 51400 0 57.6
-12880 139.0 414.2 42.0 17500 5.50 .04 137 56700 0 -317 97.2
7 -16700 108900 12.25 .032 382 211500 0 -317 236.2
8 "S-30 21'770 -198.7 .032 172 61000 0 -317 37.5
- 37.6 16800 5.5
9 11180 10140 11800 5.0 032 156 49400 0 -317 0
10 11170 10160 -36.7 11420 5.8 :032 181 50650 -317 - 37
11 6430 5240 -43.2 10000 5.8 .032 181 42900 z -317 - 80.2
12 10390 9410 -35.6 7850 5.3 .032 166 33400 0 -317 -115.8
13 9600 8470 -41.1 27600 0 -317 -156.9
8650 5.5 .032 172
14 23020 18600 160.3 0 11.75 230 0 0 -62.8 -317 -254.2
1
Lead
cdgc 0 -62.8 -62.8
web - -
Sum 256060 , 2469 0

NOTES: L = length of web sheet between flange members. col. 4 = (~01. 2 + Col. 3)/27.5
t = web thickness.
A19.22 ANALYSIS OF W G STRUCTURES

A19. 15 Bending Strength of Thick Skin - Wing Section

8, = 1 - 230 q, + 2469
2 x 461.5
Figs. i and k of Fig. A19.3 illustrate
approximate shapes for airfoils of supersonic
8, = 79.1 - 02495 q, + 2.670 q, - - - - (b)
aircraft. Such airfoils have relatively low
thickness ratios and since supersonic military
For continuity 8, must equal Q,, hence
aircraft have comparatively high wing loadings,
equating (a) and (b): it is necessary to go to thick skin in order to
reslst the wing bending moments efficiently.
7.899 q, - 4.056 q, - 794 = 0 - - - - (c)
The ultimate compressive stress of such struc-
tures can be made rather uniform and occurring
For equilibrium the summation of all mom-
at stresses considerably above the yield point
ents In the plane of the cross-section about the
section (e.g.) must be equal to zero, or of the material. Since structures must carry
the design loads without failure, it Is neces-
sary to be able to calculate the ultimate bend-
,TxMc.g. = 0 ing resistance of such a wing section if the
margin of safety is to be given for various
The moment of the external loads about the
section e.g. is the same as in previous problem. load conditions.

M = 41800 in.lb. The question of the ultimate bending

external forces resistance of beam sectlons that fail at stresses
beyond the elastic stress range is treated in
The induced moment due to the In plane
Article A13.10 and example problem 7 of Chapter
“ComDonents of the flange axial loads is likewise Al3 and should be studied again before pro-
the same as In previous problem (see Table
ceeding with the following example problem.
A19.5).
A19.16 Example Problem
M = 4936 in.lb.
due to flange loads
To illustrate the procedure of Art. A13.10,
The torsional moment due to the static a portion of a thick skin wing section as
shear flow from Column (7) of Table A19.6 equals illustrated in Fig. A19.34 will be considered.
256060 In.lb. The torque due to the unknown
constant shear floihis of q1 and q, is equal to k 6” 6” d , 3/E”
twice the enclosed area of each cell times the
shear flow in that cell, whence 7
3"
=2x83.5q, +2x461.6q,
M(due to q1 and q2)
=167q1+923 qa x I

Therefore ZMc.g. = 167 q1 + 923 q, +

302796 = 0 - - - - - (d)
I I
Solving equations (c) and (d), we obtain,
Fig. A19.34
q, = -62.8 lb./in., q, = -317 lb./In.
For slmpllcity the section has been drawn
These values are listed in columns (12) and (13) symmetrical about the x-x axis. The material
of Table A19.6. The final or resultant shear is aluminum alloy. In this problem the
flow q, on any sheet panel equals the sum of material stress-strain curves will be assumed
9 + 4, + q,. The results are shown in column the same in both tension and compression. The
(14) of Table A19.6. Fig. A19.32 shows the problem is to determine the margin of safety
potted shear flow pattern. Comparing this for this beam section when subjected to a
figure with Fig. A19.30 shows the effect of design bending moment Mx = 1,(350,000 In.lb.
adding the leading edge cell to the single cell
of the previous problem.
SOLUTION:

Since it is desirable to use the beam

foRIlUla Ob = Mxz/Ix, It is necessary to obtain
a modlfled beam section to correct for the non-
linear stress-strain relationshlp since the
glve structure will fail under stresses in the
inelastic zone. The maximum compressive stress
at surface of beam will be assumed at 50000 psi.
This value could be calculated from a consider-
 AlQ. 23

ation of crippling and column strength of the The values in column (3) of Table A19.7
stiffened skin, a subject treated later. represents the true compressive stress at the
midpoint of a strip area when the beam Is
Curve (A) of Fig. A19.35a is a portion of resisting its maximum or failing bending moment.
the compressive stress-strain diagram of the The values in column (4) represent the com-
aluminum alloy material from zero to 50,000 psi. pressive stress at the midpoint of the strip
areas If the bendlng stress is linear and vary-
Due to symmetry about the x-x axis, we ing from zero at neutral axis to 50000 psi at
need only to consider one half of the beam edge of beam section (Curve B of Fig. A19.35a).
section. We divide the upper half of the beam
section into horizontal strips, each 3/8 inch To illustrate, consider strip area number
thick e Each beam portion along these horizontal (2) in Fig. b of A19.35. Project a horizontal
strips can be placed together to form the areas’ dashed line from mldpoint of this strip until It
labeled (1) to (8) in Fig. b of Fig. A19.35. Intersects curves A and B at points (a) and (b)
Since plane sections remain plane after bending respectively. From these intersection points
In both elastic and inelastlc stress zones, project downward to read values of 48000 and
Fig. c shows the beam section strain picture. 40600 psi respectively.
Fig. A19.35 In USing the linear beam formula, the
Fig. c stress Intensity on strip (2) would be 40600
Fig. a Fig. b .Ol” in but actually it is 48000. The ratio between
.OlO (1) - - - : the two Is given the symbol K. Thus to modlfy
0”
.Fl -- -+2) ~-. - the linear stress to make it equal to the ’
2.008 nonlinear stress we increase the true strip
5 3 1 areas by the factor K, giving the results of
z .006
!a column (6).
3”
z .
5 .004 The modified moment of inertia (column 8)
B equals Ix = 115.52.
1: .002
3
lyT!
-- se --- The design bending moment was 1,850,OOO
0 in.lb.
u c x 1000 (psi) Consider point at midpoint of strip (1)
Z = 2.8125 inches
Table A19.7 shows the calculations for
obtaining the modified moment of inertia of the
cross-section to use with the linear beam C,b = Mx Z/I, = (1,850,OOO x 2.8125)/115.52
formula. = 45100 psi.
TABLE A19.7
This stress Is based on the modified strip
areas. The true stress 0b(t) on strip 1 thus
equals KCJb = 1.049 x 45100 q 47400. The allow-
able stress at failure equals 49200 from column
(3) of Table A19.7. Hence margin of safety =
(49200/47400) - 1 = .04 or 4 percent.

The margin of safety for other points on the

I I I beam section will likewise be 4 percent. For ex-
4 0.211 43200128100 1.539 0.324 1.6875 0.92
ample at midpoint of strip(3),Z q 2.0625. K=1.34
5 0.211 39200 21840 1.790 0.378 1.3125 0.65
6 0.211 33200115620 2.121 0.449 0.9375 0.38
whence uCt = [(1,850,000 x 2.0625)‘115.52]1.34
7 0.211 20500 9360 2.190 0.461 0.5625 0.15 = 44400.
8 10.211 70001 3120) 2.240 1 0.473 (0.1875( 0.02
whence margin of safety = (46000/44400)
Z
57. 76
2
-l= .04
I, = 115.52
Col. (2) = Area of Strip The moment of inertia wlthout modifying
Col. (3) Stress at midpoint of strip as read from Curve (A) the strip areas would come out to be Ix = 104.42
Col. (4) Stress at midpoint of strip as read from Curve(B) hence the stress at midpoint of strip (1) would
Col. (5) Nonlinear Correction Factor K = Bc/cJc’ calculate to be Ob = (1,850,OOO x 2.8125)/104.42
Col. (6) Modified Area = Ae = KA = 49900. The allowable strL,ss for linear Stress
Col. (7) Arm from Neutral Axis to Midpoint of Strip
Col. (8) Modified section moment of inertia
variation would be 46900 from column (4) of
Table. Hence margin of safety WOUld be
A19.24 ANALYSIS OF WING STRUCTURES

(46900/49900) - 1 = -.06. The elastic theory ) A19.18 Shear Lag Influences

thus gives a margin of safety 10 percent less In the beam theory, the assumption Is made
than the strength given when true stress-straln that plane sections remain plane after bending.
or non-linear relationshlp is used. In a beam involving sheet and stringer panels,
this assumption means that the sheet panels
If the same comparison was made for bending have infinite shearing rigidity, which of course
about Z axis of this same beam sectlon the is not true as shearing stresses produce shear-
difference would be considerably more than 10 ing strains. The effect of sheet panel shear
percent as more beam area is acting in the strains is to cause some stringers to resist
region of greater discrepancy between curves A less axial load than those calculated by beam
and B. theory. This decreased effectiveness of
A19. 1’7 Application to Practical Wing Section
stringers is referred to as “shear la;~” effect,
since some stringers tend to lag back from the
A practical wing section involves these posltlon they would take if plane sections re-
facts: - (1) The section 1s unsymmetrical; main plane after bending.
(2) external load planes change their direction
under different flight conditions; (3) the In general, the shear lag effect in sheet-
material stress-strain curves are different in stringer structures is not appreciable except
tension and compression in the inelastic range. for the following situations: -

Since the stress analyst must determine (1) Cutouts which cause one or more stringers
critical margins of safety for many conditions, to be discontinued.
it would be convenient to Uve an interaction
curve involving; Mx and Mz bending moments which (2) Large abrupt changes in external load
would cause failure of the wing section. This applications.
interaction curve could be obtained as follows:-
(3) Abrupt changes in stringer areas.
(1) Choose a neutral axis direction and its
location. In Chapters A7 and A8, strains due to
shearing stresses were considered in solving
(2) Assuming that plane sections remain plane, for distortions and stresses in structures in-
and taking the maximum strain as that volving sheet-stringer construction. Even in
causing failure of the compressive flange, these so-called rigorous methods, simplifying
use the stress-stmln curve to de’cennlne assumptions must be made as for example, shear
the longitudinal stress and then the stress is constant over a particular sheet
internal load on each element of the cross- panel and estimates of the modulus of rigidity
sectlon. A check on the location of the for sheet panels under a varying state of
assumed neutral axis is that the total buckling must be made. The number of stringers
compression on cross-section must equal and sheet panels in a normal wing Is large,
total tension. Since the location was thus the structure is statically indeterminate
assumed or guessed, the neutral axis must to many degrees and solutions necessitate the
be moved parallel to itself to another use of high speed computers. Before such
location and repeated until the above analyses can be made, the size and thickness of
check is obtained. each structural part must be known, thus rapid
approximate methods of stress analysis are
(3) Find the internal resisting moment about desirable in obtainlng accurate prellmlnary
the neutral axis and an axis normal to the slzes to use In the more rigorous elastic
neutral axes. Resolve these moments into analys Is.
moments about x and z axes or M, and M,.
These resulting values of Mx and M, are To Illustrate the shear lag problem in its
bending moments which acting together will simplest state, consider the three stringer-
cause failure of the wing in bending. sheet panel unit of Fig. A19.36. The three
stringers are supported rigidly at B and equal
(4) Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 for several other loads P are applied to the two edge stringers
dlrections for a neutral axis which results labeled (1) at point (A). The center stringer
will give additional combinations of Mx (2) has zero axial load at (A), but as end B is
and Mz moments to cause wing failure. Thus approached, the sheet panels transfer some of
an interaction curve Involving values of the load P to the center stringer by shear
M, and M, which cause failure of wlng in stresses in the sheet. At the support points B
bending is obtained and thus the margln of the transfer of load from side stringers to
safety for any design condition is readily center stringer is such as to make the load in
obtainable. all three stringers approximately equal or
equal to 2P/3.
 A19.25
I

,W A equals 3b, At becam scctlon 2-2 stringers (5)

B
ZP, 3 - q n-+p t
and (7) have bcco-ne effective since they Inter-
sect trisnr;le at points (a) on section 2-2. At
section 3-3 point, c, stringer (6) becomes fully
effective.
2P/3 - 11-P A
‘(1) A To hsni!le shear laz effect in a practical
wlnrr probl~em another column would be inserted
Fig. A19.36 In Talle h19.1 between columns (3) and (4) to
take care of the shear 1~: ef feet . The shear
lag effectiveness factor which we will call R
The theorct:cal load in center rtrinyer would equal the effectiveness obtained from a
can b, caiculatr:d by methods of Chapter A7 and trIan-le such as illustrated in Fig. Al>,.;‘:.

L:G;JIU
AC, and the results would ,;ive the solId curve
0:’ Fik;. klt.37. To sim.;‘li:‘y the soliution, it For example, the shear lag factor R at
Is common practice to assune the load dlstrl- beam section 1-l In Fig. !dS.S~ be ~91‘0
butlon in the center stringer to vary accordin? for stringers (5), (6) and (7) and one for all
to the dashed curve in Fig. A19.37 which other stringers. At bean section 2-2 stringers
inllcntes that in a distance 3b, the load 2P (5) and (7) have a factor R = 1.0 since they
is cqaallzed between the three strinpers. are fully effective at polnts (a). Strlnger
(6) Is only 50 percent effective since section
2-2 Is hnlfkvay from section l-1 to point (c),
thus R = 0.5 for stringer (6). At beam section
3-3, strin?cr, (6) becomes fully effective and
thus R = 1.0 for all stringers. The final
modified stri::~~;er area (A) in column (4) of
Table Al:,.? .:~.:~~ul,!th::n equal Lhe true stringer
0)- area plus its effective skin times the factors
B KR. The procedure from this point would be the
I---3b IA scan8 as discussed before. Thus shear lag ap-
Fig. A19.37 proximations can be handled quite easily by
modifyint: the stringer areas. Using these
A19.19 Application of Shear Lag Approximation to mod1 f led stringer areas, the true total loads
Wing with Cut-Out. In the stringers are obtained. Tho true stresses
equal these loads divided by the true Stringer

SLU-f%‘Ce
Fig. A19.38 shows the top of a multiple area, not the mo:lified area.
stringer %lng which includes a cut-out In the
* The stringers (5), (6) and (7) must A19.20 Approximate Shear Lag Effect in Beam Regions
be discontinued through the cut-out region. where Large Concentrated Loads are Applied.
3 2 !

for
tiing and fuselage structures are often re-
I I quired to resist large concentrated forces as
n/7
example power plant reactlons, landing gear
reactions, etc. To illustrate, Fig. A19.39
reprcscnts a landing condltlon, with vertical
load. The win; is a box beam with 7 strlngcrs

,_\Top Surface A
Effective-
\9ness Tri-
\

3 2 i
\“f;ir 1 4 t c
Fig. A19.38
’ Dead wt.
inertia forces II
It IS assumed that the effectiveness of
these 3 Interrupted stringers is given by the
triangles In the figure. At beam section l-1
these stringers have zero end load. The
stringer load Is then assumed to increase
1Inearly to full effectiveness when It inter-
sects the sides OS this triangle whose height Fig. A19.39
A19.26 ANALYSIS OF WI 3 STRUCTURES

and flange members. Fig. (a) shows the bending

moment diagram due to the landing gear reaction
alone. The internal resistance to this bending
moment cannot be uniform on a beam section
adjacent to section A-A because of the shear
strain In the sheet panels or what Is called
shear lag effect. To approximate this stringer
effectiveness, a shear lag triangle of length
3b is assumed, and the same procedure as
dlscussed in the previous article on cut-outs
Is used in finding the longitudinal stresses.
It should be understood that the bending moments
due to the distributed forces on the wing such
as air loads and dead weight inertia loads are
not included in the shear lag considerations,
only the forces that are applied at concentrated
points on the structure and must be distributed
into the beam. A side load on the gear or
power plant would produce a localized couple
plus an axial force besides a shear force as in
Fig. A19.39. The resistance to this couple and
axial force would likewIse be based on the
effectiveness triangle in Flg. A19.39. Fig. A19.41

A19.21 Approximation of Shear Lag Effect for Sudden lntenslty acting upward in the z direction
Change in Stringer Area and 0.25 lb./in.* average intensity acting
rearward in the x direction. The center of
Stringers of one size are often Spliced to pressure for z forces is on the 25 percent
stringers of smaller size thus creating a dis- of chord line measured from the leading edge
continuity because of the sudden change in edge and at mid-height of spar AB for the
stringer area. x air forces. Assume the 3 stringers A,
B, C develop the entire resistance to ex-
Fig. A19.40 shows the stringer arrangement
ternal bending moments. Find axial loads
in a typlcal sheet-stringer wing. Stringer B in stringers A, B, C and the shear flow in
Is spliced at point indicated. The stringer the 3 sheet panels of cell (1) at wing
area A, Is decreased suddenly by splicing into
statlons located 50”, 100” and 150” from
a stringer with less area A,. wing tip. Consider structure to rear of
cell (1) as only carrying airloads forward
Top Surface of Wing
to cell (1) and not resisting wing torsion
or bending.
Fig. A19.42

Fig. A19.40

To approximate the shear lag effect,

assume the area of stringer B at splice point
to be the average area of the two s-ides or
(A, + J-,)/2. Thls average area is then assumed
to taper to A, and A, at a distance 3b from the
splice point. The shear lag effectiveness
factor R will therefore be greater than 1.0 on
the side toward the smaller stringer A, and
less than one on the side toward the stringer
with the greater area A,, since the average (2) Fig. A19.42 shows a monoplane wing with
area was used for the splice point. one external brace strut. The wing is
fastened to fuselage by single pins at
A19.22 Problems polnts (a) and (b). The fitting at (b) is
designed to take off drag reaction. The
(1) Fig. A19.41 shows a cantilever, 3 stringer airloads are wz = 40 lb./in. of wing Span,
single cell wing. It Is subjected to a wlth center of pressure at 30 percent of
dlstrlbuted alrload of 2 lb./In.’ average chord from leading edge and acting upward,
 - A19.27

and wx = 5 lb./in., acting to rear and Table A gives the stringer areas at sta-
located at mid-depth of wing. Find re- tions 0 and 150. AssLrme stringers have
actions at points (a), (b) and (d). Find linear variation in area between these two
axial loads on front and rear spars, Find stations. Use 30t as effective skin with
primary bending moments on front spar. compression stringers.
Fini shear flow on webs and walls. Neglect
structure forward of front spar and rear- Find axial loads In stringers at stations
ward of rear spar. 150 and 130 and determine shear flow
system at station 150.
(3) Fig. A19.43 shows a portion of a single
cell - multiple stringer cantilever wing. (4) Same as problem (3) but add an internal
The external air loads are: web of .04 thickness connecting stringers
(3) and (8).
wz = 100 lb./In. acting upward and whose
center of pressure is along a y axis coin- (5) Same as problem (4) but add a leading edge
ciding with stringer (8). cell with radius equal to one-half the
front spar depth. Take skin thickness as
wx = 6 lb./in. acting to rear and located 1 .04 inches.
at mid-depth of Wing.

-T 7
TABLE A

1 III 4
k3+3+3+ 3
- 12 -3

STA. 0

4---+-T
r. 032

-f iT
STA. 150 STA. 0

Fig. A19.43
A19.28 ANALYSIS OF WING STRUCTURES

N~II(, Intrgral Construc,tion of Skm and Stringers. -

North American Aviation F-100 “Super Sabre” Wing. View Shows End
of Outer Wing Panel. Note Thick Skin.

.j,’ .I*
-, -.. -

View Showing Lower Surface of outer WingPanel

Between Center and Rear Spar.
 CHAPTEK A20
INTRODUCTION TO FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS

A20. 1 General. In ,general the purpose of an air- to Chapter AS, where example calculations of
plane is to transport 3 commercial payload or a fuselace shears and moments are presented.
military useful load. The commercial Tayloal
of a modern alrllner may be 100 or more pass- The basic fuselage structure Is essentially
engers and their bageace. These passcn~~crs a sln?le cell thin walled tube with many trans-
must be t.rans:>orted saf\ily ana comfortrC,1;1. verse frames or rin-s and longitudinal stringers
For exs;?lr?le , an airllner flies at hiF-‘l altrtttdes to provide a combined structure which can absorb
where temneratures may bo far belolrr zero and and transmit the many concentrated and distri-
where the air density is such as not to s>Astain buted applied forces safely and efficiently.
human lif;. These facts mean that the body The fuselage is essentially a beam structure
which carries the nassenb;ors must b-: hsated, subjected to bending, torsional and axial
ventilated and pressurizes to provide the forces D The ideal fuselage structure would be
necessary safety. Air trace1 must be acceptable one free of cut-outs or discontinuities, how-
to the passengers, thus the airplane body must ever a practical fusela::e must have many cut-
shield the passengers frcm exe?,-Five noise and outs. Fir‘. (a) shows the basic interior fuse-
vibration, and furthermore efficient, restful lage structure of a small airplnne with skin
and attractive furnish!nn;s must Se provided to removed. It consists of transverse frames and
make travel enroute comfortatlz and enjoyable. loncitcdinal strlnyers. Photographs 1, 2 and 3
The portion of the ?irplane .::hich houses the illustrate fuselage construction of late model
passenger s on payload is referred to as the large aircraft a
fusela,;e. Fuselalec vary greatly in size and
configuration. For exr!m:,le, the fuselaF;e of a
supersonic military air?lans may house only one
passenger, the pilot, the remainder of the
fuselage interior space being used to house the
power plant, to provide retracting space for
landing gear, and to house the many mechanical
and electronic installations which are necessary
to “fly the airplane and carry out the various
operations for which the airplane was designed
to accomplish. Many groups of engineers with
various backgrounds of training and experience
are therefore concerned with the design of the
fuselage e The structures engineer plays a very
important Part because he Is responsible for
the strength, rlgldity and light weight of the
fuselage structure. fig. (a)
A20. 2 Loads. Basic Structure.

The wing, being the lifting body is sub-

jected to large distributed surface air forces,
whereas the fuselage Is subjected to relatively
small surface air forces. The fuselage Is sub-
jected to large concentrated forces such as the
wing reactions, landing gear reactions, empen-
nage reactlons, etc. In addition the fuselage
houses many items of various sizes and weights
which therefore subject the fuselage to large
Inertia forces. In addition, because of high
altltude flight, the fuselage must withstand
internal pressures, and to handle these internal
pressures efflclently requires a circular cross-
section or a combination of circular elements.

The student should refer to Chapter A4 for PHOTO. NO. 1

further Giscussion of loads on aircraft and also Fuselage Construction of Fairchild F-27 Transport

A20.1
A20. 2 FUSEL,AGE STRESS ANALYSIS

PHOTO. NO. 2
View Lookmg Inside uf Rear Port~rrn of Fuselage
uf Bcech(,raft Twin-Bonanza Airplane.

PHOTO. NO. 3
Fuselage Construction of Boeing
707 Jet AIrliner.

(FOR GENERAL DETAILS OF DOUGL.4S DC-E FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION SEE PAGE A15.32)
 A20.3

A20. 3 Stress Analysis Methods. Effective Cross- (1) A small width of sheet w I on each side of
Section. the attachment line of skin to stringer Is
considered as carrying the same compressive
It Is common practice to use the simplified stress as the stringer, as was discussed in
beam theory in calculating the stresses In the Chapter A19. These effective sheet widths
skin and stringers of a fuselage structure. If w, are shown as the blackened elements ad-
the fuselage Is pressurized, the stresses in the jacent to the strlngers on the compressive
skin due to this internal pressure must be added side in Fig. A20.1.
to the stresses which resist the flight loads.
In wings the skin in the middle region of the
airfoil is relatively flat and thus the skin is (2) The remalnder of the curved sheet between
strlngers, namely, b-(w, + ws) carries R
usually consldered as made up of flat sheet maximum compressive stress ecr = .3 E t/r.
panels. In fuselages, however, the skln is This value for (3cr is Conservative. E Is
curved and curved sheet panels have a higher the modulus of elasticity of the skin
critical compressive buckling stress than flat material, t the skin thickness, and r the
panels of the same size and thickness. In radius of curvature of the skin. These
small alrplanes, the radius of curvature of the curved sheet elements are shown by the
fuselage skln is relatively small and thus the hatched skin lengths In Fig. A20.1.
additional buckling strength due to this curva-
ture may be appreciable. A simple procedure of Since the thin curved skin between the
approximately including the effect of sheet stringers normally buckles under a compressive
curvature will now be explained. stress far below the buckling strength of the
stringers, the curved sheet is treated as an
F1g. A20.1 illustrates a distributed element with varying effective thickness which
stringer type of fuselage sectlon. Assume that
depends on the ratlo of the curved sheet buck-
external loads are applied which produce bending llng stress ocr to the bending stress ob exiet-
of the beam about the Y axis with compresslon on Ing at that point for bendlng of the fuselage
the upper portion of the cell. section. Hence the effective sheet thickness
for the curved sheet panels can be wrItten,

te = t (+/ab) - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
3 / 18 -
or an effective area can be written

Ae = b’t (e&eb) - - - - - - - - - - (2)

where b’ is the width of curved sheet between

the effective sheet widths w,, w,, etc. (See
Fig. A20.1).
N. A. To illustrate this approach In obtalnlng
the effective cross-sectlon of a fuselage
section, an example problem will be presented.
The example problem will be broadened to some
extent for the purpose of Introducing the stu-
dent to design procedure.

A20.4 Example Problem.

z Fig. A20.1 Let It be requlred to determine the stringer
arrangement for the approximate elliptical
Up to the point of buckling of the curved sheet shaped fuselage section shown In Fig. A20.2.
between the skin stringers, all the material in
the beam section can be considered fully effec- The following data will be assumed: -
tive and the bending stresses can be computed
by the general flexure formula ob = MZ/Iy, Design bending moment about y axis = 1,600,OOO
where Iy is the centroldal moment of inertia of in. lb. (producing compresslon on upper portion 1.
the entire sectlon. When a bending compresslon Zee str lngers , one inch deep and with an area
stress Is reached which causes the curved sheet equal to 0.12 sq. In. shall be used.
between stringers to buckle, a re-arrangement The ultimate compressive strength of the zee
takes place in the stress dlstrlbutlon on the stringer plus Its effective skin and a length
sectlon as a whole. Theory as well as experi- equal to fuselage frame spacing Is assumed to
mental results indicate that the ultlmate com- be 32000 psl. The skln thickness Is .032 and
pressive strength of a curved sheet with edge all material is (2024) alumlnum alloy with E =
stringers can be approximated by the fOllOWlng 10,300,000 psi. The fuselage stringers are to
two assumptions. be syrmnetrlcal about section center lines.
A20.4 FUSELAGE ST RI 5SS ANALYSIS

x w = 1.7x .032i/10,300,000/32000 = .C75 in.

T
which equals a ividth of .97,1/.032 = 30.5 sheet
thicknesses. Since the bending stress decreases
to zero as the neutral axis is approached, and
since the curved sheet between the Z stringers
can carry loads u3 to its bucklInK stren@h, a
preliminary value of effective width w = 40t
will be assumed acting with each stringer. Thus
total area of stringer plus effective skin
equals 0.12 + 40 x .032= = 0.16 sq. In. The
Height = 50” number of strinqers required is therefore 2.00/
Width = 30” 0.16 = 12.
\
Fig. A20.2 sho,rds how the stringers were
placed to o;ive 12 Ftringers on the top half.
Since the skin on the lower half is in tension
and therefore fully effective, the neutral axis
will fall below the center line and thus the
two stringers on the center line will be con-
sldered as part of the required 12 stringers.
A fuselaae cross-section has no’j~ been obtained.
The desired final result is that the maximu?l
Fig. A20. 2 compressive stress will be near but not over
32000 psi. The procedure from this point is
still a trial and error process since the
Symmetrical about
effective sheet on the compressive side depends
on the ma-nitude of the compressive bsnding
stress which in turn is influenced by the amount
Location of stringers of effective sheet and the buckling load carried
g below Y’-Y’ same as by the curved sheet.
above Y’-Y’ .
Usin:; the preliminary stringer arrangement
Solution: of Fig. A20.2, Tables A20.1 arid A20.2 give the
calculation of the effective momsnt of Inertia
The first thing to d3 Is to determine ap- of the section about ths horizontal neutral
proximately how many Z stringers will be re- axis, Table A20.1 deals ;Nith the stringers and
quired so that a sectIon can be obtained to the effective sheet elements and Table A20.2
‘work wl th . Since the internal resisting: mom- deals with the curved buckled sheet elements.
ent must equal the external bending moment, one
can guess at the internal resistins couple in In the trial No. 1, the following assump-
terms of total compressive flange stress and an tions are made:
effective Internal couple arm.
(1) A width of 30 thicknesses of skin act
For elliptical and circular sections with with each stringer on the upper or compressive
distributed flange material, the approximate side.
effective resisting arm of the internal couple
can be taken as 0.75 times the height h, and (2) The area of the curved sheet bet\*lecn
the average tenslon or compressive stress as the effective sheet widths as found in (1) is
2/3 the maximum stress. Thus equating the modified to Rive an effective area by multi-
external bending moment to the internal resist- plying by a K factor Of ocr/ob, where 5cr IS
ing moment an approximate total area A, for the the buckling compressive stress and Ob is the
compressive side of the fuselage section can be bending stress at the center of the curved she.:t
obtained. element ass;uning 32000 at the extreme upper
fiber of the beam section and zero at the hori-
zontal center line, with linsar variation in
MY = A, (.67 ob)(.75 h), whence,
between these points.
1,600,OOO
A, = .75x50x.67x32000 = 2.0 sq. in. NOTE: Since the entire skin on the 1orJer half
is effective, a more logical assumption would
Part of this total area is provided by the be to guess at the location of the neutral axis
effective skin area. The effective width to and use a variation of Ob between the neutral
use with each rivet line equals w = Ct &K. axis and the extreme fiber. This approach will
We will take C = 1.7 which is a commonly used not be used in this example.
value.
 A20.5

TABLE A20.1

TRIAL NO, 1 TRIAL NO. 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
- Explanatory Notes for Table A20.1
ii . IN 6
N cg a;
Q) I t: -4 B TRIAL NO. 1
g$ Area 2 B x a: co1 . 1For numbering of stiff-
4 iz 1/1 II Q,k
63~) a Arm az' azV2 il I
PI 9:
‘4-i (d
wcu az a2 2 eners and sheet elements, see
Fig. A20.2.
-VI l
w l

g g sq.in. 2' I

27 g'tl
2%
II

r( g II ir &:w Cal. 2 Stiffener area = .12 +

w N
- 30 x .032 x ,032 = .15
2 .15 24.2 3.63 87.8 27.58 -30020 1.0 .032 .152 4.19 115.4 sq. in. For
stiffeners
c 4 .15 22.0 3.30 72.6 25.38 -27700 1.03 ,033 .153 3.88 98.5 2, 4, 6, 8, 10. Below
1 6 .15 18.2 2.73 49.7 21.58 -23550 1.12 .036 .156 3.36 72.4 the centerline each
W8 .15 13.3 1.99 26.4 16.68 -18200 1.28 .041 .161 2.69 44.7 stiffener is considered
@ 10 .15 6.9 1.04 7.2 10.28 -11200 1.66 .053 .173 1.78 18.3 acting separately. The
2 12 .12 0 0 0 3.38 - 3680 2.88 .092 .212 0.72 2.4 entire skin between
; 13 .224 -3.2 -0.72 2.3 -0.18 .224 - .04 0.7 stiffeners is consider-
@ 14 .120 -6.9 -0.83 5.7 -3.52 ,120 -0.42 1.5 ed as a unit.
2 15 .224 -10.1 -2.28 23.0 -6.72 fj tz .224 -1.52 10.2 Col. 3 All arms z' are measur-
w 16 .12 -13.3 -1.60 21.3 -9.92 ; VI
tn .12 -1.19 11.8 4.5 ed to horizontal cen-
417 .160 -15.8 -2.53 40.0 -12.42 wii : .160 -1.99 24.7 terline axis.
m 18 ,122 -18.2 -2.19 39.8 -14.82 E-c .12 -1.78 26.4
t19 .16 -20.3 -3.24 65.8 -16.92 ! .16 -2.70 45.6 TRIAL NO. 2
M20 -22.0 -2.64 58.0 -18.62 ,E .12 -2.24 41.6 Col. 6 z = distance to neutral
:21 .16
.12 -23.7 -3.80 90.0 -20.32 w .16 -3.25 66.0 axis as found from re-
$22 .12 -24.2 -2.90 70.2 -20.82 g i .12 -2.50 52.1 sults of Trial No. 1.
m23 ,088 24.9 -2.19 54.5 -21.52 si z . .088 -1.89 40.7 col. 7 ab = 1600000 z/1470
Col. 8 - effective width based
SUM P 2.49 -12.23 714.3 2.627 -2.86 673 on stress in Col. 7
i L

TABLEA20.2

'RIAL NO, 1 TRIAL NO, 2

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 / 13 17 18
IN

<
b' t r c, z' az' azT2 az az 2
i II
w *;
N

k I
wcr) n
b 9 N

11 - 9000 -31900 24.9 0.50 12.4 28.28 -30800 .59 16.7

11 -9000 -30300 23.7 0.90 21.3 27.08 -29500 1.06 28.7
24 -4510 -26000 20.3 0.45 9.1 23.68 -25800 0.52 12.3
38 -2600 -20200 15.8 0.25 3.9 19.18 -20900 0.29 5.5
38 -2600 -12900 10.1 0.40 4.0 13.48 -14700 0.42 5.7
38 -2600 - 4100 3.2 0.42 1.3 6.58 - 7200 0.36 2.4

I TOI'ALS 2.92 52.0

.I TOTALS .183 3.24 71.3

Explanatory Notes for Table A20.2 Explanatory Notes for Table A20.2

I Trial No.
Cal.
Col.
1
1,
5.
2,
'
3,
-
4 (see Fig. A20.1
E = 10,300,OOO
for meaning
for aluminum
of terms)
alloys
Trial No.
Cal.
2
12 z - distance
as found
to neutral
in results
axis
of Trial
Col. 6 Db varies as a straight line from 32000 at No. 1
top of cell to zero at centerline Cal. 13 Gb = 1600000 z/1470
Cal. 9 Z’ z distance from centroid of element to Cal. 14 based on stress ab of Col. 13
centerline axis of cell

Results of Trial No. 1 Results of Trial No. 2

Considering results of both Tables and multiplying by 2 since Total effective area I (2.627 + .183)2 = 5.62
only one half of cell was c,(>nsidered:
z az I (-2.86 + 3.24)2 - 0.76
La = total effective area = (2.49 + .266)2
ZH. 76/5.62 s .135” above N.A. of trial 1.
I) 5.51 sq. in.
'NA = 2(673 -I- 71.3) - 5.62 x .1352 = 1489
< az' . (-12.23 + 2.9212 3 -18.62

d 1 Zaz'/Ca p -18.62/5.51 I -3.38"

INA = 2t714.3 + 52) - 5.51 x -A- 1470 in.4

A20.6 FUSELAGE ST RESS ANALYSIS
4

Du3 to the s;mif&r;,T of the section, Tables v

-2 Zaz
A20.1 an,3 A20 ,,E -:‘Iw caIcu12tions for only one- ‘N.A. = ‘o + Iy
half of the materi 1, thus the results are
milt ipli ed by Wro . General explanatory notes .0132 V, lb./in.
= ’ + --.-Es-
1489 19.67
OJ )
q
ar5 given belolz each table.

Th2 results of trial No. 1 give a neutral The shear stress ?; = q/t = ,Ol32 V&032 = A.3
axis 3.3@’ below the center line and a. moment of VZ
inertia of 1470 in.*. In Trial No. 2, the ef-
fective sheet ldidths are based on the moment of The average shear stress on the section would
inertia of 1470. The results of trial No. 2 be IT;av. = -V,/2ht = VZ/2x50x.032 = .312 V,.
give a moment of inertia of 1489 in.4 with a
neutral axis .135” above the first locatj.on. If Thus for this shape of cross-section and
a third trial were used, makin? use of the 1489 stringer arrangement the maximum shear stress
moment of inertia, the change would be quite is .413/.312 times the average shear stress or
small since the effect of a small change in approximately 4/3 times as large.
stress on the effective she& width is negligi-
ble. The procedure as given above is quite con-
servative relative to the true or actual margin
The compressive stress on stringer No. 2 of safety, because a linear variation of stress
using the resulting moment of inertia and with strain has been assumed and failure of the
neutral axis location, therefore becomes section is assumed to occur when the most remote
stringer reaches its ultimate compressive stress.
Ob = MyZ/‘Iy = 1,6OO,OOOx2?.45/1489 =29,500 Actually in a static test of a fuselage to
Psi destruction, the fuselage section as a whole
will not collapse when one stringer buckles,
The allowable stress was 32000, hence the but will continue to take increasing load until
margin of safety is (32000/29500) - 1 = .08 or other stringers have reached their ultimate
eight percent. If a smaller margin of safety strength. Furthermore, in a typical fuselage
was desired some material would be eliminated structure, stringers of various sizes, shanes
and the calculations of Tables A20.1 and A20.2 and therefore different compressive strengths
would be repeated. are used, and thus to obtain a better measure
of the ultimate strength of a fuselage section,
Calculation of Shear Stress in Skin at Neutral modifications in stress procedures are made to
measure stringer effectiveness. This subject
was discussed in some detail in Arts. 11 and 12
The equation for the shear flo;nl q at some of Chapter A19. To illustrate stringer effect-
point on the skin is, iveness in fuselage bending stress analysis, a
simple example problem will be presented,
V
9 =q,--pzaz------------ (3) A20. 5 Ultimate Bending Strength of Fuselage Section.
Y Example Calculation.
Due to symmetry of cross-section about the 2
axis the shear flow q. is zero at a point on Fig, A20.3 shows the cross-section of a
circular fuselage. The 2 stringers are arranged
the center line Z axis, The surmnation of the
swmetrically with respect to the center line
term az LetLueen a 1Doint on the 2 axis and the 2 and X axes.
neutral axis is given i,n Table A20.3. The
values of areas (a) and arms (z) are taken Three sizes of 2 stringers are used as
from Tables A20.1 2nd A20,2, illustrated in Fi& A20.4 and are labeled S,,
TABLE A20.3
S, and S,. These symbols
are used on Fig.
A20.3 to indicate where each type of stringer
______-
Element No. Is used. The stringers on each side of the
____- section are numbered 1 to 13 as shown on Fig.
(1) .021(28.28 - .13) s 0.59
(2) .152(27.58 - .13) m 4.17 A20.3. Fig. A20.5 shows a plot of the stress-
(3) .o39(27.08 - .13) = 1.05 strain curve for the three stringer types loaded
(4) J53f25.38 - .13) = 3.86
I (5) .022(23.68 - .13) = 0.52 in compression and with a column length equal to
1 J56(21.58 - .13) I 3,34 the fuselage frame spacing. Fig. A20.5 also
I la; .015(19.18 - .13) = 0.28
03) 161(16.68 2 .13) = 2.66 shows a tension stress-strain diagram for the
/ (9) :031(13.48 - ,131 = 0.41
I (10) .173(10.28 - .13) P 1.75 material which is aluminum alloy (2024). The
/
(11) .055(6.58 - .13) = 0.35 ultimate bending strength will be calculated
j-12)-____ i l 212<3,38~~.13) for bending which places the upper portion in
--.---_-- -.-- Tot_a_l..-gz
-- -
compression.
Substituting in equation (3)
 _ _-.---- -”

A20.7

- ll .006 Xnce the location o f the neutral axis 1s

unknown, a location will be assu-ned, naxmly, 7
Skin inches below the center line axis as shown in
Fig, A20.3. The entire calculations for deter-
mining the effective moment of inertia can best
be done in Table form, as shown in Table A20.4.
Due to syr-mmetry about the Z axis only one-half
of the structure need be consldered since the
results can be multiplied by two.

Column (1) lists the stringer numbers

relative to location and Column (2) according
Neutral Axis to types S,, S, and S,. Column (3) gives the
stringer area, On the tension or lower side of
the section, the skin is all effective and that
area of skin halfway to each adjacent stringer
is assumed to act with stringers n;unbered 9 to
13 . 0036 13 and this skin area is recorded in Column (5).
I
Fig. a On the compressive side the skin is only
Strain partially effective. The effective width w for
Fig. A20.3 Diagram each stringer rivet line depends on the stringer
stress. We will take the effective width w =
1.9t j,/E7G& The effective area Ae ~111 then
equal wt. These effective skin areas are re-
corded in Column (5), In solvino; this equation
the stringer stress aST has been taken as -36500
psi on stringer number (l), and then varying
linearly to zero at the neutral axis as indi-
L I UrCA I-1 cated in Column (4). This assumption is not
Stringer S, Stringer S, Stringer Sa true but accurate enough to obtain effective
Area = .135 Area = .18 Area = .08 skin areas. To illustrate, consider stringer
Fig. A20.4
number (1). The effective area Ae equals wt Iz =
1.9 x .0322(10,300,000/36500)-$ = .032 sq, in.
Column (6) gives the sum of the stringer and
effective skin areas or A, + Ae.

In this example problem, the effectiveness

of the curved sheet panels between the sheet
effective widths will be neglected since its in-
fluence is small. It could be included as il-
lustrated in the previous example problem.
Column (7) lists the distances from the assumed
neutral axis to the centroid of each stringer-
skin unit. We now assume that plane sections
remain plane or a linear strain variation.
Referring to Fig. A20.5, it is noticed that when
a unit strain of .006 is obtained in stringer
S, type the compressive stress is 36500, which
represents its ultimate stress. Stringer (1)
1s of S, type and is located farthest from
the neutral axis. Sub. Fig. (a) of Fig. ~20.3
shows the strain diagram with .006 at stringer
(1) and varying as a straight line to zero at
the neutral axis. Column (8) of Table A20.4
records the unit strain at each stringer cen-
troid. The true stress at each stringer point
due to these strain values is read from the
curves on F1g. A20.5 and recorded in column (9
of the Table. It should be noted that stringer
(3) although closer to the neutral axis than
stringer (1) carries a higher stress than
stringer (1). This is possible because when
stringer (1) reaches 1ts maximum-stress, it
bends but continues to hold the same stress with
A20.8 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS

TABLE A20.4
.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13

Effect- Total Stress

Stringer Stringer Linear Arm Unit KAZ2
ive Skin Stringer z1 Strain AT&. K=o/& KA
1 Area Stress KAzl I (z = z’)
Area Area
Nd. TYPe As ait (in) & CT
Ae A
1 Sl 0.135 -36500 .032 .167 35.7 -.00600 -36500 1.00 .167 5.96 213

2 Sl 0.135 -34700 .034 .169 33.8 -.0057 -36500 1.05 .178 6.00 203
3 s2 0.180 -31000 .036 .216 30.3 -.0051 -39100 1.26 ,272 8.25 250
4 Sl 0.135 -26600 .039 .174 26.0 -.0048 -36000 1.35 .235 6.10 159
5 s, 0.080 -20500 ,044 .124 20.1 -.0034 -31500 1. 54 .191 3.85 77

6 s, 0.080 -13400 ,054 .134 13.7 -.0023 -24000 1.79 .240 3.30 45
7 % 0.080 -7150 .074 .154 7.0 -.0012 -12500 1.75 .270 1. 89 13
8 % 0.080 0 0 . 080 10.0 0 0 1.0 .080 0 0
9 s3 0.080 6130 ,216 .296 - 6.0 .OOlO 10000 1.63 .483 -2.88 17
10 s, 0.080 12280 ,216 .296 -12.0 .0020 20500 1.67 .494 -5.91 71

11 s3 0.080 16800 .216 .296 -16.5 .0028 30000 1.78 ,526 -8.69 144
I ~~~~ ._
'12 ss 0.080 20400 .216 .296 -20.0 .0034 35000 1.71 .506 -10.10 202
13 sz 0.080 21700 .216 .296 -21.2 .0036 38000 1.75 .517 -10.93 232
L 1

I z 4.159 -3.16 1626

increasing strain, but stringer (3) which has to z, The effective moment of inertia is there-
not reached its maximum strength of 39000 fore twice the sum of Column (13) or 3252.
continues to take increasing load.
Calculation of Ultimate Resisting Moment.
Since we wish to use the beam formula ab =
MyZ/Ix in computing stresses, we must modify the The maximum stress at the most remote
stringer areas to give a linear stress variation stringer which is number (1) is 36500. From
since the formula is based on a linear stress the beam formula,
variation. The stringer modification factor K
equals the ratio of the true stress in column MX = 0$x/Z
(9) of Table to linear stress value in column
= (36500 x 3252)/35.7 + 0.7
(4) or K = &I. The results are recorded in
column (10). The modified stringer areas are = 3,260,OOO in.lb.
then equal to KA and are recorded in column
(1’1) 0 Column (12) gives the first moment of This bending strength when compared to any design
the modified areas about the assumed neutral bending moment about the X axis would give the
axis, giving a total value of -3.16. margin of safety relative to bending strength,

The distance z from the assumed neutral If the moment of inertia had been computed
axis to the true neutral axis is thus, without regard to non-linear stress variation,
or in other words, using K equal 1 for all
z= 2 KAz=/zKA stringers the neutral axis would have come out
4.9 inches below the centerline axis and the
= --3.16 _- - 0.76"
moment of inertia would have calculated to be
4.159
2382 in.*. The resisting moment developed
The true N.A. would fall about .70 inches would then be (36500x2382)/33.6 = 2,600,OOO
beloti assumed position. The effect on total in.lbs. Thus the true strength is 25 percent
greater than the strength for linear stress
sum of Column (13) would be negligible, thus variation. This result explains why such
Table A20.4 will not be revised.
structures test overstrength if designed on
linear stress variation basis.
Column (13) gives the calculation of the
effective moment of inertia with Z1 being equal After stringer stresses are obtained
 A20.9

using the modified areas of Table A20.4, the Iy = (15ax .1x2)+ (13.8E1~+10.61~ +5.74e).1
true stringer areas must be used to find the
x 4 = 180 in.4
true stringer loads, which must be used in the
shear flop analysis.
Table A20.5 gives the necessary calculations
A20.6 Shear Flow Analysis for Fuselage Structures for determining the flange bending stresses and
the net total shear load to be taken by the cell
The shear flow analysls can be made once skin. Since the cell is tapered, the stringers
the effective cross-sections of the fuselage have a z component, thus the stringer axial
are obtained. The procedure is the same as was loads help resist the external shear load. The
illustrated for wing structures in Chapter A19. summation of column (8) of Table A20.5 gives
To illustrate, two example problems will be -333.4 lb. for a summation for half the fuselage
presented. section.

Example Problem 1. Symmetrical Tapered Section. Hence, net web shear at station 0 equals:

Fig. A20.6 shows a portion of a tapered Vweb = ‘ext . + ‘flange = 2000 + (2 x -333.4)
circular shaped fuselage structure that might
be representative of the rear portion of a = 1333.2 lb.
fuselage for a small airplane. Since this
The results in this particular problem show
example Is only for the purpose of illustrating that at statlon 0 the flange strlnger system re-
shear flow analysis, it will be assumed that
the 16 stringers are the only effective mater- sists one third of the external shear load. At
ial. In an actual stress analysis, the effect- station 150 the web system will resist the en-
ive cross-section would have to be used as tire external shear load of 2000 lb. since the
Illustrated in previous articles A20.3 to A20.5. load In the stringers Is zero.

In actual design the net web shear should

The problem will be to determlne the
stringer stresses and the skin shear flow stress be used since In many cases it will decrease
system at Station (0) under a given load system the sheet thickness required one or more gauges.
at Station (150) as shown In Fig. A20.6. Calculation of Flexural Shear Flow
Solution No. 1 - Solution by Considering Beam Properties
at Only One Section. ‘,(web) ’ a ’ = q
1333.2 r: az
9 = 90 - 0- 180
IY
If the change in longitudinal strlnger or
flange material is fairly uniform this method = qo - 7.40 Z az - - - - - - - - - - (A)
can be used with little error In the resulting
shear flow stresses. Due to symmetry of the section about the 2
axis, the flexural shear flow in the web at the
Moment of inertia of section at station (0) center line 1s zero. Therefore, q. will be taken
about centroidal Y axis: as zero and the summation In equatlon (A) will

, Area of all Stringers = . 1”

Frame spacing = 15”

Section at Station
Section at Station 0 bP~ 150” -4
Length not to scale
STA. 0 STA. 150

Fig. A20.6
A20.10 FUSELAGE S <SS ANALYSIS

TABLE A20.5 9 34 = -7.06 + 23.66 = 16.60

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
q 46 q -7.06 + 27.91 q 20.85 etc.
tiff P, =
ner - Arm Area ‘b = ‘xEoba dz 3 Py =
-16672 (3)(4) dx dx -pxdz -px!!Y FRET. A20.7 shows the results in graphical
Qo. z a (psi) lbs. dx dx form, on the left side of the section the shears
are of the s&me sign and therefore add together.
1 15 * .05 -25000 -1250 -.0333 0 -41.6 0
2 13.86 10 -23100 -2310 -.0308-.0127 -71. 3 -29.4
3 10.61 10 -17700 -1770 -.0236 -.0236 -41. 7 -41.7
4 5.74 .10 - 9550 - 955 -.0127 -.0308 -12. 1 -29.5
5 0 10 0 0 0 -.0333 0 0
6 - 5.74 : 10 9550 955 .0127 -.0308 -12. 1 29.5
7 -10.61 10 17700 1770 .0236 -.0236 -41. 7 41.7
8 -13.86 10 23100 2310 .0308 -.0127 -71. 3 29.4
9 -15 *. 05 25000 1250 .0333 0 -41.6 0

Shear taken by stringers = -333.4 0

Shear flow system
*l/2 of stringer one is assumed acting with each half of
cell.

NOTES:
COl. 4 a,, = -Mz,‘Iy = -2000 x 150 x z/180 z -16672

Cal. 5 Total x component of load in stringer member.

For practical purposes, it equals axial load in
stringers since cosine of a small angle is
practically one.

Col. 6 The slope of the stringers in the z and y A20.7

directions can be calculated from the dimen-
sions of the two end sections and the length of Solution No. 2. Shear Flow by Change in Stringer Loads
the cell. (see Fig. A20.6) Between Adjacent Stations. AP Method.
Col. 8 The in plane components of the stringer axial The shear flow ‘will be calculated by con-
& 9 loads at station 0. siderlno; the charge in the axial load In the
longitudinal stringers between fuselage sec-
tions at stations (0) an:‘, (30).
start with stringer (1)
Firs. k20.8 shows the be&m section at Eta-
4 LB = o-7. 40 x .05 x 15 = - 5.55 lb./in. tion 30, the strinper arias being the s-d?e as
at station 0, but the section a,c a .~h.ole is
9 533= - 5.55 - 7.40 x .l x 13.86 = - 15.80
smaller due to the taper of tllc cell.
q 54 =- 15.80 - 7.40 x .I x 10.61 = - 23.66
1 2
area of each
9 46 = - 23.66 - 7.40 x .l x 5.74 = - 27.91 stringer = 10

The torsional moment T about the centroid

of the section at station (0) equals 5 x 2000 :
10000 in. lb. (clock&se ‘when looking toward
station 150). Due to the symmetry of t:?e sec-
tlon at station 0, the in-plane components of
the strirger loads rroduce zero moment about Fig. A20.8
the section centroid.
Table A20.6 yives the calculations for the
For equilibrium a constant internal shear flexural shear system. The procedure is the
flofl qL Is necessary to make Z M, = 0 same as illustrated for winy structures in
Chapter Al9.
-10000
q1-$* q = -7.06 lb./in. Comparing the results of col,&nn 13 vrith the
2xnx1sz
flexural shear flow as found by solution No. 1,
Adding the torsional shear flow q, to the we find the second sol,Jtlon gives a maximum
flexural shear flo.,i q, the followin,-c results shear flow of 28.95 lb./in. against a value of
are obtsined: 27.91 for the first solution. Thn first ;nothod
deals ,:;ith the properties at or,ly one section
q
I.2 z-7. 06 + ;j.5*3 = -1.51 lb./in. and this cannot include the effects 2: ci,ZnSe
in moment of inertia on the shear flow. The
q 23 = -7.06 + 15.90 = a.74
 A20.11

TABLE AZO. 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Sta. 0 Sta. 30 Sta. 0 Sta. 30 Stringer Load Panel Flexural Shear

Stringer Area Area Sta. 0 Sm. 30 F - o’b-= Sta. 0 Sta. 30 % Taper APK Flow
a a Arm Arm -16672 -15222 P, = P, = - (Col. 8 - Col. 9) Corr. __30 APK
No. q=x-yj-
sq. in. sq. in. z z (psi.) (psi.) ob a ub a 30 Factor
K lb. /in.

1 .05 .05 15.00 14.00 -25000 -21300 -1250 -1065 6.17 .935 5.76
5. 76
2 .lO .lO 13.86 12.93 -23100 .935 10.60.
16.36
3 .lO .lO 10.61 9.90 -17700 -15050 -1770 -1505 8.83 .935 8. 25
24.61
4 .lO .lO 5.74 5.36 - 9550 - 8155 - 955 - 815 4.65 .935 4.34.
28.95
5 .lO .I0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
28.95
6 .lO .lO - 5.74 - 5.36 9550 955 815 - 4.65 .935 - 4.34
24.61
7 .lO .lO -10.61 - 9.90 17700 15050 1770 1505 - 8.83 ,935 - 8.25 -
16.36
8 .lO .lO -13.86 -12.93 23100 19700 2310 1970 -11.33 .935 -10.60
5. 76
9 .05 .05 -15.00 -14.0 25000 21300 1250 1065 - 6.17 .935 - 5.76

NOTES:

Cal. 6 ob = -2000 x 150 z/180 = -1667 z

COi. 7 Ub = -2000 x 120 z/157. 2 = -1522 z

Col. 10 Change in axial load in each stringer between stations 0 and 30 divided by distance between Stations. This
result represents the average shear flow induced by the loading up of each stringer between stations 0 and 30.

Col. 11 The width of a skin panel at Station 0 is 5. 88 inches and 5. 5 inches at Station 30. The shear flow on the edge
of the panels at Station 0 equals (5. 5/5.88) AP/30. (See Art. A15.18 of Chapter Al5 for explanation). This
refinement is usually neglected and the average values as given in Cal. 10 are used which are conservative.

Col. 13 Due to symmetry of structure, the shear flow is zero on z axis. Thus shear fiow at any station equals the
progressive summation of the shear flow values in Col. 12.

second method is recommended for practical ii11 assume the stringers are the only effective
analysis procedure. material. In actual design practice the effect-
venesc of the skin and each stringer would have
Since the section is syrmmetrlcal, there are ;o be considered as explained in Articles A20.4
no moments induced by the in-plane components of and 5.
the stringer forces at station 0.
The problem will be to determine the
The torelonal shear flow forces are the stringer stresses and the skin shear flow val-
same as in solution method No. 1 and these are les at station (0) due to the given external
added to the values of column 13 of Table A20.6 loads of P, q 4000 lb., Py = 1000 lb. and Px =
and give a pattern similar to Fir:. A20.7. 1500 acting at station (150) as shown in Fig.
420.9.
A20.7 Example Problem. Tapered Circular Fuselage
with Unsymmetrical Stringer Areas. SOLUTION:
Fuselage crors-sections are seldom all sym- Since we choose to use the AP method in
metrical relative to stringer and skin areas finding the shear flow system at station (0),
because the practical fuselage has cut-outs such Ne will find the stringer loads at two stations,
as door-c‘, etc. To illustrate the uns;im7etrical namely, station (0) and station (30). The first
case a simplified case will be presented. step Is to find the moment of Inertia of’ each
fuselace section about centroidal z and y axes
Fig. A20,S shows a portlon of a tapered and the product of inertia about these axes.
fuselage. The strlnqer areas are such as to Table A20.7 (Columns 1 to 11) gives the calcu-
make the cross-sections unsymrmetrical relative latlons of the section properties for StatIOn
to bending material. Aqxin for simplicity, we
A20.12 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS

Fig. A20.9

Section at Sta. 150

2’ z Sta. 0
The skin str1nzers are located syImetrlcally with respect ?.:I the
Section at Station 0 centerline axes, however the stringer areas as given in( ) on
the figure are not symmetrrcal with these axes. It is assumed in this pI’ob?ex that
the stringers taper uniformly between the values as given for station 0 ana 150.
The cell would of course have interior transverse :‘rmec which are not shown on the
figure.

TABLE A20.7

Section Properties at Sta. 0 Total Stringer Loads at Sta. 0 1

4 15 16 I'7 18 ( 9 ( 10 11 12 13 14
I I I I I I
Y= u c = F/Za ps = abb + UC)
Arm ( az’ 1 az12 / ay’ ( ayf2 1 az’y’ 1 ’ =- Db
Y’ z’ - i Y’ - Y = -1500/3.40 = (2) (12 + 13)

-12.00 6.30 66.20 -7.20 86.50 - 75.50 11.36 -14.46 -15080 -441 -9312
- 8.48 1.90 36.00 -0.85 7.20 - 16. 10 19.84 -10.94 -21960 -441 -2239
0 2.25 50.80 -0 0 0 23.36 - 2.46 -22600 -441 -2304
1 '"~~~~S~~,:IO~~ : 851 1 201 1; ;^I:::“,: 6.02 -16742 -441 -1719
12:00 8:40 88:lO 9:SO 115:lO 100:80 11.36 9.54 - 7692 -441 -6506
12.00 -8.40 88.10 9.60 115.10 -100.80 - 9.65 9.54 11958 -441 9216
8.48 -3.80 72.00 1.70 14.40 - 32.30 -18.13 6.02 18798 -441 3673
- 2.46 19485 -441 3809
- 8.481-3.801 72.001-1.701 14.401 32.30) -18.13 -10.94 13610 -441 2634
-12.00 -3.15 33.10 -3.60 43.25 37.80 - 9.65 -14.46 4592 -441 1246

htm 3.40 -2.90 643.9 8.40 403.2 - 37.70 -1500

ference Axes 2’ and Y’ are taken as the centerline axes. General Notes:
#e Fig. A20.9)
COl. 12 'sb = 307.Oy - 936.12
cation of centroid and transfer of properties to
ltroidal axes. Col. 14 Since the total tensile stresses equal to
total compressive stresses in bending,
ii = -2.90/3.40 = -.855" the sum of Col. 14 should equal the ex-
ternal applied normal load.
$ = 8.4013.40 = 2.46"

Iy = 643.9 - 3.40 x 8552 = 641.4

I, = 403.2 - 3.40 x 2. 462 = 382.6

I zy = -37.7 - 3.40 x 2.46 x -.855 = -30.55

 A20.13

TABLE A20.8
_---- ___.- -~-.-x-_-_-__-- ._^.-l_l_- _.._l_l_l__
Section Properties at Sta. 30 -I Total Sfrir~~~~ Loads at Sta, 1
30

Area Arm Arm az’ azv2 ay’

a Z’
I
Y' I_.__
I
.50 9.80 -11.2 4.90 48. 1 -5.60
. 10 17.72 - 7.92 1.77 31.4 -0.79
. 10 21.00 0 2.10 44.1 0
. 10 17.72 7.92 1.77 31.4 0. 79
-- . 66 9.8 11.20 6. 4’7 63. 2 -.- 7.40
.66 - 9.8 11.20 -6.47 63. 2 7.40
. 20 -17.72 7.92 -3.54 62.8 1. 58
. 20 -21.00 ----T-- -4. -88.2 0
l 20 -17.72 - 7.92 -3.54 62. 8 -1. 58
. 26 - 9.8 -11.20 -2.55 25. 0 -2.92

Sum 2 . 98 j I / -3.291 520.21 6.28 299.2 1 -26.3 -1500

I I I I I . ~ L . - - . - - - L - ~ - - J . - . - . I , - - x _ - . ^ - - - - - -
1 1

I------
NOTES:

Reference 2’ and Y’ axes are taken as the centerline axes.

ii = -3. 29/2.98 = -1. 10”

y = 6.28j2.98 = 2.11 E’ Sectior 1 at

Station 30
=Y = 520.2 - 2.98 x 1. lo2 =516.6
L Y’
T-
I, = 299.2 - 2.98 x 2. 112 = 286.0 Y

by = -26.3 - 2.98 x 2.11 x -1.10 = -19.4 j

(0) and the similar columns of Table A20.8 gives K7tl = 4000x1%0+ 1500~5.10 = 492150 in.lb.
the calculations for station (30).
MI, = -1000 x 120 + 1.500 x 2. 11 = 116820 in.lb.
Before the bending and shear stresses can h = -1500 lb. J v, = 4000 1.110J vyc = -1000
be calculated, the external bending moments, lb.
shears and normal forces at stations (0) and (30
must be known. Calculation of Bending Stresses.

At station (0): - Station (0):

The bending moment about y neutral axis at

station (0) equals,

My = P, (150) + P, (7.85)
= 4000x150+1500x7.85 = 611800 in,lb.

ML25= Py (150) - P, (2.46)

= -1000~150+1500x%.46 = -146310 in.lb

The shears at station (0) are Vz = P, =

4000 lb, and Vy = Py = -1000 lb.

The normal loctd Pn at statton (0) referred

to centroid of section equals ZPx = -1500 lb.

In a slmllar manner, the values at station

(30) are, (see FQ. AZO.10)
A20.14 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS

Substituting K values in equation for Ob: noments in the plane, of all internal and ex-
ternal forces must be zero. Column (7) of Table
ab = - C.00262x-146310- (-.0001248x 420.9 gives the moment of the flexural shear
Lbout this point, (See notes and Fig. below
611800)] y - ~00156x611800 - Table for explanation. )
(-.0001248x-146310) z
1 TABLE A20.9
whence SHEAR FLOW CALCULATIONS
I I I I I I I I

Ob = 307.0 y -936.1 2 (plus ab is tension)

Station (30): I I qr =
stringer P
No. /&.?$k~~/ mq lql Iq + ql
K,= -19.4/(516.6x286 -19.42) I I I 1 I I I I
I I I I I I I I

= -19.4/147620 = -,0001315
l 13Yj
4nr'I
55.37
h 55.37 150.04
2. .
1 58.04 202.46
8300 -52
11820 -52
3.37
6.04
L = 286/147620 = .001936 d
1

-1719 -1615
I

+ 61,67~202.46~12500~-521 9.67
e -6506 -?[-5011 AQ 82 65.14[150.041 97801-521 13.14
‘“= 114.97 252.0 29000 -52 62.97
K3 = 516.6/147620 = .0035 f 1 92161+7’^^’ lUU( -70.53.
1

3673 Ad/r1
3410 - 0.31 n l-f-l 44.44 150.04 6660 -52,- 7.56
h 3809 3489 - -10.67 - 35.87 202.46 7270 -52 -16.13
Ob = - Iz.0035c-116800- (-.0001315x i 2634 2327 - -10.23, 25.20 202.46 5100 -52 -26.8
j 1246 7Q7 - -1A 97, 14.97 150.04 2240 -52 -37.03
49215Oj y - LOO1936 x 492150 - .“I **.“.

A I 1 0 1252.0 1 0 I-521-52.0
d
(-.0001315x116820~ z Sum 92670

whence NOTES: E
Col. (2) and (3) from tables
ab = 34&3y- 937.72
A2O. 7 ani A20.8
col. (4) A P, = - 1 PxSta o
Column (12) in Tables A20.7 and A20.8 gives the . a
results of solving the equations for ob. - PxSta. 30 -I I 0
II E
Since an external load of 1500 lb. is act- Col. (6) m = double areas 9’
(see Fig. a).
ing normal to the sections and through the j
Col. (7) mq = moment of
section centroids, an axial compressive stress shear flow q on
Q is produced on the sections, (See Columns each web element
13). The total load P, in each stringer equals about 0’ (Fig. a)
the area of the stringer times the combined ‘h
Fig. a
bending and axial stresses. (See column 14 of
each table).
Calculation of Flexural Shear Flow q. Moments Due to In Plane Components of Stringer Loads.

Table A20.9 gives the necessary calcula-

tions to determine the shear flow at station (0) Since the stringers are not normal to the
based on the change In stringer loads between section at station (0), the stringers have in-
stations (0) and (30). The correction of the plane components which may produce a moment
average shear due to the taper 1n the skin about the intersection of the symmetrical axes
panels as was done in example problem (l), which has been selected as a moment center.
Table A20.6, column (ll), is omitted in this Table A20.10 gives the calculations for the in-
solution since it tends toward the conservative plane components and their moments about point
side. Since the effective cross section is un- 0’ 0
symmetrical, the value of the flexural shear Moment of External Load System About Point (0’).
flow q at any point is unknown thus a value for
q at some point is assumed. In Table A20.9 The 1000 lb. load at station (150) acting
the shear flow q in the web aj is assumed zero. in the Y direction has a moment arm of 7” about
Column (5) gives the results at other points the point 0’ of station (0).
under this assumption.
Hence external moment = 1000 x 7 = 7000
Moment of Shear Flow about Intersection of in,lb.
Centerline Axes
Therefore the total moment about the
For equilibrium in the plane of the cross assumed moment center 0’ =
section at station (0), the summation of the
 A20.15

TABLE A20.10

MOMENTS DUE TO IN PLANE COMPONENTS

OF STRINGER LOADS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Py = Mo = dz Pz = M, =
Stringer Px * p * Px&
No. (lbs.) dx x dx Py z’ dx dx pz Y’

a -9312 .0026 248 2600 -. 0233 217 -2600

b -2239 .0188 42 798 -.0421 94 - 796
: -1719
-2304 ‘-.0188 0 320 - 6080 -.-.0421
050 115
72 6100
.
r” -6506
9216 -. 0266 245
173 -1820
-2570 -. .0233
0233 152
214 1820
2560

g 3673 -.0188 69 -1310 . 0421 154 1307

h 3809 0 0 0 .050 190 0
i 2634 .0188 49 930 .0421 111 - 941
j 1246 .0266 33 346 .0233 29 - 348

Sum -1634 1612

1 I I I. I I I

NOTES:
701. (2) from Table A20.7
Col. (3) equals the slope I Fig. A20. 11
217
of stringers 2;
in y and z
Shear flow distribution.
directions.
(see Fig. A20.9)
Cal. ) Values of z’ where large concentrated loads are applied can
and ) and y’ from be determined by the procedure given in Articles
Table A20. 7. 18 to 20 of Chapter A19. A more rigorous
Fig. b shows analysis can be made by the application of the
the Py and Pz basic theory as given in Chapter A8.
components from
Cols. (4) and (7). 1111 18, ls4 The problem of shell stresses due to in-
Total moment about 0’ = Looking Toward Sta. 150 ternal pressures is presented in Chapter A16.
-1634 + 1612 = -22”# The strength design of the fuselage skin in-
volves a question of combined stresses. The
broad problem of the strength design of struc-
92670 due to shear flow q tural elements and their connections under all
-22 due to in plane components of types of stress conditions is covered in Volume
stringers. II.
7000 due to the external loads,
A20.9 Problems.
Total= 99648 in. lb,

Therefore for equilibrium a moment of

-99646 is required which can be provided by a
constant shear flow q 1 around the cell, hence

T -99648
= -52 lb./in. (957 = 4 I,/ TSkin .035
q1=2A =2 enclosed area of cell)

This value of q is entered in column 8 of

Table A20.9. The resulting shear flow in any
web portion qr equals the algebraic sum of q
and ql. (See Cal, 9, Table A20.9). Fig.
A20.11 shows the results in graphical form.
\ 1 JFig. A20.12
A20.8 Discontinuities - Shear Lag - Pressurization
Stresses - Combined Stresses.
Fig. A20.12 shows the cross-section of a
A practical fuselage has many cut-outs. circular fuselage. All stringers have same
The approximate effect of these discontinuities area, namely 0.12 sq. in. Skin thickness is
as well as the shear lag effect at sections .035 inches. Stringers are 1 inch in depth.
 ss ANALYSIS

All material is aluminum alloy. E = 10,500,OOO

psi. The ultimate compressive strength of
stringer plus its effective skin is 35000 psi.,
For effective sheet width use w = 1.9t (E&ST)%
For buckling strength of curved panels use
%r = .3 Et/r. Determine the ultimate bendlng
moment that the fuselage section will develop
for bending about horizontal neutral axis. Use
linear stress distribution. Follow procedure
as given in example problem in Art. A20.4.

F1g. A20.13 shows

4 spaces @ 7”=28” the cross-section of a
S’ s s s, -Is rectangular fuselage.
T2p_1_1 2
The dots represent

& II S3
‘.032 skin
%
stringer locat ions.
Three types of string-
ers are used, namely,
S S and S Fig.
A&. 1; shows ‘ihe
ultimate compressive
% stress-strain curve
85
. t /.032 t for each of the three
stringer types and
s2
also the tension
Fig. A20.13 stress-strain curve
of the material.

Determine the ultimate bending resistance (4) Same as Problem (3) but change area of
of the fuselage section about the horizontal stringer no e (2) to 0.3 sq. tn., thus making an
neutral axis if the maximum unit compressive unsymmetrical section.
strain is limited to .008. Refer to Art. A20.5
for method of solution. A20.10 Secondary Stresses in Fuselage Stringers and Rings.

ADDITIONAL DATA. Area stringer S, = .12 sq.in.; The stresses that are found in the
s, = .25 sq.in.; S, = .08 sq.in. E = 10,500,OOO stringers or longerons of a typical fuselage by
psi 08 use of the modified beam theory or by the more
rigorous theory of Chapter A8, are referred to
(3) Fig. A20.15 shows a tapered circular as primary stresses. Because of the necessity
fuselage with 8 stringers. The area of each of weight saving, most fuselage structures are
stringer is 0.1 sq.in. Assume stringers develop designed to permit skin buckling, which means
entire bending resistance. Find the axial load that shear loads in the skin are carried by
in stringers at station (110) due to Pz and Px diagonal semi-tension field action. This
loads at station (0). Also find shear flow diagonal tension in the skin panels produces
system at station 110 using AP method. Use additional stresses in the stringers and also
properties at station (90) IN OBTAINING AVERAGE in the fuselage rings. These resulting stresses
SHEAR FLOWS. are referred to as secondary stresses and must
be properly added to the primary stresses in
Pz = 2300#
1 1 t
PZ the strength design of the individual stringer
or ring. Chapter Cl1 covers the subject of

ta. 110

Fig.
- * A20.15 X
these secondary stresses due to diagonal
tension field action in skin panels.
suggested to the student that after
Chapters A19 and A20, that Chapters Cl0 and Cl1
be referred
stress picture
to in order to obtain a complete
for skin covered structures.
It is
studying
semi-
 CHAPTER A2 1
LOADS AND STRESSES ON RIBS AND FRAMES

A21. 1 Introduction. For aerodynam!c rxc2ns tne loads into thnd fusela ‘e shell such as those
win% contour in the chord direction must be from lanlin- Eear reactions, wing reactions,
maintained .vithout aporecia’rle distortion. tail reactions, ?o,ver blant reactions, etc.
Unlec-c: 3 Y the .vinT skin is quite thick, span@~ise The dead weir?nt of ~11 th? nayload and fixed
str;njr5 must is2 attached to the -‘kin in or;!er equl?.ment in-ide the fusel.a-‘e must be carried
t,) in-:-,--2se
I i t32 ben!in-. efficiency of the win-. to f’ra‘n#?s by other structure such as the
Til~!~i~or~~ to hold th, 0 skin-ctrincer win surface fUSelaTe floor system and then transmitted to
to ‘nontour shx?e and also to li:nit the length the fusela?e shell structure. Since the dead
0 :~ bit I‘ I 2 -.2I’ 3 t 3 ::,n ;:fficient collvrin coaqressivc weii:ht must be multiplied by the design accel-
stren,t:h, internal suoport or brace units are eration factors, these internal loads become
required. These structural snits are r?fcrred quite large in ma:-nitude.
to ~jc . . :.inL: ribc . s The ribs also hn7~e another
major our1\3se, namely, to act as 2 transfer or Another important purpose or actlon of ribs
distri LL;tion (lnlt . . All the loads aor)lled to and frames is to redistribute the shear at dis-
tki3 ZIP; are react?:! at the ::inr; subnortinq continuities and practlcsl wings and fuselages
po:nts, thus these aonlied loads must be trsns- contain many cut-cuts and openings and thus
fen-e3 into t‘r,- ,winE: cellular rtru:ture com- discontinulties in the basic structural layout.
;;osed of skin, :-trin;ers, sptirs, etc ~, <and th,?n
reacted at the iviny suq?ort noints. Tne an::lied A21. 2 Types of Wing Rib Construction.
loac?s may be only the distribute:! surface ;jr-
loads lvhich require relntiv~>ly 1 ivht internal Fitr-s. A21.1 to 6 illustrate the coXnon
ribs to ?lovi:ie thii carry throu-h or tr,?nsf’er types of ,win- construction. FIT. 1 illustrates
requirement, to rather ru:;‘ed or he?‘;y ribs a sheet metal channel for a lexdinq edye 3
which must absorb and transmit large concen-
trated arJplied loads such as those from landing
gear reactions, power Ylant reactions an,: fuse-
l;ii7*s- react ions. in hetveen th,‘se tao extremes
Of applied load aa.-nitudes are such loads as
reactions at supnortin;: points for ailerons,
flays, leadinc edge high lift units ann the
many internal deal ,::eWht loads such as f?lel
an-l military armament and other installations.
Thus ribs can vary from a very light structure
which serves primarily as a former to a hea-my
structure which must receive and transfer loads Fig.
involvln-; thousands 0’ pounds.

Since the airplane control surfaces (verti-

cal and horizontal stabilizer, etc.) are nothing
more than small size wings, internal ribs are
like,flise needed in these structures.

The skin-stringer construction which forms

the shell of the fuselaise likewise needs in-
ternal forminK units to hold the fuselajre
cross-section to contour shape, to limit the
column length of the stringers and to act as Fig. A21.2
transfer agents of internal and externally
applied loads. Since a fuselare must usually
have clear internal space to house the payload
such as passengers in a COmm?rCial transport,
these internal f’uselao;e units which are Usually
referred to as frames are of the open or ring
type - Fuselage frames vary In size and strength
from very light former type to rugged heavy
types which must transfer large concentrated Fig. A21. 3
A21.1
A21.2 LOADS AND STRESSES ON RIBS AND FRAMES

Ribs in 3 Spar Wing.

Fig. A21.4 Fig. A21. 5

Fig. A21.6

stringer, single spar, single cell wlnr: were used to transmit external I.oads into the
structure ~ The rib 1s riveted, or soot-welded, wing cellular beam structure. Concentrated
or glued to the skin alon? it boundary. Fig. external loads must be distributed to the rib
2 shows the same leading edge cell but with before the rib can transfer the load to the
spanwise corrugations on the top skin and wing beam structure. In other words, a con-
stringers on the bottom. On the too the rib centrated load applied directly to the edge of
flange rests beloC’i the corrugations, ‘whereas a thin sheet would cause sheet to buckle or
the stringers on the bottom pass through cut- cripple under the localized stress. Thus a
outs in the r-lb. FIV. 3 illustrates the pen- structural element usually called a web stiff-
era1 type of sheet metal rib that can be ener or a web flanrSe Is fastened to the web and
quickly made by use of large presses and rubber the concentrated load goes into the stiffener
dies. Figs. 4 and 5 illustrate rib types for which in turn transfers the load to the web.
middle portion of Yving section. The rib To get the load into the stiffener usually re-
flanL:es may rest below stringers or be notched quires an end fitting. In general the dlstri-
for alloivinc; stringers to pass through. Ribs buted air loads on the wing surface are usually
that are subjected to considerable torsional of such magnitude that the loads can be dlstrl-
forces in the plane of the rib should have some buted to rib web by direct bearing of flange
shear ties to the skin. For ribs that rest normal to edge of rib web without causing local
below’stringers this shear tie can be made by buckling, thus stiffeners are usually not
a few sheet metal angle clips as illustrated in needed to transfer air pressures to wing ribs.
Fig, :T. Fig. A21.7 shows an artist’s drawing
of the wing structure of the Beechcraft Bonanza EXAMPLEPROBLEMILLUSTRATING TRANSFEROF CON-
commercial airplane. It should be notlced that CENTRATEDLOAD TO SHEET PANEL.
various types and shapes of ribs and formers
are required in airplane design. Phot ogra r)hs Fig. A21.8 shows a cantilever beam com-
A21.1 to 3 illustrate typical rib construction posed of 2 flanges and a web. A concentrated
In various type aircraft, both large and small. load of 1000 lb. Is applied at po1n’c (A) in the
Since ribs compose an appreciable part of the direction shown. Another concentrated load of
wing structural weight, it is important that 1000 lb. Is applied at point (E) as shown.
they be made as light as safety permits and
also be efficient relative to cost of fabrlca- To distribute the load of 1000 lb. at (A),
tion and assembly. Rib development and design a horizontal stiffener (AB) and a vertical
involves considerable static testing to verify stiffener (CAD) are added as shown. A fitting
and assist the theoretlcal analysis and design. would be required at (A) which would be attached
to both stiffeners. The horizontal component
A21. 3 Distribution of Concentrated Loads to Thin of the 1000 lb. load which equals 800 lb. is
Sheet Panels. taken by the stiffener (AB) and the vertical
component which equals 600 lb. is taken by the
In Art. A21.1 it was brou::ht out that ribs
 Fig. A21. 7 General Structural Details of Wing for Beechcraft “Bonanza” Commercial Airplane.

vertical stiffener CD. The vertical load at E Figs. A21.9 and A21.10 show free bodies of that
would be transferred to stiffener EF through portion including web panels (1) and (2) and
fitting at E. The problem is to find the shear stiffeners CAD and AB and the external load at
flows in the web panels, the st,iffener loads (A). In FIK. A21.9 the shear flO;us q I and q 2
and the bean flanKe loads.

Lc lo”+.& lo”+ 10” + 10” +

,Jlange
I G
/

~~p$800Lx ~~~~, Ib.

/ I/ (I >-I
‘I\ ‘\ 1000 lb.
2 10”
q2
E c 600 lb. Fig. A21. 10
’ flange
Fig. A21.9
Fig. A21. 8 lob0 lb.

on the top and bottom edges respectively have

SOLUI I OK: It Will be assumed that the beam been assumed with the sense as shown. Taking
flanges -‘.cvelop th- entire resistance to beam moments about point E,
bending moments, thus shear flow is constant
3n 9 web panel. ME = 800x3-12xlOq, = 0, whence q1 =
20 lb./in.
The shear f10~~:: on ;ieb panels (1) and (2)
till1 be computed trcatinE esc? comnon?nt of ZFx = 800 - 20 x 10 - loq, = 0, whence q, =
the 1000 lb. load as acting senara:;el:J and the 60 lb./In.
results added to give the final shsar flow.
A21.4 LOAIJ5 AND SI‘RDSSCS ON RIBS AND E‘KAMCS
---

PHOTO. A2.1. 1 Type uf Wing Rllrs Used 111 Cessna 180 Model Airplane, a 4 Place Commercial Airplane.

PHOTO, A21. 2 Rib Type Used in Outer Panel-E‘uel Tank Section- of Douglas DC-8 Commercial Jet Airliner.

PHOTO. A21. 3 Rlt) C<jn.itru(,tlon and Arrangement in High Speed, Swept Wing. Fighter Type of A~ri‘raft
North An~c~r~c~m Av~:~tlorl Navy Fury - Jet Airplane.
Referrlng to Fig. A21.10, Solving equations (1) and (2) gives,

ZME = 600x10-12xlOq,= 0, whence q,= 91 = 70 lb./in,, q2 = 10 lb./In., which

50 lb. In. checks first solution.

23-y = -50 x 10 + 10qz = 0, whence q, = The shear flow q3 in web panel (3) is ob-
50 lb./in. tained by cons .dering stif’fener EBF as a free
body, see Fig. A21.16.
Combining the two shear flows for the two loads,
ZFy = 12q,+lOx3-9x70
4, = 20 + 50 = 70 lb./in. - 1000 = 0

9, = 60 - 50 = 10 lb./in. whence, q, q 133.33 lb./in.

Fig. A21.11 shows the results. Fig.
The shear flon’ q,
A21.12 shows stiffener AB as a free body, and could also be found by
Fig. A21.13 the axial load diagram on stiffener treating entire beam to
AB, ;vhlch comes directly from Fig. A21.11 by ric;ht of section thrcugh
startlng at one end and adding the shear flows. For this free
panel (3).
body,
Fig. A21. 16 ZFy = -600 - 1000 + 12q 3 = 0

whence, q, = 133.33
q1 = 70
13 Bt=r,-‘A*800 Fig. A21.17 shows diagram of axial load in
1 q,=lO stiffener EF as determined from Fig. A21.16 by
starting at one end and adding up the forces to
Fig. A21. 11 Fig. A21.12 any section.

After the web shear

Fig. A21.14 shows a free body of the F
vertical stiffener CAD, and Fig. A21.15 the Fig. A21. .7 flows have been determined
axial load diagram for the stiffener. the axial loads in the
beam flanges follofl as
B n --5701b. the algebraic sum of the
shear flows. Fig. A21.18
E” 1000 lb
shows the shear flows
(tension;
along each beam flange
630# (tension) as previously found. The
upper and lower beam flange loads are indicated
by the diagrams adjacent to each flange.
Fig. A21.14 Fig. A21. 15
4700
700 lb.
Tension
The shear flofls qL and q, could of course
be determined using both components of forces /-

at (A) acting simultaneously. For example, 5 --c-d 133.33 4-e 133.33 --------.I 133.33 70
consider free body in Fig. A21.1.S.
/
/ -800
--e- 10
/ 1600
133.33
v-.--w.- ttc 133.33_ --a- 133.33
/ 11000
lOO# tension

Fig. A21. 15a

Fig. A21. 18
3900# compression

In this example problem the apnlied extern-

ZFx = 800 - 10ql - lOq, = 0 - - - - - (1) al load at polnt (A) was acting In the plane of
the beam web, thus two stiffeners were suffi-
ZFy = -600 + 9qL - 3qo = 0 - - - - - - (2) cient to take care of Its two components. Often
A21.6 LOADS AND STRESSES )N RIBS AND FRAMES

loads are applied which have three rectangular

components. In this case, the structure should
be arranged so that line of action of applied
force acts at intersection of two webs as
illustrated in Fig. A21.19 where a load P is
applied at point (0) and its components P,, Py
Fig. A21. 20

With q known the shear and bending moment

Fig. A21. 19 at various sections along the rib can be deter-
mined. For example, consider the section at B-B
in Fig. A21.20. Fig. A21.21 shows a free body
and Px are distributed to the web panels by of the portlon forward of this section.
using three stiffeners S,, S, and S, inter-
secting at (0). The bending moment at section B-B equals:

In cases where a load must be applied MB = 2qA, where A, 1s the area of the
normal to the web panel, the stiffener must be shaded portion.
designed strong enough or transfer the load In
bending to adjacent webs. Let Fx equal the horizontal component of
the flange load at this section.
In this chapter, the webs are assumed to
resist pure shear along their boundaries. In
most practical thin web structures, the webs
will buckle under the compressive stresses due
to shear stresses and thus produce tensile
field stresses in addition to the shear
stresses. The subject of tension field beams Fig. A21.21
is discussed in detail in Volume II. In gen-
eral the additional stresses due to tension
field action can be superimposed on those
found for the non-buckling case as explained
in this chapter.

STRGSSESIN XING RIBS

A21. 4 Rib for Single Cell 2 Flange Beam.
FX = MB/a = 2qAJa
Fig. A21.20 illustrates a rib in a 2-
flange single cell leading edge type of beam. The true upper flange load Fu = Fx/cos 8,
Assume that the air-load on the trailing edge and the lower flange load equals FL..= Fx/cos 8..
portidn (not shown in the figure) produces a
couple reactlon P and a shear reactlon R as The vertical shear on the rib web at B-B
shown. These loads are distributed to the cell equals the vertical component of the shear flow
walls by the rib which is fastened continuously q minus the vertical components of the flange
to the cell walls. Let q = shear flow per loads. Hence
Inch on rib perimeter which is necessary to
hold rib in equilibrium under the given loads Vweb q q a - Fx tan 8, - Fx tan 8,
P and R.
=qa - + (tan 8, + tan (3,)
Taking moments about some point such as (1)
of all forces in the plane of the rib: Illustrative Problem

DIM, = -Ph + 2Aq = 0 The rib In the leadlng edge portion of the
Wing as illustrated in Fig. A21.22 will be
hence analyzed.

q = Ph/BA. (A = enclosed area of ccl 1) A distributed external load ds shown w 11

be assumed.
Solution:

The total air load aft of beam = 8x40/2 =

160 lb. The arm to Its c.g. location from the
be%m equals (40/3 = 13.33”. Hence the reactions
at tnr: beam flange points due to the loads on Area of Shaded
the trailing edE:e aortion equals: Portion = 15.4 sq. in.

p = 160x13.33/10 = 213.2 lb. (See Fig.

A21.23) Fig. A21.24

Shear reaction Vr = 160 lb.

A21. 5 Stresses in Rib for 3 Stringer Single

w = 8 lb. /in. Cell Beam.

Fig. A21.25 shows a rib that fits i&O a

single cell beam with 3 stringers labeled (a),
(b) and (c)~ An external load Is apDlled at
point (a) whose components are 5000 and 3000
lbe 0 as shown. Additional reactlons from a
trailin:: ed’e rlb are shown at points (b) and
(c)* A vertical stiffener ad is necessary to
distribute the load of 5000 lb. at (a). The
J followjng values will be determined: -
j- 5” +/.- 10” + 40”

Fig. A21. 22 (I) Rib web shear loads on each side of stiff-
ener ad.
w = 8 lb./in.
bfty,tjfftttfjt (2) Rib flange load at section ad.
)----- P= 213. 2 lb.
(3) Rib flange and web load at section just
to left of line be.

Fig. A21.25 /---

, ’ 200 ,3

Fig. A21.23
czx
Let q be the constant flow reaction of the
cell skin on the rib perimeter which is neces-
sary to hold the rib in equilibrium under the
applied air loads.

Take moments about some polnt such as the

lo.ver flange (1) s
SOLUTION. It will be assumed that the 3 string-
ZM = -213.2x10+8x15x7.5+2x139.3 q ers develop the entire wing beam bending reslst-
=o ante, thus the wing shear flow Is constant be-
tween the stringers. The wing rib is riveted
whence, q = 1232/278.6 = 4.42 lb./in. to the wing skin and thus the edge forces on
the rib boundary will be assumed to be the same
With the applied forces on the rib known, as the shear flow distribution. In other ;‘~orCs,
the shears and bending moments at various the three shear flO'vVS qadc, qba and qcb hold the
sections as desired can be calculated. For external loads In equilibrium. The sense of
example, consider a section B-B, 2,.5” from the these 3 unknown shear flows will be assumed aS
leading edge a Fig. A21.24. shown in Fig. A21.25.

Bending moment at section B-B = To find qadc, take moments about point (b)
0x2.5x1.2.5+4.42x2x15.4 = 161 ln.lb.
A21.8 LOADS AND STRESSES IN RIBS AND FRAMES

Mb = +?(A, + A,) qadc + 5000 X 15 - 500 To find web shear

x 11.5 q 0

= -2(60 + 160) qadc + 75000 - 5750 = 0

74.6; ;%, g*3” - - 9.3 qkd = 0
whence, kdc q 157.3 lb./in. wlth sense as
assumed. 20342 u‘- C’ 1
a f’ 3000 whence, qkd = 463 lb./
’ 5000 in.
To find qcb take ZF, = 0
Fig. A21.27
To find flange
ZF, = 5000 + 200 - 157.3 x 11.5 - 11.5 load C’ take ZFx = 0,
qcb = 0 considering joint (a) as a free body,

whence, qcb = 295 lb./in. ZFX = 2034+3000-C’ = 0, whence, C!’ = 5034 lb.
At joint (d) T’ obviously equals 2158 lb. The
To find qba take ZF, = 0 stiffener ad carries a compressive load of 5000
lb. at its (a) end and decreases uniformly by
=Fx = -500 + 3000 + 500 - .57.3 x 15 the amount equal to the two shear flows or
463 + 74.6 = 537.6 lb./In.
-15 qba = 0

whence, qba = 42.7 lb./in. The results obtaIned by conslderlng Fig.

A21.27 could also be obtained by treating the
With these supporting skin forces on the entlre rib portlon to the left of a sectIon
just to right of stiffener ad, as shown In Flg.
rib boundary, the rib is now in equlllbrlum
A21.28.
and thus the web shears and flange loads can
be determined. Consider as a free body that
portion of the rib just to the left of the To find rlb flange load T’ take moments
stiffener ad centerline as shown in Flg. A21.26. about point (a).

2% = (16/17) T’ x9.3-157.3x60x2 = 0
T
whence, T’ = 2158 lb.

Fig. A21.26

To find flange load T take moments about 15000

point (a), Fig. A21. 28

ma = (i6/17)~ x 9.3 - 157.3 x 60 x 2 = 0

To find flange load C’ take ZF, q 0
whence, T = 2158 lb.
ZF, q -C’ + 3000 + 2158(16/17) = 0
To find flange load C take ZFx q 0
ZF, = 2158 (16/17) - C = 0, whence C = 2034 lb. whence, C’ = 5034 lb.

To find web shear qed take ZFZ = 0 To find qkd take ZF, = 0

.ZFz = 2158 (6/17) - 157.3 x 9.3 + 9.3 qed = 0 =FZ q 2158(6/17)-157.3x9.3+5000-9.3

whence, qad = 74.6.lb./in. q;d = 0
To find the shear In the web just to right whence, Gd = 463 lb./in.
of stiffener ad, consider the free body formed
by cutting through the rib on each side of the The above values are the same as previously
stiffener attachment line as shown in Fig. obtained.
A21.27. The forces as found above are shown
on this free body. The rib flange loads and web shear will be
calculated for a sectlon just to left of line
 A21.9

cb. Fig. A21.29 shows the free body for the

rib to left of this section. 6000
Fig. A21. 30

5000 I
Fig. A21. 29 b+---- 15” +

SOLUTION:

To fin-i flange load C take moments about The total shear load on the wing in the Z
zoint (b). dIrection equals v, = -6OOO-5000+2000 =
-9000 lb. and V, = -8500+~500-4000+4500 q

ZMb = -15’7.3~2 (160+60)+5000x15 -500 1.b.

'- 1.1 .:i c = 0
The boilrl::ar:~~ forces on the rib will be
equal to the shear flow force system on the
whence, C = 500 lb.
cell walls due to the given external force
system.
To f Ind flange load T take ZF, = 0
From Chapter ii 14, pa,:-e A14.8, equation (14))
ZF, = 3000~-15:.3x15-15x42.7-500+T = 0 the expresslon for shear flow is,
whence, T = 500 lb.
qy = -(K,V, - K,V,) ZxA - (K,V, -K.V,)
To find q;b take ZF, q 0 r,T,/i - - - .- - -. - - - - - - - - - (1)

ZFZ = 5@[email protected] qLb = 0 The constants K depend on the section

propertles of the wing cross-section. Table
whence, qhb 2 278 lb./in. A21.1 gives the calculation of the moment of
Inertia and product of lnertla about centroidal
The above results could have been obtained Z and X axes. In thls example the 4 stringers
with less numerlcal work by considering the a, b, c and d have been considered as the entire
forces to right of section cb In Fig. A21.29. effective mater.la.1 In reslstlng wing bendlng
stresses.
A21.6 Stress Analysis of Rib for Single Cell
Multiple Stringer Wing. TABLE A21.1

When there are more than three spanwlse

stringers in a wing, there are four or more
panels In the cell walls, thus the reactions of
the cell Wall-s upon the rib boundary cannot be
found by statics as was possible in the 3
stringer case c: l,ilc previous example problem.

Flg. A21.30 Illustrates a wing sectton con-

sistlng of four spanwise flange members. The
concentrated loads acting at the four corners
of the box mlght be representative of reactions
from the engine mount or nacelle structure and z = CAZ’ /ZA = -5.27/6.10 = -.865”
the reactions from a rib which supports the
x = ZAX’,‘CA = ‘72?.0,‘6.10 = 11.8”
wing fl.ap s These loads must be distributed
into the wal~ls of the wing box beam which neces- Centrotdal x and z moments of inertia:
sltates a rlb. Before the rib can be designed,
the bending and shear forces on the rib must be I, = 2X0.3 ..- 6.10 x ,865~ = 225.8
determined. The cal.culations which foll.ow
Illustrate a method of DI-OCedUre. 12 = 2160 -- i:.xo x 11.8= = 1310
Ixz = -15A.‘: I. 610 x -.865 x 11.8 = -94.7
 Jith the wing section :)roperties knom, ZMC .g. q -11000x11.8-8500x6.36-7500x
the constant:; K can be calculated. s.65-4000x4.41-4500x7.54-2000x18.2-444x
K, = Ix,/(JxI, - I,,‘) 2x90-74-8x2x108.7-461x2x99 z-648400 in.lb.
= -94.7/(225.8x1310- 94.7') = For equilibrium ?;Mc.g. must equal zero,
-94.7/286700 q -.00033 therefore a constant flow shear q, acting around
the rib perimeter is necessary which <;ill pro-
K, = Iz/286700 = 1310/286VO0 = .00456 duce a moment of 648400 in.lb.
K, = I,/286700 = 225.8/286700 = .000786 M _ 640400 _
q, = x - 2 x3G8 5 - 880 lb./In.
.t
Substituting in equation (1))
(Note: 368.5 = total area of cell)
9y = - ~000736 (-500) - (-.00033)(-9ooo)l
CXA - 00456 (-9000) - (-.00033)(-5601 Adding this shear flow to that of Fig.
E A21.31, the resulting force system of Fig.
ZZA
A21.32 is obtained. The reactions of the beam
cell walls on the rib have no’fl been determined
whence, and the bendinE moments and shears on the rib
can now be calculated.
= 3.363 zx.4 + 41.205 ZZA - - - - - (2)
9Y
Since the shear flow at any goint or the
cell walls Is unkno:in, it will be assumed zero
on web ad, or imarine th? web is cut as shown
in Fig. X1.31. The static shear flows can
no;v be found.

Qb = 3.363 (-11.8)(2..0)+41.205x6.36
x 2 = 444 lb./in.

qbc = 444+3.363x18.2x1.25+41.205 5000 2000

x 4.41x1.25 = 748 lb./in.
Fig. A21. 32

qcd = 748+3.363x18.2x1.15+41.205 To illustrate, consider the rib Section

(-7.54)(1.15) = 461 lb./in. B-B which passes through the c.g. of the beam
section. Fig. A21.33 shows a free body of the
These shear flows are plotted on Fig. bulkhead portlon to the left of section B-B.
A21.31. Refer to Chapter A14 regarding sense

B
of shear flows.
6000
B

pooo Fig. A21. 31

6
-+, -
B’ Flakgi
Load

Fig. A21.33 Fig. A21.34

/-- 11.8-f--- 18.2 ----j
Total Cell
Area = 368.5’” Moments at sectlon B-B will be referred to
the point (0):

The moments of the forces in the plane of MO = -11000x11.8-3500x6.36-7500x5.64+436

the rib will now be calculated:
x 2x36+880x2x70.8+419x2x38.3 =
Taking moments about the c .g. of the beam -38200 In.lb.
cross section (See Fig. A21.31):
 The resultant external shear force along the boundary forces on a rib located adjacent
the section B-B equals the summation of the z to a cut-out is to find the applied shear flows
components of all the forces. in the wing on two sections, one on each slde
of the rib. Then the algebraic sum of these
V = ZFZ = -11000+12x880-436x0.36+419 two shear flows will give the rib boundary
forces. Xith the boundary forces known the rib
x 0.96 = -195 lb.
web and flanp-e stresses can be found as pre-
The resultant load normal to the section viously illustrated. The procedure can best
B-B equals the summation of the force compon- be illustrated by example problems.
ents in the x direction. A21. 8 Example Problem. Wing with Cut-Out
Subjected to Torsion.
H = ZF, = -8500+7500+ (42X-419) 11.8
Fig. A21.35 shows a rectangular single
= -800 lb.
cell wing beam with four stringers or flanges
located at the four corners. The upper surface
Fig. A21.34 shows these resultant forces
referred to yoint (0) of the cross-section. If skin is discontinued in the center bay (2).
we assume that the rib flanges develon the The wing Is subjected to a torsional moment of
entlre resistance to normal stresses,, we can
find flange loads by simple statics. STA. 0

To find upper flange load F, take moments

about lo!ver flange point.

BM = 12.6 Fu- 38200-800x6.6 = 0

whence, F, = 3443 lb. tension

To find FL use ZF, = 0

4000 lb.--’ ‘-’
ZF, = 3443-800-FL = 0, whence FL =
2643 lb. compression. c- 4000 lb.

The shear flow on web equals V/12.6 =

195/12.6 = 15.5 lb./in. This result neglects “‘1” fkv Fig.A21.35
effect of flanges not being normalto section
B-B, which inclination is negligible in this I+----- 4p” -+
case.
80000 in.lb. at Station (70) and a couple force
If the entire cross-section of rib is at Station (50) as shown in Fig. A21.35. The
effective in bending, then the web thickness problem will be to determine the applied forces
an3 flanbye sizes of the rib Would be needed on rib (A).
to obtain the section momnt of inertia which
Is necessary in the beam equation fork bending SOLUTION:
slzzcses D The f orces at (0) would then be
referred to neutral axis of section before The applied shear flow on the cell walls
bending and shear stresses on the rib section will be found for two cross-sections of the
could be calculated. wing, one on each side of rib (A).

To obtain a complete nicture of the web In bay (1) the torsional moment M is 80000
and flange forces, several sections along the in.lb. The applled shear flow on a cross-
rib span should be analyzed as illustrated for section of the wing in bay (1) thus equals,
section B-B.
a0000 - 100 lb./in.
A21. 7 Rib Loads Due to Discontinuities in Wing 2 x 10 x ‘10 -
Skin Covering.

As referred to before, rib:; in aTidition to This shear flow system is shown on Fig.
transmitting external loads to wing cell A21.36 whit:; is a free body of rib (A). In
structure are also a means of re-distributing bay (a), since the top skin is removed, the
the shear forces at a discontinuity, the most torsional moment must be taken by the front and
common discontinuity being a cut-out in one or rear vertical webs, since any shear flow in the
more of the webs or walls of the winq beam bottom skin could not be balanced.
cross sect ion o The usual procedure in finding The torsional moment in bay (2) is,
A21.12 LOADS AND STRESSES ON RIBS AND FRAMES

I Bay (l) .LL(2)3,&---.Bav (3)

Fig.
q = 100

A21.36
d
Bending Moment Diagram
Fig. b

M = 80~00+4000x10 = 120000 in.lb. v=3000

jBeamShearDG7J Fig. c
The total Shea:' lC?LC! on eacii vertical web
q = 300
thus equal- 120000/40 = 3000 lb., which gives t-----t.--
~1 ::!-Lfgr flgv; q’ = 3000/10 = 300 lb./in. on each i
q = 300; Web Shear Flow +q = 300 Fig. d
cyeb. This al‘;,lied shear is shown on the free -t----c --c-4-
bcl:!y 3f rib (A) in Fiq. A21.36. On the left q = 300
end of the rib a shear flow of 100 is acting Fig. A21. 38

Fig. A21. 37
q = 100 flange loads at the beam ends are P = 45000/10
II - - It -4000 = 4500 lb. (See Fig. a).
q = 200 iI l;-q_““,e,,
-ccc-cc The deflection of th, e rear beam would be
q= 100 the reverse of Fig. a, and thus all forces
would also be reversed.

up and on the other side a shear flow of 300 Fig. A21.39 shows bay (1) of the wing as a
is acting down, thus the rib web must taite the free body acted upon by the flange loads due to
difference or 200 actin down. On the right end bend:np of the beams in bay (2). These internal
of the rib the load on the rib web is 200 lb./ f lanrye forces from bay (2) must be held in
: r, . ~1;:. The loads on the top and bottom equilibrium by the internal stresses in the ad-
flanqns zf the rib is cbviously 100 lb./in. jacent win!; structure of bs:. (1).
Fig. A21.37 S:IC:,S the loads aoplied to the rib
boundary iui-en the torsicn In bay (1) and the
external couule forrze is transferred to the
cross-section of bay (2).

ACDITI0NA.L ETFE’: Tb DUE TO DIFFERENTIAL BENDING

OF BEATS IN BAY (2).

The torsion in bay (1) and the external

couplr: _foxe are thro9vn off as couple force on
the front an! rz:ir nenms of middle bay (2),
with the total s;;sear load on each beam being
Fig. A21. 39
3000 lb. 1s previously calculated. These beam
shear lo?ds must be transmitted to bay (3) and
thus cause bendin;; of the beams in bay (2). Accordinm to the ,well kno;vn ?rinciple of
Since each beam is att,ached to relative rigid mechanics formulated by Saint Vennat, the
box structures at each end, namely bays (1) stresses resulting from such an internal force
and (3), the beams tend to bend iniith no rotatior system will be necplicible at a distance from
of their ends. If we neglect the deflections the forces. This distance in case of a cut-out
of these end box structures, ‘we can assume that is usually assumed as approximately equal to
the beams bend with no rotation of their ends the width of the c,ut-out, or in general to the
or each beam is fixed ended. Fig. A21.3Ua width of the acijncent :ving bay. Thus in Fig.
illustrates the neflection of the front beam in A21.39 the flan::e loads of 4500 lbs. each are
bay (2) under the assu7lntion of no end rotation. assumed to be dissipated at a uniform rate for
The beam elastic curve has a noint of inflectior a distance of 20 inches. Thus the shear flow
at the span .mid:ioint. Figs. 38b, c show the created by each stringer load which equals the
beams b-?iljiii: moment and shear diagrams. change in axial lOad per inch in the stringer
in bay (1) equals 4500/20 = 225 lb.
The end :nOmentS are M = VL/S = 3000x30/2
= 35000 in.lb. Assuming t!ie bnzm flanges Fig. A21.40 sho;ds a seLgment 1 inch wide
develo; the entire bending resistance the beam cut from wing bay (I) with the AP load in each
 A21.13

rlange member. To find the shear flow on the bay (1) as shown. The areas of corner strlngers
cross-section the front web Is first assumed a, b, c and d are shown In ( ) adjacent to each
cut, and thus the static shear flow qs = ZAP stringer-
fr3:~ c:rt face where qs Is zero. Fir:. A21 040
shw::: t?:is static shear flow.
8800 lb.

No Skin on
Bottom of
Bay
(2).

cuLjb&]i Fig. A21.40

2400
-----A- (1
qs=225
T
1”

For equilibrium of the cross-section, the

moment of the forces in the plane of the cross-
section ml;st equal zero. Takinq moments about
lo;:er left hand corner of the qs force system,

M
tI = 225x40~10 = 90300 in-lb. For equill-
brium a moment of -90000 is necessary. There-
fo:e a constant shear flor; system q must be
added to develo:j a moment of -90000. Thus
q = M/2-A = (-YOOOO/2x1Ox;i-0) = -112.5 lb./in.
Addlnr t’rilc shear flow to that for qs In Fig.
k21.40 &ives the final values In Fl,?. A21.41.
11: Rib cy$
Fig. A21.43
TiilS sllesr, floN system represents the stress

+ 30” -1
112.5
~--c~--

l12. 5 1!!1112.5 Fig. A21, 41

C--t- Thr: mi~~dle bay (2) has no skin on the
112.5 bottom surface, or in other > :vrrc!c , -, the middle
bay has a ch*:nnel cross-section, which fact
often hapyens In practicll ;eiiri;: dcsicn as for
system caused on cross-section of bay (I) due exa.xrlc 2 rwc3 or well for a retractable land-
to the differential bending of the beams in inc- :qerir D The -3roblem ,;iill b’e to finu the
bay (2). This shear flow system must therefore shear flow in bays (1) and (2) ant! the boundary
be reeiste?, by rib (A) as it must terminate at IcYIds on rib (A) between bays f 1) and (2).
en:: 3: bay (1). Therefore the shear flows in
Fi?:, AZl.41 are applied boundary loads to Solution No. 1
rib (A) an3 these must be added to the rib
loads in Fig0 A21.37 to give the final rib loads This method of solution wl 11 make use of
01’ FIL:. A21.42. Jith the final rib loads the shear center locatIon for b ay (2) in order
to obtain the true torsIona moment on bay (2).
‘dith this torsional momint kno;ln, the 3rocedtire
212.5 i? .~iTlllar to the ?i-evious example involvlnF
win: tor:.i~:ri qr:I:;.
312. 5 lr\j3g;I;;:
-c-w ‘Xe 1~111 first c,ilculate the shear flow in
- -212. 5 win-. b’,;; (I). F:;-.
. A21.44 shah’s the cross-
Fig. A21. 42
section.
,8800#
known, the rib flange and ;.lb stresses ~91; be
found as ?reVIOiiSly explained.

A21.9 Example Problem. Wing with Cut-Out Subjected

to Bending and Torsional Loads.

F : :-,.
A21.43 shows a portion of a 4 stringer
SI:L:-lt! cell c::ntllever beam composed of 3 bays
fornec by the four ribs 0 The loads on the
struC:IIre cons:lst of loads aDplied to end of Fig. A21. 44
A21.14 LOADS AND STRESSES IN RIBS AND FRAMES

The sectIon moments of Inertia are needed Therefore we consider bay (2) In Its true
In calculating shear flows. condition wlth bottom skln removed. Flg.
A21.47 shows the cross-sectlon of bay (2).
Ix = (lx6ex2)+(0.5~4~~2) = 88 inf

i! = ZAx/CA = (1x30)/3 = 10 in.

12 = (2x10e)+(1x202) = 600 in!

VZ =8800lb., V,=2400lb.
vx Fig. A21.47
qy = - h ZzA --BA,
Iz
substituting
Ix
The three shear flows can be determined by
qy = -100 ZzA - 4CxA - - - - - - - - - - (a) statics.
Since the shear flow Is unknown at any ZF, = 2400-30 C&b = 0, whence qab = 80
point on cell, we will assume front web (ad) as
cut or carrying zero shear. ZMd = 2400x3-5800x15-90x30x12+qbc
qdc = -100 (-6)(l) -4 (-lo)(l) = 640 lb./ir (8x30) q 0, whence qbc = 640

qcb = 640-100 (-4)(0.5)-4 (20) 0.5 = 800 ZF, = 8800-8X640+2X80-12 qad = 0

whence qad = 320
qba = 800-100 (4)(0.5) -4 (20) 0.5 = 560
Fig. A21.48 shows the results. This shear
Fig. A21.45 shows these static shear flows. flow system is the fIna. or true shear on bay
(2) 0
/+-- 15'-$8800

240013,7jrt A=Cell Area=300-c~~800

C-t--
640 Fig. A21.48
Fig. A21.45
Since we have a channel or open )wing cross-
section in bay (2), any torsional moment on
To this shear flow, a constant shear flow
this bay must be transmitted by differential
must be added to make M = 0. Take moments bondlno: of the front and rear beams. To obtaln
about noint (d). the torsional moment on bay (2), the shear
center location must be knoivn.
CMd = -8800x15+2400x3+560x30x12+800
x 8x30 = 268600 in. lb., or -266800 Horizontal location of shear center: -
Assume the section bends about centroidal X aXiS
is required for equilibrium, hence the required without twist under a V, load of 8800 lb.
constant shear flow q = -M/2A q -268800/2x300
= -448. Adclini; this shear flow to that of Flg.
q = - vz ZzA, or q = - 100 BzA
A21.45, we obtain the shear flow of Fig. A21.46 Ix
qcb = - 100 (-4)(0.5) = 200
-1k
--
1” - qba = 200 - 100 (4)(0.5) q 0
bl
448 J + 352
1 AI Gd = 0 - 100 (6)(l) = -600

+d--- - --
192 Fig. A21.49 shows the shear flow results
Fig. A21.46 for bending about x-x without twist. The line
of action of the resultant of this shnar flow
force system locates the horizontal position Of
This shear flow system would be the shear flow the shear center.
system for all 3 bays If ths bottom skin in bay
(2) was not removed. Removing the bottom skin ? = (200x8x30)/8800 = 5.45 in.
in bay (2) '~111 moClfy these shear flows of
Fi "0 .Gl.,;E.
 A21.15

ential bending of beams in bay (2), thus equal

the beam shear times half the span of bay (2)
divided by the beam depth.

For front beam P = 3841x12.5/12 = 4000 lb.

Fig. A21.49
For rear beam P = 3841x12.5/8 = 6000 lb.
Vertical position of shear center: -
Fig. A21.52 shows these flange loads
Assume section bends about centroidal z applied to bay (1). These loads are dissipated
axls without twist under a load of Vx = 2400 It

-7 I
9 =-%i~fi= - 4 ZXA
1,

qcb = -4x20x0.5 = - 40 lb./in.

qba = -40-4x20x0.5 = - 80

qad = -80-4 (-10) 1 = -40

Fig. A21.50 shows the shear flow reSUltS.

R= 2400 /-

-/fF-q” uniformly in bay (1) over a distance of 30

inches, or the shear flow per inch produced by
C
these flange loads equals AP = P/30, whence
Fig. A21.50
APa = APd = 4000/30 = 133.3 and APb = APc
The vertical distance ?? from point (a) to = 6000/30 = 200 lb.
the line of action of the resultant which
locates the vertical location of shear center Fig. A21.53 shows an element of bay (1)
is, one Inch wide with these AP loads. The shear
flow q assuming the front web cut equals ZAP.
?i = ZMa/2400 = (40x8x30)/2400 = 4 in. The resulting static shear flows which equals
ZAP is shown in Fig. A21.53.
Fig. A21.51 shows the shear center locatlc
and the external loads. The moment about the
shear center which equals the torsion on the
wlng bay (2) equals,

Ms.,. = - 8800x9.55-2400x13 = -115240 $ip=&88. 7 Fig,A21.53

in.lb.
- 733713 - -t
133.3 200

The moment of thls shear flow system about

point (d) = 133.33x30x12-66.7x8x30 = 31980.
For ZM = 0, we need a constant shear flow q =
- 31980/2x300 = -53.3 lb./in. Adding this
constant shear flow to that of Fig. A21.53
gives the shear flow system of Flg. A21.54.
This torsional moment must be resisted by These results represent the effect on bay (1)
front and rear beams. Hence shear load on
each beam = 115240/30 = 3841, lb.

As in the previous example problem in-

volvlng torsion, the beams in bay (2) will be
assumed to bend without rotation of thelr ends
or in other words the bending moment at mid-
point of bay is zero. The flange loads at
points a, b, c and d on bay (1) from the diffe
A21.16 LOADS AND STRESSES ON RIBS AND FRAMES

of removing the bottom skin in bay (2). Adding 192 with sense as shown. Since this skin is
the shear flows of Fiq. A21.54 to those of Fio;. missing we reverse this shear flow and find the
A21.46, we obtain the final shear flows in bay resisting shear flows on the other three sides
(1) as sho;nin in Fig. A21.55. of the bay cross-section, Fig. A21.58 shows
the section, with the 3 unknown shear flows
BOUNDARYLOADS 0:’ RIB (A ) %b, qbc and %‘fi*

The boundary loads on rib (A) will equal

the difference between the shear flows in bays
(1) an; (2). Fi?;. A21.56 shows a free body of
rib (A) with the shears flows obtained from
Figs. A21.55 and A21.48.

To find q,b Use ZF, = 0, 192x30-30 kb =o

whence, qab = 192

ZMd = -30X192x12+8 qbcx30 = 0

whence, qbc = 288

=‘z = 4 x 192 - 0 x 288 + 12 qad q 0

whence, qad = 128

The resulting applied boundary forces to Adding the shear flows of Fig. A21.58 to
the rib equal the alpobraic sum of the shear
those of Fig. A21.46 gives the final shear flows
flo\nis on each side of the rib which C-ives the
in bay (2) as shown in Fig. A21.59. These re-
values in Fin;. A21.57.

sults check the results in Fig. A21.48 obtalned

With the rib boundary loads known, the in solution method (1).
stresses in the rib can be found as previously
illustrated In this chapter.

Solution No. 2

This method of solution first finds the

shear flow in all bays assuming bottom skin is
not removed In center bay (2). This gives a
shear flow In the bottom skin. However, the
skin in bay (2) Is actually removed so a
corrective set of shear flows on bay (2) along
the boundary lines of the bottom skin must be
applied to eliminate the shear flows found in
the bottom skin. The problem then consists of
finding the influence of these corrective shear
floivs upon the shear flows as found for bays
(1) and (2) when bottom skin In bay (2) was Fig. A21.60
not removed.

The first step is to find the shear flows

In all bays assuimlng bottom skin in bay (2) Is
not removed. The calculations would be exactly Fig. A21.60 shows the corrective shear
like those In solution (1) and the shear flow flows of Fig. A21.58 applied to bay (2). On the
In all bays would be those in Fig. A21.46. The bottom skin the corrective shear flow is shown
bottom skln in Fig. A21.46 has a shear flow of on the boundary of the cut-out. These shear
 A21.17

Frame in Center
$1, /
Portion of Fuselaae I’
for “Vought” F85
Awplane
P.? = (2iiF + l%?)lT.., = 63OC lb. tension ..’. ,.A
PHOTO. A21.4

PcL = (l;X+ 192)12.5 = 4000 tension

Referrin- to Fi::. A;‘i.sZ, w*a find that the

p V?lUE?S a??;.~ are thz sax~e as the P vilues
obtairiod bj Solution (1). Thus th;: re:nainder
of solutin (2) ;0uM 'DC: iCer,tic,:l to that in
SC1:<ti:3il (l), and therefore thl:: CalCulations
,xill riot -be repeated i;ers.

A21.10 Fuselage Frames

Frames in a fuselage serve the same pur-

p-ye a5 ribs in win7 struCtures. Ribs are
usmlly 0:’ beam or truss construction and can
be stress anaiyzed fairly accurately by static:
Pusela;;e frames hogdever, are of the closed
r-in8 type of structure and are therefore static
ally indeterminate relative to intern?1
stresses. Once the applied loads on a frame
are knoivn thn internal stresses can be found
by t!13 ap;illc?t;cn of the elastic theory as
covered in Chapters A,a, Afj, A10 and All. The PHOTO. A21.5
loads on fuselace frames due to discontinuitie: Fuselage-Wing Portion
in the fuselaTe structure, such as those due tc of “Martin” 404 Transport
wlndows and doors, can be approximately de-
termined by the procedures previously presenter A21.12 Calculation of Frame Boundary Supporting Forces.
for wing ribs.
Example Problem 1
The photographs on paSe 32 of Chapter Al5
SLOWsome of the frame construction of the Fir;. A21.61 illustrates a cross-section of
Douglas DC-8 al rliner I Other victures a circ111ar fucela -e ~ Two concentrated loads of
of
2000 lb. each are applied to the fuselage frame
fuselage construction are ,Tiven in Chapter A20 at the points indicated.
Photographs A21.4 and 5 illustrate typical The problem is to
determine the reactinn; shear flow forces in the
frame ccnstruction and arrangement.
fuselage skin which till1 balance the two ex-
A21.11 Supporting Boundary Forces on ternally applied load-. This fuselaKe section
Fuselage Frames. might be considered as the aft portion of a
medium size fuse1a-e and the loads are due to
Wnen external c'bncentrated loads are air loads on the horizontal tail surfaces. To
apolled to a fuselate frame throu[:h a suitable make We numerical calculations short the
fitting or connection, the frame is held in fuselaTe stringer arrangement has been assumed
equilibrium by reacting fuselage skin forces symmetrical.
which are usually transferred to the frame
boundary by rivets ,which fasten fuselaipe skin Solutlori:
to fra;ne. Since the fuselage shell is usually
stress analyzed by the beam theory, it iS In this soliltlon the fuselage skin resist-
therefore consister,t to determine the dlstri- iv forces will be assumed to vary according to
butlon of the supportinK skin forces by the the general beam theory. The general flexural
sake theory. shear f101g equation for ber.dlng about the Y
axis is,
 A21.18 LOADS AND STRESSES ON RIBS AND FRAMES

q3 -4 = -31.82-6.275x .30x13.5 = -57.22

q d!z~~ , where Vz = 4000 lb.
IY 94 -5 = -57.22 - 6.275 x .15x 10 = -66.62
The moment of inertia Iy of the fuselage
cross-section is required. In this simplified 4, -8 = -66.62-6.275x .1,5x5 = -71.32
illustration, the area of each stringer plus its
effective skin will be taken as .lS sq.in. The Due to symmetry of effective cross-section,
the shear flow is symmetrical about the Y axis.
student should of course realize after studying
Chapters A19 and A20 that the true effective
area should be used on the compressive side and As a check on the above work, the summa-
that the skin on the tension side of the fuse- tion of the z components of the shear flow on
each skin panel between the stringers should
lage is entirely effective. These facts would
tend to make the effective cross-section unsym- equal the external load of 4000 lb.
metrical about the Y axis. Since the only pur-
pose of this illustrative solution is to show ZF, of skin shear flow equals the vertical
how the frame loads are balanced, the section projected length of each panel times the shear
belng assumed as symmetrlcal which will greatly f loti q on that panel, or
decrease the amount of calculations required.
ZF, = ~1.4~16.57+2.7~31.82+3.5~57.22
+ 5x66.62+5x71.32] 4 = 4000 lb.
(check)
Double angles at
3,3’,9,9’. Fig. A21.62 shows the frame with its
balanced load system. The internal stresses
can now be found by the methods of Chapters
A@ to All.

td----lII
;;I---
I I - -I+
I \+-l
11 ’ 11’
Fig. A21.61

Moment of Inertia of fuselage section

about Y axis which is the neutral axis under
our simplified assumptions.

Iy = .15 (17.6*+16.2°+&3.58+13.5a+108+
5*)4 = 637 in.
Fig. A21.62
Due to symmetry of effective section and
external loading, the shear flow in the fuselage
skin on the z axls or between stringers 1 and 1 Example Problem 2. Unsymmstrical Vertical Loading
and 11 or 11 will be zero. Thus startlng with
stringer (1) the shear flow in the skin resist- In certain conditions in flying and land-
ing the external loads of 4000 lb. can be ing, unsymmetrical concentrated loads are applied
written around the circumference of the section. to the fuselage or hull structure. For example,
Fi,?. A21.63 shows the same section and frame as
was used in Problem 1. Due to an unsymmetrical
9= Ji zfi q _ E ZzA = - 6.275 %A load on the horizontal tail, the reactions from
IY the tail on the fuselage are as illustrated In
= -6.275x.15x17.6 = -16.57 lb./in. the figure. The total load in the z direction
9 L-8
is still 4000 lb. but the loads are not sym-
metrical about the z axis. For analysis Pur-
9 a--5 = -16.57-6.275x .15x16.2 = -31.82
poses, consider the loads as transferred to the
 A21.19

c.g. of the section as indicated in Fig. AZ1.64.

The moment of the two loads about the c-g. =
1500x11.5-2500x11.5 = -11500 in.lb. The
shear load Vz = GO00 produces the same shear
flo,~ pattern 3:‘ Fig. A21.62. To balance the
moment of -11500, a constant shear floti qL
around the frame is necessary.

11500
9 =M-2A-2xnx188 = 5.65 lb./In. i 1” 1” 1000
ta
600 500
(A = area of fuselage cross-sectlon)
Fig. A21.66
Adding this constant force system to that
of Fig. A21.62, gives the flnal boundary (2)
supporting forces on the frame as illustrated
In Fig. A21.65. The elastic stress analysis
of the frame can now proceed.

1500 2500

Fig. A21.67

Fig. A21.67 shows a wing rib inserted In a

A21.64 3 flange single cell wing beam, which Is sub-
jected to the external loads as shown.

(1) Find rib flange loads at (c) .and (d).

2500
(2) Find rib web shear flow on each side
t of stiffener cd.
(3) Find rib flange and web loads at
section 5” to left of line ab.

(3)

kin forces on perimeter

of bulkhead Fig. A21.88

A21. 13 Problems. Fig. A21.68 shows a 3 stringer single cell

wing beam. A rib is Inserted to distribute the
(1) Fig. A21.66 shows a cantilever beam loaded concentrated loads as sholwn.
as shown. Find the shear flow in each of the
4 web panels. Draw axial load diagram for (1) Find shear flows in rib web panel (1)
each of the vertical web stiffeners and also (2) and (3).
the horizontal stiffener be. Plot axial load
diagram for beam flange members as obtained (2) Find rib flange loads at sectlons dc
from web shear flows. and ab.
A21.20 LOADS AND STRESSES C)N RIBS AND FRAMES

(4) I?>< Fig. A21.69 (8) Same as problem (7) but with top skin re-
shows a 2 stringer, noved instead of lower skin.
a
2 cell wing beam.
.04 .03 A rib Is inserted (9) Same as (5) but with read spar web removed
.03 Rib ” to transfer 1000 lb. instead of bottom skin.
-i Rib / load to beam struc-
ture s (10) Same as problem (7) but with rear spar web
Fig. A21.69 49 removed instead of bottom skin.
+ lb+ Find shear flow
in rib web in each (11) In Fig.
cell adjacent to A21.71 the external
line a.b. Also rib bulkhead loads PL
flange loads ad- and P, equal 4000
jacent to points lb. each and P,
(a) and (b). equals zero. The
fuselage stringer
material consists
of four omega
sections with an
area of .Gfj Sq.
in. each. Deter-
mine the skin re-
sisting forces on
the bulkhead in pi p,
balancing the
above loads. Fig. A21.71
Neii;lect any effec-
tive skin in this
problem.

i(z)p S;;o;; problem (11) but make P, = 4000

2 .

(13) Same as problem (12) but aCd P, -= 3000 lb.

(14) In a water
landinK condition
the hull frame
of Fis. A21.72
is subjected to a
normal bottom
pressure of 200
Fig. A21. ‘70
lb. per in.
The area of the
bulb angle
stringers is
(5) Fig. A21.70 shows 3 bays of a cantilever .11 sq. in.
single cell, 4 stringer wing beam. The bottom each and they d
skin in bay (2) is removed. Find the shear are ?/8 in. deep.
flows in all bays and boundary loads on ribs The area of the
(A) and (B) when the external wing loads are as Z stringers is
follows: T = 56000 ln.lb., P, = 0, P, = 0, .18 sq. in. each
P, = 2000 lb., P, = 2000 lb., P, = 0. and the depth 1.5 Fig. A21.72
in. The area of
(6) Same as problem (5) but upper skin in bay the stringers a,
(2) Is removed instead of the lower skin. b, c, d and e is
.20 sq. in. each. Neglecting any effective
(7) Same as problem (5) but with the following skin determine the skin resisting forces on
external loads. the frame in balancing the bottom water pres-
sures.
T = 56000 in.lb., P, = 5000 lb.,
(15) Same as problem (14) but consider that
P, = 2000 lb,, P, = P, = 0 and P5 = 1000 It the water pressure is only acting on one side
of the bottom of the frame.
 CHAPTER A22

ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL WING PROBLEMS

ALFRED F. SCHMITT

A22. 1 Introduction. the one finally an<?Lyzed, arc LF?? ii?,! OF!1y
lightly; additlonal r’i::~or’4:~?ce::4r.t: f: It,::% ,;:hc:re
In a previous chapter (A19) analyses of apqronriate.
wing beams were carried out using the engineer-
ing theory of bending and rational modifications
thereof. As discussed there, Wing configura-
tions which depart radically from the usual
conce$ion of a “beam” present the engineer
with the choice of making approxlmate and/or
eaplrical corrections to bean theory, or of
following a complete analytic treatment of the
structure. in the flac:?es (spar raps ant: str,i:l!-er:) with
effective areas oi‘ skin llar,-:c>,i ::i. In all
This chapter illustrates the latter ap- cases handled here tne skt:~ w:-is a~sIme0 fully
proach to several cnecial problems associated effective (stresses i~elow sklri :>:cl:I inr s.tress -
with aircraft wins structures, viz., * see Art. AIY.ll, C!i,i?ter ii! 9).

Art. A22.2 - stresses around a panel cutout To enhance the XF: ful rieis oi’ the:,,2 ;~r.obla:ns,
Art. (~22.3 - shear lag problem all the structures :;,o:;en 1”~ a:,:, 1,y?i s ,‘:er~.:
Art n AZ.4 - cutout In a box beam taken from reference:‘, E~,.i:lr,(?&Itlo:i:51 I”,::vixcry
Art. A22.5 - swept wing box beam Committee for Aeronautics) publicatloris wherein
the reader may fin!: uetallecl dlsr~~sslons
, of the
Aside from presenting one analytic treatment problems, other metho:!s of analysi: :x!!? data
of these problems, a dlscussion Is given of the obtained from test:: upon the s;;t:cimcrrs. XI 0 r-e
physical nature of each phenomenon. An under- avallable, these data .ha’Je been usf?? ;~ercin for
standIn.? of the nature of the problem is of comp9rlson.
prime importance, since no one analytic
technique can be all-powerful In the solution A22. 2 Stresses Around a Panel Cutout
of stress problems. The analyst must exercise
judgment and 1ny;enulty in approaching each new “Cutouts in winrs anti fuselarres cor‘stitute
situation. one of the most troublesome :?roblerns confront-
ing the aircraft deslrner. Rocz:,lse tt1e stress
In this chapter all analyses are made concentrations caused by (‘itnuts are lo~~allzed,
using the matrix formulation of the Method of a number of valuable partial solutions of the
Dummy Unlt Loads (Chapters A7, A8), a famlll- problem can be ohtalned by an%Iyzlnn the be-
arity with which Is assumed. havior, under load, 0 :’ s lmyle ski n-str i ngei
panels” (1) **
Such problems as those listed above are
too unwieldy to be studled here in great detail; Thus, In the case of a win:: beam smith a
hence no attempt at exhaustive analyses has panel cutout of the upper sur,f’acc (Fir;. A2%.1),
been made. To bring into relief the main it would be feasihl~e to analyze t,::e sectjon
features of each problem, the structure selected Immediately around th? cutout as E f’lat shr?et-
for analysis is one which Is simple In con- strlnger panel under the action of axlsl
struction and so loaded as to exhiblt clearly stringer loads and edge s!!ears (coming from the
the plienomenon under study. IQny practical spar webs ) . The axial strlngcr forces could be
details, such as the effects of sheet wrinkling, computed with suffjclect accuracy by the eri-
rivet and fitting ‘give”, stress concentrations, glneerlng theory of bendln? (E.T.B. ) since
etc., have been side-stepped so as not to be- these are removed sufflcler.tly far from the
cloud the objective. Furthsr, the problems of cutout proper. The edye shear flows a.ro rep.? 11-r
idealization of the orlginal structure, Into computed by those elementary consider,;:tl ons
which give the spar-wet) sheor flcws.

* One other important special problem - the so-called “bend-

ing stresses due to torsion” - is not treated here specifically.
As indicated in Chapter A8, the general box beam analysis
presented there encompasses this problem (Example Prob. ** Numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the
15, p.p. A8.24 through A8.27). end of the chapter.
A22.1
A22.2 ANALjYSIS OF SPEC L WING PROBLEMS

Fig. A22. 1
Fig. A22. 2 Idealization of the half panel by
use of substitute stringers
The sheet-stringer panel may, in general,
contain a lsr c number of’ longitudinal ele- Flc. A22.3 gives the geometry of the ideal-
ments (stringers) . The labor involved in ized panel.
treatin this multi-element structure in detail A,= . 703 in’
is cro!iibitive , and thus an aqnropriate ideal-
ization must be aclde. First, it is likely that A,= . 212 in2
the panel may be considered to bo symmetric
about a lonpitudirisl axis, se t,hat clnly t,he A,= 1.045 in2
half-panel neeo be handled. Second, the com- -_--a- AR= 0. 25 in a
plex, multi-stringer structure Is replaced by
one having but three stringers. As indicated t, = 0.0331 in
in Fig, A22.2, these stringers are: - ---------2
t * = 0.0331 in
-b,-bz- ,h
#l, a substitute stringer having for its
b, = 5.96 in
area all the effective area of the fully con-
tinuous members to one side of the “combing b, = ‘7. 56 in
stringer” (the ::trlnger boi,dering the cutout)
and placed at the centroic! of the area of Fig. A22. 3 L = 15.0 in
asterlal for ?ghich it substitutes. The stress
which this strirqer develops is then the
average stress for the material it replaces.
Fig. A22.4 is an exploded view of the half-
#2, the cosbing strfnger, being slmoly the panel showing the placement and numbering of the
main continuous stringer bordering the cutout. internal qeneralized forces (Art. A7.9, Chapter
A7) and the external loading. Note that the
#S, another substitute strin::or, this applied axial stresses were assumed to be con-
one all of the eff’fxtlve
re?l?cirie: matcrlal stant chordwise, [hiving stringor loads pro-
made discontinuous by the cutout. It is locatec portional to the stringer areas; their sum Is
at the centroid of the material it replaces, P *, one of external loads.
and Its stress is the average stress for this
same matsrlal. * The applied edge shear flows, Cming from
the spar web, were assumed constant SpanWiSe,
The sheet thicknesses used are the same as from a constant shear load. Other load
as those of the actual structure.** distributions may be handled by allowing these
applied shears to vary from panel to panel.
For very extreme load variations sddltional
* An alternate idealization, in which stringers #l and #3 are transverse members could be inserted to create
located along the lines AB and CD, respectively (Fig. A22.2), more spanwise panels allowinK a better fit to
was used in Reference (2) for a box beam loaded in torsion. the spar shear variation. The applied shear
** When the longitudinal members themselves contribute to flows were considered as the other external
the shear stiffness of the cover (as is the case for “hat” sectio load and designated P,.
stringers riveted to the skin so as to form small closed
cross sections), an effective thickness must be used. This Panels on the centerline have zero shear
point is discussed in Reference (3). In this source, however, due to symmetry (Fig. AZ2.3).
the increase in shear stiffness is accounted for, not by
increasing skin thickness, but by decreasing the panel width -
an equivalent procedure.
 A22.3

q 17=.
qlh=.
359 (P,+SP,L)

108 (P, +3P,L) r

9 17
I
,q 1e
*
,q 1 s
T The half panel was twice Indeterminate.
Member loads q 8 and qs were selected

apnlications
as redun-
dant s , With these set equal to zero, successive
of loads P,. and P, were made.
Also, successive applications of unit values of
q 6 and q, were made. The results:

\m,r
i 1 2 6 8

+ I /1
q I 6.!359 P, ql;=. 108P, qL 6.533 P;

Fig. A22.4

Experience has shown that for symmetric

gin,&- 1=
panels symmetrically loaded it is satisfactory
to consider transverse members to be rigid in
their own planes (4). Thus, in this problem,
member flexibilities for forces qs, q,, q, and
q, may be taken to be zero. In the actual
NACA test specimen with which results are to
be cmparcd, those transverse members bordering
the cutout appear-cd to have been heavily re-
inforced (to an extent unknown to the writer),
Hence it is logical to take their stiffnesses
as great.

Member flexibility coefficients were

collected in matrix form as below using the
formulas of Chapter A?‘. Note that the co-
efficients for subscripts 5, 6, 7 and 8 were
set equal to zero (rigid transverse members).
“cii, MEMBER FLEXIBILITY COEFFICIENTS (E = 1) (Voids denote zeros)

1. l0.J
17 -3.56 I. 11
18 -11.79 23. 58
19 4.785
The “off diagonal” values have negative sign because the sense of those internal generalized forces having subscripts (la), (15),
(1’7) and (18) was taken opposite to that used in the derivation in Art. A’7. 10. A change in sense requires a change in sign in
off-diagonal coefficients only.
A22.4 ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL WING PROBLEMS

CALCULATED MEASURED
Fig. A22. 5 Comparison between calculated and
measured stresses (psi) on the
half -panel.

inserted in thewij matrix (in place of the

zeroes used above) were

The problem was solved retracing the same

steps as before, but using the modified
matrix, to yield the stresses: lxl

The above analytical results are compared

with $&KS, test data (1) in Fir;. AZ2.5 for the
loading P, = 1, P, = 0. Agreement is seen to
be good. 13 - 1.60 -.036
14 0 .359
EFFECT OF RIB FLEXIBILITY:
15 0 .108
To investigate the influence of rib
flexlhl lity, the problem was reworked aSSmlW
aluminum rib caps, of constant area A = .25 1n.I :
as the transverse members bordering the CUtOUt.
The appropriate member flexibility coeff1clents
 Comparison of this result with the pre- shear. The action may be comprehended readily
vious one for the rigid ribs reveals that the by visualizing an extreme case: a large degree
most important effect of rib flexibility was of nlag” would occur if the load transferring
to increase the concentration of stresses in skin were made of a highly flexible material
the combing stringer bordering the cutout. It such as a plastic sheet or even rubber. In such
should be noted, ho’h’ever, that for this sym- a case the inside stringers would be out of
metric panel, the use of a very flexible rib action almost entirely! With the inside stringer
as compared with a rigid rib led to stress in- stresses lagging, the outside stringers and spar
creases of the order of only lO%in the combing caps must carry an over-stress to maintain
stringer. Thus, the “rule of thumb” that trans- equilibrium (“actual” in the figure) 0
verse flexlbilities may be neglected in sum-
metric :?anels is i-e-affirmed. Fig. A22.7 shows the beam analyzed herein.

A22.3 Shear Lag Analysis of box Beams

c(~@~,,F f=‘63y ,A=. 5432
“The bending stresses in box beams do not
always conform very closely to the predictions
of the engineering theory of bending. The
deviations from the theory are caused chiefly
by the shear deformations in the cover of the
box that constitutes the flange of the beam.
The problem of analyzing these deviations from
the engineering theory of bendlng has become
known as the shear lag problem, a term that is
convenient though not very descriptive.” (3)

Fig. A22.6 illustrates the basic problem.

The beam cover sheet is loaded along the edges
by shear flows from the spar webs. These shear
flows are resisted by axial forces developed
in the longitudinal members (spar caps and
stringers ). According to elementary consider-
ations, the stringer stresses should be uniform
A=.378’
chordwise at any given beam station (“ele- A’= .3497
mentary theory” in the figure). Actually, the
central stringers tend to “lag behind” the Fig. A22.7
others in picking up the load because the
The beam is an idealization of one tested
by the NACA and reported In reference (3), Note
that the beam has no lower cover sheet and that
it is symmetric about a vertical axis. Trans-
verse bulkheads are located at stations E”, 24”,
36” and 48” from the root.

The actual beam specimen had three more

stringers than shown in the idealized structure,
these being located one each midway between the
pairs of longitudinals shown on the beam cover
of Fig. A22.7. In the idealizing process, these
extra stringer areas were divided equally be-
tween adjacent longitudinals. The stringer
areas shown are the effective areas, with those
in the top cover tapering linearly from root to
tip. All skin was considered effective In
-Elementary carrying direct stresses.
Theory

- --Actual Stress
Some detailed discussions of the techniques
Fig. A22.6 of idealization of practical beams are given in
references (5) and (5a).

SOLUTION:

intermedlate sheet, which transfers the loads To permit the handling of the calculation
in from the edges, is not perfectly rigid in in a limited space, It was elected to analyze
A22.6 ANALYSIS OF SPECI ; WING PROBLEMS

the structure for a single transverse (vertical) to zero, the stress distribution due to a one-
tip load symmetrically placed. In that case, half pound load at the tl:) ( a unit load
because of symmetry, it was necessary to treat djvided equally between beam halves) was readily
only one-half of the structure. In add:tion, cornouted.
no shear flows could appear in the middle .07692
panels. Further, it Is known that the influence
of rib flexlbillty on shear lag is slight for 0
symmetric systems, so that the ribs were con- - * ii230
sldered ri[;id in their own planes; hence no
generallzad forces were needed on the ribs to .Y230
describe their strain energies.
0
Fig. A22.S shows the placement and number- . 076 Y2
Ing of the :::eneralized forces on the half-beam. 0
-1.8461
1 a8461
0
>
11
gim = .07692
0
-2.769
2.769
0
.07692
0
Fig. AX?. 8 Choice of generalized forces for shear -3,692
lag problem.
3.692
0
Member flexibility coefflclents were
computed with the formulas of Chapter A7 and
arranged in a matrix. Next, the unit redundant stress distribu-
tion was computed. Fig. A22.9 illustrates a
The shear flows qe, q7, q,,and ql, were typical calculation, sho,wing the stresses in the
selected as redundants. Setting these equal tip bay for q, = 1, q, = q,, = q,, = 0.

xii. - J I
MEMBER FLEXIBILITY COEFFICIENTS (E = 1)

3 4 5 6 7 8 I 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
 A22.7

Q , Constant on in
q,= -12 t to Root
q,4=+12‘; +12 ); 12
\ \

16,810 9,236
32,160 9,536
Y,SSF? 25
’ , 030
3,041 3,041

The inverse of the .attm :vas formed.

3.28:; -1 .SO5 - o F’I<&F - .lO.Z

[’ -‘%S -1 = 10-6 c -1.500.656 4.215
-1.000 -1.000
4.687 - .2’7C--I
.495

Fig. A22.9 Application of a self-equilibrating unit -. -183 - .:?:‘!i - .495 5.515

redundant stress qe.
and, final.1 -, per eq. (23) 0:’ Cha?ter A8,

The complete redundant stresses were:*

.07692 1
.03453
- .X30
.5086
.41&L
.07692
.03136
-1.846

II Gim =
1.055
.7907
.07692
* 02401
-2.7691
1.690
1.079
.07692
.01005
-3.692
gir =
c1 2.493
1.199 /
FOE. A22.10 shows the ahove computed
stresses and those reported Sy th? NACL as ob-
tained by test. Agreement is seen to be quite
Eood. 4.589-h ~1.885

CALCULATED
3.4

5.

The following matrix products were formed

(per eqs. (17), (18) of Chapter A8):

* This is an obvious place in which to use combinations of MEASURED

redundants to decrease the structural coupling (reference
Chapter A8, pp. A8.29, 30). (Recommended as an exercise
for the student. ) Fig. A22. 10 Comparison between calculated and measured
stresses (psi) in a box beam
A22.8 ANALYSIS OF SPECI L WING PROBLEMS

A22. 4 Stress Analysis uf a Box Benm With ;1 Cutout.

It is desired t3 modi f’g the calculation of 3;: , 160

the pr2ivious artlcl-: (AZ? .5, “Shear I;ig
Analysis”) to allow for the presence of two 3,041
cutouts symxetrically placed. Panel “q L 2” was
removed while the single tip load remained. The above mntrtx is the [=rs] of Art.
Since the unit remained symmetric, the data A22.3, with the “q,. row” and “q,, column” re-
from the previous analysis, in which the trans- moved.
verse rib stiffnesses were txken to be
InfInItely great, should still yield satls- The equations v!cre solved** to c;ive the
factory results. values of the redundants for a. unit applied
load, q,, = 1, as
SOLUTION:

The calculation was accomplished in three

steps:

1) The stress distribution was found in

the “basic structure” (no cutout). This work
was curled out In Article A22.3 where it was
found that q,, = .02401 lbs./lnch. The 9, - force
-*.Y
is included In the above for
later convenience. Then the complete stress
2) A stress dIstrIbutlon was found for disti- ibution, due to apply ing a unit shear fl OW
an “applied load” of q ~a = 1. Such a loading q 1s z 1, was
has zero external resultant.

3) .02401 times this last stress distri-

bution was subtracted from the first.

* The procedure described here is quite generally useful for ** See Appendix for a method of “extracting” the inverse of
studies of the effect of removing one or more members; this matrix from that previously found for the complete
- -
such might be required for an analysis of the effects of
L- rsI matrix.
structural damage.
 ;;t;e,;f,;w matrix p,,,,_] is simply the “12
BASIC

COMPARISONWITH TEST DATA:

Reference 3 reports test data for the case

analyzed, the strln[:er stresses being plotted
below in Fig. A22.11.

In the actual test Specimen a stringer

passing through the cutout w?s severed, it hav-
InK zero stress at stqtlons 12 ani! 24, there-
= -4.240
fore. However, durill,:: the irle?lizatlon process
0
dlScil:;sed in Art / . A%%.3 (for th? beam wlthout
1.00
0 cutout) the area for this st-rlncer was placed
partly with thy comk,lnr; StrlX:er and partly
-7.760
7.760 with the spar cap. In the s;lm~ ‘way, some
0 effective sheet from the mjdportlon of the
- .1055 panel, now made d1 ccont inuous by the cutout,
0 was added also to the spar car, and combing
-6.494 stringer.
6.494
It hollows then that the full Idealized
areas 0-f the combing stringer and spar cap
( [girl taken from Art. A22.3) should not be used in fip;urlng the stresses at
statlons 12 and 24 (producec by forces q,,
To obtain the stresses In the loaded bcarn q10, q 141 916)’ With these are:is reduced by
with the cutout, 0.02401 times the above the apnroprlqte SutJtraCtlons, the stresses
stresses were subtracted from the “basic” were computed and are Iplotted in Fig. A22.11.
stress distribution of Art. A22.3, as pre- Aa;reement with test c!ats Is seen to be quite
viously explained. satisfactory.

.07692
.03789
- .9230
.4683
CALCULATED
.4547
.07692
.03648
-1.8461
.9536
.8925
.07692
0
-2.7691
1.8763
.8927
MEASURED
.07692
,01258
-3.692 Fig. A22. 11 Comparison between calculated and measured
2.649 stresses (psi) in a box beam with cutouts.
1.037

Note that q,, is now zero and the cutout A22. 5 Analysis of a Swept Bux Bealil.
panel may be “lifted out”.
“Exgerlmental il~\~~st,if;~it,ic~~s of s;uept box
In the case of a structure under a variety beams have shown th?:. the :,t!,eSses and distor-
of external loadings (m = 1, 2, 3 ---), the tions in a Swent win:; csn 1~9 sp2reciabl.y differ-
more general equation, corresponding to the ent in character from those that would exist If
above, is the root were normal to the wing axis. The
princlnle effect of sweepbqck on the stresses
occurs under bending loads and consists in a
concentration of hendin stress and vertical
A22.10 ANALYSIS OF SPECI L WING PROBLEMS

shear in the rear spar near the fuselage. With found In reference (8). One method of analyz-
regard to distortlons, the effect of sweep is lng such wings is glven in Chapter A23.
to produce some twist under loads that would
produce only bending of an unswept wing and THE STRUCTURE:
some bending under loads that would produce
only twist of an unswept wing.” (6) The structure shown Is Fig, A22.12 is an
idealization of the NACA test beam of refer-
In the following example a swept box beam ences (6) and (9), in which a single substitute
is analyzed by the matrlx methods of Chapter A8 stringer has been employed along the cover
and, in particular, by the specific techniques sheet to allow for the antltipated shear lag
of reference (7). The method accounts for the effect. The figure shows only one-half of the
interaction between the swept cover panels and complete unit, which was built symmetrically
the longitudinal members. It is this action about the axis corresponding to the longitudinal
that is responsible for the distinctive axis of the airplane.
structural characteristics of the swept box
beam. Only tip loads were to be applied (at
points A and B). The outer section of the beam
Again, we emphasize that the method used was assumed to carry stresses which could be
here Is strictly applicable to thin-sklnned calculated reasonably well by the engineering
wings of beam-like proportions only. Consider- theory of bending (E.T.B.). For this purpose
ing the wide variety of structural layouts it was judged satisfactory to consider the
which may be employed In swept wing configura- outer 66” of the beam as a single bay (A-B-D-C).
tlons, a comprehensive treatment cannot be giver If loads were to have been applied inboard of
here. An excellent review of methods better the tip, It would have been necessary to con-
adapted to thick-skinned construction and to sider additional bay divisions between A-B and
“plate-like” (very thin, wlde) wings, may be C-D (that is, insert additional rlbs at statlons

..,------- - -
(Steel) yt=. 125

66”

A=l. 430
A=l. 966 ,

Fig. A22. 13
of load application). Rib C-D was located at affects total deflections only and can be
one of the actual rib locations in the NACA omitted In a stress analyses where deflections
test specimen and was assumed rigid in its own are not sought.
plane.
Since only symmetric loadings were con-
The choice of bay C-D-F-E as a single bay sidered in this analysis no shear was trans-
was somewhat arbitrary. For improved accuracy, mitted by the c?rry-throu;:h bay and hence no
additional ribs inboard of C-D could have been shear flows were shown in that portion.
used. Note that any ribs placed inboard of
point F will produce triangular skin panels in Sets of additional axial forces (q16
the cover sheets. Examples of treatments for through ql, ) were applied to the ends of the
such panels may be found in references (9), flanges and stringers adjacent to the obliquely
(10) and (11). cut ends of the cover sheet panels in bay
C-D-F-E. These forces are necessary to account
Rib E-F was consldered flexible in its own for the interaction between the swept covers
plane, it being known that the flexibility of a and the longitudinals. As shown in Fig. 822.14,
rib is important at a location where a structure the pure shear flow on the oblique edge is ob-
changes direction.* Note that this rib was tained by superposing onto the panel a zero-
made of steel in the test specimen. resultant system consisting of a uniform tensile
stress of intensity 2q plus a pair of concen-
Effective areas of longltudinals as shown trated balarlcing loads. The balancing loads
in Fig. A22.12 were computed by considering all must be contributed by the bordering longitudi-
of the skin to be effective. The spar cap nals an3 hence react on these as tensile loads
areas are equal to the sum of the areas of the (Fig. A22.14C). The balancing loads applied to
angle member at the cap location, plus one- the stringers are shown dashed since they are
half of the effective area of material between internal forces within the bay and are not to
the cap and the substitute stringer (this area be entered into the equilibrium equations for
includes several stringers as well as skin) the structure.
plus one-sixth of the attached spar web area.**
The substitute stringer area was collected in
like manner from the half-panels to either side.

The method used In calculating the

effective areas of the rib caps (E-F) is given
in detail In reference (9), from which the
value used here was taken. The “carry-through
bay” cover sheet thickness Is equal to that (4 04 (cl
used on the specimen (.050”) plus a weighted Fig. A22.14 Showing how the uniform shear stress on
increase to allow for the presence of splice an oblique panel end (b) is created by
plates along the plane of symmetry (see refer- superposition of a uniform tensile stress
plus two balancing forces (a). The
ence 9). balancing forces react as tensile loads on
the bordering longitudinals (c).
INTXRNAL GENERALIZED FORCES: I
Fig. A2.2.13 shows the choice and numbering From an energy viewpoint, these dashed
of the generalized forces. forces account. for the additional strain energy
stored by the axial components of shear flows
The beam was rigidly supported at polnts in the non-rectangular panels. This energy is
E, F and at the two corresponding points on the stored in the cover panels themselves (and Is
other beam half. These might correspond to the accounted for in this manner since the longi-
fuselage ring attach points in an airplane. tudinal.? contain the effective area from the
The vertical end caps on rib E-F were considere cover sheet*** ) and In the longitudinals which
rigid axially, so that no flexibility co- react agalnst these components.
efflcients were associated with the reactions
q 2e and qes. Flexlbllity of these members “Dashed loads” are applied to the longl-
tudinals adjacent to any obliquely cut panel
end. Similar dashed loads would be applied to
* The effect of neglecting this rib’s flexibility is demon- I
strated later in this example.
*** This much of the energy could be accounted for in another
** The factor of l/6 is used so that the effective area con- fashion by modifying the member flexibility coefficient for
tribution of the web results in a structure having the same the sheet panel. See Reference 12, where this was done.
moment of inertia about a horizontal axis as the original. However, that reference incorrectly neglects the additional
Some of the problems of idealization are discussed in energy stored in the longitudinals, as was demonstrated in
reference (2), p. 16. Reference 13.
A22.12 ANALYSIS OF SPECI L WING PROBLEMS

the outboard ends of the panels in bay C-D-F-E Stresses In Inner bays:
if they too were cut obliquely. Such panel
configurations arise often in swept wing con- According to the discussion of Art. A8.12,
struction having ribs parallel to the air- Chapter A8, the determinate stress distribution,
stream. Formulae for more general quadrilateral
panels are given in Reference 7. [IgirlF may be any stress
ibrium with the applied loads, and preferably
distribution in equil-

THE STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS one close to the flnal true stress distribution.
The magnitude of the redundant forces is re-
For the symmetric 1oadinPs considered duced by use of a satisfactory estimate of the
here the structure was indeterminate Only two true stresses.
times since the outer bay was assumed to be
determinate by the E.T.B. The stresses In the two inner bays were
determined for both gim and gir simultaneously.
Stresses in outer bay by E.T.B.: Since this inner portion of the structure is
two times indeterminate we can estimate two
Flange stresses at rlb C-D (for both loads. For this purpose the two flange loads
P, = 1 and P, = 1) 9 ..and qu were written as

M = 66”# qle = q:, + s:,

I = 88.57 ineQ; C = 3.5” q 14 = q’IQ + s:‘,
2.608 psi where the (single) prlmed values are approxi-
mate values determined by the E.T.B. and the
double prlmed values are the unknown corrections
Therefore,
(the redundants) 0 Using My/I at statlons 66”
and 118” from the tip gave*
qs = q, = 2.608x1.121 = 2.924 lbs.
4.3 = 2.608x1.373 = 3.581 lbs. 9’ I.2 = 5.228 P, + 5.228 P,

For a unit transverse load at the shear ’ = 3.899

%a PL + 3.899 P,
center (midpoint, because of symmetry)
The equilibrium equations for the elements
of the structure were written next by summing
l# ~=%=.02713 lbs forces and moments.
qa-4
in
qa
Joint F
qb
qb = .02713 +q
.~ q,, + cl,, q 0

= .07143 Ibs 9 23 + q*, = 1.414 ql,

In
= 5.513 P, t 5.513 P, t 1.414 q:‘,
The unit load was shlfted 15” to either side
by application of a torque, T = 15 in.lbs. Joint E
The uniform shear flow superposed wns
9 84 + qm = 0
T
9 z-c 2A
15
= .03571=
q 81, - %, = 1.414 q,,
2 x 210 in = 7.392 P, + 7.392 P, + 1.414 q;,
Finally, superposition gave the stresses ZM about E-F
for the outer bay as
9 24 -t q,, + 92, = 11.918 P, + 8.888 P,

Lgim
i = 2 .06284 - .00858
r 1
3 .00858 - .06284

4 .03572 1 .1071
* This is a rather crude way to estimate these loads and is
used here only for simplicity. The analyst is generally better
advised to exercise a little more ingenuity in making these
estimates, even to the extent of being guided by other swept
wing solutions.
 T 0 0 0 -1
1 -.7115 0 0 0
0 0 21.2 0 21.2 0 1
0 0 1.682 1 0
0 0 0 1 1
4, co 0 -21.2 0 0 -21.2 1 0
Shear Flows around the non- 0 0 0 0 0 -11 9 52
- _Ii
rectangular panels. (Check
by summing moments about -
E, GandF.) - .1403 - .2111 0 0-
.04431 .04/x31 .01923 0
Cap EC
2.756 2.756 0 .707
q, - .7115q* = .04431P, +.04431p, t .04432 .04432 0 .04545
.01923 q';. .2831 .3540 0 0
Rib Vertical at E -3.696 -3.696 -.707 0
- -5.466 -2.436 .707 .707 -
4,-q,, = - .1403 4 - .211 P,
Cap M: After inverting the matrix of coefflclents
n the left hand side of this last equation,
-21.2q, -21.2qq,, -qsOtqsl = 0 nd multiplying through thereby, the stresses
ere obtained as
Joint G -
.1006 .0295 .00676 -.OOS%
.707 q,, - q,, = 0
.0791 - .0208 -.01753 -.00950
0707 (AL, - q,, t q,, = 0
.0013 - .0411 .00401 .0230
Cap GF .0422 .1135 -.00675 .00675
9 10 + 91, + .04717 (q,, -q,,) q 0 .2409 .2409 .00676 -.00676
3.087 ,964 -.9355 -.3444
Rib Vertical at F
.2.379 -1.473 -.2284 .3625
- -
q II + 41, -- .2831 PA t .3540 P,
Cap DF The complete determinate and unit-
edundant stress distributions, using the re-
qli t 1.682 qL, = .04432 (P, t P,) ults up to this point, were therefore:
+ .04545 q;,
The first five of the above equations
were readily solved by substitution, yielding:

9 85 = qs3, = 2.756 P, t 2.756 Pa t .707 q;,

-%, = q,, = 3.696 PL t 3.696 Pe t .707 q;,
q 96 = 5.466 P, t 2.436 Pz - ,707 q:,
- .707 q;,

Also, from equilibrium of joint G:

9 2.3 q 7.729 P, t 3.444 Pz - ST, - q:',

The remaining seven equations were
arranged for solution thus:
A22.14 ANALYSIS OF SPECI LL WING PROBLEMS

qls = " PD" =2xg+zh .

(-1 qe= -12.5 qe

= -.989 P, + .260 P, t .2191 q:', + .118S q:',

9 LB = “PC” = 2 x y-g+ x 15 x (-1 9, = -17.5 q,

.

= -1.384 P, t .360 P, + .3068 q:‘, + .1662q';,

Similarly, for the panel HGFD;

4 I.7 = -.014 P, f .460 P, -.0449 q:', - .2576 q:',

9 2.8 =- .0244 P, + .773 P, -.0754 q:', - .4324 q:',
The following matrix products were formed:
(cf. eqs. 17, 18, 23 of Chapter A8)

-
250.2
50.43 1
I 11 II .0422 1 .1135 (- .00675/ .00675/

14
15
3.899
- .989
3.899
.260
0
.2191
1.0
.1188
- .005563
0.01483 1
Finally, the true stress distribution was found
16 -1.384 .360 .3068 .1662 as,
17 - .0146 .460 - .0449 - .2576
18 - .0244 .773 - .0754 - .4324

4 .03572 .1071
5 2.924 2.924

DASHEDLOAD CALCULATIONS:

In the above matrlx, loads ql,, q,,, qr,

and were obtained
q,,
formulas given in reference
quadrilateral panels.
from q, and ql, following
7 for general
The equations applicable
II Glm =

to a parallel-slded panel are:

\ ,
PD= &NJ2

Balancing Load
(= Dashed Load)
Formulae from Ref. 7

For the panel CECH; c q 52.3", d = 73.5",

c + d = 125.8", L = 15". Hence
 A22.15

MATRIX OF MEMBER FLEXIBILITY COEFFICIENT-= ,) (E = 1) (Formulas from Chapter A7 and Reference ‘7)

COMPARISONWITH TEST DATA: requirement. More details concerning the test-

ing techniques and method of data presentation
would probably resolve this conflict. Both test
and calculated values clearly exhibit the
characteristic build-up of stresses in the rear
spar of a swept wing.

RIB E-G-F RIGID:

As a matter of interest, it was decided to

investigate the effect upon stresses when rib
E-G-F Is taken to be rigid. Such a calculation
is readily achieved by putting the member
flexibility coefficients for the rib equal to
zero.
Station (0)
CAL&ATED MEASURED Thus, in the matrix E i-~], those co-
efficients with subscriots 19, 20, 21, 22 and
Fig. A22. 15 Comparison Between Calculated and 23 were set equal to zero and the complete
Measured Stresses (psi) in a Swept
Box Beam. calculation was repeated.

Fig. A22.15 shows a comparison between The resul.ts, for spar cap loads at the wing
the calculated stringer stresses and those root (a most sensitive point), were:
measured by the NACA as reported in Reference 6
The stresses shown are for a unit tip load,
centrally placed (P, = P, = l/2 lb.).

Considering the limitations on the analysis

the agreement is generally satisfactory. Thus,
the discrepancy in the My/I stresses at station
65 may be attributed to a lack of precise A comparison with the flexible rib calcu-
knowledge of the test parameters. The calcu- lations follows:
lated stresses in the leading edge spar between
SPAR CAP
stations 65 and 118 cannot duplicate the ex-
perimental varlatlon since only a single bay LOADING FORCE FLEX. RIB RIGID RIB ‘?&DIFF.
was employed in this region in the Idealization Simple
The fact that the calculated root stresses run 6.311 5.616 11
Bending; 9 l2
consistently above the test values is difficult P,=P,=l q 24 12.61 13.60 a
to explain. Inasmuch as the calculated stresse
satisfy equilibrium, the test values, all being Torsion; q lzl 1.829 2.032 11
lower, would seem to defy this fundamental P,=-P,=l q 14 0.535 0.383 20
J
A22.16 ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL WING PROBLEMS

Considering that rib EGF was relatively (7) Wehle, L. B., and Lansing, 'W., A Method for
rigid to begin with - belng made of heavy Reducing the Analysis of Complex Redundant
gage steel - it may be seen that neglect of Structures to a Routine Procedure, Jcurnsl
the flexibility of a corresponding all-aluminum of Aero. Scl., 2, Oct. 1952
rib could lead to serious errors.
(8) 'Williams, M. L., A Review of Certain
REFEKENCES Analysis Methods for Swent Wing Structures,
Journ. of Aero. Sci., -19, p. 615, 1952
(1) Kuhn, P., Duberg, J. E., and Dlskin, J. H.,
Stresses Around Rectangular Cut-Outs in (9) Heldenfels, R., Zender, G., and Libove, C.,
Skin-Stringer Panels Under Axial Load - II, Stress and Distortion Analysis of a Swept
NACA WR L.368 (ARR 3JO2), Oct. 1943 Box Beam Having Bulkhead: Perper.dicular to
the Soars. NACA TN 2232.
(2) Rosecrans, R., A Method for Calculating
Stresses in Torsion-Box Covers with Cut- (10) Bisplinghoff, R., and Lang, A., An ln-
outs. NACA TN 2290. Feb. 1951
-’
vestigation of Deformations and Stresses
in Sweptback and Tapered Wings vYith Dls-
(3) Kuhn, P., and Chiarito, P. T., Shear Lag continuities, Mass. Inst. of Tech. Rept.,
in Box Beams: Methods of Analysis and July, 1949
Experimental Investigations, NACA TR 739, (See also, Journ. of Aero. Sci. 18, p. 705,
194:z 1951)

(4) Hoff, N. J., and Libby, P. A., Recommenda- 1 (11) Denke, P., The Matric Solution of Certain
tions for Numerical Solutions of Reinforced Non-Linear Problems in Structural Analysis,
Panel and Fuselage-Ring Problems, NACA TR Journ. of Aero. Sci., 2,7, 1956
934, 1949
1 (12) Levy, S., Computation of Influence Co-
(5) Kuhn, P ., Approximate Stress Analysis of efficients for Aircraft Structures with
Multi-Stringer Beams with Shear Deformation Discontinulties and Sweepback, Journ. of
of the Flanees. NACA TR 636. 1938
;, I I
Aero. Scl., 14, Oct. 1947

(5a) Kuhn, P., Deformat!on (13) Islinqer, J. S., Stress Analysis and
Structures, NA4CATN 1361, July 1947 Stress Measurements for a Swept Back Wing
Havlng Ribs Parallel to the Airstream,
(6) Zender, G., and Llbove, C., Stress and McDonnell Aircraft Corp. Report 1127, April
Distortion Measurements in a 45' Swept Box 1949.
Beam Subjected to Bending and Torsion,
NAC.4 TN 1525
 CHAPTER A23

ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

JOSEPH A. WOLF, Jr.

A23. 1 Introduction Of course both m’?t;-ods can be I;sed to des-

cribe structural behavi or. For enamel?, some
The displacement or stiffness method (l-4)* of the disadvantages of the force method can be
is a structural analysis procedure using dis- overcome by means of prograrnmsd automatic re-
placements as the independent variables (and dundant selectors or “structure cutter? .” The
unknown quantities) rather than the forces. AS enginser must be familiar with both methods in
applied here, the displacement method will be order to perform the analysis function effi-
used in conjunction with a structural modeling ciently.
using finite elements. Typical elements used
are rod and beam segments, thin sheet and plate The formulation of the displacement method
sections, and conical shell frusta. The number h?s been perfected within the last 15 years,
of unknown displacements is determined by the prompted by the availability of large electronic
number of elements chosen and the level of digital commuters. In 1950, the solution of a
sophistication or detail used in modellng. It system involving ten or twelve lndepcndent co-
Is assumed that the description given by dis- ordinates represented a massive effort for an
placements of selected nodal points is ?dequate analyst working by hand with a desk calculator.
to represent the deformatlon of the structure. Present computer programs routinely handle
If a better representation Is needed, the structures represented by thousands of coordi-
structure may be modeled by more nodes and nates. Structural analysis can now be used in
hence more elements. The actual loading is re- the design process for preliminary or pargame-
placed by a set of nodal forces calculated tric calculations because of this increase in
using the method of virtual Work. capability and speed. With on-lint graphics
equipment, the design engineer can even mani-
The displacement method has the following pulate his design by supplying and receiving
advantages: infoima.tIon directly during computer cslcula-
tions.
1. The coordinate transformation matrix is
easy to visualize and easy to generate, belng We note here, as an aside, thet the Moment
determined solely by the geometry of the system, Distribution Method of Chapter All, the Slope
Deflection Method of Chapter Al2 and the Method
2. There Is no difficulty In deciding how of Successive Corrections of Chapters A6 and Al5
to choose redundant reactlons to yield a well- are all examples of the Displacement Method of
condltioned problem, structural analysis. In each of these methods
the displacements are taken as the independent
3. Matrices tend to be banded ones when variables, and these are adjusted to achieve
using the displacement method, resulting in equillbrtum of the loaded structure. The ad-
economies during computer storage and matrix justment may appear 4s a systematic relaxation
manipulations, of artificial constraints (Moment Distribution
and Successive Corrections) or it may be done
4. The treatment of structural dynamics mathematically in one stroke by the solution
and structural stability are simplified because of a set of simultaneous equations (Slope De-
the inertial and geometric properties of ele- flection Method). The latter anproach-solution
ments and systems transform from coordinate of a set of simultaneous equations-is essentlal-
system to coordinate system using the same ly that followed herein, the solution usually
matrices as are used in transforming the ele- being effected by matrix inversion or Gaussian
ment and system stiffness properties, elimination.

5. The number of unknowns is based on the A23.2 Structural Coordinates

number of coordinates chosen, while in the
force method redundant forces are the unknowns. It would be impossible to consider the de-
Thus the displacement method Is favored for .flections of each particle of a structure. In-
analyzing hlghly-redundant structures such as stead, we characterize the system by a finite
frames. number of quantities which describe in a gross
* Numbers in parentheses designate References at end of
way (but a sufficiently useful way) the deformed
Chapter. shape of the system. These quantities are called

A23.1
A23.2 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

coordinates, and are of two kinds, discrete and Here again, an exact representation cannot be
distributed. Both kinds involve a simplified given because, for practical reasons, the series
modeling of reality. used is of finite extent,

Discrete coordinates are used if the When a, collection of elements are joined
principal modes of deformation can be identified into a system, there are certain connectivity or
in terms of displacements of a finite number of constraint conditions and boundary conditions
points. which characterize the system, and which dlstin-
guish it from a mere pile of elements.
For example, with a beam element, we as-
sume that the deformed shape can be adequately To fix these concepts, we consider the ex-
described in terms of the motion of the end8 of ample of a simple portal frame whose deformation
the element. For each end there are six com- is assumed to be restricted to the plane of the
ponents of motion, three for linear displace- figure (Fig. A23.3).
ment and three for rotation (Fig. A23.1). The
deformation of the element therefore is des-
cribed only to the degree possible by defining 0,
This B
the deflection and rotation of ends
description 1s obviously completely adequate if
no external loads are applied along the element.
18 coordinates
If loads are applied along the element and
greater detail 1s desired, nodal points can be
defined at interior locations, effectively
breaking each member Into two or more elements. A

64
l2 11
t Fig. A23. 3
94 8/
The constraints and boundary conditions are

1. Fixed end conditions (no deflection) at

points A and D.

2. Kinematic constraints at points B and

Fig. A23. 1 C, such that deflections and rotations of ele-
ments 1 and 2 are the same at point B, and of
Distributed coordinates are space functions elements 2 and 3 are the same at point C.
which simultaneously approximate the displace-
ments of all points of an elastic member. For After eliminating’ duplicate coordinates, we
example, if we have a simply supported beam, we are left with six system coordinates as shown
might d%crIbe It using the (I functions shown in in Fig. A23.4. Element coordinates are denoted
Fig. A23.2. by 6 and structural system coordinates by u,
respectively. (The symbols used generally fol-
low those of Rubinstein, Refs. 1 and 2. Thus
the reader interested in studying the theory
in greater detail will not need to learn a new
glossary .

structure
6 coordinates

Fig. A23.2 Fig. A23. 4

Thus As a* practical matter, the kinematic con-

straints are taken into account when compiling
(x)+ ... - - - - 1) the system stiffness matrix. The boundary con-
ditions may be treated in the same way or, if
 A23.3

desired, may be applied all at once in a subse- Various methods have been used; we will illus-
quent step. A further simpl-ificatlon is common trate the procedure by employing the theorem of
in many structural problems. The stresses and virtual work in the case of an elastic rod, and
strains due to axial loads within an element the differential equation of flexure in the
are often much smaller than those produced by case of a beam. The forces and displacements
bending loads. For such <cases one may assume of elements will be denoted by P and 6, re-
that the frame members are in2xtensible. Thus, spectively, as distinguished from forces and
in Fig. A23.4, we may take u’, = u’, = 0, and uk : displacements at nodal points of a structural
u:, and are left with three generalized coordi- system, denoted by F and u, respectively.
nates for this level of modeling abstraction.
Fig. 823.5 shows the structural deformation pat. undeformed
terns corresponding to these generalized co-
ordinates.

deformed
rod

Fig. A23.6

For a uniform elastic rod subJect to axial

displacements 6, and ba at the ends, the dis-
Fig. A23. 5 placement at any section x is given by
Three Generalized System
Coordinates for Portal Frame 6= & + (6, - & ) ; - - - - - - - -

A23. 3 Theoretical Basis of the Method of Displacements The total axial strain is uniform, and given by
1
To perform a static analysis of a given e,=c (62- (jL) - - - - - - - - - - (4)
structur?, we must derive relationships between
external, applied forces {F[ and the nodal If the rod is subjected to an increase in tem-
points’ generalized deflections 1~1. In par- perature of T degrees as well as an axial stress
t I cular , since the deflections are to be treate (load), the total strain e, is equal to the
as independent quantities, we seek to derive an elastic strain zX, plus the thermal strain XT.
equation The elastic strain is the quantity needed to
calculate the strain energy, that Is,
jF[ = [K-j 1~1 - - _ _ _ - _ _ a - _ - a (2

&X-x- ’ (6 2- 6 1 ) - MT --------- (5
where the matrix [K] 1s the system stiffness
,matr ix. (Throughout this chapter, matrix no- Rewriting Eq. 2, page A7.1, in terms of strain,
tation has been employed. The symbols used are using the substitutions oxA = S and cXE = CT~
defined in Appendix A, except where noted). for the elastic rod, we find

To give the elements of the stiffness ‘c/ = 9 E; = 2 [(6, - &) - O(TL12- - - (6)
matrix physical meaning, we may consider an ex-
periment in which one of th2 u’ s, say us, is Using the theorem of virtual work (Eq. 14, page
given a unit deflection. The elements of the A7.5)
sth column of [K] are equal to the forces neces
sary to give the structure this deflected con- P au
z----------------(7)
figuration, or equally, the elements of the sth ‘r 36,
column are the forces developed at each of the so
nodal points when coordinate s is deflected a
unit amount with all other coordinates held PL (6 =-0,) -aTI, - - -(8a)
fixed. Within this sth column, the element Krs
is the force developed at coordinate r in that and
deformed configuration. The system stiffness
matrix is compiled by adding together the indi- P, =xau - 6, ) -4TL-j --- (8b
vidual element stiffness matrices, as ~111 be 8
demonstrated later. where the forces have the same positive direc-
tional sense as e1 and 6,. This information
Stiffness properties of structural elements can be exhibited in matrix form as
are defined by applying the theory of elasticity
to the particular configuration of interest.
A23.4 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

PrL3
--- P,L2 = EI ---------a
6 2 (=4
w-J2 p L
- - = 0 - - - _ a a a - - - - (lab)

2
2
and we recognize the square matrix as [k], the
element stiffness matrix for axial deflection which have the solution P1 = - 12EI
~3 and
of an elastic rod. The elements of [k] may p2=+ The values of P3 and Pq, found
also be calculated directly by rewri,ting the
Theorem of Virtual Work. Recalling the defi- from the equations of static equilibrium, are
nition of krS, it is the force Pr per unit de- 6EI
and P, = - T. These results estab-
flection in coordinate 6,. Thus
lish the third column of the stiffness matrix.
k rs=--- aPr - a2u- _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ -(lo The remaining terms are found by a similar pro-
a%3 %,X$ cedure, with the result

This result is of interest also because it 6L -12 6Lj (6,)

demonstrates the symmetry of the stiffness 4L2 -6L
matrix, krs = ‘xsr.
-6L 12 - -(lS)
As a second illustration, we will use the
2L* -6L
solution of the differential equation of flex-
ure to derive the stiffness matrix of a beam. The method of superposition provides an alter-
Consider a unit end deflection, 6, = 1, in Fig. nate derivation of th2 stiffness coefficients
A23.7. (ref. Fig. A23.8)

= P,L/EI

= PqL2,‘2EI

Fig. A23.7

The differential equation for a beam is (page

A17.2)
Fig. A23.8

EI d2w = M(x) = P1x - P - - - - - - - (11

dx2 2-
Using the boundary conditions
subJect here to the boundary conditions
63 = 6,, + 6,, = yg + gg= 1 - -
ma)
W = 6, = 0

(12a 6, = 6,, + 044 = g&l + P& = 0 - - (16b)

we find, as before, P, = 712EI alnd P, = - 7.

6EI

In this case, PL and P, ar: determined froth

(12b static equilibrium. The remaining coefficients
are determined in the same way. Note also that
the reciprocity manifest in the symmetry of the
stiffness matrix is demonstrated by the result
After integrating twice with respect to x, the 6 48 - 63, / - L2, a restatement of Max-
result is / P, - 2EI
p3 -
well’s reciprocity theorem.
P,x3 Pax2
EIw = 6 - 7+ c,x + c, - - - - - -(13
A23.4 Tabulation of Element Properties
Using the boundary conditions at x = 0, we
find that C, = C, = 0. The conditions at x = L In each case, the generalized force is
provide two equations in the unknowns P, and P, taken to have the same positive sense as the
 A23.5

associated generalized displacement coordinate A BL -A CL

shown.
BL 2L2h i -BL L 2oij
_-- 3EIi
A. B’?r wit? Axial Forces 2DL3 -A -BL A -CL

CL LJ2oij -CL “L20jj

PA _ AE where

;I p2
L
A = 2

B. Bar with Torsion

nr 1 I--

C = 0 ij + 2$jj

1
D = @ii Ojj - ;? @;j
--- GJ and $li, $1~ and $jj are given in Fig. A7.34~
L as functions of the ratio Ii/I-j, rather than
7
AdA? l Note that these functions have been ae-
rived for the case of a beam whose moment of
inertia varies linearly.

E. Bar with Linearly Varying Axial Force

Pl 12 6L -12 6L
1
pa .6L

,6L 12 - -3L
p3
6 -3L
1
I p4 L 6L 2La -6L 2
44 2LS La

Note that the stiffness matrix of a beam element La 2L2 !

subject to a general (three-dimensional) case of
loading at the ends (a 12 x 12 matrix) may be
Referring note that the shear flow P, and the associated
compiled from the above information.
to Fig. A23.1, we associate coordinates 2 and 8 deflection 6, have the units of pounds per inch
and square inches, respectively (Ref. section
with coordinates 6, and 6, of case A, above, A7.5). It is difficult to give a physical in-
and coordinates 5 and 11 with coordinates 6,
and 6, of case B. Further, assuming that the terpretation to 6,) but we note that the product
transverse coordinate axes are chosen to coin- of P, and 6, has the units of strain energy,
as expected. As an exercise, the reader may
cide with the principal axes of the beam cross
show that the flexibility matrix for this case
section, the results of case C provide the re-
maining information for the general case. (5?ec. A7.10) is the inverse of the stiffness
we associate coordinates 3 and 4 matrix.
Specifically,
(or 1 and 6) with coordinates 6, and 62, and
coordinates 9 and 10 (or 7 and 12) with coordi- F. Shear Panel
nates 6, and 6, of case C. The parentheses
indicate the coordinate correspondence for the
other transverse direction.

D. Tapered Beam

64 Ij .
 A23.6 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

Pl 1 -1 -1 ‘0 0 0-
1 0 0
pa _
-- G-t
1 -1 -1
0 1 0
P, ab -1 1 1 0 0 0
-1 1 1~ 0 0 0
idp*
0 0 0
In this case, also, the units are pounds per -- -- --
inch and square inches for the “forces” and 1 0 0
“displacements ,” respectively. Note that there
0 0 0
is only one independent coordinate here, which
is represented physically by the change in angle 0 1 0
at one of the corners due to th3 shearing actior 0 (18
of the applied forces, 1 0
0 0 0
G. Other Elements 0 0 1
-- -- --
Only the simplest elements have been shown 0 0 0
in this section. Fortunately, many practical
problems can be worked using this information, 1 0 0
since a comprehensive catalog of elements could 0 0 1
easily fill a separate chapter. Other elements
having widespread application are two-dimen- 0 0 0
sional elements with membrane forces (including 0 0 0
triangular, square, and trapezoidal elements),
two-dimensional plate bending elements (includ- -0 0 0.
ing triangular, square and trapezoidal elements:
thin shell elements (including conical frusta For convenience, the system [@I matrix may be
and doubly curved elements), axisymrnetric thick partitioned into element [@d matrices, as
shell elements (including ring elements having
shown. These smaller matrices may be used
various cross-section configurations), and one at a time to transform element properties,
general three-dimensional elements (including as will be shown subsequently.
tetrahedron and hexahedron elements). These
and other elements are being developed and per- Similarly, we will want to transform
fected by structural analysts. It is worth forces from system to system. Tfie method for
noting that lack of interelement compatibility doing this is derived from the expression for
is an important shortcoming with the more com- virtual work.
plex finite elements, and provides the moti-
vation for much continuing work. For details, Consider forces F, associated with the u
the reader is referred to the abundant liter- coordinate system. For a set of virtual dis-
ature in this field. placements [Au), the virtual work is*
A23. 5 Transformation of Coordinates &/ = [F)T [&LA) a - - - - - - - - - - (19
We will often need to transform displace- For the 0 system,
ments bet-ween origlnal coordinates (or coordi-
nates in which it was convenient to define / I .
AW = 1P A(j\ -_m-------- (20)
ele;nent properties) and generalized or inde-
pendent coordinates. For this purpose, we use We also have the compatibility relationship
geometry to define a transformation matrix [&J
given by (21)
- --_.
16) = LBJ pi - - - - LB- - - - - - - (17
1A6 = [-] (ou1 a _ - - - - - - - - -

derived from the coordinate transformation.

Now, since virtual work is a scalar, and since
For the portal frame of Figs. A23.3 and A23.5, the P’s and F’s are in equilibrium, and the
by inspection, we have 0’s and u’s are compatible, the virtual work is
th$ same in either system.
Thus

* 11 T and
T
[ ] denote transpose of column and rectangular
matrices respectively.
 A23.7

and since the Au’ s are independent so p*j = cw {u*)+ P-1 {u”] - - - -(3%)
iFjT = ipIT [@] c>r {FI = [# and 10) = [K2L] \u*) + [K22] [u”) - - - -(32b)

which is the desired relationship. or \u”] = - [K22]w’ [K2L] [u*) - - - - - (33)

We next ask how the stiffness and flex&
bility matrices are transformed from one set of Substituting back into Eq. 32a,
coordinates to another. The appropriate f ormu-
la can be derived from the expression for the
strain energy in an element.
Therefore we may define a reduced stiffness
- - - - (24 matrix

with p] = [p-j p], so the first expression may [Ic’] = [L-j - C&2] [Kz2-j-1[K2L] - (35)
be rewritten and, once the (u*) are known in any given prob-
lem, the {u”j may be found Immediately from
u= ; \ulT [aiT [k] [@] {u) - - - - - - - - (25 Eq. 33.

an& since the u’s are independent, Similarly, the flexibility method is use-
ful in statically indetermInate structures ’
[K-j = [@IT [k] [p-j - - - - - - - - - - (26 where the opposite situation pertains - that
is, where forces are associated with (redun-
dant) zero displacements.
For transforming the flexibility matrices (de-
noted by [a] and [a] for element and system, We extend {Fj to include a set of self-
respectively) a further result is needed. From equilibrating forces corresponding to the
equilibrium, we can find a relationship between number of redundants in the structure. For the
element forces {PI and external nodal point portal frame, there are three redundants, as
forces [Fj shown in Fig. A23.9. The displacements at the
redundants are actually zero.
[p) = [b] {$‘I- - - _ _ _ - a - - - a - (27

which defines [b] (for an indeterminant struc-

ture, see below).
an element
‘Writing the strain energy of

L
‘i “I 1
we can then substitute for IP) using Eq. 27 and Fig. A23.9
derive the final expression
Thus we have
[a] = [blT [a] [b] - - - - - - - - - - (29
(36
where we have used the fact that the \Fj forces
are independent.
and by analogy with the case of zero forces
Often there will be displacements in !ul
which are associated with zero applied forces {u*) Z [a*] \$‘*I- - - - - - - - - _ - (37)
in those. coordinates. Let
where
tu) +q - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (30
[a*] = [all] - [a,,] [h2]334 - (38)
where the {u+) are displacements on coordinates
with applied forces IF*), and the (uo) are dis- The flexibility method is useful also in
placements on coordinates with zero valued deriving a relationship between system forces
applied forces . and element forces for a statically indetermi-
nate structure.
(31
A23.8 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

For the extended set of forces, including ELua.mple Problem 1

redundants, we may write
Fig. A23.10 shows the singly redundant
iP\.[b’ +o]i-fSij -------- (39
three member frame previously
tion A8.4
analyzed in sec-

based upon static equilibrium At this point

the [F”) are not known.

However, from Eq. 36, we found

or
40

so I lOOO#
pj =([y*]- [so-j[%a]-=[a.,l)(F*] - C41 Fig. A23. 10

which is the desired transformation. We have The coordinates chosen are shown in Fig. A23.11.
seen how to transform information about forces,
displacements, stiffnesses and/or flexibilities
from one coordinate system to another. Our nex t
task is to apply these methods to transform fro Irn
element properties to system properties. Rathe
than repeat the several derivations, the result
are tabulated below.
Table A23.1
Fig. A23. lla
Flexibility
Stiffness Method Method System Coordinates
Element =a P
Properties [I1 I

System
Properties p=kl PI

Transformation

Of
Displacements
and Forces

Transformation
Fig. A23. lib
Structural La]= LbT [LIIbl
Properties 1 Element Coordipates

[K3;
r [@J e=l
[ke] [P,] [a] = fr
e=l
[be] [ae] [be] Note that system coordinates at the boundary
points A, B and C could have been included, but
where m = number of elements would have dropped out when the boundary con-
in structural system ditions were applied. For simplicity, these
coordinates have been deleted at the beginning
In the case of zero force coordinates of the analysis. To compile the system stiff-
ness matrix, the contribution from each element
p*j = ([L] - [L-J [&?a] -l [L-j) must be found. For example, for element OC,
the element stiffness is given by
I
= [lc*] [**I

In the case of zero displacement (redundant

coordinates

\u*] = ([%1-J - [%a] [%a] -‘[%I]) p*) and the transformation from element to system
coordinates is given by {60c) = [got] [u)
= [a*] [F’)
 A23.9

or, fro,rll Figs. A23.10 ant1 A2i3.11,

Thus element OC contributes the term

lo5 0.866 6 11
0.866 005 1 “Tl.
_-__-------w--w--- (J-4.
to the system stiffness ma.‘,rlxO Similarly, the Fig. A23. 12b
following inforllratIon may be compiled for ele- Element Coordinates
ments OA an-i OB.
Table A23.2 m

In general, [K] = [@]’ p-J [p] Y where

‘1 0 o-
Element Stiffness
in Local Coordinates 0 1 0

Pel 0 0 0
0 0 0
Coordinate --- --- ---
Transformation
0 0 0
P e1 0 1 0
a - - -

(47)
0 0 0
0
.-- -
The system stif.fness matrix is given by 0
0
I:1
K = ; [me]
ezl
= i [/YeIT [ke]
e=l
[@e-J - - - - - (45
0

or 0
K = -&
C3
0.159 - - - - - (46 and
3.207

which provides the relationship between system -------

forces and deflections. Clk = (48

Exa-mple Problem 2
with each [ke] equal to the result given in
Assemble the system stiffness matrix for
the portal frame of Fig. A2:3.12a, ass:~M.ig unl- case C, sect iQn A213.4.
form element properties and neglecting axial
deformation. The element coordinates are shown The final result, after carrying out the
in Fig. A23.12b, and the element stiffness indicated operations (using either the complete
matrix is given by case C of section A23.4. matrices of Eqs . 47 and 48, or the partitioned
form of Eq. 45) is

A23.6 Calculation of Displacements and Stresses

There are several methods for solving for

Fig. A23. 12a the deflections resulting from the application
System Coordinates of given forces. The most straightforward is
A23.10 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

to invert the stiffness matrix (for details, We wish to systematize the solution by first
see Appendix A) triangularizing the left-hand side of the
equations, resulting in fewer unknowns in each
so that successive equation, and culminating in a final
equation in the single unknown Xne The solu-
tion is completed by solving first for the last
unknown, Xn, then using this information to
or for the three member frame of example prob- In the triangu-
solve for Xn,,, and SO on.
lem 1, section A23.5, larized form, each unknown, Xr say, depends
4.547 only on the Xm, with n 3 m > r.
- - - ( 51 1
The first step in the triangularization
-0.225
consists of calculating new coefficients for
Given that FL = 0 and F2 = -1000 lb., we find the second equation and all subsequent equa-
that the horizontal deflection u1 = 22500/E tions using
inches and the vertical deflectJon ulz = -312900/I
cij ( IL> = qj - eCi11 C’j jl=Z,..., n
inches. The final step is to compute element =g n+l -- (55
forces . To do this, the element deflections -7*..7

must be found using the transformation matr1.x

which brings the equations to the form
C@l Or Del* For member OC, using Eq. 43,
CLL?(~+C,,X, + C,,X~J + . . . + ClnXn=CLn+,
c,;( )xa+&)x+ . . . +c(‘)x
;8n n =J1)
3 van+1
( i X,+Cai( 1X3+. . . +C,h( >Xn=Cai+l
Cai ( ) - - (56)
and {P) = [k] (6)

Cn’( a ) Xs+Cnt (
or 1 I&J+ . . . + Cd( 1Xn = CnA+,
( )

The final form is

C,,X1 + C,aX, + C,,X, *. . . + C,nXn Z C,n+k

C,‘,( 1 Xa+ C,‘,( ) X3+. ( 1 ( )

. . + C21,Xn=C2i+,
Thus the force in member OC is 274 lb. tension
which checks with the result found previously ( )X3+. . . + C,~Xn=C,~+~
( ) ( >
in section 8.4. Similarly, the forces in mem- C3: - - (57
bers OA and OB are 335 lb. and 626 lb. respec- ... ...
tively. n-2 = c b-4
CL )xn nn+l
A23.7 Method of Gaussian Elimination where at any step, the coefficients are given
For large systems, involving solution for bY
r( (k- 1)
tens, hundreds, or, often, thousands of un-
knowns, the matrix inversion method is more (k)=,(k-1) Lik -’ (K-,); ;;&l$ :::;t--;
QJ “U -,(k-I)CKj - (58)
time-consuming than other techniques. Basical- kk i=k+l: .. n ‘7

ly, the alternate solution methods are divided and (0)

C
into two categories, e11mination methods, and U =cij
iteration methods (5,6).
The back substitution then takes the symbolic
The method of Gaussian elimination or vari- form
ants such as Cholesky decomposition are widely
used as practical solution methods for large 1 c (i-4
systems of equations. The basic Gaussian elimi- xi =- - f CPL’Xj 7 i=n, . . ..l
&-d i,n+l jq+1 i3
nation will be described and used here. Con- [ I
sider a system of linear equations,
----------a-

(59)

CllX1, + Cl2X2 + CLaXa + . . . + CinXn = C&n+1

CS3lX;r + C22X2 + C,,X, + . . . + C,nXn = Cs,+il
C3AXL + C353X2+ Caa&j + . . . + C,nXn= Can+1 a -
... ...
Cn,X& + Cn,X2 + C&X, + -. . + CnnXn = Cnn+l
 A23.11

Example Problem 3 and th? total system stiffness matrix is

Fig. A23.13 shows the single bay pin con-

nected truss which was discussed on page A8.7. 1.70”1 -O.“O”l -I G -G.“O”l O.“O”l 0 0
l.“O”l 0 0 0.7*7--l -0.70-1 0 -1

l.s303 o.sso3 0 0 -0.5303 -0.5303

l.Fm3 0 -1 -0 .F)303 -0.5303

[K-j = 10'
1.7071 -C.‘7CV1 -1 0
30
l."O'il 0 0
SymmetrIcal
1.5303 0.5303
1.5303

Fig. A23. 13 Equation 2 may be rewritten as

f ‘I II c- 7

iJ ’
This truss will noti be solved by the displace- --F = --m-
L ; m-m.-
L2 - UC
ment method, using Gaussian elimination. The K 21 - (62)
initial step of the solution is to compile the R lIK2, -i- -----
1 I( i
system stiffness matrix. The required element
where R denotes the forces at the constraints
information is tabulated below.
(boundaries), and uc represents system coordi-
Table A23.3 nates remaining after applying the boundary
corC Xi ons. The constrained stat its problem
AE is thus obtained simply by deleting rows and
Member cos0, SirlOe columns corresponding to the fixed coordinates.
-E-
ab 1.0 x lo6 1.0 0.0
For this example, the boundary conditions are
u6
= u$ = u, = 0 for all loading conditions.
bd 1.0 x 10% 0.0 1.0 The problem formulation may be simplified by
eliminating the constrained coordinates,
dc 1.0 x lo6 1.0 0.0 leaving
ca 1.0 x lo6 0.0 1.0
{Fl = [K,,] \ucl - - - - - - - - - - (63)
cb 1.4142 x lo6 0.7071 -0.7071
where
ad 1.607 x 10’ 0.7071 0.7071
4 .
1.7071 -0.7071 -1 0 -0.7071
Note that 8 is the angle between the global -0.7071 1.7071 0 0 0.7071
(system) x axis and the structural axis of a
[Kll] = 10' 0 (64
member. -1 1.5303 0.5303 0

0 0 0.5303 1.5303 0

-0.7071 0.7071 0 0 1.7071

If desired, the reaction forces may be found

from

The solution procedure outlined above can be

u6
modified to account for yielding supports, etc.
if desired.

To solve for the displacements, the method

Fig. A23. 14 of Gaussian elimination will be used. The re-
System Coordinates sult of the triangularization step, correspond-
ing to Eq. 57, is the matrix equation
The transformation matrix for an element is then
gi vtin by -
 A23. 12 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

-1.7071 -o.m’n -1 0 -0.7071 A23. 8 Gauss-Seidel Iteration

0 lo4142 -0.4142 0 0.4142 A second class of solution methods involves

the use of iteration. Iterative methods of so-
106 0 0 0.f32.32 0.;>303 -0.2929 lution are particularly appealing for structures
whose description results in sparse matrices,
0 0 0 1.1887 0.1887 that is, matrices containing relatively few
nonzero elements. Large space frames and two-
0 0 0 0 lo1588 and three-dimensional solid bodies modeled with
finite elements are examples of such structures.
One widely used iteration technique is the
Gauss-Seidel method. In this method, an in-
F, + 0.4142 F, itia.1 solution vector is Lfenerated, often by
guessing plausible values. This trial solution
= F3+ 0.2929 F, + 0.7071 F, 1466) is then systematically improved, by solving the
linear equations in sequfence, using the current

FE
-
F* - O.t;442F,-
O.l587F,+
0.1887Fz- 0045551;;

0.458OF,-O.l588F’,+

For the problem to be analyzed, F, is the only

0.5168F,
values for all unknowns other than the one
being evaluated.
been determined,
As soon as an unknown has
it is incorporated
values used for subsequent steps within
given iteration cycle, rather than waiting
in the
a
until
force to be considered. Ttius the right-hand the cycle has been completed. As an illustra-
sMe for the ba;-: Csstitution process is tion, consider the portal frame of Example
Problem 2, with an applied force F1 = 24000 lb.
Assume values of EI = 10’ lb. in.2 and L = 100
inches, and calculate the deflections using
Gauss-Seidel iterat i(ln. After making the
indicated substitutions, and dividing through
by the common fastor of 8000, the problem may
be brought to the form

I
3 75 -75
10.4580) 75 10000 25QO
Each row of the matrix equation represents -75 2500
an algebraic equation in the unkno\rdn u values.
These are solved in inverse order, with the For the iteration, a further reduction is
following results worthwhile, wherein only one unknown appears
on the left-hand side of each scalar equation.
u, = 0.3952x 1O-8 F3 Following this manipulation, the equations to
be solved are
u, = -CL504'7x lo-* F,
u, = 1.7450x10-* F, U, = 1 - 25u, + 25u, - - - - - - - --(68a)
u, = 039.53 x 1O-X6 F, u, = -0.0075~~ - 0.25~~ - - - - - - -(68b)
u, = 1.3~9’7 x lo-* F,
U3
= 0.0075~~ - 0.25~~ - - - - - - -(6%
The static deflections are found by substituting
the given value of F, = 1000. As a trial solution, we take u$ 1, u, = u, =
0, inasmuch as we expect sidesway to be the
Memb’zr forces are determined in the usual way, dominant deflection. The results at selected
by means of the appropriate [@e-J and [!Ce] steps of the procedure are given in Table
matrices as before. The results are shown in A23.4. The convergence does not appear to be
Fig. A23.15. rapid, but methods-exist for accelerating the
solution. For further details, the reader is
referred to a text on numerIca analysis.

Fig. A23. 15
 A23.13

Table A23. 4

Step of Solution Ul U2 U3 (a )
Initial Trial 1 0 0

Initial Result of Eq. 68a 1 0 0

Initial Result of Eq. 68b 1 -0.0075 0 04

Initial Result of Eq. 68c 1 -0.0075 0.0094

(End of First Iteration)

Second Result of EQ. 68a 1.4225 -0.0075 0.0094

Second Result of Eq. 68b 1.4225 -0.0130 0.0094 (C>

Second Result of Eq. 68c 1.4225 -0.0130 0.0139

(End of Second Iteration)

End of Fifth Iterat‘ion 1.8925 -0.0187 0.0189 =-x(gq(1+) uq= 1

(a LL
End of Tenth Iteration 1.995 -0.0199 0.0199

Exact Solution 2.0 -0.02 0.02

:
(e>
A23. 9 Calculation of Nodal Forces for Loads Acting
Between Nodal Points

In many practical situations, the structure L

is loaIded at locations other than the nodal
points. Of course, in the case of concentrated
Fig. A23. 16
loads, this complication may be resolved by in-
troducing nodes at the loading sites. However, By analogy, the total virtual work is also
for distributed loads, such as pressure, there given by calculating the work done by the nodal
is no way of avoiding the problem. Therefore, forces, Pi, acting through the compatible nodal
we wish to derive a method for calculating virtual displacements, Aui. The result is
equivalent nodal forces which are consistent
with the finite element formulation of the prob- 4
lem. To do this, we employ the method of vir- AW = r PiAui - - - - - - - - - - - (72)
tual work. As an example, consider the case of i=l
an elastic beam element. Associated with each
nodal coordinate, there is a deflected shape or and since the Aui are independent, the right-
distributed coordinate for the entire finite hand sides of Eqs. 71 and 72 may be equated
element, found from the solution of the differ- term by term, giving the desired equation,
ential equation of beam bending. These shapes
are shown in Fig. A23.16. Pi = JL f(X)@i(X)dX, i = 1, l .a) 4 - (73)
Thus, from EqO 1, the connection between
nodal coordinates and the deformed shape of the In the case of moments acting between nodal
element is points, a parallel development gives the re-
sult
w(x) = U~~JX) + U8q&(X) +u3$3(x) +u,fp,(x) - (69)
Pi = /Lm(X)$\ (X)dx, i = 1, . . . ) 4 - (74)
Let the applied load be given by f(x) as shown 0
in Fig. A23.16e. Tnen the total virtual work where m(X) is the applied moment and @i G
produced by the applied load acting through a
virtual displacement Aw is d$/a l

Several loading cases occur often enough

AX = ILf(X) Aw(X) dx - - - - - - - - (70) to justify tabulating the associated nodal
0
forces. Table A23.5 contains the nodal forces
appropriate to the loads shown in Fig. A23.17.
or substituting from EqO 69,
4
AW = C JLf (X)@i(X) dX Aui - - - - - (71)
i=l 0
A23.14 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

node1 is required as well, relating to both the

conceptual and detail models, and reducing the
structure to a properly formulated mathematical
problea. The numbers produced by the solution
of the mathematIca1 problem are then used to
verify the design concept and to provide a
rational basis for redesign, where necessary.
Finite element modeling is one method for pro-
ducing a mathematical description of the struc-
ture 0 The next two sections comprise several
representative examijle problems, intended to
provide the reader with an appreci.ation for the
nature of typical finite element models and the
kinds of results which can be obtained with them.

Example Problem 4
(4
Reconsider the truss of Fig, A7.16, repro-
L duced in Fig. A23.18, A truss is defined as a
. +
pinned structure wherein moments are not trans-
Fig. A23. 17

Table A23. 5 lOOO# lOOO# lOOO#

I
Case I PA I p2 % p4

(a) Conzentrated P/2 PL/8 P/2 -PL/8

Force at
Midspan I I 7
40"
(b) Concentrated 3M M
Moment at 2L -4
Midspan
1
(c) Uniform PL/12 P/2 -PL/12 H
Load /d--30" 30”4-3O”B
-t t
(d) Triangular PL/15 ?P/lO -PL/lO 2000# 2oi jo#
Load
Fig. A23. 18

Note that these nodal forces are related to the mitted between members at the joints. This
fixed end moments used in the moment distri- 1deaHzation is seldom met, and the truss Is,
bution method of Chapter All. The moments P, in reality, a frame composed of relatively
and P, are fixed end moments, while the re- slender members. The structure shown will be
actions P1 and P, may be obtained by stati-cs. reanalyzed as a frame, and the results com-
For other cases of interest, the reader is re- pared with the truss -nalysis presented in
ferred to the information displayed in Chapter section A7.7. The previous problem statement
All, Table All .l, herein, from which the ap- does not Include data on section properties
propriate nodal forces can be derived. Loadings for the members of the structure. Calculated
not appearing in the table can often be obtained values have been supplied, based on a plaus-
by superimposing the given cases, ible design philosophy. Assuming that the
material is aluminum, having a modulus of
A23. 10 Structural Modeling Using Finite Elements elasticity E = lo7 psi, member areas can be
found from Table A7.3. A typical aircraft I
The process of structural modeling occurs sectIon is shown 1n Fig. A23.19, along with
at several levels of abstraction during the dimensions given 1n terms of the material
course of any design. Typically, one first has thickness. For this section, we have
a conceptual model, selecting the type of struc- t
ture necessary to transmit the applied loads .A
from among many possibilities, including trusses
cables, frames, arches, and shells. A more de-
tailed model is necessary when making the design
drawings. One must deta11 connections and
brackets, size members based on available sheet
metal gages, and rolled or extruded sections,
actual materlal properties, etc 0 An analytical Fig. A23. 19 i#--20, -417
 A23.15

the relatkmships analysis, a difference of 58 per cent. Tne

structural designer must be aNare of the possi-

A
z 6()t2 _ _ - - _ - a - _ - - - - - (75) bility of this effect, and examine its sig-
nif icance for the particular structure being
and I = 5080 t*- _ - _ - _ - - - - - - - -@a)
analyzed.
or I = 1.439A2 - - - - - - - .zx- - - - -(76b)
Example Problem 5
lflhich have beten us3d to calculate the moments of
inertia given in Table AZ3.6. Tne redundant portal frame of Fig. AZ3.20
is to be analyzed by the method of displacemcn%s.
Table A23. 6
t
L I Struss
Member in lb. sfiIj
. in. 4

AB 30 0. 4785 0.323 10500 10 500 208

RC 30 0.3074 0.130 2250 2262 692

CD 30 0.3074 0.130 2250 2244 95

EF 30 0. 5365 0.406 -5250 -5239 732

FG 30 0. 5365 0.406 -52 50 -5225 204

.- Fig. A23.20
GH 30 0. 348 0.171 0 10 355
The relative bending stiffnesses of the segments
BE 50 1.015 1. 45 -8750 -8728 805 are given on the figure. The frame is modeled
---- using beam elements, whose stiffness properties
BG 50 0. 348 0.171 5000 4939 120 are given by case C of section A2r3.4. The curved
portion of the frame is approximated by 30
DG 50 0.5365 0.406 -3750 -3723 86 straight beam elements (chords ) , connecting
BF 40 0.3074 0.130 2000 1981 348 equally spaced nodal points located on the
elastic axis of the curved portion. Here the
model contains 32 elements, and, after accounting
for connectivity and boundary conditions, there
are 93 generalized coordinates in the system.
A computer solution was performed, again using
A finite element model of the structure the Gaussian elimination method. As a check,
has been used, with each member represented by the computed values of reactions at point A have
a six by six stiffness matrix. This stiffness been compared with results of an analysis given
matrix is found by combin.ing results of cases A in section A8.2.2. The equations obtained in
and C of section A23.4 to provide the relation Chapter A8 are satisfied by the values M =
between forces and displacements in one ro- -27650 in.-lb., V = 801.3 lb., and T = 114.6 lb.,
tational and two translational coordinates at with the sign conventions given in Fig. A8.3g,h,
each end of the member. Tnere are 12 elements i. The comparison is given in Table A23.7,
in the structure, connected at eight nodal along with results for three other models, in-
points 0 Thus the connectivity conditions at volving 15, eight, and four beam elements to
the joints produce a reduction from 72 element approximate the curved portion of the portal
coordinates to 24 system coordinates. Finally, frame, and one element for each column.
applying two boundary conditions each at nodes
A and E, one finds there are 20 generalized Table A23. 7
coordinates for this analysis. The system l

description and loads were read into a digital MA vA TA

Model
computer, programmed to solve the problem using in. -lb. lb. lb.
the method of Gaussian elimination.
Analytical
The results of the analysis are shown in ( -27650 1 801.3 1 114.6 j
Table A23,6. The effect of neglecting end fix- (Sec. A8.2.2)
ity is slight for the axial forces. However,
the inclusion of induced bending moments in the I 32 elements -27627 801. 13 114.92

calculation of outer fiber stresses produces

large differences for several members. For ex-
I 17 elements I -27589 800.68 I 115.34 I

ainple, the maximum stress in member BC is given 10 elements -27461 799.19 116.78

by (%‘A) = 7320 psi for the truss analysis and 6 elements -26955 793.29 122.78
by (S/A) + (Me/I) = 11540 psi for the frame 1 1 4
A23.16 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

The bending moment is plotted as a function of

position on the frame in Fig. A23.21. This
gives a good approximation for the spatial vari-
ation of outer fiber stresses, since bending is
the predominant type of deformation in this
problem.

Fig. A23.23

-27627 in.lb. “A+ 10881 in. -lb. ““’ Case 1

36 elements
52 nodal circles
Fig. A23.21

Example Problem 6

The thick walled pipe of Fig. A23.22 is to

be modeled using finite elements. The dimen-
sions of the pipe are /p = 24 in., ri = 4 in., Case 2
and r. = 10 in. 144 elements
175 nodal circles

t
X

_-_--------
ri
rO

Z Y
0 r
4x
b-24

plane of the free end.

@

Fig. A23.24

These end stresses

f
_-_-----m-s

+!!a were set equal to the theoretical

sultant
values at
the centers of the element faces for a re-
shear load of 4200~ lb., equivalent
an uniform vertical shear stress of 50 psi.
to

The interior stress distributions have been

Fig. A23.22 derived from the theory of elasticity (7)
and are plotted along with computed values in
An applied shear load acts at the free end Fig. A23.25 and A23.26. Reported values for
of the pipe with the resultant force parallel each station represent averages of values for
to the x aUs. The model consists of annular the adjacent elements, referred to the mid-
elements having a squ?,re cross section. A point of the bounding face. In the derivation
typical element and its associated coordinates of these theoretical values, the nature of the
are shown 1n Fig. A23.23. The stress components end condition at the wall is neglected. Thus
are also defined in Fig. A23.23. (For a more the two results should show good agreement at’
detailed discussion, see Chapter A24). Two intermediate stations, but not near the wall.
grid sizes are used in the analysis, as shown These features are observed in Figs. A23.25
in Fig. A23.24. and A23.26. Near the l\Nall, the finite element
model gives more realistic stress values,
The loading is applied by means of equiva- based on the actual boundary conditions. This
lent shear stresses (Tzr and ‘Gze) acting in the is often true, especially in cases where the
 A23.17

1 I
1501c system is sufficiently complex to preclude an
Solution Symbol Distance from Load analytical solution in closed form. Note that
Elasticity e-e- the coarser nodal grid gives results comparable
Theory in accuracy to those achieved with the refined
division using 144 elements. The decision re-
garding how many elements to use must be based
on experience with comparative studies of this
sort.

A23. 11 A Delta Wing Example Problem*

The idealized delCt wing structure of Fig.

AZ327 will be analyzed to determine the influ-
ence coefficients and the Internal stresses as
functions of the applied loads. This problem
will also illustrate the use of substructures
in analysis.

Tzr at 8 = O”
i Rib
/

6 7 8
Radial Distance - Inches

Fig. A23.25

Fig. A23.27
150 , 1 I 1 1
‘i
Idealized Delta Wing Structure
Solution Symbol Distance from Load
Elasticity o = 8
Theory IDl3ALI’ZATION
6 Inches
12 Inches The delta wing has been Idealized into a
18 Inches grid-11ke structure having grid points numbered
as in Fig. A23.28. Grid rm&~s increase to
the rear and outward..
100

Grid Numbering Scheme

The torsional stjff’ness of the wing’s shear-

carrying cover sheet is ammmted for ‘by the
presence of qumIrilatera 1 “torque baxes” con-
4 5 6 7 8 9
necting points of Irrtexlsectl on cf the spars and
10
Radial Distance - Inches
ribs. The res1strcince of a torque box having a
corner at, say, point G of the grid (e.g., box
Fig. A23.26 * By Alfred F. Schmitt
A23.18 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

6-7-8-9) is a result of the tendency for the STRUCTURALPROPERTIES SUMMARIZED

box to keep all four corners in the same plane.
Obviously, three-cornered “boxes” have no such The properties of the structure (Fig.
resistance; hence none are shown in Fig. A23.27. A23.27) after idealization, are summarized as
follows:
In the structure under consideration mem-
ber l-2-3-4 lies on the airplane centerline. Net Point Bean Depth
The bending stiffness of this member includes (see Fig. A23.28) (inches )
that of the half-fuselage plus one-half of the
“carry-through structure.” More detailed l---------- 5.56
representations of the structure in this region 2---------- 9.12
are generally desirable, the oversimplified
model used here being employed to limit the 3---------- 7.80
a,Tnount of data to be handled. Some techniques 4---------- 3.16
which may be applied in idealizing the structure
in this region are given in Reference (11) 5---------- 4.88
6---------- 7.26
Idealization, particularly with regard to
effective skin areas, has been discussed in 7---------- 3.06
some detail by Levy (8). The complexities of 8-------e..-- 4.02
this phase of the problem are too great to per-
mit an expansive treatment here.* Briefly, g---------- 2.74
Levy’ s ret ommendat i ons are : 10 - - - - - - - - - - 0.72
(a) all skin may be considered effective All cover skin t = .051”
between spanwise spars when computing the cap
areas of such spars. This assumption is sub- BEAYIELEMENT PROPERTIES
Ject to modification, of course, if spanwise
stresses are anticipated which will buckle the (Moments of inert ia, in (inches’ ) , are
skin. assumed to vary linearly between numbered
points )
(b) for streamwise ribs an effective width
of 0.362L, where L is the rib length, may be l/2 Fuselage Beam (l-2-3-4) Spar 2-5
taken as acting with each rib cap (FIg.A23.29a).
I-------- 3 @48”-----Y
(c) for the leading edge spar an effective I i- 48” ----
b -.--- d a
width of skin of .181 of the span between span- I = 2000 2700 3400 2200 64.91 18.25
wise spars is taken as acting with the cap of
each such spar segment (Fig. A23.29b).

Rib 5-6-7 Spar 3-6-8

7 48" - 48"---1 ta48”- -ye-- 48”--w

A-]i be.---- h h
I = 9.24 20.79 3.59 47.23 40.82 12.3?

Rib 8-9 Spar 4-7-g-10

Fig. A23.29
Effective Widths of Cover Sheet for Rib and --- 481L-e I)--------- 3 @ 48"
Oblique Spar Caps (After Levy, Ref. 8)
u i r----v
I = 6.23 2.87 5.09 4.78 3:82 0.26

Leading Edge Spar (1-5-8-N)

e--.------------3 @67.87pm ~~ ---- --_--__-';
* A rational, systematic means of treating cover sheet
panels is given in Reference 10). I = 16.02 12.29 8.30 0.26
SIGN CONVENTION
The sign convention adopted in conjunction ! 1
0.003954

0.1136
0.1136

4.015
-0.003954

-0.1136
0.07616
-0.07616
1.438
1
with the grid numbering scheme of Fig. A23.28 is and k,-, =
as follows: 0.003954 -0.1136 0.003954

Element Forces, Pm L0.07616 1.438 -0.07616 2.217 1

Transverse Force at a joint, where we have taken E = 1 for convenience. It

is understood that forces and displacements of
+uP the beam element (spar 2-5) are applied in posi-
tive sense and arrayed 1n numeric order as in
or, Pitching Moment at a joint, Case D, Sx. A23.4, when the beam element is
viewed with grid numbers Increasing left to
+ NOSE DOWN right.
or, Rolling Moment at a joint, In like manner, the element stiffnesses for
the remaining fourteen (14) beam segments (spar,
+ RIGHT’ WING DOWN rib and leading edge spar segments) are com-
puted. They are not tabulated here for reasons
05 Moment on an Oblique Member, of space conservation.
acting in the plane of that member, Torque Box Stiffness Matrices
I
+ COUNTERCLOCKWISEWHENTHE MEMBERIS In the case of the torque boxes, the stlff-
VIEWED WITH ITS JOINT NUI”IBERSIN- ness matrices may be computed directly (they are
CREASING LEFT TO RIGHT. determinate). The following approximate analy-
sis is suggested as being satisfactory for most
Element Displacements, Bm torque boxes. A more detailed analysis may be
in order for boxes with extreme geometries. An
Follow same numbering and sign convention alternate method is presented 1n Reference (8)
as do corresponding forces. and an appropriate discussion may be found in
Reference (12). A completely different treat-
With the above sign convention any beam ment of the cover skin 1s given in Reference
element (spar or rib) which is viewed so that
(10) ’
its joint numbers increase left to right will
have forces and displacements taken in a sense Consider the quadrilateral box of Fig.
compatible with the beam element tabulations of ~ A23.30.
Sec. A23.4.

CALCULATION OF ELEMENT STIFFNESWS

The element stiffness matrices are com-

puted next for the beam segments and torque
boses. For the beam segments the equations of
Case D, Sec. A23.4 are used. The torque boxes
are treated expressly, below.

Beam Segment Stiffness Matrices Representative

Equivalent
Root Section
For the beam segments the spar between grid
points 2 and 5 typifies the calculation. From Fig. A23.30
the beam element properties given earlier, and
Fig. A7.34C For purposes of this immediate analysis, the
box’is considered cantilevered from one end,
Ii/I j = 0.281 such as r-s. An e1asU.c axis (e.a.) is as-
sumed to exist midway between the long sides
0 ii = 0.670 and an “effective root” is employed. The
Qu = 0.480 Pi j/2 = 0.240 torque on the box 1s
0Jj = 0.370 T = Pm bm - Pn bn
Then D,,, = (0.670) (0.370) - (0.240)8 = 0.1903
A23.20 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

An (assumed) average rat)? of twist, 0, is com- 17 of this chapter. Then using equation 26 we
puted approximately by using the GJ at a repre- obtain the square stiffness matrix
sentative section half way along the box.*
mnrs
T - Pr&)m - Pnbn
& ---
Q=q-
a G,J
Then the deflection bn and b are given by
m
n K =
r
GJ Ln/Lm
(Lnh+Ln+&n) (bn+t>m) -L&q
1
L ’
--Lm A1 Aa
Ln 1
S H
AL
6* = BLnbn = R-f&n
----- - Pnbn
G,J - Lnbn
A2 I c
I
In the above derivation the torsional
stiffness GJ at a representative section is
By swnmlng moments about the effective root, Pn used. The stiffness is obtained from Bredt’s
is found in terms of PII1and then eliminated equation for the twist of a single cell thin-
from the above equations to give walled tube (Eq. 18, Chapter A6)
6, = PmLnbn Lnb:i; -+ L,bn
---m--- - - Ln - QL--& $
f
PmLmbm Lr+m + Lmbn
Pm = --(=g- L----- Ln from which, by definition
GJ = c
Since it is only the deflection of one
corner (say, point m) which is to be related to !h- T
the corner reactions, the box is now rotated
about the effective root axis to reduce 6, to Here A is the area enclosed within the tube
zero. The resulting total deflection of point cross section by the median line of the tube
m is wall and the Integration 1s carried out around
the tube perimeter (index s gives distance along
the perimeter). For the torqu, e boxes encoun-
652T
A OTAL = tered in delta wings it is probably satisfactory
to neglect the ds/t contribution from the verti-
cal webs, it being small compared with the cor-
responding contribution from the cover sheets.
Re-solving this, we write
pm = p--- GJ .____ ___I- Ln In the example wing three boxes (2-3-5-6,
bn(bn + h) Ox&n + Lmbn) 3-4-6-7 and 6-7-8-9) are to be used. These
boxes are each 48 inches square 1n plan and
This last expression relates the load at have average depths (assumed here to be the
point m to the deflection at that peint, with uniform depths of the representative sections)
the other three corners undeflected. Thus the of 7.26”, 5.32” and 4.27*‘, respectively. Fig.
deflection of point m as defined was relative A23.31 shows the assumed repreeentative cross
to th3 plane m nr s. This relative displacement section of box 2-3-5-6 and its GJ calculation.
may be related by geometry to the case where
all four corners are displaced (In effect, re-
moving the rigid body displacements 0
%l ‘i I---.-- 48” _ --_-_ -----..-a/
h-i relative
-i’
- -LJm/‘L,l A, A2
_I
On A = 7.26 x 48 = 348 in 2
Note :
&- ds=2x 48 = 1.88 x lo3 G =- E
t .051 2.6
%
4(348)a 1
where I GJE=~ = 1.88 x 103x 2.6
l

= 99.3 lb. in. a

(ds/t contribution of vertical webs neglected)

A z khn + Lmbn--__ +_ bs (Lm - Ln)
---------~Jff, fbs)
Fig. A23.31
Calculation of GJ for the Representative
Section of Box 2-3-5-6

Tnis 13st relation corresponds to Equation In similar fashion one finds:

For box 3-4-6-7
* Calculation of this GJ is discussed later. GJpl = 53.3
 A23.21

For box 6-7-8-g One now writes the relations which trans-
form the displacements. As an example, one
GJ)+l = 34.3 writes
Finally, the stiffness matrices for the
three boxes of the example become:
p z l 0 1 0 0 0 0 ----- 0 0 0 0 0
a- 6
For box 2-3-5-6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 ----- 0 1 0 0 0

-1
1 -1
1
-1
1 -1
1
3
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0 -----
o-----
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

= 0.000898 -1 1 1 Then
-1

For box 3-4-6-7

-1.
1
-1 1I
[ 1 K 2-6 =p' 2-6
k 2-6 @2-6

12 15

1 -1
1 -1

1
-1
1 -1
1 .1108 .07404

[3
K = 0.000482
L1
-1
-1
1
-1
1 -1
1:
-.1108 -.07404
3.929 1.387
1.387 2.167
For box 6-7-8-9 Here for economy we have written only the non-
zero terms of the transformed elt ment stiffness
1 -1 -1 1 matrix. These simple transformations, involving
-1 1 1 -1 no coordinate rotations may be written by in-
= 0.000310 -1 1 1 spection since obviously, for element 2-5
-1
1! 6 1--u,
6 2----Qh.

SYSTm DISPLACEMENTS/TRANSFORMATION
OF 6,----t u 6
COORDINATES
6*-u 16
The element displacements of the foregoing
element stiffness matrices may now be related For the leading edge spar there are geo-
to (transformed to) the system displacements metric transformations. Thus, for element l-5,
chosen for the overall wing structure. Fig.
A23.32 shows the system displacements which may
be chosen. 1 5 11 15 21 25
1 10 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 ,707 0 .707 0
B1-6 = 3 0 1 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 1 .707 / 0 .707

where, again only displacements having non-

zero entries are shown explkitly.
Then
K-1-6 = Qt k P
1-6 l-6 1-6

5 15 21 25
Fig. A23.32 --
Delta Wing System Displacements. .0005295 -.0005295 .01214 .01326 .01214
All rotations positive by right-hand rule. - .0005295 .0005295 -.01214 -.01326 -.01214
.01326 -.01326 .2004 .4361 .2004
.01214 -.01214 .2004 .3821 .2004 .3821
I
.01326 -.01326 .2004 .4361 .2004
.01214 -.01214 .3821 .2004 .3821
--
A23.22 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS

Proceeding in the above manner, stiffness matri- found on span 9-10. This situation suggests
ces for all 15 bea- elements are transformed. that a single beam, continuous across gi-id
The torque boxes are already in “system” co- point 9, be used instead of the separate ele-
ordinates since each was designated by the grid ments.
numbers of its four corners D
The substructures selected for this prob-
ANALYSIS BY SUBSTRUCTURES lem, along with their element deflections, are
shown in Fig. A23.33. They are the rather
From this point on the analysis proceeds In natural choices of the continuous wing beams
a very direct manner as previously illustrated. (spars and ribs) with only the minimum neces-
However, as is also apparent, any large struc- sary deflections considered. While the fore-
ture having many nodal points is going to yield going reasoning had dealt largely with forces,
a very high order matric equation when analyzed it is the corresponding element displacaments
in such a completely elemental fashion. which are used as the variables and are so-
shown in the figure.
It is possible, however, to reduce the
order of the problem by some preliminary re-
combining of the elements into substructures in
the course of which one can Beam l-2-

t6
(a) use certain a priori
eliminate
information
some loads (and corresponding
to
dfs-
Rib 5-6-7
irrt 66 t 66 7
placements )
Rib 8-9 fi---l
(b) extract some portions of the problem LL____’
6 28

out of the main calculation, putting them into

subproblems solved on the substructures. L. E. Spar l-5-8-10

These devices will be employed in the following Spar 2-5

section. L612
-1
J

Certain of the external loads associated Spar 3-6-8

with the displacements of Fig. A23.32 are known
to be zero by nature of the load modeling used
in this problem. Thus, only transverse forces, P4 t6 t6 t6
Spar 4-7-g-10 I lo
F, through FLO, are to be applied as loads at G 6 14
the wing grid points, reacted by transverse
loads FL through F, and rolling moments F,, Fig. A23.33
through F, 4 along the airplane centerline. Substructures and Their Element Displacements.
Note numbering of displacements has been kept
For this structure and this loading it is consi .stent with system numbering of Fig *. A23 .32.
then known a priori that many element loads are
zero. For example, there can be no couples on The substructure of spar 4-7-g-10 illus-
the ,beam elements at grid point lo*. It is, in trates the motivation in the substructure
effect, as if this joint was a pin joint and variable choices. It was modeled as shown
only its translation was considered. since it wa.s known there were no applied
couples at grid points 7, 9 and 10 and hence
Many element loads are not zero but need the rotational displacements at those points
not be solved for explicitly in the main prob-
need not be cons-l dered. Elimination of
lem if they can be computed subsequently by variables at no-load points can, of course be
analysis of a substructure within which they arc done on the final complete system stiffness
subsumed. For example, the bending moments on matrix (obtaining a reduced stiffness matrix
the bean? elements 7-9 and 9-10 meeting at grid per Equation 35) . Such a reduction
point 9 are equal and may be found easily once may in-
volve manipulation of very large matrices.
the transverse element load at point 10 is Using substructures this reduction process is
divided into several smaller, more tractable
* The implication here is that beam torsional stiffnesses are problems while simultaneously reducing the
not considered in such interactions. This assumption is order of the main problem. The rotational
probably quite satisfactory in general, bending stiffnesses displacements thus eliminated can be easily
being much greater than torsional stiffnesses for most
beam elements. On occasion, a beam will have considerable obtained via a subcalculation, if desired,
torsional stiffness and it will then be necessary to account (ref. Equation 33).
for it. The leading edge spar might be such a beam if it
replaces the “D” nose section of the wing in the idealization. Couples must be considered to act wher-
ever three or more nonorthogonal beam elements
 A23.23

intersect to account for their interaction; Adding these together gives

hence the rotational displacements at grid ~-
points 5 and 8 on all ribs and Spars intersec-
ting there and at grid point 1. (The other wing 1 7-j-F 16 18

half provides the third structure at that point.) 3 .004746 -.00474-6 .1166 .1112
6 -.004746 .007304 -.002558 -.1166 -.0382 .04974
Looking ahead we see a complete system K3-8-8 8 -.002:>58 .002558 -.07305 -.04974
stiffness matrix of 19th order (u, through u16 -.1166 1.819
13 .1166 3.775
plus h8, UZl) uz6 and uz8) instead of 30th
order. Tnis matrix can be subsequently re- 16 .1112 -.0382 -.07305 1.819 6.095 .9325
duced in order because of five known zero ex- 18 l 04974 - .04974 .9325 1.455
ternal loads (there are no externally applied
moments at the points where the nonorthogonal (Voids denote zeroes)
beams intersect). This reduction will require
inversion of a 5th order matrix rather than the The constraint of generalized force u
16th order matrix otherwise required to reduce being zero is now applied using Equation 35.
the 30th order problem to an equivalent system The inverse “K,:’ ” in this instance is merely
of equations. l/6.095 and the matrix “KZ2” is the row
(.1112, -.0382, -007305, 1.819, 0.9325).
SUBSTRUCTURESTIFFNESS MATRICES Applying the equation leads to

Calculation of the substructure stiffness *

3 6 8 13 13
matrices follows the procedure established for
any structure built up of elements. For ex- 3 .00271!3 -.0170
ample, consider beam 3-6-8 which comprises ele-
K* = 6 -.004049 -.003016 -.1052 905558
ments 3-6 and 6-8. The substructure is shown 3-8-8
below with all displacements indicated, in- 8 JO1332 .001683 eO2179 -.03857
cluding 6, 8, even though it is to be eliminated 13 .0034 .02179 3.232 -.2782
because the applied load P,, is known to be -.0170
18 -a03857 -.2782 1.312
zero.

The foregoing procedure is followed to

obtain reduced stiffness matrices for each of
the remaining substructures,

COMPLETEWING STIFFNESS MATRIX

The stiffness matrix is collected from
that of each of the elements 3-6 and 6-8. The stiffness matrix for the composite wing
now may be obtained by forming the sum of the
3 6 13 16 complete stiffness matrices for the beam sub-
structures and the torque boxes. For this pur-
3 .004746 -.004746 .1166 .1112 pose a large matric table is laid out and en-
tries from the individual stiffness matrices
6 - .004746 .004746 -.1166 -.1112 are transferred into the appropriate locations.
K = -.1166 3.775 1.819 Wherever multiple entries occur in a box these
3-6 13 .1166
are summed.
16 .1112 -.1112 ( 1.819 3.521
I I I I I

Before the large wing matrix is laid out

it is necessary to observe first that the
8 16 18 matrix which would be obtained as just indicated
would be singular, i.e., its determinant would
6 -.002558 .07305 .04974 be zero, and hence it could not be inverted to
8 .002558 - .07305 - .04974 yield the flexibility influence coefficients
(see Appendix A). This condition arises due to
K 6 -8 =16 - .07305 2.574 .9325 the fact that the equations r epresented (19 in
18 - .04974 .9325 1.455 number in the example problem) are not inde-
pendent; three of these equations can be ob-
Adding these together gives tained as linear combinations of the others.

That there are three such interdependencies

may be seen from the existence of the three
equations of statics which may be applied to
the wing (summation of normal forces and sum-
mation of moments in two vertical planes):
A23.24 ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF DISPLACEMENTS
-

hence three of the reactions expressed by the ficients are those for only the half-wing
structural equations in the matrix may be found acting alone and supported by constraints as
from the others by the equations of statics. assumed above. To account for the presence of
To remove the “singularity” from the stiffness the other half of the wing, it is necessary to
matrix it 1s only necessary to drop out three specify additional geometric conditions along
equations - achieved by removing three rows and the airplane centerline. This step is accom-
corresponding columns (so as to retain a sym- plished by assuming the following deflections
metric stiffness matrix). zero (eliminating their corresponding rows and
columns from the matrix):
The act of removing the three equations
selected is also equivalent to assuming the Ull 7 for symmetric loadings (zero
corresponding deflections to be zero. In this lateral slope or rolling
way a reference base for the deflections is also h3
rotation along the airplane
established. The choice of reference base is centerline)
somewhat arbitrary, but, following a suggestIon
of Williams (13), a triangular
employed as shown in Fig. A23.34.
base will be u3

U*
1
‘I, for antisymrnetric loadings (zero
transverse deflections 3nd pitch-
\ \ U 22 ing rotations along the airplane
centerline
'23
I
It w-ill be seen that in both cases addi-
tional equations are eliminated from the 16 x
16 matrices further reducing them. In general
Fig. A23. 34 there is no reason why the matrices for the
Deflection Reference Base symmetric and antisymmetric ca.ses have to be
the same size since the modeling of applied
Here the deflections at points 1 and 5 are zero, loads is not the sa;ne in these cases (for ex-
fixing the reference triangle, since the point ample, no forces F,, F,, F, or F, are applied
corresponding to 5 1n the other ‘half of the wing in an antisymmetric loading).
(say, 5‘ 1, will have zero deflection also due to
symmetry. The third condition is applied to Written below is the 13 x 13 wing stiffness
point 2: point 2 will be assumed to have zero matrix for the symmetric case (u, = u, = u,, =
rolling rotation (ula = 0) for symmetric wing U = u,, = ul* = 0). As explained earlier,
loadings and to have zero transverse deflection ek:h entry therein is the sum of all correspond-
b* = 0) for antisymmetric loadings.* ing stiffnesses for all elements meeting at the
point. A typical multiple entry occurs for
Hence the following equations (rows and joint 6 - (row F,, column u, ) . These comprise:
columns) are to be omitted from the wing stiff-
ness matrix: 0.007065 from spar 3-6-8
0.001730 from rib 5-6-7
0.000310 from box 6-7-8-9
for symmetric loadings
0.000898 from box 2-3-5-6
0.000482 from box 3-4-6-7

0.010485 TOTAL
for antisymmetric loadings

The 16 x 16 wing stIffn2ss matrices thus

obtained can now be inverted as they are non-
s lngular . However, if this step is carried out
one finds that the resultant influence coef-

* The antisymmetric loading pattern is one wherein the wing

is loaded equally, but in opposite sense, on corresponding
points of the two wing halves. Any general loading may be
resolved into the sum of one symmetric and one anti-
symmetric loading.
 A23.25

Concerning the numerical solution, the

REDUCEDWING STI FF’NESSMATRIX stiffness matrix derived from the displacement
method is a positive definite symmetric matrix,
The wing stiffness matrix as derived above for which nontrivial, unique solutions can be
contalns all the necessary geometric constraints guaranteed a priori. The real difficulty lies
to represent correctly the wing behavior under a in finding a computationally efficient algorithm
symmetric loading. It may, however, be further for determining these solutions.
reduced by the application of certain zero-
loading constraints which exist purely because Several methods have been illustrated in
of the external load modeling used. Specif i- the example problems of this chagter, including
tally, the load modelI.ng sets the couples F,,, direct solution by inverting the stiffness
he, Fel, Fze and Fss equal to zero. Hence matrix (example problem 1) or by Gaussian
Equation 35 may be used to derive a reduced elimination (example problem 3), and solution by
matrix. This reduced matrix offers the ad- iteration with a Gauss-Seidel algorithm (example
vantages of simpler handling if the further problem 2). As a rule of thumb, direct solution
computing tasks of deriving wing influence co- 1s best for small, fully populated matrices,
efficlents (by inverting the N.ng stiffness while both types of solution are used for large,
matrix) and internal wing stresses (i.e., spe- sparsely populated matrices. The preferred
cific element loads) are undertaken. method of solution, and the demarcation between
large and small problems varies from authority
A23.12 Accuracy, Convergence and Error Bounds to authority, and in fact, the choice of method
may be overriden at a given facility by a re-
We have to deal with two kinds of accu- liable, debugged procedure of either type.
racy; first, the accuracy associated with the Problem bookkeeping should be optimized as well.
finite element model; and second, the accuracy For example, where possible, modes should be
associated with the numerical solution, once a numbered to produce a banded stiffness matrix
-model has been chosen. It is worth pointing to minimize storage requirements.
out that the results although given by the com-
puter to many decimal places may be useless, Certain practical measures may be employed
due to a conceptual defect I_n the model, or a to faci11tate numerical calculation- In the
computational defect in the solution. case of one or more extremely stiff elements,
associated coordinates can be eliminated (as
Of the two processes, that of choosing a in example problem 2) to yield better con-
finite element model is more dependent on ex- dit1oning of the problem.
perlence and judgment. For some types of ele-
ments, convergence to an exact (theory of Computational errors arise from Wo
elasticity or continuous) solution is assured sources, termed roundoff error and truncation
by taking a sequence of models with more and error. Roundoff error occurs because a finite
more (smaller) elements. Example problems 5 number of digits are carried 1n the calcula-
and 6 Ulustrate thl.s situation. It may be tions; double precision arithmetic is often
worthwhile to bound the deslred result by con- necessary to avoId loss of significant figures.
sidering limiting, simpler problems with similar In some algorl_thms, the order of operations Is
boundary conditions. In regions of high stress altered by interchanging pairs of rows and
and strain gradients, extreme care must be columns , again to avoid loss of significant
taken in modeling and interpretation of results, figures in subtraction and achieve better ac-
to assure obtaining useful values of stress and curacy. Truncation error Is typically as-
deflection. sociated with iteration methods, whose
A23.26 ANALYSIS BY THE MET )D OF DISPLACEMENTS

accuracy Is assured only by completing an ln- production runs can be performed. Use of on-
finite number of steps. By terminating the line terminals operating on a tlme-sharing
calculations after a finite number of iterations system Is an efficient way to debug, as It
we produce a truncation error. Further error eliminates most of the walting time between
may be produced if the matrix coefficients are runs. This is especially useful durlng the
obtalned emplrlcally. Placing bounds on the Initial runs to dlscover spelling and syntax
errors 1s a dlfflcult but important part of the errors. Often a machlne failure will terminate
calculation procedure. For details, the reader a run before complatlon. It is deslrable to
Is referred to texts on the subject of numerl- output intermediate results so that somethlng
cal analysis (5,6). is learned from every run. The amount of
running tlme for each portlon of the program
A23. 13 Management of Problem for the Computer can be checked easily, and can pinpoint those
parts of the calculations where reprogramming
A dlscusslon of the management of a would be most productive.
structural problem for solution on an electronic
illgital computer could easily occupy a separate Once a program is ready for production,
book. We will be content here to glve the It should be complled and stored on tape or
reader a checklist of topics which can be con- disk In machine language rather than FORTRAN
sldered as a gulde to the questlons he should or PI/I. This will save considerable tlme per
consider and discuss with a computer consultant, run. Where possible, establlshed, wldely used
It Is assumed that the deslrabillty and feasi- programs should be used; wlth a new program
blllty of performlng a computer analysis have debugglng represents a slgnlflcant proportion
already been determined, and the analytlcal of the work requlred to produce results. How-
approach has been selected. ever, one must beware of poorly documented
programs; the cost of the learnlng cycle could
At this point the key factor is the cost of easily exceed the cost of writing and debugging
the calculation for a glven degree of accuracy. a new program.
The method employed, and thus the cost will be
lntlmately related to the rate structure at the REFERENCES
local computer facility. Often costs not cen-
tral to the computation are the controlling (1) Rublnstein, H. F., Structural Systems -
ones. A typical charge rate Includes central Statics, Dynamics and Stability, Prentlce-
processor unlt tlme, number of input-output Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1970.
requests, and requlred storage reglon size.
Other factors, such as cost of cards and prlnted (2) Rublnsteln, M. F., Matrix Computer Analysis
output, tape and disk storage charges, graphic of StrUCtUreS, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
plotter usage, etc., may be prorated or charged Cliffs, N. J., 1966.
directly. For a given computer, one of the
elements of the rate structure generally doml- (3) Przemienieckl, J. S., Theory of Matrix
nates the programming strategy. Earller in the Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York,
evolution of computers, processing time and 1968.
storage were the limiting factors. Wlth Im-
provements In these areas, current computer (4) Zienklewlcz, The Finite Element Method In
technology is often bound by input-output llmi- Structural and Contlnuum Mechanics,
tatlons. In addition to cost considerations, McGraw-Hfll, Ltd., London, 1967.
the posslblllty of committing a blunder In data
inputting has led to use of special data gen- (5) Crandall, S. H., Englneerlng Analysls,
eration routines and checking programs. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956.
Graphlcal output Is especially useful in de-
tecting errors In nodal point location and In (6) Ralston, A., A First Course ln NumerIcal
checking element deflnltlons. Because of ln- Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.
put-output costs, it is desirable to keep as
much of the program in core storage as possible. (7) Sokolnlkoff, I. S., Mathematical Theory
The cost of storlng and fetching Information of Elastlclty, McGraw-Hill, New York,
may exceed the cost of regenerating data by a 1956.
factor of ten, twenty, or more. When moving
data in and out of the central processing unit, (8) Levy, S., Structural Analysis and Influ-
the format used can have a crltical influence ence Coefflclents for Delta Wings, Journal
on cost. It is often advantageous to transfer of the Aeronautical Sciences, 20, 1953.
many record lines at a time uslng the simplest
format deflnitlon available. (9) Schuerch, H., Delta Wlng Design Analysls,
Society of Automotive Engineers Natlonal
Every program contains errors or bugs whlck Aeronautic Meetlng Preprint No. 141,
must be discovered and corrected before reliable September, 1953.
(10) Turner, M. J., Clough, R. W., Martin, (12) Wooley, Ruth, Check of Method for Computing
H. C., and Topp, L. J., Stiffness and De- Influence Coefflclents of Delta and Other
flection Analysts of Complex Structures, Wings, National Bureau of Standards Report
Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 3655, 1954. (Available as ASTIA No.
23, September, 1956. AD46866).

(11) Kroll, w., Effect of Rib Flexlbllity on (13) WIlllams, D., Recent Developments in the
the Vibration Modes of a Delta Wing Alr- Structural Approach to Aeroelastlc Prob-
craft, Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, lems, Journal of the Royal Aeronautical
Preprint No. 585, 1956. Society, 58, 1954 (see also, Aircraft
Englneerlng, 25, 1954).
 INTRODUCTION TO
THE THEORY OF ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY
BY
R. J. BOLLARD, Ph.D.

CHAPTER A24
THE 5DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF THERMOELASTICITY

A24.1 Assumptions: There are two most imPOrtant that a deformed body returns to its original
assumptions in the classical theory of elastf- shape upon removal of the deformation Source,
city concerning the state of an elastic body be it external loads or temperature. If one
throughout Its volume. considers the simple tension StreSS strain
curve, this assumption requires that at no point
(I) The material is homoqeneous. In the body can the stress level be above the
yield point. If this stress level Is exceeded
(Ii) The material 1s isotropic. the problem again becomes non-linear Since the
stress-strain relations no longer follow Hooke’s
The first requires that the elastic body Law. This non-linear response is Idealized in
possess the same material properties at all the theory of plasticity. It is usual, also,
points throughout Its volume and on the sur- in the application of the classical theory of’
face. When homogeneity does not exist, such elasticity to ignore the visco-elastic behavior
as in the case of an Inclusion of foreign of materials but the extension to this case
material or of a laminated structure of where the stress-strain relations contain only
different material in eich lamination, the linear time derlvatlves of stress and Strain
mechanical and elastic constants become is quite straightforward. Since this type of
functions of position in the body. Thfs Is behavior, the best kno’wn of which is creep, be-
also the case where the material properties comes more pronounced as the temperature in-
become functions of temperature in a non- creases, this possible extension in the linear
uniformly heated body. case will be mentioned in Chapter A27.

The second requires that the elastic The violation of these last two assumptions,
properties are the same in all directions at small deformations and linear stress-strain re-
any point in the elastic body. If a material lations, leading to the non-linear problem
is non-isotropic, such as in extruded graphite where, of course, the rules of superposition no
or laminated plastics, the relationships be- longer apply, is mentioned not to cause con-
tween stress and strain are no longer the fusion but to serve as a warning of the limita-
simple equations containing two independent tions of the theory presented herein.
elastic constants. In the most general non-
A24.2 Formulation of the J-Dimensional Equations of
isotropic material it requires 21 elastic Thermoelasticity.
constants to define the stress-strain re-
latlonship. The existence of lanes of elastic The problem of thermoelastlclty is to
symmetry reduces this number. tbS determine at any point within and on the bound-
ary of a heated elastic body subject to external
A third Important assumption is that the loads and constraints the stresses, strains and
displacements are so small that the position displacements. The stress condltlon at any
of a point in the body does not require re- chosen point withln or on the boundary of the
definition after deformation and that the body must be such that equilibrium of forces
higher order terms of displacement derivatives and moments exists at that polnt. Consequently,
are negligible. If these assumptions are not the expression of the equilibrium state of the
made the relationship between strains and dis- stress components will be independent of the
placements become non-linear and the much more material Propertles, the deformations, the
difficult theory of large deformations must be temperature and temperature distrlbutlon, the
employed. stress-strain law, etc. The relationship
between stress components must be only such as
The final assumption is that the mater-la1 to satisfy the equations of equilibrium. It is
behaves elastically. This assumptfon requires well known that the stress at a point, being the
force intensity In a chosen direction, can be
(4) Numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the represented by a single vector, having magnitude
end of the chapter. and dlrection, which Is related to a chosen Cut
A24.1
A24.2 AN INTRODUCTION TO

plans s:;y:qc” _ of inlinitesimal area at that solution when all 18 equations are simultan-
?>i:lt. Th.xz th#i definitions of the stress at eously satisfied. The development of the
th? I-oint req’;ires more than the statement of solution to a specific problem requires a set
tlii ytl-i$ss I,;>ct(]r. It requires in a:r‘,it,ion of boundary condition equatlons for evaluation
t,:ria de:‘lni t,ion ?f tin’? cul;tin- rlane throu[gh of the unknown coefficients exlstlng in the
ttx point of interest, t,o which th’, stress general solution.
vsctc?r- is r'.?3:'c:rTdd. Thu stress at a point can
53 fully d?finad by choosing a s:lfficient nlur.- As in the tileory of elasticity, the solu-
her #>I’ c~itl,ilg r)lanes and dctsrmining the tion to a chnsen physical problem in thermo-
stres; Vr?CtOrS, usunlly defined by its compon- elasticity must satisfy the defined 18 equation
ents , ass,iriated .vitl; each. In 3-diilt?IlSiOIlal set and, as well, the boundary conditions.
bodies a !-.in;mum of 3 cut%ing planes which are The equations of thermoelasticity are derived
mutually at, ri:i:t angles to eac’1 other (ort!,og- in the followlnp; sections in the following
onal) is required D Th .ls , ::hen e<ach stress sequence.
ir23t0r assscisted :Vith on: of those cutting
~!lsn+s is oefine? by its 5 comnoaents, there (A) Equilibrium Equations
:vill exist 9 stress com:3onents to be deter-
rlniPi?d
j . The::? 5 c~smroonents of the stress at a (B) Strain - Displacement Relations
point m&-:-up th3 stress tensorc4) which Is
tha most, c>.ivenient representation for the (C) Stress-Strain Relations
m’7re di :‘f icult problems in theoretical analysis.
The t:n-ee cdtting planes are usually chosen (D) Boundary Conditions
p:irallel to a chosen space fixed Cartesian co-
ordinate system, the choice usually clearly It should be noted at this time that the
inlicated for the physical system under only change that is necessary In the equations
analysis, and thus, the stress components will of the linear theory of elasticity to the linear
all be parallel. to this axis system. Other theory of thermoelasticity is in the stress-
axis s~~~:temssuc’lL a-u cylindrical axes, can be strain relations.
ci;cisenJso lari:: as there is provided the 3
mutually perpendicular planes at the point of A24.3 The Equilibrium Equations.
interest. These 9 stress comnonents are
r,elated by the equilibrium equations as shown Consider the point 0 in an elastic body
in the next section. There will be 6 equations which is suhjzct to external loading and intern-
of eqllilibriun and thus there exists more un- al, or body, forces. It is desired to deter-
knoGvns (9) than there are equations which fact mine the state of stress at 0. This could be
prevents any possible general solution. done completely by defining the resultant stress
tensor with respect to some spatial reference
Under the influence of this stress field but is most commonly done in the following man-
the elastic body riill deform in a manner de- ner. Take the point of interest 0 as the origln
pendent u>on the stress strain relations. The of three mutually perpendicular axes oriented
stress strain relations for the isothermal parallel to a chosen spatial Cartesian axis
problem (the same temperature throughout) are system. The choice of this reference axis
well known from the linear Hook’s ~a~.(3,3,4) system is usually clearly indicated by the
The introduction of temperature modifies these geometry of the system under study,
relations by the addition of another strain
).Z
component due to the thermal expnnuion
groperties of the material being studied. .z 3-Dimensional Body
These stress-strain relations provide 6 more
equations but at ths same time 6 additional Point 0 within the
unknown strain components are Introduced. The body
0 Y
system of equations is still incomplete.
x
@
The strains F;iva rise to displacements.
The relationship bet’ween strains and disYlaca- Y
ments twhich are independent of temperature and
tem,nerature distribution requires 6 equations
:or definition and at the 58.718 time introduces X
only 3 unknowns ,which are the displacement
comlronents. Assume that the body is cut by the Planes
W, xz, yz, having the common point of inter-
The number of unkno,vns is no,q 18 and there sfction 0. Associated with eaci of these cut-
exists 18 eqllations so th?t the equn+:ion set is tina; planes there will be a resultant stress
Comrilet? XI: a cl:eneral sol&ion is possible. vector at 0 requiring three components for
This gener?l solution will be the unique definition. It Is 1o::ica.l to choose the di-
 THE 3-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF THERMOELASTICITY A24.3

rections of these components as those of the equat 1 on, Surface areas over which the Stresses
axis system. (being force intensities) are acting; must be
prorrided * This is moSt conveniently dont? by
For example, consider the cuttin- plane considerin,? the stress components actinK over
yz, The resultant stress vector nt 0 associ- the faces of a small parallelepiped constructed
ated with this cuttii’g plane can bc defined by with faces in or parrillel to the cutting planes
the three component,s ax; Txy; ‘rxz where contained in the Cartesian coordinate system
with the point of interest 0 as the origin.
OX = component norsnal to the zy plane This paralleleoipcd is considered arbitrarily
and th:lxfore plirallel to the small and in the limit as the edge dimensions
x - axis, hence the subscript x approach zero the equations resulting from
equilibrium of the clement will describe the
TxY q one of the stress components in the stress conditions at the point 0. Consider
yz plane which is identi fled by t,he then Such a parallelspiped ,which is already
noma ~lirection x, hence the first conridered infinitesimally small rjlth edge
subscrlpt, and in the y direction dimensions then correctly specified as dx, dy
as inr!icated by the second sub- and dz. The stress com;?onents on those faces
script. This component could be
written as am but since the
axes are mutual~ly perpendicular the
yz plane is more econornl tally
identified by the subscript x as
Sh~‘~W.

TXZ = the other in-plane component at

right angles to ‘cxy where agaln tlie -Y
first subscript idel,tif’ies the
cutt11;g olane yz and the second the
direction.

With the ado;)tion of a siir;n convention

thzse vector c8,mnoncrits can he coii?idel‘ed
scalar quantities. Assnciatod \rJith the cutting;
plane XL will be the com;)onents ay, fix, ~~~ contained in the c~~tt!nfi planes xz, xy and yz
and ,vith the cutting nlane xy the camnonents are shoAn accordin? to the positive sign con-
oz9 Tzx, 72 ’ Any other of the infinitely vention. Accordin{_- to this same Sign convention
many possih 9 e cuttiny olanss passiri~: throu,,h 0 the stress components on those faces parallel
can be defined in terms of coordinates associ- to the cuttinc; planes are sho,\n in the next
ated ?vith the three mutually perpendicular fiE:urc. It in these componcntc which are of
planes xy, xz, yz. Tt,uS, definition of the 9 interest from the ohysical internrctation of the
stress com;ionents 0x, oy, az, zxy, ~~~~ Tyx, strecs condition at 0 since, because of the
Tyz 9 Tzx, Tzy ,.vill completely define the stress limiting procc~ss mentioned above, it Is these
cor,ii ; tion at t,k!e 7)oir.t 0 in t,iic t)o!i,y. The iii rections ivhich amd indic-!tod by positive
magnitudes of thofo Vf2CtOY Cii!npoilc:rlt:e. ‘will lbi? valuf?::: in I,ho Sol~.Llon t,o the diffcrcntlsl
obt~ainod frnm the k,\,lllt,ions of tlic dil'i'er-:::tinl cq1lnt-l on5 rf equilibri1.2::. It 1~ observed that
equations of equilibrium, stress-strain and I:os’tlve va11leS of c+ oy and 5S indicate
strain-displacement relations and the boundary t!?l2SiOrl Ci the elastic material at the point 0.
conditions, wherein the com>onentS are treated
as scalar qua,ntities since the sirn convention aa,
illustrated in the next section is rilways oz + +-dz
implied and the direction IS that of the cz
chosen carte-ian coordinate syst,em.

To establish the equations of equilibrium

the fundarientil 1~;s of Static:: are omi,loyed,
viz;
f
ZFx = XFy = ZFz = ZM, q 0

where Fx indice.t:; a ;‘orce in tile cl; r,ection x,

etc., and PToa mo2lent about 0.

Since it, is :‘o!,ce:: ;v;hicll ::nti :fy tJlj::

A24.4 AN INTRODUCTION TO

When in doubt during the physical interpreta- TxY = T&.( ; Txz = Tzx ; Tyz = Tzy - - - (5)
tion of solutions to the equations of elasti-
city one should return to these two figures The equations 2, 3, 4 and the three equations
which define the positive sense of the stress of 5 make up the 6 equilibrium equations. In
components . the following discussions equations 5 will be
accepted and thus the preceding discussion on
The stress components have all been in- the equatlon set of 18 must be modified to the
creased an amount equal to the rate change of set of 15 with a similar reduction of 3 in the
magnitude in the dlrection of movement tlmes number of unknowns.
the distance moved. This increase is, of
co’Jrse, the change in magnitude between the It should be noted that these equations
components on the planes passing through 0 2, 3 and 4 define the equilibrium state of the
and those displaced an infinitesimal distance volume element and their derlvation requires
away In the positive direction. In this no limiting assumptions as to the elastic
volume element, dxdydz, it will also be nature of the material. The equations are thus
possible to have body forces X, Y, Z defined quite general and will be the same for non-
as the force per unit volume and which can linear systems and those in which displacements
arise as gravitational forces, rna~netic are created by temperature differences. FOi-
forces, etc., acting in the direction x, y convenience, these equilibrium equations are
and z respectively and through the centroid wrltten in cylindrical coordinates r, 0 and z.
of the volume element. It should be borne
in mind that these are internal forces within d%-
-+lEIi?.---- dTrz + (%--Og
the element considered and are distinct from dr r dQ dZ r
the external forces which will appear in the
equations defining the boundary conditions. +R=O

The equations of equilibrium are obtained dTrz

-t--+-i- 1 da& dCJZ 2r-z
directly from the static equilibrium con- dr r dQ dZ r
ditions: Y +z=o
ZFx 0
q

ZFY = 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
ZFz =o I
To illustrate the procedure the forces In the where the body force components in the r, z and
x direction are summed and equated to zero. 8 directlons are Identified as R, Z and&
respectively, and in spherical coordinates r, Q
(0.xf- aox
3X
a)dy dz - o,dydz + (Tj-x+$$%y)dzdx
and @

aTzx 3 +L.Ec.Q+ 1 dzrm

- ,tyx dzdx+ ~~~~ +xdz)dydx- Tzxdy dx + dr r a8 r sin 8 dpl
X dx dy dz q 0

which, on simplification, gives I_ +R =o

aox+iJ3!z+azzx+~=o ------ (2) Y 2g9+L92Q+ 1 dTQ +.

XT ay az r dQ rsln8 +d

Similarly

s%Y+aoy+azZy+y=O ------ (3)

+I& =o
ax ay az
- + 1 d’-Q0 + 1 dcJ +
aTxz +*+* +z=o------ dr r dQ rslnQ +d
ax (4)
ay az

It can be readily shown, by taking moments

about the volume center and satisfying the
equation of static equilibrium, ZM, = 0 that
the complementary components of the shear where the body forces in the r, Q and @ direc-
stress are equal, le. tions are given by R, A and $ respectively,
 THE J-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF THERMOELASTICITY A24.5

A24.4 Strain - Displacement Relations. The shear strain a*xy = a + p

Equations 2, 3, and 4 being three =du+d,

dy dX
equations with six unknowns are insufficient
to establish solutions for these unknowns withln the
ox, ay, uz, ~~~~ zxz, zyz. One looks there-
fore to equations relating the stresses to the assumptions stated above. In similar fashion
deformations of the deformable elastic body the remaining two components of shear strain
for the further equations necessary to provide can be obtained to give the complete set
a complete set. Consider first the strain
displacement relations. The discussion of 6XY =dU+zY ---- ------- (9)
the relation between these strains and the dy dX
stresses will follow.
dw
dXZ=-+dz du --_-__- ____ (10)
dX
If a flctltious fiber of unit length lies
in the positive x - directIon before deforma- fyz=S+% -----___-__ (11)
tion, one has only to determine the Increase
In length of this fiber after deformatlon to
obtain the strain at the polnt of origin of Again, for future convenience, these strain dls-
the fiber. With the assumption that this placement relations are wrltten in cylindr lcal
change In length Is sufflclently small that and spherical coordinates below.
second order terms of this change can be
neglected and further, that rotation of this In cylindrical coordinates,
fiber away from the x - direction Is
small, It is easy to show by simple trlgo- 4l dW =u+Ldv
nomstry that the strain Ed is given by sr=T; sz=x; sQ r r dQ

=A!?2
dx --------_-_-__ (6
“,; r1 dw
EX
a*ZQ=----+-- d0
By considering fibers orlginally in the y
and z directIons the same development, given where u, v and w represent displacements In the
in all texts in elastlclty, gfves r, 8 and z dfrectlons respectively. And in
spherical coordinates,
=- -----a-- ------ (7
EY :;

EZ
=- 4rv

dZ
__--------e--e
(8

where u, v and w are the displacements of the

point of interest, the orlgln of the three
fibers considered, from the undeformed body
position. The shear strains are readily ob-
tained, when the same restrlctions on the $r@a r sin1 ?LL+G!d
Q did dr - r
w
magnitude of length change and rotation of the
fiber are enforced, by consideration of the
two fibers lying 1n the same plane. Consider $Qpl =+ (.s - w cot Q) + r ,;, Q$
those two projectlons in the x-y plane start-
ing from the point of Interest 0 U-I the body.
where u, v, w represent the displacements In
the r, Q and g dlrections respectively.
.t T’ Position of Fiber
It must be noted that these equations apply
only under the restrlctlve assumptlons on the
order of magnitude of displacements. These are
+ Position of Fiber the linear strain-displacement relations of the
in Deformea Body classical theory of elasticity. An obvious
I extension to the classlcal theory immediately
presents itself as the theory of large defO?%a-
tlons wherein the higher order terms of the
-u 3 displacement derivative are considered. This
dx u difficult non-linear theory Is being aCtlVelY
A24.6 AN INTRODUCTION TO

developed since many structural problems, such OX = Xe + 2j~~~

as tile buckling and post-buckling behavior of
structures, Involve large deformations. OY = Xe + 2~~
We now possess a set of 9 equations, the oz -- Xe + 2pz
3 equations of equilibrium and the 6 strain-
displacement relations, with the 15 unknowns Txy = c1zfxy
ox, oy, oz, ‘cxy, Tyz, TXZ, EX, Ey9 EZ, fxy,
Tyz = Pyz
fyz, fxz, u, v, w so the equation set Is even
more incomplete than before. However, by Tzx = tL&*zx
means of the stress-strain relations, Hooke’s
Law, the equation set will be completed to 15. where the L3.me/ constants

A24.5 Stress-Strain Relations. VE

A= (1 + Y)(l - 29)
In accord with the limiting assumptions
of the linear theory of elasticity the general E
statement of Hooke’s Law requires 36 constants p = 2(1 + Y) q G
in the isothermal problem. For Isotropic
materials, wherein the elastic properties at and
any chosen point throughout the body are
the same for all posslble directions of ob- e = E~+E~+E~ = the dilatation of the
servation, these 36 constants are readily volume element.
shown to be dependenttl, 2, 3, 4) and can be re-
duced to the two most commonly used, E, It should be further noted that
Young’s modulus and Y, Poisson’s ratio, or the
Lame constants 1 and CL. For the Isothermal 3x + 2~ = 3k
problem the stress-strain relations can be
written as; where
E
k=
3(1 - 2Y)
In the case of the heated elastic body
these strain expressions must be modified by
the addition of a component arising from the
thermal expansion property of all structural
materials. This component will be proportional
to the temperature level, T, above or below
some reference temperature (usually room temper-
ature ) . The constant of proportionality is the
1 familiar linear coefficient of thermal expan-
fyz =x Tyz
sion, which, for isotropic materials is the
same in all directions of observation at the
gxz=+ TX2 point 0. It is obvlous that the direct strain
components, Ed, Ed, Ed, being the change In
where E = Young’s modulus = slope of the uni- length per unit length of a fictitious fiber
axial stress strain oriented in t,he x, y, z directions respectively,
curve are directly affected by the thermal expansion.
The shear stress components will not, however,
be affected for isotropic materlals since the
G = shear modulus =& angular deformation of a small volume element
located at 0 ~111 not be changed during the
Y = Poisson’s rat10 = 0.3 for steel uniform expanslon of this volume element. The
stress-strain relations for thermoelasticity
= 0.25 + 0.50 for thus become:

1 + - - - - (12)
all elastic mater- 1
ials at room EX =y ux - Yby + (Jz) aT
temperature. C

It is often more convenient

stress strain relations
to express
with the Lame/ con-
the EY =y
1
oy - Y(5,
C
+ uz)
1 + - - --
aT (13)

stants of linearlty. In three-dimensional

elasticity these relations become
 A24.7
THE 3-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF THERMOELASTICITY

dv
1
EZ = F
I
CJZ- Y(a,+oy)
1 + UT - - - - (14)
“JJ=dy
$yz =dv+dw
dZ dy
dxy =+ Txy - - - - - _ - - - - - - (IF,) ixz =-g +g-
fxy =+ ~~~ - - - - - _ - - - - _ - (16) 6 strain-stress relations

tyz =+ Tyz - - - - - - - - - - - - (17)

Ex =c
1
C
ux- Y(oy+aZ)
1 + UT

These equations can be inverted to express

+aT
the stresses as functions
left as an exercise
relations containing
of stralns. This is
for the student but these
the Lame constants are
fUT

given here for completeness of treatment.

OX = Xe + 2+ex - (3x + 2~)aT

1
T&z = - G 'cxz
*Y = Xe + 2J.~y .- (3 h + 2ct)aT

Pz = j,e + 2pez - (3 X+ 2p)aT

$yz = + Tyz

Txy = i-l$xy
The equation set is now complete since the
TYz = dyz nurrnber of independent equations is equal to the
number of unknowns.
Tzx = L&x A24.7 The Compatability Equations.

where the definitions of A, p and e remain un- It will be noted in the strain displacement
changed from those previously given in the equations that 6 strain components are necessary
isothermal equations relating stress and to define the 3 displacement components. Thus,
strain. if one were to choose at random a set of 6
strain components this does not mean that there
A24.6 The General Equations of 3-Dimensional exists a possible set of 3 displacement compon-
Thermoelasticity. ents which will allow satisfaction of the strain-
displacement equations.
The unknowns are: Consequently the choice of these 6 strain
components cannot be arbitrary and, In fact,
6 stress components ~~,cly,~~,~xy,~~~,~y~ must be such that the compatabillty equations,
6 strain components ~x,~y,~~,~xy,d*X~,$y~ which are equations relating the derlvatlves of
3 displacement components u, v, w the strain components, are satisfied. These
15 compatabillty equations thus ensure the exist-
ence of continuous single-valued displacement
The necessary 1S equations are given by functions. This, of course, ensures the unique-
ness of the solution when, as is possible, the
3 equations of equilibrium analysis is formulated in terms of stresses and
strains only. These equations are automatically
cfOX +d’cxy+z3G+~=() satisfied If the complete 15 eauation set is
dx dy dZ satisfied.
doy+d’6Xy+a These equations are derived in the follow-
+y=o Ing manner.
dY dX dZ
From equation 9
-+a +Eh!z+Z=()
dZ dX dY zlXY =du+dv
dy dx

6 strain - displacement relations therefore

EX
=!f!!L
dX
fxyq2$+2$ d QL&v
dX dy
d’u
=----T+m
dxdy
d=v

q$- (g)
A24.8 AN INTRODUCTION TO

or from equations 6 and 7 lng these boundary conditions

dZ&y - d2EX would be a general X-dimensional
+* elastic body subjected to hydro-
axay dya
static pressure or the same body
The remaining 5 compatability equations non-uniformly heated. In the
are derived in similar manner and the complete first exnmple the surface
set appears as follows tractions are the pressure levels
2G&=*+;;z - ----- -- acting normal to the surface and
in the latter the surfaces are
dY
traction free (the boundary
- da& xz -- d2EX +- d2Ez
tractions all zero). If the sur-
dxdz a22 axa
-------- (19) face tractions at any point on
the surface are represented by
d=ifyz _ de&y +z de& -------- the vector components 2, f, z
aydz a2 ay= (20) parallel to the x, y, z axes
respectively, the equations of
de&y
+--d’f,z equilibrium at the boundary give
dxdz dxay the boundary condition equations:

@$xy @fxz + d’dyz = 2dPFy T = oxl+~xymfzxzn

dYdZ dXdY dxdz - - - (22)
dY”
F= aym+~yzn+‘cxyl
d2$xy f dZdXz
a.3 aydz Z = ozn+zxzl+~yzm
As will be noted later, these compata-
bility equations are automatically satisfied where 1, m, n are the direction
if the problem is formulated in terms of dis- cosines of the surface normal
placements and then the general solution must drawn outward from the surface.
satisfy only the equilibriwn equations with
these equations written in terms of displace- Case 2. All external boundaries are con-
ments. In comparison, if the problem is strained by geometrlcal restraints
formulated completely in terms of stresses and thus, all boundary displace-
then both the equilibrium and the compatabllity ments are specified. This case is
equations must be satisfied. relatively rare in engineering
The 3 equilibrium structures.
and the 6 stress-strain relations together with A simple example
the 6 compatability equations again provide a would be that of a heated insert
complete set of equations for the general fully contained within a rigid
sol&ion to a problem formulated in terms of body. If the boundary displace-
stresses and strains only. ments are specified over the whole
boundary, the boundary conditions
It now remains only to obtain the specific can be written as:
solution to this complete set of equations for
the chosen physical problem. This requires u = f(s)
the use of the equations which state the
boundary conditions into which the general v=g(s) -----..---- (25)
solution is substituted to obtain a set of
algebraic equations from which the unknown w = h(s) 1
constants of the general solution can be
evaluated. where s is the surface nolnt and
A24.8 Boundary Conditions f, g, and h are known functions
prescribed by the specified dls-
It Is obvious that the boundary conditions placements,
can be prescribed in three different possible
ways. Conslder each case In turn. Case 3. The boundary conditions are speci-
case 1. All external boundary conditions fied by stresses over part of the
are prescribed in terms of ex- surface and by displacements over
ternal surface loads with no the remainder. A simple example
geomatrlcal restraints imposed. is that of a heated cantilever
Since the derived equations are wing where the assumption of a
In terms of stresses, these loads rlgld root fixity prescribes zero
are converted to load intensl- displacements at the root while
ties (lb. force/unit area) and over the remainder of the structure
are then termed surface tractions. surface the surface tractions are
Simple examples of a :;ystem hav- zero, for the unloaded wing, or
 THE 3-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF THERMOEL.ASTICITY A24.9

prescribed by the external load- theory of elasticity and thermoelasticlty

ing. This problem is dlscussed contain the 15 unknown stress, Sthin and diS-
in some detail later in the text placement components. If the boundary condi-
of Chapter A25. Both sets of tions are, as in Case 1 of the preceding
equations stated in the above section, given by surface tractions only, the
two cases must then be used boundary condition equations Contain 6 Stress
where appropriate. components. It is then desirable to fOrmUlate
the 15 equations in terms of 6 stress equations.
A24.9 General Notes. These will be the 3 equilibrium equations and
the first 3 compatability equations written in
Only the linear theory of thermoelasticity terms of stresses by use of the stress-strain
is being considered herein and consequently and strain-displacement relations. The remal n-
the rules of superpositlon apply. This means, ing 3 compatability equations must also be
of course, that one can determine the stresses, satisfied to ensure a unique solution. The
strains and displacements of an elastic specific solution Is obtained in terms of
structure due to one of several causes and stresses only from the set of 9 equations and
add the results of each cause treated inde- the 3 boundary condition relations. Th’is
pendently to determine the stresses, strains formulation is the one employed in the thermal
and displacements due to all the causes acting stress analysis !ghere all surfaces are con-
simultaceously. In the thermoelastic analysis sidered traction free. It is important to
of heated loaded structures it is frequently remember that in this stress formulation the
most convenient to determine the stress, strain equations of equilibrium and compatability
and displacement distribution due to tempera- (written in terms of stresses) must be satis-
ture alone and to then add to this result the fled simultaneously by the general solution.
isothermal analysis of the loaded structure
according to the well documented theory of If, on the other hand, the boundary condi-
elasticity to obtaln the final distribution. tions are those of Case 2 then the boundary con-
In determining the stress, strain and dis- ditlon equations contain only 3 known displace-
placement due to temperature one can rightly ments. The problem is then formulated in terms
consider all surfaces to be traction free so of displacements. Since, by the choice of
long as, in the isothermal analysis, deforma- displacements over the boundary, the equations
tions at geometrical restraints due to the of compatability are automatically satisfied it
temperature are restored to the prescribed remains only to obtain a solution of the 3
values by such boundary condition equations as: eouations of equillbrlum which have bean re-
written in terms of displacements, again by the
U q f(s) - UT(s) use of the stress-strain and strain-displacement
relations. Unfortunately, as stated before,
V = g(S) - VT(S) - - - - - - - - - (26) this most desirable case rarely exists in
engineering analysis.
W = h(s) - WT(S)
If the boundary conditions are of the mixed
The functions UT, VT, wT will be the type of Case 3 then no one formulation is the
boundary displacements calculated from the more desirable.
thermoelastic analysis considering all sur-
faces free of tractions.

This technique has the distinct advantage References:

that the thermoelastic problem can then always
be formulated in terms of stresses only, 1. “Theory of Elasticity” by S. Tlmoshenko,
leaving the mixed boundary condition problem McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York,
to the isothermal analysis. It will be seen N. Y.
later, however, that thls Is not always ad-
vantageous and it is often desirable to retain 2. “Mathematical Theory of Elasticity” by
the prescribed boundary displacement conditions A.E.H. Love; Dover Publications, New
In both the thermal and isothermal analyses. York, 1944.
Unfortunately no rules of choice can be given
and the decision must be made by the analyst 3. “Analysis of Stress and Strain” by A.
based on his own experience. The examples to J. Durelli, E. A. Phillips and C. H.
be considered In the next chapter will assist Tsao, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
In this choice however. York, N.Y.

Mention Is made in the above of a stress 4. “Mathematical Theory of Elasticity” by

formulation. This point deserves clarification. I.S.Sokolnikoff, McGraw-H111 Book Co.,
The fifteen equations of the 3-dimensional Inc., New York, N.Y.
 BOEING

NORTH AMERICAN

LOCKHEED

Proposed Designs FOI, Supereonic Airlinsrs. Hoeing won the competltlon but later changed design to
fixed wing type. Later Congess killed the SST project, a bad tlscision In this author’s opinion.
 CHAPTER A25
THE Z-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY
AND THERMOELASTICITY
7.
A25.1 Introduction: In any elastic body wherein I Assume: cJz = TV = Tyz = 0
the stress components at a point of interest w, zfxz, $z small
all lie In the one plane and, due to symmetry
in the body itself or In the external lOading, Unknowns: Ox, Uy, Txy, EX, Ey, EZ
the stresses throughout the body all lie in
s-9 u, v
this one plane, the stress analysis becomes
Plane of middle
2-dlmenslonal. All stresses normal to this surface parallel
plane are zero. The analysis is then referred
to as one of plane stress.

In the same manner, If all strains lie in i-

one plane (all straln components normal to the
plane being zero) the problem Is agaln two
dimensional and the analysls IS referred to as
one of plane straln.
All forces in
plane of middle
The restrlction to a planar surface Is,
of course, not necessary and the statement of i Temperature a function
the 2-dimenslonal problem of stre.ss or strain x of x and y only
should be generalized to that wherein the
general 3-dimensional equations can be reduced
to a 2-dimensional form by the possible neglect Figure A25.1 Plane Stress
of the stress or strain components parallel to
one of the axes of reference.
restrained and where the temperature does not
The equations for plane stress are differ- vary through the thickness as illustrated In
ent from those of plane straln and, conse- Fig. A25.1. The problem of the thin cantilever
quently, each In turn Is treated in the follow- wing with no temperature varlatlon through the
ing development. thickness Is a physical system satisfying thls
statement as Is the isothermal problem of a
In the following development the equations simple cantilever beam. Both of these examples
of thermoelasticlty are derived and discussed. will be discussed In some detail In Chapter A26.
The equations of elasticity follow directly by
deletlon of all terms containing the temper- In equation 25.1 the unknowns are reduced
ature, T. to the following:

A25.2 Plane Stress. UX EX Ll (w is assumed negligibly

small and the results
For lllustratlve purposes only, the dls- aY EY v must therefore be ap-
cusslon Is limited to a physical problem of TxY dXY proxlmate If w does
such geometry that the system is best defined exist at all.)
by a Cartesian coordinate system. The ex-
tension to a system defined by cylindrical or Where the statement of there being only the two
spherical coordinates follows directly. displacement components u and v is an assumptlon
consistent with that of the thin slice where the
With the above limitation, the plane edge loadings are symmetric about the middle
stress problem requlres that all stress com- surface so that no bending displacements out of
ponents parallel to one of the axes are zero. the plane occur. This required symmetry of
Let this axis be the z - axis. Then loading for the plane stress formulation must
be carefully considered In those systems defined
% = Txz = Tyz =o 25.1 by cylindrical or spherical coordinates such as
in the problems of thin cylindrical and spher-
is the equation which defines completely the ical shells.
state of plane stress. One simple example to
which thls equatlon applies is that of a thin The 8 equations, necessary for a general
slice where the faces are unloaded and not solution, can be derived directly from the Pre-
A25.1
A25.2 AN INTROD CTION TO

ceding chapter by substitution of equation 25.1 Y = 0.

Into the equation set of A24.7.
Boundary Conditions:
The two equations of equilibr ml
The boundary condition equations from
25.2 Chapter A24 reduce to the following in each
case.

Case 1, traction boundary conditions at

25.3
the slice edges,

The three stress-strain relations are: - z = ox1 +

TXP
=-- ; ) + aT 25.4 P = op + Txyl 25.14
EX (ox -*oy
z=o
EY = zl by - YOx ) + aT 25.5
where x, P are the components of the external
SUrfaCe forces per unit area in the dlrectlons
fxy = g Txy ) 25.6 x and y respectively.

Case 2, displacement boundary conditions

where T = 0 for the elastic ty problem and where in the thermal stress analysis it Is
and the three strain-displacement relat I ons are ! usual to assume x = 7 = 0.

u = f(s)

v “= g(s) 25.15

w=o

b,, = ayau+av
ax 25.9
The discusslon of Chapter A24 applies to
these boundary conditions and should be studied
again if necessary. This discussion outlines
The equation set is complete for the the usual procedure of treating the thermal
general solutlon. There is still required an stress problem in stress formulation with all
equation for the strain components E= and the surfaces tractlon free and then determining the
compatability equatlon required for uniqueness effect of external loads and removal of thermal
of solution from a stress formulation. The displacements where prescribed by means of an
expression for us Is not usually included in Isothermal analysls.
the completed set since It results directly
from the solution of this set and Is given by, A25.3 Derivation of Equations.

&z=-E I' (ox +ciy) + aT 25.10 For those to whom this subject Is new It
will be well to derive, In this section, the
complete equation set in some more detail.
The compatabillty equat on Is glven by These derivatlons can be found In any text in
the theory of elasticity and are repeated here
aeCiy aeEx merely for the convenience of the reader. In
-= 25.11
axay ay9 + 3 many two-dlmenslonal stress problems it is
necessary to develop the strain-displacement
In terms of strains, or by relatlons from fundamental conslderatlorl of
possible deformation In space of a chosen fiber
vB(Ux+uy) +Eave T = 0 25.12 so that special attention should be paid to the
development of the most simple case presented
in terms of stresses where here.

- a*
V0 -z+,,,,
a8
25.13 The equatlons of equilibrium.

Consider the figure shown In Chapter A24

x = Y = 0, on which the positive stress components are
shown for an element extracted from a three-
and E and a are constants (Independent of dimenslonal body. If one were to view this
temperature and positlon in the body). See figure from the z-axis in a positive z-dlrectlon
note in sectlon A25.4 for case where X = 0, the followlng figure would be observed.
 THE Z-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY A25.3

Now, if the material is Isotropic It follows

that the directions of principal stress are
also the directions of principal strains. The
relationship between principal stresses and
strains can then be written as

OX 0, q a,, El + a,, Ea

Oa q aZ1 E, + aza E, .

In matr ix form, these equations can be written

as

For the plane stress problem the stress com-

ponents shown are all that will be acting
since, by definition, the stress components
and from Cramer’s Rule it therefore follows that
out of’ the x-y plane are zero. The equations
of equlllbrlum are then readily derived by
SummIne: the forces In the x and v dlrection.
L, ”

remembering that the figure actually repre-

sents a plan view of a three-dimensional ele-
and that
ment of depth dz, and equating this algebraic
sun to zero.
01 a,, + 3 a,,
F, = -
a,, a 88 - a,, aLa a,, see - a,, are
Consider ZFy = 0.
Again, from the assumption of isotropy, which
?!3!
cay+ ay dy) dxdz - uy dxdz ’ states that the elastic properties are the same
in all directlons at a point in the elastic
aTxy body, it follows that since the principal
CTXY +-dx)dydz=txydydz+Ydxdydz
ax = 0. direction subscrlpts can be arbitrarily pre-
scribed a complete interchange of subscripts
can be made. Thus it follows that
Thus, upon dividing through by the element
volume, dxdydz, and cancelllng,
a 12 q “22

aaY aTxy
-+y=o a II =aae .
T+ ax
From the equation X7x = 0, The constant aa, =- 1
a,, asz - a,, a,, E
au, aTxy
x+ay+x=o. ala
and the constant =-
a,, as2 - a,, a,, E”
If the elastic material is to be In
Thus the direct extensions are related by
equlllbrium the variation of stress components
and the body forces must satisfy these the simple formulae, wherein the 9 general con-
equat I ons . stants have been reduced to two,

The stress-strain relations. -Y%)

Consider the elastic isothermal problem.

The generalized statement of Hooke’s Law pro- E, = EIL (a, -YU,) .
vides that each of the independent components
of stress (ax, ay, zxy) may be expressed as a If, however, as Is generally the case, the
linear function of the strain components coordinate dlrectlons are not the principal
(EX, Ey’ $xy) and visa versa. Thus follows directlons then shear stresses and strains will
the mathematical expresslons, exist simultaneously with the direct extenslons.
The shear strain Is independent of the direct
extensions and is related to the shear stress
by the relation

~XY = aa, EX+aoe Ey+aaa $xy .

A25.4 AN INTRODUCTION TO

where, it can be shown The figure shows an unstrained fiber 0-O’

located In the elastic body at the point 0 and
G= E at known orientation with respect to the axes
2(1 + Y) x and y. Upon deformation of the body the fiber
takes up the new position 0,-O:. The orlginal
Thus, in the general case where the co- length of the straight fiber is dr acd the
ordinate axes are not the principal axes the length in the displaced positlon becomes dr +
two-dlmensional equations relating stress and Cdr. The quantity E is known as the strain of
strain can be written the fiber. The end displacements of the fiber
are u, v and u,, v, as shown. These end dis-
placements are related by the equations
EX =Gl (CJX
- my)
u, =u+gl&-+*m& ay
EY =x l (ay - Yo,)

VA =V+gldr+emdr ay
$xy = + Txy
where 1 and m are the direction cosines of the
If the elastic body is heated it should be fiber. The coordinates of O,.are u and v. The
obvlous that the small element under consider- coordinates of 0’ are 1 dr and m dr. The co-
ation will expand uniformly and the resulting ordinates of 0: are
deformation due to temperature T will be equal
direct extensions aT, where a is the linear 1 dr + u,
coefflclent of thermal expansion, in both the and mLdr + v,
x and y dlrectlons. The shear strain component
will be unaffected. Thus the thermoelastic Thus the projection of the stralned fiber
stress strain relations In the plane stress on the x-axis is given by
problem can be written as,
ldr + u, - u = ldr + au ldr + cmdr
Yay) + aT ax ay
EX =El (a, -
and along the y-axls by
EY =; (oy - Yax) + aT
mdr + (vL - v) =mdr+$ldr+avmdr.
ay
f XY l
= G Ttxy
From the right angle triangle it follows
that
Strain - Displacement Relations.

Consider a point, 0, in an elastic two- (dr + sdr )” = (ldr+*ldr+*mdr)e

ax ay
dimensional body. Under the influence of
external loads and temperature differences + (mdr +*ldr f avmdr)8
this point will be displaced to a new posltion ax ay
0, through the displacement components u and v.
As discussed in Chapter A24, it is a necessary which leads to
assumption of the linear theory of elasticity e z+m
au 8 ay+lm(au+av)
av
that these displacements be sufficiently small ~=l
ay ax
that no redefinition of the point 0 is re-
quired after deformation or that the squares since la + m” = 1.
and products of their derivatives may be
neglected. The strain-displacement relations Thus the strain of any fiber of a given
are derived by consideration of the deformation orientation can be found if the derivatives of
of a fiber oriented originally In the directlon displacements are known. Consider the Strain
of the chosen component dlrection. In the x-direction. This is obtained by con-
sldering a fiber origlnally aligned with the
Consider the figure below, x-axis. In this case 1 = 1, m = 0 and

au
EX = &

Slmllarly the strain in the y-direction is

given by
 THE P-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY A25.5

Ey = g
aox azxy
-=ay 0
TiiF+ when the body
forces X=Y=O
The term $ + g is known as the shear a”Y aTxY - 0
F+ ax 25.16
strain. The physical meaning can be seen by
conslderatlon of a fiber oriented at an angle and
of 4.5O to the x-y axls system and therefore
subtending an angle of 900 at the orlgln. aaux aaox aaoy +ey+EalagT.a9
It Is left as an exercise to prove then that F+F+F af axa ,,,I
$ + g is the reduction in this subtended 25.17
=o
angle when the fiber Is stralned. This
physical picture is, perhaps, better under- when both E and a are independent of the
stood by reference to the figure below. temperature, T, and posltion In the body. The
derivation of thls compatability equation In
terms of stresses Is left as an exercise for
the student.

The specific solution to a problem in this

formulation requires those values of ox, ay and
~~~ which satisfy the above 3 equations and the
boundary condition equations of 25.14.
original element When X = Y q 0 (body forces not present)
or when these body forces can be represented by
a potential function, V, in the following manner
zi
X=-2! y-l* 25.18
ax 9 - ay
$xy = redutition In original 90’ angle.
the inverse solution technique usually proves
=aU+aV the most profltable. Since, In the linear
ay ax problems of elastlclty and thermoelasticity, the
stress formulation occurs most frequently this
It should be noted that the general ex- inverse approach is Illustrated here in some
pression for strain, E, can now be rewritten detail. This approach is not restricted to the
in terms of Ed, ~~ and $xy as follows, plane stress problem now under dlscussion and
can be applied equally as well to plane strain
E = IsEx + dEy + l-III $Xy or any two-dimenslonal stress formulations.

which is exactly analogous to the direct stres s In general, one can choose a stress function
expression on a cutting plane oriented at an # defined by the relations
angle to the x-y axis system, viz:
a"@
u = lsux + maOy + lm ‘tW. DX =aya

It is readily verified, therefore, that

the directions of principle stress coincide 25.19
with the direction of principal strains.
aa@
A25.4 Formulation of Plane Stress Problem. % = - axay
(a) Stress Formulation - All boundary This function !?i Is commonly referred to as the
conditions given in terms of surface tractions, Alry stress function since Airy first applied
this well known mathematical technique to
The 2 equillbrlum equations are al- problems in elasticity.
ready written in terms of the 3 stress com-
ponents ox, cry, zxy. The compatability equatic on It is obvious that the equilibrium
Is glven by 25.12. The equations which must equations are automatically satisfied by !ii when
therefore be satisfied by the three unknowns chosen according to 25.19. To obtain a general
OX, “y, ~~~ are: solution for the stresses it remains, therefore,
to solve only the compatabllity equation, 25.17,
which, when written in terms of #, becomes
A25.6 AN INTRODUCTION TO

V’p, = - EavaT 25.20 ra = x8 + yQ

when X = Y = 0
0 = tan-l; ),
and
and the compatablllty equation from which the
V’ld + (l-Y)V’v = -EaV’T 25.21 general solution Is obtalned (equivalent to
equation 25.20 when the body forces are con-
when the body forces X & Y are defined by sldered zero).
25.18.
The stress function, $?i, Is deflned by the
In both 25.20 and 25.21 equations

V’PI = v”(v”@) dJ+s+ 2 a’@

a%Sy
and E and a are not functions of temperature.
The general solution for 0 1s obtained by
solving 25.20 or 25.21 for a given temperature
distribution. The general solutlon for
stresses follows directly from 25.19. The
specific solution is obtained by substitution
Into 25.14, the boundary conditions. =
In this case, where the boundary condition;
are those of traction free boundary conditions, and the compatability equatlon becomes
the equation 25.1.4 can be written In terms of
$3 as

o=o

25.22
This reduction of the 3-dlmenslonal case
where n is the outward drawn surface normal at to the 2-dlmenslonal plane stress problem can
all polnts on the boundary. Thus, the specific be generalized to an equivalent problem which
solutlon can be obtained in terms of fl directly includes the case where the temperature varies
and the speclflc solutions for ox, oy, and through the plate or slice thickness, t, by
nty by direct substitution into 25.19. employing the equatlons

It should be noted that in thls case of oz = 0

traction free boundary condltlons there ~111
exist no thermal stresses at all If the Txz = Tyz = 0 25.24
temperature dlstributlon is such as to satisfy
the equation at the upper and lower surfaces. The equat Ions
are analogous to 25.1. Thls equatlon requires
dlT = 0 25.23 that the stress components, the temperature,
the displacements and the edge loadings be
and body forces do not exlst. Thus, If T Is taken as average values across the thickness.
constant or a linear function of x and y, no For example, the temperature would be written
thermal stresses will result. as

It Is wise to repeat at this time that if T = f+t” Tdz

there Is any displacement restraint placed on -t/2
the boundarles, stresses due to the restraint
of thermal strains ~111 result even though T The quantltles zxz, 7yz, gxz, ‘d and w must be
is such as to satisfy the equatlon V’T = 0. sufficiently small across the t K”ickness that
(See dlscusslon In Chapter A24). they can be neglected. Thls Is not the exact
plane stress problem and some care must be taken
It is convenient, at this point, to pre- in Its application as will be demonstrated in
sent the deflnitlon of the stress function for Chapter A26. The results ~111 be average values
cylindrical coordinates (equivalent to equation of ox, oy, 8 xy9 EX9 Ey9 U¶ v across the thlck-
25.19 and obtalned therefrom by the simple ness.
transformation from the x-y plane to r-8 plane
with z the axial direction. (b) Displacement Formulation - The bound-
 THE 2-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY A25.7

ary conditions given 1n terms of boundary dls- grain, the rocket nozzle) atomic reactors
placements. By choosing the displacement (cylindrical fuel rods, heat exchanger tubes)
formulation the compatablllty equation is auto- etc.
matlcally satisfied. The general solution for
the two displacements u and v are obtained Dhe question of whether a system under
from the two equllibrlum equation written in analysis can be considered one of plane stress
terms of displacements as follows: or one of plane strain is frequently raised and
should be answered at this point. One must
consider the system carefully and check as to
whether all the requirements pertinent to one
or the other states has been satisfied. If any
have not then the problem 1s essentially a 3-
dimensional one and the 15-equation set must be
25.25
employed. However, In some cases, thls decision
is not a clear cut one. Conslder, for example,
the case of a cyllndrlcal shell of finlte
length h, of diameter b, and which Is loaded
normal to Its axls, body forces are zero and
temperature Is independent of the axial co-
Where, again, E, a and Y are constants. These ordinate. If one considers the ratlo of length
equations are derived directly by the substi- to diameter, h/b, the problem can be classified
tution of equations 25.4, .5, .6, .7, .8 and .9 as follows
into equations 25.2 and .3.
$ 2 1 plane strain
The specific solution is obtained by
substltutlng the general solution into the
boundary condition equations, 25.15, and
solving for the unknown constants. ; 41 plane stress

A25.5 Plane Strain. k&l

b 3-dimensional
The plane strain problem requires that no
displacement exists in one of the coordinate It should be noted, that In actual fact, the
axes directIons, say the z-directlon. Thus plane stress problem is a three-dimensional
w = 0 and u and v are fun&Ions of x and y strain problem end the plane strain problem one
only. This Is equivalent to requlrlng that of three-dimensions in stress due to the
the following strain components are zero, possible presence of &Z in the first and uz In
the secondA
EZ = $xz = fyz = 0 25.26
W=O
It follows that the 8 unknowns ~111 be ox, oy,
fxy, ox, Ed, u and v. In this case of u=u(x,Y)
%,
plane strain oz will be a function of a and oy v=v(x,Y)
and Is, therefore, not considered as an un-
IUlOWn. The substitution of 25.26 into the 15
equations of A24, reduces the number of inde-
pendent equations to 8, the two equilibrium
equations, the 3 stress-strain relations and
the 3 strain-displacement relations. Thus the

J-- I
equation set is complete. Q=EyhY)
urlknowns
a,=r-y(x,Y 1
The condition that w = 0, displacements ---- -_____ J
u fJ,=ox(X,Y)
normal to the x-y plane do not exist, requires ,_e----- -._____ -
that any cut surface orlglnally lying in the apy(x,y)
X-y plane remains parallel to this plane after
deformation. One such physical system In Figure A25.2
which this situation will exist is that of a
long cylindrical body subjected to external
loads and temperature which are lndependent of The distinction between plane stress and
the z, or axial, component and all loads and plane strain problems is clearly portrayed by
body forces act normal to the axial direction comparison between figures 25.1 and 25.2.
(i.e. all loading lies in the x-y plane and is
independent of axial position in the body.)
Such systems are common In missiles and rockets By direct substitution of 25.26 Into the
(the cylindrical shell body, the solid fuel general equations of Chapter A24 the following
A25.6 AN INTROD ‘TION TO

8 equations of the plane Strain problem result: resulting stress, strain and displacement com-
ponents would then be carried out and super-
2 equations of equilibrium imposed on the preceding solutions to obtain
the actual solution.
sg+y+x=o
25.27 This problem arises from the fact that oz
is prescribed by the solution of the complete
q+t?q+y=o equation set. A similar problem would arise in
25.28 the plane stress problem if surface strains
were prescribed as boundary conditions which,
3 stress-strain relations (where sZ=O of course, is never done.

..
l uz = v (ax+uy ) Case 2. Displacement boundary condltlons.
-EaT
The boundary condition equations become
EX = $(ux -&sy)+(l+V)uT 25.29
u = f(S)
25.36
l-YE v = g(s)
EY = -+Jy -& uy)+ (l+)/)aT 25.30
and the third displacement w must be zero since
3(1+Y) this was the governing equation of the plane
iYxy = ~ E QY 25.31
strain problem.

3 strain-displacement relations Case 3. Mlxed boundary conditions.

=& If the surface tractions are prescribed

EX 25.32 over part of the surface and displacements over
ax
the remainder then the equations of Case 1 and
=av Case 2 must be applied where appropriate.
25.33
5 ay
However, it is repeated here for emphasis
au av that the linear thermoelastic analysis is usually
Kxy = ay + ax 25.34 broken down into a thermal stress analysis
assuming all surfaces unrestralned and traction
Boundary Conditions free, and upon the results of this part is
superimposed an isothermal analysis in which
The boundary condition equations from the effect of external loading and satisfaction
Chapter A24 reduce to the following in each of prescribed boundary displacements is taken
case ; into account.

Case 1. Traction boundary condltlons. A25.6 Mathematical Equality of the Plane Stress and Plane
Strain Problems.
R = u,l + ‘6xp
It will be noted tha.t if one makes the
7 = uym + Qyl 25.35 followlnp; substitutions,

In this plane strain problem there will result

from the solution an apparent surface tractlon E, =+
at the free ends given by
Yl =A 25.37
z = + = Y (ax + my ) -Ea,T 1 -2

Thls is, of course, non-zero and therefore this a, = a(1 +Y)

boundary condition is not sat1sfled under the
assumption of traction-free surfaces and only the strain-stress equations, 25.29, 25.30 and
by the most rare chance would this coincide 25.31, can be written
with a prescribed applied surface tractlon.
Thls apparent surface traction must be removed EX q E1 (ax- Vay) + a,T
by the appllcatlon of an equal and opposlte I
traction the results of which, as derived from
an isothermal analysls, must be superimposed 25.38
on the thermal stress analysis. If a surface
traction Is prescribed over this and the other
surfaces a further Isothermal analysis of the
 THE Z-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY A25.9

These equations are exactly of the same form (b) Displacement Formulation
as the same relations 25.4, 25.5, 25.6 in the
plane stress problem. In fact the two equation In this case again only the equilibrium
sets are now identical except for the change equations expressed in terms of displacements
in the elastic constants as given above. Thus nust be satisfied for the general solution.
the mathematical problem Is Identically the These two equilibrium equations are:
same and consequently the discussion of section
A25.4 pertaining
is directly
to the mathematical
applicable
formulatior
to this plane strain
-q&J&- ($+$I + 2(1 E1
+ Y,) v*”
problem so long as the reader changes the
elastic constants E, Y and a to E,, Y, and a,.
To avoid any confuslon these discusslons are - (IarE;,) g + x = 0
briefly repeated here and the pertinent 25.43
equations rewritten.
A25.7 Formulation of Plane Strain Problem.

-++-Jg+Y=o
As in the preceding case, the plane-strain
problem can be formulated In terms of stresses
or displacements. or, using E and Y, are:

(a) Stress Formulation:

2(1+&-2Y) & (2 + !$) + z(A”) lJBu
The equations which must be satisfl.ed by
the three stress components ux, oy and ~xy are --- aE aT +x=0
i - 2~ ax
25.44
aa,.a-c,,., =o
ax aY
equilibrium 25.39 2(l+Y;(l-BY) $(iz + $) + e(&“) v8v

- (1 fExY) g + Y = 0
v* (ox+oy)+ E,a,v’T = 0 compatability
The specific solution is obtalned by use of the
25.40 boundary condltlon equations just dlscussed.
= v8 (ox+ay)
Ea A25.8 Concluding Discussion.
+ l-y VET,
where E, Y and a are constants, for the general The 2-dimensional formulation of plane
solution, and for the specific solution, the stress and plane strain just presented applies
boundary condltlons just discussed. to the majority of structural systems with
which the engineering stress analyst will have
If X = Y = 0 (body forces zero) the ln- to deal. There ~111, however, arise heated
verse formulation using the stress function @, structural shapes in which the stress, straln,
as deflned in 25.19, 1s the most profitable and displacement components will not obviously
approach requiring only the solution to the be such as to comply with the restrlctions im-
equation posed by the plane stress and plane Strain
idealization. In such cases the general equa-
v’@ = -E, a,d” T tions of 3-dimensional thermoelasticity must be
25.41 employed. These equations should be slmplifled
= - +V”T as much as possible by assuming appropriate
stress, strain, and displacement components
either zero or negligible. In all such problems
for the general solutlon. It is advisable to investigate the thermal
stress analysls under the assumption of un-
If X and Y are non-zero and derivable restrained and traction free boundary condltlons
leaving the evaluation of effects of external
from the relations X = - g, Y = - g as dis- loading and boundary displacement restraint to
cussed In A25.4a, the equation becomes an isothermal analysis. This approach will be
illustrated In the later chapters where the
v’ @ + (1 - Y,)v’V = - E,aLv*T. thermoelastic analysis of shells of reVOlUtlOn
is discussed.
25.42
Ea
or v’gl + ep”v = --VET.
A25.9 Problems. body forces X and Y derivable from the function
V as defined in 25.18.
(1) By direct substitution and use of the
equlllbrium equations 25.2 and 25.3 prove that (7) If a body force, R, acting only In
the compatability equation 25.12 the radial direction and Independent of 0 is
defined as
~“(a, + oy) + E&T = 0
I R = J-T-7
follows from the equation
where X and Y are body forces in the x and y
a”iXy asEx asEy
-=
directions respectively and defined by
axay ay” + ax”
(2) From the stress dlagram in section
x=-avax
A25.3 derive the equillbrlum equatlons
y=-g
aox azxy
ax+ ay +‘=O
prove, from the simple transformatlon from
a+ aT, Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates, that
ay+x+y=o

(3) For the inverse solution technique R =3xar

establish that the condition of zero surface
traction can be written in terms of the stress and thus, for this special case, the equilibrium
function Pr as equations become

$=O

apr=,
I &k+~~++-~Q+~=,
ar r ae r ar
an --i a0Q +?XL+2TrQ-o
r ae ar r
where n is the outward drawn normal.

(4) Prove that the equilibrium equations

in cylindrical coordinates are given by

* +L?Z&+ar-aQ =.
ar r a0 r I
L!Z!2+?5Q+ZWiL=,
r ae ar r

(5) Prove that the deflnltion of the

stress fUnCtiOn in cylindrical coordinates Is
given by the equatlons

%
=L*+ 1 aa@
r ar 7w

REFERENCES

when the r - Q plane corresponds to the x-y (1) “Elasticity in Engineering” E. E. Sechler,
plane and body forces are absent. Galclt Aeronautical Series, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1952.
(6) Establish the plane stress compat-
ability equation as given in the text and, by (2) “Applied Elasticity” Chi-Teh Wang, McGraw-
direct substitutlon for the elastic constants, Hill Book Co., Inc., 1953.
write the compatability equation for the plane
strain thermoelastic problem. Modify both , (3) All references of Chapter A24.
these equations to Include the existence of
 CHAPTER A26
SELECTED PROBLEMS IN ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

A26 1 Introduction. Tha preceding chapter pre- initial temperature, To, are completely pre-
sen”,ed the general formulation of the two- scribed by the cross-sectional area A and the
dimensional equations of elasticity and thermo- length L. The only restralnt Is that imposed
elasticity. This chapter is devoted to the on the len,gth L by the rigid walls. The
developmlent of solutions of simple problems in problem is to determine the stress distribution
elasticity and thermoelasticity employing these throughout the bar and the change in shape JJhen
equations rather than the Strength of Materlals temperature 1s increased to T.
approach which will be discussed in the chapter
on ‘>ea.ns. These problems have been selected Assume the bar is unrestrained during the
tc illustrate clearly the formulation of the heatlnq. The char!?e in length will be
,govzrnintr equations for tho ch’ssen mathematical
model, the solution of these equations and th’e AL = a(T - T,)L
interpretation of the results. A large store
of s!~ch problems exist in the literature, or, the new heated total length will be
es,-recl!~lly in the case of the isotherm11
analysis, which is referenced at the close of L, = L [l + a(T - To)j
this c.impt?r. Consequently thl: problems chosen
for this chapter are to illustrate the technique T - T, = Temoerntllre chance
only and, ‘while they may appear trivial to
some readers, they are intended to provide a where u = Coefficient of linear thermal
reasonably sound knowledge of the techniques exgnnsion
so that the literature can be read easily and
vith confidence. In all of the problems of = Change In length per unit length
this chapter the basic assumntions of Chapter (at 3 CklOSen reference tempera-
A24 are observed and consequently the dis- ture level) per decree change in
cussion is restricted to elastic materials tom?crdture D
‘whose proportles are not affected by temper-
ature. In engineering It Is common practice to
measure temperature than-ye in oF and to use the
The chapter opens kvith a selection of reference temoernture as 320F. So long as a is
simple one-dimensional problems which are intcr- a constant the reference temperature could be
jetted at this point merely to provide the as well chosen as the original temperature
student with an understanding of the b?haviour since, by the definition above, the value of a
of metals tihen they are heated and the elastic would be the same. HoNever, for most materlals,
constants are not affected by the temperature a is a cosfficlent of the temperature and there-
rise. This section is then followed by a fore the values given in the following table are
selection of problems in which the formulations applicable only over the stated temperature
of the preceding chapter are employed.

A26 2

Example 1.
One-Dimensional Problems.
(Oriainal
Material
TABLE
REPRESENTATIVE
lenath
A26.1
VALUES
measured
Temp.
OF ii
at 32OF)
OF a
1
J

I
Consider a cylindrical bar of metal Aluminum (99.95%) 68 - 212 13.22 x lo-”
mounted between two rigid walls as shorn in Commercial 68 - 212 13.33 x 10-R
FQure A26.1. Beryllium (98.9%) 68 - 212 6.83 x 10-fi
Brass (66 Cu, 34 Zn) 32 - 212 10.42 x lo-”
Bronze (93. 5 Cu, 6. 5 Sn) 68 - 212 9.72 x 1O-6
Graphite 100 4.37 x 1o-6
Copper 70 - 212 9.33 x 10-F
Glass 32 - 212 4.63 x lo-”
Steel 32 - 212 5.88 x 1o-6
Molybdenum 70 - 212 2.72 x lo-”
Invar (Nickel Steel) 100 0.46 x lo-”
Stainless Steel 70 - 212 5.33 x 1o-B
Fig. A26 1 Tungsten (99.978%) - 212 2.33 x lo-”
32 - 950 2. 56 x lo-’
(powder metallurgy) 4000 5.65 x lo-”
The gznmetrical properties of the bar at the Magnesium Oxide 75 - 212 5.6 x 1O-6
A26.
A26.2 SELECTED PROBLEMS IN ELAS TICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

range. Furthermore , every alloy of the for each bar. The problem is to determine the
materials shown possess a characteristic a. axial stress in each bar and the displacement
The table can, therefore, be used only as a of the interface under the assumption of no
gutds to the appropriate values of a and the restraints in the radial direction anl no sur-
exsct value obtained from a. more extensive face tractions.
sotlrce.
Again we remove the restraint from one
Now, for the example under discussion, it end. The total expansion will be
can be seen that the bar will have to be com-
pressed an amou:it AL to fit between the rigid AL = al L1 (T - ‘I’,) + aa L, (T - To)
walls. Thi? will give rise to a compressive
strain of AL/L, or and the bars must be compressed by a common
force P so that this total displacement is re-
c=- a(T - To) in the axial direction, moved D
anri a compressive stress of
The stress in bar 1 will be CJ~= F
u = - Ee(T - To) 1

Thermal expansion in th? radial direction snd the stress in bar 2 will be a, = 2
A,
as well as an elastic strain due to Poisson’s
effect will also occur. However there will be The corresponding strains will be
no stresses in the radial directlon since
there are no restraints or expansion in this E, =--&
direction an3 na surface tractions are applied. I
This there will exist the compressive Stress and E, = - &
uniformly distributed over the cross-section 2
throughout the length of the bar, if, and only
if, no restraints on the radial deformations The corresponding displacement, or change
exist at the ends against the walls. The in length, of each bar will be
total load reaCting against the wall will be

P = - Eo(‘l? - To) Al
and u, = --EL,
where A, is the area of the final cross-section A,E
shape and thus the change in this cross-section
could be significant in the calculation of P if Now u, + u, = AL
the material possessed a large value for a and
the temperature rlse was large. The Poisson
effect is usually negligible. It is left as an aa* -p b + &j = (a,L, + o,L,)(T - To)
exercise for the student to determine Al in
Pr’oblem 26.1. (aLLI + asLz) (T - ToI
or p=- (L’ +A)
Example 2. *,E .z
Consider the system of two cylindrical It then foil ows that
bar-s sil?pGrted between r,igld, frictionless
walls an:! heated to temperature T above the
ambient temoerature To when the bars were a (alL, + aaL,) (T - To)
u1 = - (Lg+!&
perfect fit between the walls. The system is
shown belo,rJ in Figure A26.2. 2

(aiLL + azLz) (T - To)

and o‘z = - (A,L, + +,
ALE
The final position of the interface will
be located at a distance x from the left hand
Ai A2 wall given by the origlnal length of bar 1 plus
a, UC? its thermal elon.?ation plus ul, or
Ll L,
El EZ (Young’s modulus the
same in both bars. ) L, (a,L +a,L.)(T-To)
x = L, +a,L,(T-TO) - 77-
Fig. A26. 2

The geometrical properties and the linear It is interesting to note that this problem is
co,3fficient of thermal expansion are different essentially not this simple O The arialysis rc-
 A26.3

quires the assumption that the interface StreSS UXZ

and sXa = - + a,(T - To)
distribution is uni:orm across the section of E,
each bar. In thle case of bar 1 this will
certainly not be the case. The extension to From the strain-displacement relations
the problem where this two-dimensional stress whore, in this case, u is a function of x only
field is taken into account Is beyond the
scope of this chapter. It is sufficient to du,
EX1 = dx
note that this effect will be negligible in
all cases except where the ratio of Al/ A, is du,
large and, again, where the value of P is large. EX, = dx

Besides this obvious extension of the It th’en follo,ns that

problem the following mennlno;ful studies are
a;!pareni;.

(a) The investigation of the stability of + a,(T - To) dx

the simple colu?m system and I
(b) The investigation of the flow
behavior at very high temperatures

These significant
for both or one of the materials.

and difficult aspects of this

But u1 + u, = 0 If the interface
+ u,(T

is to rem?.in,
- To)
1 dx

seemingly simple problem will be r,eturned to

in later chapters. as such and no total elongation is allo,#iea.
Furthermore, since the same force is transmitted
Ex,ample 3 0 through each b%-,
The same problem will be analyzed in a
more direct manner which does not requlra the
technique of considerin,g the system completely
unrestrained to begin with and then determining Consequently
the loads necessary to restore the original,
or defined, shape. While this stated technique 2
has been discussed in Chapters A24.4 a.nd A24.5
as being the most desirable,

therefore,
thle direct
approach is sometimes the more rational
must not be overlooked. This
and,
c.,(T-To)
1 A- dx +
XL
ox L A, +az(T-To)
Ea Aa 1c&=0

problem serves as a good comparative example Since ux, E, E,, A,, A,, a, and a, are COnStantS
at this stage in the development of the theory throughout the system the integration in this
of thennoelasticity. case is straight forward and since 0 +x, = L,
and x, -t x, q L,.
Consider the Figure A26.3 which is the
sane as Figure A26.2 but ShOlNS ths positive % 3x, A,
coordinate system, the boundary conditions with E L, + c,(T-To)L, +F r L, + il,(T-To)L, = 0
I. e a
a possible deformed position illustrated.
It then follows directly that

(aLLl + a,L,)O’ - TO)

%, = -
-;r~‘.,i (2+
1
kg)
9 2

A, (a,L, + azLz) (T - To) A,

I
ui= 0
0,
L1 L, u2=0 ux, = -

El E, (Young’s modulus
different)
Fig. A26. 3 and

The tota 1 strain in the system will be u, =-u, = L, (alLL + UGLY) (T-T,)
a,L,(T-To) -E
I
EX = EX I. + EX,
which is the same as before. The inherent ad-
where
vantage in this direct approach is the gener-
alization of the problem to take into account
=$ I + a,(T
&XL - To) possible variatlons in cross-section shape and
A26.4 SELECTED PROBLEMS IN ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

variation of th’e ;)hysical properties in the insertion of the pin will be

axial direction.

Exmple 4.
(C, +C,)
1 I -&

A direct application of the preceding and the motion of bar 2 will be & 0 Since
examples is the deter.l;inntion of shear and
tensile stresses developed in bolts of a bolted these motions must be th,? same itef~llows
conrieztion. Consider thl3 bolted connection directly that
battiteleri t .o dissimiMr metals vihich are heated
c, +c,
to different temperatures T, and T, above al(T, -To) - a,(T, -To) - (7)
a:nbIent tenpr?ratur,e T 0 - Inlti:!l bolt clear- P=
antes are normally allo5<:e3 In bolted connection: 3 (1.l)
to relieve thermal stresses and such clear- A,EI A&,
ances are shot,Jn in Fi+re AX;.4 as C I and C,.
In this chosen case, P will produce compression
in the bar 1 and tension in bar 2 since the ex-
panslon of bar 1 was initially greater than that
of bar 2 and it was assumed that this relative
ar 1
expansion was greater than thle total clearance,
A,, hl Tl which, of course, is necessary for the creation
of thermal stresses at all. The solution should
A 2, hz T, be generalized to
ar 2 c, +c
“_ a,(T, -To) T u.(T, -To) - (-+
P=
Fig. A26.4 (l+-+
ALE, A&z
Associated lvith bar 1 and bar 3 are the and the appropriate signs chosen from an initial
material constants EL, u 1 an’3 E,, a, estimate of the relative displacements. It Is
respectively. an interesting extension of this problem to
take into account the elastic deformation Of
Determination of shear load transmitted: - the bolt in an array of bolts.
Due to symmetry we riced consider only one
The tension load on the bolt, additive to
side of the above system. Assume T, > T, and any bolt prestress, can be deduced In the
a,> a, (the generalization to other combin- follo~wing way. The total expansion in the
ations is straight forward rind will follow the bars In the bolt axis direction will be (due
same development ) . to thermal expansion) in each sheet.
Assume the bolt removed.
a,(T, - T,)h, and aa(T, - T,)h,
Bar 1 expxnds an amount a,(T, - T,)L = There will be an elastic contraction horjever,
displacement of hole center line. due to the bolt increased tension force P which
will be
Bar 2 expands an amount a, (T, - To )L

Th.Is ‘the relative dlsolacement of the hole p c&y) and P (a)

53 *
respectively.
center line iwill be
where A, and A, are assLuned bar area.s affected
ar(Ti - TOIL - az(Tz - T,)L by the bolt tension. A commonly used estimate
of this area is that contained In the circle
The allowable clearance will be C, + C, so of two bolt diameters about the bolt center-
that the relative displacement between the two line. Consequently the total bar deformation
bars necessary to realign the holes so that the in the bolt axis direction will be
bolt will just fit b~ill be zivzn by

-a,(Tl- TOIL + az(Tz -TOIL + (C, + C,)

If all Of this motion is obtained by compress- Now, the total extension in the bolt, assuming
lng bar 1, insertin,; the bolt and then releas- it to be at a temperature T,, will be
ing the system the tJ$o bars will expand to-
gether to an equilibrium position whereln the
same force, P, exists in each. Tho total aB (T, -To)(h, + h,) + & (hhihR)
motion of the precompressed bar 1 after the
 A26.5

where thle subscript B refers to the bolt.

These extensions
same and therefore
must, of course, be the
T
hl+h,
-+-
EH AB
hl + a h
EL-AL LA,
1 0 M
i

ELEVATION SECTION

The extension of this last formula to multiple Fig. A26. 5

la/ers, bolts of v:lryin,T diameters wherein the
temperature varies along the length, etc., is the same geometrically as that shorm in the
obvious from the above develoement and the Figure A26.5 but with the following assumptions:
disc:jssion in example 3 as it applies to
vnryins te.nrerature along the bolt axis. (1) There are no displacements out of the
x-y plane, i.e., w = 0.

It is becoming relatively common practice (2) All deformations are small so that the
to design primary structures to avoid thnrmal equations of the basic formuiation
stresses. One obvious way of doing so is to apply.
replace the usu;il flanged .tiing beam with a
statically determinant truss for no thermal (3) Since the beam is thin (t is small),
stresses can exist in surh structures so long the applied moment lies in the plane
as n’o restraints are imposed on the thermal X-Y, and there are no surface forces
expansion of the whole truss system. on the sides of the beam, thus there
exists no stress components in the
The use of corrugated webs is one example z-direction.
of a structural technique deslgn8ed to relieve
thermal stresses. In such structures, however, (4) There are no body forces present, i.e.
the thermal strains and hence, deflections, x=y=z=o.
become large and must be considered.
From assumption (3) it is obvious that all
Redundant structures will contain thermal stresses lie in the plane x-y and the problem
stresses whenmever non-uniform heating is is therefore one of plane stress. (It so
present even though there are no geometrical happens that under assumption (Z), which Is
restraints imposed. In the case of statically applied merely as a convenience at this time,
indeterminant trusses or space frames wherein the problem is also one of plane strain.)
individusl members are at different te-nper-
aturas the analysis is the same as for the The questlon now is to determine stress
isothermal problem wherein the readily com- functions for ox, u and ~~~ which will satisfy
puted thermal strains and deflections are the equation of equ 7 IibriLrm, compatability and
introduced as initial deformations. This the boundary conditions. The basic equations
problem is discussed in detail in article A8.9 are: -
of Chapter A8 an3 consequently is not treated
here e
-+&-o
aaX

Attsntlon will be now directed to continu- ax ay -

ous structures such as plates and beams, equil ibr lum
wherein the two-dimensional formulations of 3+- aTxY = 0
Chapter A25 ;niill be required.
aY a,
A26. 3 Two-dimensional Problems.

compatabillty
Example 1.
As the first example let us consider the
problem of the simple beam subjected to an and the boundary conditions
externally applied moment and with the whole
system at room temperature. The physical +-d
2
system is as shown beloti In Figure A26.5.
to, dy = 0 (applied end thrust is Zero)
The problem is to determine the stress,
strain and dlsplaceaent distribution throughout / --d
2
the beam under the influence of the positive
end moments shoiun. The mathematical model is
A26.6 SELECTED PROBLEMS IN ELASl :ITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

f(y) it is obvious that

toxydy + M= 0 (smnation of TxY =o

moments q 0) (This could have been assumed directly, of
co’wse, since there is no externally applied
sii3r present, but the matter of zero internal
From assun?tion (3) shear has i,eeA I)el:ibored since many students
appear to have soml? difficulty in grasping; this
DZ = %z = Tyz q 0 simple fact. )

ant4 thus Thus the only stress component present is

ox and the equations of equilibrium are satis-
EZ =&z = fyz = 0 fied. It is oSvious also that since

Since the external loading is bending only EX = co + c,y

and there is no variation of same in the
x-direction, it is reasontable to assu!me the Y csx
strain distribution to be of the follo7:inrr, EY=-z
form:
iP XY =o,
= co + cl.y (plane sections
EX
remain plane) the equation of compatabllity is also satisfied.
Thus we have the unique general solution to the
EY = f (Y) mathematical model chosen.
and thus
% = E(C, + C,Y)
% = E (co + C,Y) = Tcxy = Txxz = Tyz = u7, = 0.
3
u y = E f(y)
It noti remains to obtaln the specific
From till f irst equilihrilm equation it then solution which satisfies the boundary conditions.
follows that ~~~ must b’e a constant or a By direct substitution into the boundary con-
function of x only. Then, from the second di tion equations, the constants Co and CL are
equilibrium equation readily evaluated as

co =o
cl=-+ = -- M
f- EI
2
or E df(y) = 0, a constant or a function of x
E ty’ dy
dY
Dsle to the symmetry of loadinK the last / --d
2
possiblllty does not exist, the second possl-
bility allovs f(y) to be linear function of y and thus ox = - q y , the well known simple
and the third alloNs f(y) to be a constant.
Neither of these are Dossible since there are beam formula where the negative sign lndlcates
no normal forces along the top and bottom compression. Now the straln distrlbutIon
edges to balance a oy component. t’hrouirhout the beam will be given by
The only
solution for f(y), and therefore for ay, which
will satisfy the equilibrium equations is s*=-!& , EY=q!f-
therefore

f(y) =J$= 0 EZ = fxy = A&. = fyz = 0.

Thas we have two possible stress components and the displacement distribution, from the
strain-displacement relations
OX = (Co + C,Y)E au
EX =a, u = -- “,; .x + f,(Y)
TxY = f(x)
Ey =$
The first equation of equilibrium is satisfied v = gl(x) +x
but, from the second and the discussion on =3L+a,
‘bxY ay ax
 A26.7

Since u q 0 at x = 0, it fo 110~s that equations. From the f irst, viz;

f,(Y) = 0. Then, from the third strain-
displacement relation it follows that +- d
2
o,tdy = 0
%1(x) MX
--d
-=-
EI /
dX 2
and therefore it follovis, as before, that Co = 0.
z
g,(x) = k+ h
From the second and letting C,g x) L- ;:,(r
d
Since, at x = 0, v = 0 then it fo .lOlNS that 2
h=Oaty=O. Thus the displacement distri- EC2 ty2dy + P(L - x) = 0
bution will be /
J --2d
and thnrefore

rd’2 = - P(L - x)
EI
w = 0.
so that

Example 2. 5x q -
P(L - xl y
Consider now the same problem but with I
the external load a transverse force, P,
applied at the end. From the first equation of equl ibrlum it
follows that

a’cxy-
---- PY

I
P
BY
ay

integration
I

zxy = - -pY2 + f(x)

The same basic assumptions are made as in 21
the previous example and the basic equations
are the same. The boundary condition Now, since there must be zero shear on the
equations are the same when the applied moment, top and bottom faces of the beam, i.e., at
M, is given by
x = 2 $ it follows directly that f(x) is a
M = P(L - x) constant given by
We will again assume that the strain distri-
c, 2.g
bution is of the following form

Ex = (co + C,Y)P(X) and therefore P (d’

~~~ = 21 4- y”)

EY = f(Y) From the second equation of equilibrium it

Ez = 0 follows that

The assumption for ox is more meaningful a5Y

-=o
in this case for it limits the discussion to aY
beams such that the bending actlon is pre- and thus, from the same argument as in the
dominant e This means that the solution previous example, it follows that
developed under this aSSLWtiOn apnlies only
to beams where L>>d. Let us consider one 5y = 0
station, i.e., one value of x, along the beam
and consider first the boundary condition The strain distribution follows directly
A26.8 SELECTED PROBLEMS IN ELASII CITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

from Hooke’s law and the assumptions to give It is interesting to note that this
solution differs from that developed from the
EZ = a-,, = a,,, = 0 Strength of Materials approach. The term
PLd’
- arises from the shearing force and is
81s
Ex = - & (L - X)Y effectively a rotation at the end x = 0 given
by
EY = + & P(L - x)y
av - Pd2
ax 8IG
x=0
= & ($ - y”)
F’XY

If this rotation is prev.enteu, as it is

These strain components obviously satisfy In this case, then the tip deflection should
the compatability equnt ions. be:
The dlsplacernent distribution can be
obtained from the strain-displacement relations V
=pLJ
3EI
as follows:

Since ex q au=- g CL- X)Y which would have been the solution had we
ax imposed the boundary condition at the station
x=0
It follows that PLYX + pxay + f(Y)
u = -EI
2EI
-av
ax x=0 =o
and since &Y =?K = & P(L - X)Y
w y=o

The fixed end is not free to distort and

it follows that v = k(x) + -& p(L - x) g thus alloti the displacement distribution
obtained above and therefore the stress and
Since u = 0 at x = 0 It follows directly strain distribution will not be that obtained
that f(y) = 0. From the third straln- in the vicinity of this fixed end. The solu-
displacement relation, viz: tion will be valid throughout the beam for all
points x > d (Saint-Venant’s Principle). It
f =a,+av should be mentioned also that for the solution
XY ay ax to be valid in the neighborhood of the free
end the shear load P must be applied according
it follows, by direct substitution, that to the shear distribution

We are interested in the deflection of the If this is not don: then the solution will
neutral axis only, that is the plot of not apply in the region of the free end.
? (x, y = 0) and therefore we can rewrite thls
equat I on as This matter of the fixed end boundary
-d; = Pd2 PLX Px2 conditions deserves more study and Is therefore
dx 81’=+EI-2EI discussed in the next example. For an even
more exhaustive discussion the reader Is
Consequently we are lmposlng the boundary referred to Reference 1.
d?
condition that at x = 0 , z = 0.
Example 3.
Upon integration and satisfaction of the In the previous example the stress distri-
boundary condition v = 0 at x = 0, the general bution was obtained as
expression for the deformation of the neutral
axis will be obtained as: ox = - P(L - X)Y
I
pXde
~=~--+-.---- Px’ PLx2
8IG 6EI 2EI oy = 0
and the deflection at the tip will be
=& ($ y”)
QY
 A26.9

Tileref or-c , front Fiooke’s Ln:“: and assuming

V # 0, the stra’ln distriSution will be

rect integration it then follows tha

EX= - gi CL - X)Y
Pdax Px’L Px3
ClX + ca
EY = g CL - X)Y =8ZG+ 2ZI 6EI

Thus, the comrlete exr)resci?nr; for u and v

&rli ’VIIv “‘1,‘ , _“r 2.71th3 strain-displacement relation:

Ll = - $L (L - $) + f(y) +J!Qc
6EI

v = g+ (L - x)y” + s(x)

v =g(L-x)y= + g+g- -z&

wiere f(y) a70 y(x) are f unctions resorctively
of y an3 x alone. It is the aim in this
- ClX + c3
exzrl,)le
il _ to 4vFL11Iate these functions In a more
,gener?l sense than 7~:: done in Example 2. Now to fir the be,am at the end x = 0 it Is
Sci;i.titution of t h, ex:;ressions for u and v necessary to prevent a translation in the u and
in th- third st,raln-iis!~lacement relation, viz:
v directions and to prevent rotation at thls
end. Thus the end conditions can be written as

0
UCo,o) q yo,o) =

and $ 1 = 0
gG ($ - y”) = - +- (I, - $) + f’ (y) x-o, y=o

L’Py2 on g =o
-x+ s’(x)
x=0, y=G

where f’ (y) q $ an3 g’ (x) = $$ There is a choice on these las two since
we noed only 3 boundary conditions in addition
to the equation
This equation must hold for all values of
x arid y and we can therefore Investigate the
nature of the functions f’(y) and g’ (x) by Pd”=c +c
alternately lettin:; x and y be zero. SIG ’ a
For
J = 0, to evaluate C, , C,, CB ?iin? C4. Thus the bound-
ary conditions are over nrescr-lhed and dlfferent
Pd”
-= -E&L -S) + f’(o) + F?‘(x) solutions for the displace-::r:ent dlstrlbutlon can
81G be obtained by ckl?oslnq different sets of three.
The choice Is only two, however, since no
For x = 0 gG,$ya, = f’ (y) -g+ g;’ (0) translation is allowed. The solution for the
set containln9 the condition
For x = 0, y = 0 au
=o
Pd’ =,-0 y=o
- f
- = f’ (0) + 8’ (0)
81G
Is that of example 2. Th’srefore, let us consider
Now f’ (0) and 2’ (0) are constants C, and the set containinK the condition
cz respectively. Therefore
av
0
xxzo =
g’ (x) = $$ + E (L - 2) - c1 , .Y=v’o

Applying these conditions and using the

other avallablc equation In C!, and C, provides
A26.10 SELECTED PROBLEMS IN ELAS’I CITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

the following solution for the displacements.

zxy =
w(L-x)

and the displacements

2EI
[-- 1
da
4 ya

are determined as before.

v = g (L - x)y” + g - E&
The actual problem is not as simple how-
ever as for the above solution where the upper
and lower edges of the beam are considered
and we note now that the tip deflection at stress free. The applied load as shown will
y q 0, x = L becomes require that oy be no’+zero on one, or both,
of these faces. In fact, all three stress
PL3 components ox, oy and ~~~ will be now-zero
V=ET throughout the beam. The solution is not
simple but the reader has now the techniques
Example 4. to attack it. The solution follows the same
Let us now,consider the same beam with an steps as before with careful observation of
externally applied distributed load as shown the boundary conditions along the top and
in Figure 26.7. bottom edges where u-. is now-zero on the loaded
edge. The most slmp I! e example of this problem
4 is where w is constant along the beam. It Is
/c--L 4 --r(tk-
left as an exercise for the reader to show
f that for this case and where the Constant load
?Tyx
is hung on the bottom surface giving rise to
/ 1 1
0 the boundary condition
l,“l,,
W(x) aY =w,aty=-2
Fig. A26. 7
that the stress components are:

It is common engineering practice to

ignore the local effects in the stress field
due to the applied load and to thus retain
the argument that m = 0 for all values of y. =c Y3 -g day + !$
The only non-zero stress components are thus OY IX
ux and axe. The solution technique Is there-
fore the same as in the preceding example but =q (L-x) g -F (L-x) J$
where now the moment M is given In the form, 7XY
for the coordinate system shown,
and the deflection of the neutral axls is
given by

wt d= vwt da 1 wt dn
- jg To X=-ET T6 xa+E y 7 Lx
The solution follows directly the steps of the
preceding example. In the majority of problems General Note: Since we are dealing with linear
the variation of w along the beam is linear, problems, it is possible to break down any
lumped into a sequence of discrete loads, or w loading given into components matching those of
is a constant. In any of these cases this the problems given above and by direct super-
integral is readily evaluated in the initial position of the separate solutions corresponding
steps of the problem solution. For example, to these component loadings obtain the flnal
if w = constant, solution for the complex combined loadlng states.
This general technique will be employed to
obtaln solutions to general thermoelastic
M(x) =; (L - x)8
problems In beams.

and the stress field Is alven by Example 5.

Consider the cantilever beam shown sub-
w (L - x)=y jected to a non-linear temperature distribution
ux =- 2EI in the depth direction but constant in the
uy =o spanwise dlrection, T = T(y). This general
distribution is an approxlmatlon to the
temperature distribution in high speed aircraft d
wings e 2
axtdy = 0 and

/ --d
2

(ii) The resultant moment on these faces

nust be zero or

d
Assumptions : (1) The assumptions governlng the 2
basic theory as discussed in
Chapter A25. o,tydy = 0
(11 ) OY = zxy = ay = 0. / --d
iii ) The restraint to deformatfon 2
v at the root (x = 0) is
negligible. This assumption 3olutlon:
is questionable when the root
fixing is considered. The The general solution is obtained by direct
effect of the inclusion of integration as
root restraint on v can be
evaluated by superposing a cTx = - aET + C,y + C,
self-equilibrating isothermal
stress pattern to restrain v. Use of the boundary conditions allows the
The effect will only be evaluation of C, and C, as
appreciable in an area local
to the root of a beam (L>> d: d
and therefore will be 2
neglected.
(iv) Material properties are Tydy
independent of temperature.

Basic equations: (Refer agaln to Chapter A25.)

Since there are no boundary tractions along the 2
edges and it is assumed that there is no 2
resistance to expansion at the root station,
follows that ~~~ = 0. It is also now apparent
it c,qT Tdy
that ux ~111 be a function of y only (ox / ---d2
constant in the spanwise direction) for this
case of thermal loading only.
Hence, the stress distribution at any
The compatibility equation (See eq. 25.12). station is given by:
thus reduces to

V8 (ax + EaT) = 0
csx = oE,-T+$$dy + $$ y/!ydy,
Since ox and T are functions of y only, this
equation further reduces to the ordinary --
dlfferentlal equation 2 2
--- Eq. (.A)
and It follows directly from the general stress-
+ EuT) = 0 strain relations with ay = 0;

Boundary Conditions.
The cantilever beam is replaced by a beam
of length 2L to satisfy the condition imposed
by symmetry of zero deformation In the
x-directlon at the root. On this beam all
surfaces must be zero. Hence the boundary
conditions on a, can be Wrftten as;
and
(i) The resultant force over the end
face at x = t L Is zero or
A26.12 SELECTED PROBLEMS IN ELASl “ITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

d that fl will be a funct ion of y only, The

2 general equation
12
5 = -Yu -3-Y
d Tydy V’@ = - EoV’T
3
/ --2d reduces to

+ aT (1 + Y) d’@ _ - EUd’T
dy4- dy2
fxy = 0.
Integrating both sides, with respect to y, will
and the displacements obtained by direct inte- give
gration of the strain-displacement relations
with satisfaction of the boundary conditions /” /”
u = 0 at x = 0.
@.= -aE / / Tdydy + C,y3 f c, y2

u = ax Tdy +
+ C,Y + c*
and the boundary conditions on 0, necessary for
the evaluation of C,, C,, C, and C, will follow
Agaln we are interested in the deformation of
the “neutral” axis or, In this caSe, any line from Chapter A25 as fl = g = 0 at the boundaries
at y = constant. Since 8xy = 0 it follows from
y=‘$. The stresses can then be obtained
the strain displacement relations that
directly from
--av _ au
ax -ay d”Id
5Y = 7dy
arld a2v _ azu
ax2 - - ax and the strains and displacements obtained as
in the preceding example.

f9 Note that If T is linear, or satisfies

= -a=a= TYdY V’T q 0, then g - 0 everywhere and consequently
no stresses will result. Strains, however, will
/ --d exist and therefore deformations will result.
2
Example 7. Numerical example.
q constant.
Consider a cantilever beam with the follow-
Thus the curvature is constant along the ing dimensions and material properties.
length of the beam and v can be considered due
to an effective end moment of value L= 10 Ins. a = 7 x 10 -+

d d = 2 ins. E = 30 x 10 a (assumed constant)

;?
t =+lns, l-J= 0.3
aE +$ y WdY
/
and subject to the following chordwise thermal
gradient

Thus the solution is complete.

1200’F
Example 6.
The preceding problem can, of course, be
r--l
solved employing the Inverse formulation in
terms of the stress function fl as outlined in y - j Y-ylOWOF
Chapter A25.
0 --
The thermal gradient has been chosen as a z 2
function of y only, and since ay = 0, It follows
Assuming a parabolic temperature distribution chordwise varying temperature distributions by
it follows thit employing direct superposition of Separate
solutions. For example, consider the case of
T(y) = 50~’ + 1003’ + 1050 the simple cantilever beam where the external
loading is an end moment M and the temperature
1 1 distribution is linear across the depth and
given by T(g) = A + By. The stress components
Then / Tdy = 2133 ; / Tydy = 66.
will then be given by
-1 -1
ox = ox, (due to moment M) + ox, (due to
Then ox = 210 (-5oy2 + 16) From Eq. A temperature)
ay = 0
= -6,740 lb./lns.a compressior Yxy = 0

and the displacements by

u = Lll (due to moment M) + u, (due to

% = X360 lb./ins.= tension. temperature)
/ y=o
v = v, (due to moment M) + v, (due to
The two symmetric nodes will be at temperature)

It is .eft as an exercise for the reader to

y=t (g, l/2 show that

= f_ 0.5’7 ins. ux, MY

= - -y-

The stress profile is therefore approxi-

0
mately (numbers In solution are approximate) ox, =
symmetric as shown in the plot
= Mw
U, -EI
Y

ua = u (A + By) x .
v, =M(P + l/Y’)
EEI

V, = ay (A + $ By) - i aBxe .

Concludrng Remarks.

Station x. The examples given above illustrate how

problems in two-dimensional elasticity are
It should be noted that the boundary attacked and how problems involving complex
condition of zero normal stresses at the loading states can be simplified by consider-
boundary x = 2 L Is not satisfied. The solution ation of separate more simple components of the
obtslned Is valid only over the range x = loading state and obtalnlng the final solution
f_ (L-d) according to St. Venant’s principle. by employing superposition. This technique is
If the solution is to be extended over the further illustrated in those problems dealing
range - L - x - L then a self-equilibrating vYith thermal stresses.
stress-distribution must be applied at the ends
to balance the normal stresses. This 1s a It should be borne In mind that the
dlfflcult problem and beyond the scope of this simplification of the general three-dimensional
elasticity problem to the two-dimensional plane-
dlscussion.
stress or plane-strain problem must be done with
care and the consequences of this idealization,
Example 8. as It is in the majority of problems, not over-
In accordance with the discusslon of
Chapter A25 It Is possible now to obtain the looked.
solutions to the simple beam problem when the All of the lllustratlve problems presented
beam Is subjected to external loadings and In this chapter are almost mathematically
A26.14 SELECTED PROBLEMS IN ELAS CITY AND THERMOELASTICITY

trivial problems in the theory of elasticity the inclusion of the kinematical variables) and
and thermoelastlcity. We have restricted our that the elasticity problem due to this
attention to slmJle beam problems where the temperature distribution can be consioered
beam depth Is small compared to the length and separately. This ass,umntlon 13 valid only if
where the temperature varies across the depth the rate processes Involved are slow.
only. However, the basic equations and
solution techniaques are basic to the solution REFERENCES
of more complex problems Iwhere the temperature
Is a function of two spatial coordinates, 1. Boley, Bruno A. and Welner, Jerome H.,
T = T(x,y), and the geometry is that of a “Theory of Thermal Stresses”. John Wiley
general two dimentional plate. In these & Sons, New York, 1960.
problems all the stress components will exist
and displacements in the z-dli-ectlon may occur 2. Gatewood, B. E., “Thermal Stresses” with
in the general two-dimensional plate problem. Application to Airplanes, Missiles,
Generalization of the techniques illustrated Turbines and Nuclear Reactors. McGraw
here In this class of problems is beyond the Hill, New York, 1957.
scope of this dlscussion and the reader who
wishes to pursue this subject is referred to 3. Timoshenko, S, H. and Goodler, J. N.,
references 11sted in next column which can now “Theory of Elasticity”, 2nd Ed., Chapter 14,
be read with ease. McGraw Hill, New York, 1951.

An important assumption basic to all of 4. Sokolinkoff, I. S., “Mathematical Theory of

the preceding discussion on thermoelastlclty Elasticity”, 2nd Ed., Section 101, McGra,w
and inherent in the references cited Is that Hill, New York, 1956.
there exists no “thormo-mechanical coupling” 0
Thls allows the calculation of the temperature
field as a separate problem with no cross-
coupling with the mechanical response (without
 PART B
FLIGHT VEHICLE MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
CHAPTER Bl
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS

Bl. 1 Introduction. Failure in a different manner can result

from a structural unlt being too flexible, and
The flight vehicle structures englneer this flexibility mlght Influence aerodynamic
faces a major design requirement of a high forces sufficiently as to produce unsatlsfac-
degree of structural integrity against fallure, tory vehicle flying characteristics. In some
but with as light structural weight as possible cases this flexlbllity may not be serious
Structural failure in flight vehicles can relative to the loss of the vehicle, but It is
often prove serious relative to loss of life still a degree of fallure because changes must
and the vehicle. However, experience has be made In the structure to provlde a satls-
show that if a flight vehicle, whether factory operating vehicle. In some cases,
military or commercial In type, Is to be excessive dlstortlon such as the torslonal
satisfactory from a payload and performance twist of the wing can be very serlous as this
standpoint, major effort must be made to save excessive deflection can lead to a build-up
structural weight, that Is, to ellmlnate all of aerodynamic-dynamic forces to cause flutter
structural weight not required to insure or violent vibration which can cause failure
against failure. Involving the loss of the airplane.

Since a flight vehicle Is subjected to To illustrate another degree of failure

various types of loadlng such as static, of a structural unit, consider a wing built In
dynamic and repeated, which may act under a fuel tank. The stlffened sheet units which
wide range of temperature conditions, It Is make up the tank are also a part of the wing
necessary that the structures englneer have a structure. In general these sheet units are
broad knowledge of the behavlor of materials deslgned not to wrinkle or buckle under alr-
under loading If safe and efficient structures plane operating condltlons In order to insure
are to be obtained. Thls Part B provides against leakage of fuel around riveted con-
information for the structures design engineer nectlons. Therefore If portions of the tank
relative to the behavior of the most common walls do wrinkle In operatlon resulting In
flight vehicle materials under load and the fuel leakage, which In turn require repalr or
various other condltlons encountered In flight modiflcatlon of the structure, we can say
environment, such as elevated temperatures. failure has occurred since the tank failed to
do Its job satisfactory, and Involves the Item
Bl. 2 Failure of Structures. of extra expense to make satisfactory. To
Illustrate further, the flight vehicle Is
A flight vehicle like any other machine, equipped with many installations, such as the
Is designed to do a certain job satisfactorily. control systems for the control sur,faces, the
If any structural unit of the vehicle suffers power plant control system etc., which Involves
effects which In turn effects In some manner many structural units. In many cases exces-
the satisfactory performance of the vehicle, slve elastic or inelastic deformation of a
the unit can be consldered as having failed. unit can cause unsatisfactory operation of
Failure of a structural unit is therefore a the system, hence the unlt can be consldered
rather broad term, For example, fallure of a as having falled although it may not be a
structural unit may be due to too high a stress serious failure relative to causing the loss
or load causing a complete fracture of the unlt of the vehicle. Thus the aero-astro
while the vehicle is in flight. If this unlt StrUCtUreS engineer Is concerned wlth and
should happen to be one such as a wing beam or responsible for preventing many degrees of
a major wing fitting, the failure Is a serious failure of structural units which make up the
one as It usually involves loss of the airplane flight vehicle and its installations and
and loss of life. Llkewlse the collapse of a obviously the greater his knowledge regardlng
strut in landing gear structure during a land- the behavlor of materials, the greater his
lng operatlon of ths airplane can be a very chances of avoiding troubles from the many
serious fallure. Failure of a structural unit degrees of structural failure.
may be due to fatigue and since fatigue failure
Is of the fracture type wlthout warning indi- Bl. 3 General Types of Loading.
catlons of lmpendlng failure, it can also prove
to be a very serious type of failure. Fallure of a structural member Is fn-
fluenced by the manner in which the load is
I 1
B1.2 BEHAVIOR - OF MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES .-- -.--..- ----.--- --.
I

applied. Relative to the length of time In thus repeated loads are important in d;? : 1~7;:>”
applying the load to a member, two broad structures.
classifications appear logical, namely,
(1) Static loading and (2) Dynamic loading. Dynamic or Impact Loading. A dynamic oi- .YX~:~cf
For purposes of explanation and general loading when applied to a member nroduce:
discusslon, these two broad ClaSSiflCatiOnS appreciable shock or vibration. To ;,ro3u<:i
will be further broken down as fOllOWS:- such action, the load must be applied far more
rapld than in a static loading. This rapid
Continuous Loading. application of the load causes the stresses
Gradually or slowly applied In the member to be momentarily greater thu!!
Static Loading loading. if the same magnitude of load was applied
Repeated gradually applied statlcally, that is slowly applied. For
I
loading. example, if a weight of magnitude W Is
gradually placed on the end of a cantilever
Impact or rapidly applied beam, the beam will bend and Eradually reach
Dynamic Loading loading. a maximum end deflectlon. However if this
Repeated impact loading. same weight of magnltude W is dropped on the
c end of the beam from even such a small height
Static Continuous Loadlng. A continuous load as one foot, the maximum end deflectlon ~11.!
is a load that remains on the member for a long be several times that under the same static
period of time. The most common example is the load W. The beam will vibrate and flnally
dead weight of the member or the structure lt- come to rest with the same end deflection as
self. When an airplane becomes alrborne, the under the static load W. In bringing the
welght of the wing and Its contents Is a con- dynamic load to rest, the beam must absorb
tinuous load on the wing. A tank subjected to energy equal to the change In potential energy
an internal pressure for a considerable period Of the falling load W, and thus dynamic loads
of time Is a continuous load. Since a contin- are often referred to as energy loads.
uous load is applied for a long tlme, it Is a
type of loadlng that provides favorable con- From the basic laws of Physics, force
ditions for creep, a term to be explalned later equals mass times acceleration (F = Ma) and
For airplanes, continuous loadings are usually acceleration equals time rate of change of
associated with other loads acting simultan- velocity. Thus if the velocity of a body
eously. such as an airplane or mlsslle is changed in
magnltude, or the direction of the velocity
Static Gradually or Slowly Applied Loads. A of the vehicle is changed, the vehicle Is
static gradually applied load is one that accelerated which means forces are applied to
slowly builds up or increases to Its maximum the vehicle. In severe flight airplane
value wlthout causing appreciable shock or maneuvers like pulling out of a dive from
vibration. The time of loading may be a high speeds or in striking a severe trans.--
matter of seconds or even hours. The stresses verse air gust when flying at high speed, or
in the member increases as the load is in- In landing the airplane on ground or water,
creased and remains constant when the load the forces acting externally on the airpl.ane
becomes constant. As an example, an alrplane are applied rather rapidly and are cl.assed
which Is climbing with a pressurized fuselage, as dynamic loads. Chapter A4 discusses the
the internal pressure loading on the fuselage subject of airplane loads relative to whether
structure is gradually increasing as the they can be classed as static or dynamic and
difference in air pressure between the inside how they are treated relative to design of
and outslde of the fuselage gradually increases aircraft structures.
as the airplane climbs to higher altitudes.
Bl. 4 The Static Tension Stress-Strain Diagram.
Static Repeated Gradually Applied Loads. If a
gradually applied load Is applied a large num- The informatlon for plotting a tension
ber of times to a member it Is referred to as a stress-strain diagram of a material is ob-
repeated load. The load may be of such nature tained by loading a test specimen in axial
as to repeat a cycle causing the stress in the tension and measuring the load with corres-
member to go to a maximum value and then back ponding elongation over a glven length, as
to zero stress, or from a maximum tensile the specimen is loaded statically (gradually
stress to a maximum compressive stress, etc. applied) from zero to the failing load. To
The situation envolving repeated loading is standardize results standard size test
Important because lt can cause failure under specimens are speclfled by the (ASTM) American
a stress in a member which would be perfectly Society For Testing Materials. The speed of
safe, If the load was applied only once or a the testing machine cross-head should not
small number of times. Repeated loads usually exceed l/16 inch per inch of gage length Per
cause failure by fracturing without warning, minute up to the yield point of the lnaterial
 Bl. 3
I
and It should not exceed l/2 inch per inch Of
gage length per minute from the yield point t0
the rupturing point of the material. The
instrument for measuring the elongatfon must
be calibrated to read 0.0002 inches or less.
The information given by the tension stress-
strain diagram is needed by the engineer since
it is needed in strength design, rigidity Proportional Limit
design, energy absorption, quality control and
many other uses. (a) Material Having a Definite
Yield Point (such as some Steels)
Flg. B1.l shows typlcal tensile stress- Strain - Inches Per Inch
strain diagrams of materials that, fall in three
broad classifications. In the study of such

a!a?zf
diagrams various facts and relationships have
been noted relative to behavior of materials
and standard terms and symbols have been pro-
vided for this basic important information.
These terms ;~I11 be explained briefly.

Modulus of Elasticity (E). The mechanical Definite Yield Point (such as

property that defines resistance of a material Aluminum Alloys, M&nesium,
in the elastic range Is called stiffness and and Some Steels)
for ductile materials is measured by the value Strain - Inches Per Inch
termed Modulus of Elasticity, and, designated
by the capital letter E. Referring to Fig.
B1.l, it is noticed that the first part of all
three diagrams Is a straight line, which indi- f -
cates a constant ratio between stress and Stress
strain over this range. The numerical value of
this ratio is referred to as the modulus of
Elasticity (E). E Is therefore the slope of
the initial straight portion of the stress-
straln diagram and its numerical value Is (c) Clad Aluminum Alloys
obtained by dividing stress In pounds per
square inch by a strain which Is non-dimenslona .002 Strain - Inches Per Inch
or E = f/~, and thus E has the same units as
stress, namely pounds per square inch. Fig. Bl. 1

The clad aluminum alloys have two E values proportional limit stress.
as indicated In the lower diagram of Fig. B1.1.
The initial modulus is the same as for other Tensile Yield Stress (Fty)O In referring
aluminum alloys, but holds only up to the pro- to the upper diagram in Fig. B1.l, we find
portional limit stress of the soft pure that some materlals show a sharp break at a
aluminum coating material. Irmnediately above stress conslderably below the ultimate stress
this point there is a short transition stage and that the material elongates considerably
and the material then exhibits a secondary with little or no increase In load. The
modulus of Elasticity up to the proportional stress at which this takes place Is called
llmlt stress of the stronger core material. the yield point or yield stress. However many
This second modulus Is the slope of the second materials and most flight vehicle materials do
straight line in t,he diagram. Both modulus not show this sharp break, but yield more
values are based on a stress using the gross gradually as illustrated in the middle dlagram
area which includes both core and covering of Fig. B1.l, end thus there is no definite
material. yield point as described above. Since
Permanent deformations of any appreciable
Tensile Proportional Limit Stress. (Ftb) . The amount are undesirable in most structures or
proportional limit stress is that stress which machlnes, it is normal practice to adopt an
exists when the stress strain curve departs arbitrary amount of permanent strain that is
from the lnltial straight line portion by a considered admissible for design Purposes.
unlt strain of 0.0001. In general the pro- Test authorities have established this value
portlonal limit stress gives a practical of permanent strain or set as 0.002 and the
dividing line between the elastic and inelastic stress which exlsted to cause this permanent
range of the material. The modulus of strain when released from the material is
elasticity is consldered constant up to the called the yield stress. Fig. B1.l shows how
Bl. 4 BEHAVIOR 0~ MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

it is determined graphically by drawing a line Figs. B1.3 and B1.4 compare the shapes of
from the 0.002 point parallel to the straight the tension stress-strain curves for some
portion of the stress-strain curve, and where common aircraft. materials.
this line intersects the stress-straln curve
represents the yield strength or yield stress. Bl. 5 The Static Compression Stress-Strain Diagram.

Ultimate Tensile Stress (Ftu). The ultimate Because safety and light structural weight
tensile stress is that stress under the maxi- are so important In flight vehicle structural
mum load carried by the test specimen. It design, the engineer must consider the entire
should be realized that the stresses are based stress-straln picture through both the tension
on the original cross-sectional area of the and compressive stress range. This is due to
test specimen without regard to the lateral the fact that buckling, both primary and local,
contra&Ion of the specimen during the test, Is a common type of failure In flight vehicle
thus the actual or true stresses are greater structures and failure may occur under stresses
than those plotted in the conventional stress- in either the elastic or plastic range. In
strain curve. Fig. B1.2 shows the general general the shape of the stress-strain curve
relationship between actual and the apparent as It departs away from the initial straight
stress as plotted in stress-strain curves. line portion, is different under compressive
The difference is not appreciable until the stresses than when under tensile stresses.
hlgher regions of the plastic range are Furthermore, the va.rious flight vehicle
reached. materials have different shapes for the region
of the stress-straln curve adjacent to the
mr 1
:h Actual Stress=,, straight portlon.
weight is so important,
Since light structural
considerable effort is
t; I .
made in design to develop high allowable

~~ Unit Strain
1Fig.
B1.2 compressive stresses,
vehicle
ultlmate
structural

the Inelastlc or plastic

and In many flight
units, these al.lowable
deslgn compressive stresses fall in
zone.

Fig. B1.5 shows a comparison of the

stress-strain curves In tension and compres-
sion for four widely used aluminum alloys.
Below the proportional limit stress the
modulus of elasticity is the same under both
tension and compressive stresses. The yield
stress in compression Is determlned In the
same manner as explained for tension,

Compressive Ultimate Stress (Fcu). Under a

static tension stress, the ultimate tensile
stress of a member made from a given material
Is not Influenced appreciably by the shape of
the cross-section or the length of the member,
however under a compressive stress the
ultimate compressive strength of a member is
greatly influenced by both cross-sectional
Unit Strain shape and length of the member. Any member,
unless very short and compact, tends to
Fig. Bl. 3 Stress-Strain Curves. Entire Range.
buckle laterally as a whole or to buckle
laterally or cripple locally when under
compressive stress. If a member is quite
short or restrained against lateral buckling,
then fallure for some materlals such as stone,
wood and a few metals will be by definite
fracture, thus giving a definite value for
the ultimate compressive stress. Most air-
craft materials are so-ductile that no fracture
Is encountered In compresslon, but the material
yields and swells out so that the Increasing
cross-sectional area tends to carry Increasing
load. It is therefore practically impossible
to select a value of the ultimate compressive
stress of ductile materials without having
Fig. Bl. 4 Stress-Strain Curves. Initial Portions.
 Bl. 5

24s-i4 EXiRUsloiVs
THICKNESS < 0.250.IN.

Fig. Bl. 6

The slope of this tangent gives the local rate

of change of stress with strain. The secant
uodulus Es is determined by drawing a secant
e x IO’ IN /IN E x 10-e PSI
(stralght line) from the orlgln to the point
In questlon. This modulus measures the ratio
between stress and actual strain. Curves
which show how the tangent modulus varles
with stress are referred to as tangent modulus
60 curves. Fig. B1.5 illustrates such curves
for four different aluminum alloys. It should
be noted that the tangent modulus Is the same
as the modulus of elasticity In the elastic
range and gets smaller in magnitude as the
stress gets higher In the plastic range.

Bl. 7 Elastic - Inelastic Action.

If a member is subjected to a certain

stress, the member undergoes a certain strain.
If this straln vanishes upon the removal of
75S-T6 E XTRIJSIONS the stress, the action Is called elastic.
0 TnlCKNESS-3-IN
0 2 4 6 8 IO o - Generally speaking, for practical purposes,
I? X IO’ IN/ IN E x lo-’ PSI 0 2 4 6 I
x-t-r<,.. I’.‘”
a If a material is considered elastic under stresses
e x IO’ IN/IN E x IO“ PSI
up to the proportional limit stress as
Fig. Bl. 5 previously deflned. Fig. 81.7 illustrates
elastic actlon. However, if when the stress
is removed, a residual strain remains, the
some arbltrary measure or crlteron. For action is generally referred to as inelastic

-
wrought materials It is normally assumed that or plastic. Fig. B1.8 illustrates inelastic
F,, equals Ftu. For brittle materials, that action.

itL
are relatively weak in tension, an Fcu higher
Inelastic Action
than Ftu can be obtained by compressive tests Elastic Action
of short compact specfmens and this ultimate
compressive stress is generally referred to
as the block compressive stress. ‘PTop. Limit

Bl. 6 Tangent Modulus. Secant Modulus. H

Strain
Modern structural theory for calculating
the compressive strength of structural members Fig. Bl. 7 Fig. Bl. 8
as covered In detail in other chapters of this
book, makes use of two additional terms or
values which measure the stiffness of a member Bl. 8 Ductility.
when the compressive stresses in the member
fall in the inelastic range. These terms are The term ductility from an engineering
tangent modulus of elasticity (Et) and secant standpoint indicates a large capacity of a
modulus of elasticity (Es). These two modi- material for inelastlc (plastic) deformation
fications of the modulus of elasticity (E) in tenslon or shear without rupture, as
apply In the plastic range and are Illustrated contrasted with the term brittleness which
in Fig. B1.6. The tangent modulus Et is Indicates little capacity for plastic de-
determined by drawlng a tangent to the stress- formation without failure. From a phySICa
strain diagram at the polnt under consideration standpolnt, ductlllty is a term which measures
Bl. 6 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

the ablllty of a material to be drawn into a

wire or tube or to be forged or die cast.
Ductility is usually measured by the percentage
elongation of a tensile test specimen after 2
failure, for a specified gage length, and is b ‘P
usually an accurate enough value to compare m
materials s .z
L5

Percent elongation = (La ,.” “> 100 = ;~n;;;~;f

( B E C H I K
where L, = orlglnal gage length and La = gage Unit Strain (E)
length after fracture. In referring to Fig, Bl. 9
ductility in terms of percent alongation, it
is important that the gage length be stated, high and the strain at this stress is high,
since the percent elongation will vary flith or from equation (2), when the proportional
gage length, because a large part of the total limit stress Is high and modulus of elasticity
strain occurs in the necked down portion of the is low.
gage length just before fracture.
In Fig. B1.9 If the stress is released
Bl. 9 Capacity to Absorb Energy. Resilience. Toughness. from point D in the plastic range, the recovery
diagram will be approximately a stralght line
Resilience. The capacity of a material to DE parallel to AO, and the area CDE represents
absorb energy in the elastic range is referred the energy released, and often referred to as
to as Its resilience. For measure of hyper-elastic resilience.
reslllence we have the term modulus of
resilience, which is defined as the maximum Toughness. Toughness of a mater-la1 can be
amount of energy per unit volume which can be defined as its ability to absorb energy when
stored In the material by stresslnp; it and stressed In the plastic range. Since the
then completely recovered when the stress Is term energy is involved, another definition
removed. The maximum stress for elastic would be the capacity of a material for
action for commputing the modulus of resilience resisting fracture under a dynamic load.
is usually taken as the proportional limit Toughness is usually measured by the term
stress. Therefore for a unlt volume of ’ modulus of Toughness which Is the amount of
material (1 cu. in.) the work done in stressing strain energy absorbed per unit volume when
a material up to its proportional limit stress stressed to the ultimate strength value.
would equal the averaqe stress fp/2 times the
elongation (&p) in one inch. If we let U In Fig. B1.9, let f equal the average
represent modulus of resilience, then stress over the unit strain distance ds from
F to G. Then work done per unlt volume In
fP stressing F to G is fds which Is represented
u= z EP ---------------(l) by the area FGHI. The total work done in
0
stressing to the ultimate stress f, would
then equa jck fd&, which is the area under
But EP = fp/E, hence
the entire stress-strain curve up to the
ultimate stress point, or the area 0 A J K 0
u= = fpg/2E _ - - _ _ _ - - - _ (2) in Fig. B1.9 and the units are in. lb. per
cu. inch. Strictly speaking it should not
Include the elastic resilience or the energy
absorbed in the elastic range, but since this
Under a condltlon of axial loading, the modulus area is small compared to the area under the
of resilience can be found as the area under curve in the plastic range it Is usually
the stress-strain curve up to the proportlonal included In toughness measurements.
llmlt stress. Thus in Fig. B1.9, the area OAB
represents the energy absorbed in stressing It should be noted that the capacity of
the material from zero to the proportlonal a member for reslsting an axially applied
limit stress. dynamic load is increased by increasing the
length of a member, because the volume Is
Hlgh resilience Is deslred in members increased directly with length. However, the
subjected to shock, such as springs. From ultimate strength remains the same since it
equation (l), a high value of reslllence IS is a fundtlon of cross-sectional area and not
obtained when the proportlonal llmlt stress is of volume of the material.
 Bl. 7

Touchness is a desirable characteristic Bl. 11 Construction of a Stress-Strain Curve Through a

;vhen designing to resist impact or dynamic Given Yield Stress by Using a Known Test Stress-
Strain Curve.
l~-ids as it gives a reserve strength or factor
2:’ safety against failure by fracture when
over-locidIng In actual use should haDpen to Materials in general are produced to
i‘ ‘- ( . f? the ::iamber to be stressed fairly high satisfy certain guaranteed minlmum strength
11.t’: tile plastic zone e properties such as yield stress, ultimate
tensile stress, etc. Thus In the design of
The property of ductlllty helps to produce impor,tant members in a composite structure,
toug’hness, but does not alone control tOUghne33 the minlmum guaranteed propertles must be used
3s !Ilustrated In Fig. B1.lO, which shows the to provide the required degree of safety. In
general, most materials ~111 give properties
slightly above the guar:tnteed values, thus
the test stress-strain curve of purchased
material cannot be used for design purposes.
The stress-strain curve passing through a
given yield point stress can be readily ob-
tained for a test stress-strain curve as
follows :

Fig. Bl. 10 In Fig. B1.ll, the heavy curve 0 B C

represents a known typical stress-strain curve
stress-strain curves for three different for the given material. Let the minimum
materials. Material (A) Is strong but brittle, guaranteed yield stress be the value as shown
whereas material. (C) Is weak and ductfle, and at point A, using the 0.2 percent method.
material (B) represents average strength and Then proceed as follows:
ductility. However, all three materials have
the same modulus of toughness since the areas (1) Draw a straight line through polnt 0 and
uw.ier all three curves is the same. point A which will intersect the typical
curve at point B. Polnt B may be above
Bl. 10 Poisson’s Ratio. or below the typical curve.
When a materlal is stressed, it will (2) Locate any other point on the typical
deform ln the direction of the stress and also curve such as point C, and draw line
at right angles to It. For axial loading and from 0 through C.
for stress below the proportlonal limit stress,
the ratio of the unit strains at right angles (3) Locate point D on line 0 C by the follow-
to the stress, to the unit strain In the ing ratio:-
dlrection of the stress is called Poisson’s
ratio. It Is determined by direct measurement OD = g x Or:
in a tensile or compressive test of a specimen,
and is approximately equal to 0.3 for steel (4) Repeat step 3 to obtain a number of
and 0.33 for non-ferrous materials. In many points as shown by dots on Fig. B1.ll,
structures there are members which are subjectec and draw smooth curve through these points
to stresses in more than one direction, say to obtaln desired stress-strain curve.
along all three coordinate axes. Poisson’s
ratio Is used to determine the resultant stress
and deformation In the various directions.

Poisson’s Ratlo in Plastic Range. InformatIon

Is somewhat limited as to Poisson’s ratio in
the plastic range and particularly during the
transition range from elastic to plastic action,
For the assumption of a PlaStICally
incompressible isotropic solid, POlSSOn’s ratio
assumes a value of 0.5. Gerard and Weldform 0.002
found from their research, that the transltion c mcba*/tac6)
of Poisson’s ratio from the elastic value of Fig. Bl. 11
around 11’3 to l/2 in the plastic range Is
gradunl and is most pronounced In the yield Bl. 12 Non-Dimensional Stress-Strain Curves.
point region of the stress-strain curve.
The structural designer Is constantly
confronted with the design of structural units
which fail by inelastic instability. The
Bl. 8 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIAI AND THEIR PROPERTIES

solution of such problems requires information on the stress-strain curve. Table B1.l gives
given by the compressive stress-strain curve. the values of F D. ,, F 0. Bc), n, etc., for many
Since flight vehicles make use of many differ- flight vehicle materials. Notice that the
ent materials, and each material usually has shape parameter varies widely for materials,
many different states of manufacture which being as low as 4 and as high as 90.
give different mechanical properties, the
question of time required to obtain certain Bl. 13 Influence of Temperature on Material Properties.
design InformatIon from stress-strain curves
becomes Important. For example, In the Before the advent of the superson& alr-
aluminum alloys alone there are about 100 plane or the long range mlsslle, the aero-
different alloys, and when elevated temperature: nautical structures engineer could design the
at various time exposures are added, the number airframe of aircraft uslng the normal statfc
of stress-strain curves required Is further mechanlcal propertles of materials, since the
greatly increased. temperature rise encountered by such alrcraft
had practically no effect on the material
Fortunately, this time consuming work was strength properties. The development of the
greatly lessened when Ramsberg and Osgood turblne jet and rocket jet power plants pro-
(Ref. 1) proposed an equation to describe the vlded the means of openlng up the whole new
stress-strain curve in the yield range. Their field of supersonic and space flight. The
proposed equation specifies the stress-strain flight envIronmenta conditions were now
curve by the use of three parameters, the greatly expanded, the major change being that
modulus of elasticity E, the secant yield aerodynamic heating caused by high speeds In
stress F, 7, which Is taken as the line of the atmosphere caused surface temperatures
slope 0.7E drawn from origin (see Fig. Bl.lZ), on the airframe which would greatly effect
and a parameter n which describes the shape the normal static material strength properties
of the stress-straln curve In the yield region. and thus temperature and time became important
In order to evaluate the term n, another stress in the structural design of certain types of
F 0 By Is needed, which is the intersectlon of flight vehicles.
the curve by a line of slope of 0.85E through
the origin (see Flg. B1.12). Bl. 14 Creep of Materials.

It Is obvious that temperature can weaken

a material because If the temperature Is high
enough the material ~111 melt or flow and thus
have no load carrying capacity as a structural
F 0.7 Stress-Strain member. When a stressed member Is subjected
to temperature, It undergoes a change of shape
F 0.86 In additlon to that of the well known thermal
expansion. The term creep is used to describe
this general influence of temperature and time
f on a stressed material. Creep Is defined in
general as the progressive, relatively slow
change in shape under stress when subjected
to an elevated temperature. A simple illustra-
tion of creep is a person standlng on a
i bituminous road surface on a very hot summer
day. The longer he stands on the same spot
Fig. Bl. 12
the deeper the shoe soles settle Into the road
The Ramsberg and Osgood proposed three surface, whereas on a cold winter day the same
parameter representation of stress-strain time of standing on one spot would produce no
relations In the inelastic range ls:- noticeable penetration of the road surface.

EC
-=-+- f - - - - - - - - - - High temperature, when used in reference
F 0.7 F 0.7 to creep, has different temperature values for
different materials for the same amount of
The equation for n is, creep. For example, mercury, which melts at
-38oF, may creep a certain amount at -75oF,
n = 1 + loge (17/7)/loge(F,.,/F,..,) - - - (4) whereas tungsten, which melts at 6170°F, may
not creep as much at 2OQOoF as the mercury
Fig. B1.13 Is a plot of equation (4). The under -75OF. All materials creep under
quantities Ee/F,., are non-dimensional and may conditions of temperature, stress and time of
be used In determlnlng the non-dimensional stress application. The simplest manner in
curves of Fig. 81.14. E, n, and F,., must be which to obtaln the effects of creep is to
known to use these curves in obtaln5ng values study its effect on the static Stress-Strain
diagram for the material.
 Bl. 9

Fig. Bl. 13

40 ’

30 ’

25 1

20 I I

1 ,
loge (W7)
n=l+
loge (F 0.7' F 0.85 )
.
I\ I I I !!I!
-T--Ir-l.-LLl

FG. dFO . 85

Fig. Bl. 14

0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Bl. 10 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Table Bl. 1 Values of Ftu, Fcv, EC, Fo. 7, Fo. 85, n, for Various Materials Under Room & Elevated Temperatures (From Ref. 6)
Temp. Temp. %l~ F EC Fo. 7 FO. 85
MATERIAL Exp. e, CY’
n
Hr. OF %I ksi ksi 106psi ksi ksi
--
STAINLESS STEEL
AISI 301 l/4 Hard Sheet RT 25 125 80 27. 0 73 63 6. 9
Transverse Compression
Longitudinal Compression RT 25 125 43 26.0 28.2 23 5.2
AISI 301 l/2 Hard Sheet RT 15 150 118 27.0 116. 5 105 9. 2
Transverse Compression 400 118 108.5 23.2 108.5 97 8. 6
600 110 107.5 20.9 108. 5 96. 5 8. ,?
1000 86 86 16.2 94. 5 83. 5 8.0
Longitudinal Compression RT 15 150 58 26.0 48 37 4.4
400 118 53.3 22.4 45. 5 36 4.7
600 110 52. 8 20. 1 44 31 3. 5
1000 86 45.2 15.6 40 30. 5 4. 3
AISI 301 3/4 Hard Sheet RT 12 175 160 27.0 163. 5 151.5 13.2
Transverse Compression 400 148 148 24. 1 153 142. 5 13. 2
600 138 138 22.4 152 140 11.2
1000 112 112 18.9 127 121 19. 2
Longitudinal Compression RT 12 175 76 26.0 70 61. 5 7. 6
400 148 71 23. 3 65 56 6. 8
600 138 70.3 21. 6 65. 5 56. 5 6. 8
1000 112 59. 3 18. 2 55 46 5.9
AISI 301 Full Hard Sheet RT 8 185 179 27.0 183 172 16
Transverse Compression 400 168 168 25. 1 174 164 16
600 159 159 23. 8 172 162 16
1000 131 130 21. 6 141.5 135.5 21. 5
Longitudinal Compression RT 8 185 85 26.0 77. 5 63 5. 2
400 168 80. 8 24.2 74 59. 5 5
600 159 79.9 22.9 74 58 4. 6
1000 131 66. 3 20. 8 58 42. 5 3.9
1’7-4 PH Bar & Forgings RT 6 180 165 27. 5 166 160 24
400 162 135 25. 3 137 129 16
700 146 105.5 23. 1 106 97 11
1000 88 62. 6 21.2 60 52 7. 1
17-7 PH (TH1050) Sheet, Strip & Plate, RT 180 162 29.0 166 145 7.4
t = . 010 to . 125 in. 400 169 144 27. 8 146 126 6. 8
700 144 118 24.9 117 104 8. 4
1000 88 61. 5 20. 3 56 47 6
17-7 PH (RH950) Sheet, Strip & Plate, RT 210 205 29.0 208 196 16. 4
t = . 010 to .125 in.
19-9DL (AMS 5526) & 19-9DX RT 30 95 45 29.0 36. 5 32 7. 6
(AMS 5538), Sheet, Strip & Plate
19-9DL (AMS 5527) & 19-9DX RT 12 125 90 29.0 85 74 7.2
(AMS 5539) Sheet, Strip & Plate
PH15-7Mo (TH1050) Sheet & Strip, RT 5 190 170 28.0 171 164 22. 5
t = .020 to . 187 in.
PHl5-7Mo (RH950) Sheet & Strip, RT 4 225 200 28.0 218 189 7. 3
t= ,020 to . 187 in.
LOW CARBON & ALLOY STEELS
AISI 1023 & 1025 Tube, Sheet & Bar,
Cold Finished RT 22 55 36 29.0 32.7 31. 5 24
AISI 4130 Normalized, t =- . 188 in. RT 23 90 70 29.0 61. 5 53 6. 8
500 81 61. 5 27. 3 55 48 7. 3
800 68 46. 2 23. 8 40 32. 5 5. 2
1000 46 30. 8 20. 6 28 22 4.7
AISI 4130, 4140, 4340 Heat Treated RT 23 125 113 29.0 111 102 10. 9
500 113 98. 3 27.3 96 88 10.9
850 88 68.9 23.2 66. 5 61. 5 12
1000 64 49.7 20.6 45. 5 41 9.2
AISI 4130, 4140, 4340 Heat Treated RT 18. 5 150 145 29.0 145 140 25
500 135 126 27.3 126 122 29
850 105 88. 5 23.2 88 83. 5 18. 5
1000 76 63. 8 20. 6 62 57 10. 9
AISI 4130, 4140, 4340 Heat Treated RT 15 180 179 29.0 179 176 50
500 162 156 27.3 156 153 46
850 126 109.3 23.2 109.4 105 22
1000 92 77 20.6 75 68 9. 8
AISI 4130, 4140, 4340 Heat Treated RT 13. 5 200 198 29.0 198 196 90
500 180 170 27.3 172. 5 169 46
850 140 121 23.2 121.5 117 25
1000 104 87. 1 20. 6 87 i. 83 19
HEAT RESISTANT ALLOYS
A-286 (AMS 5725A) Sheet, Plate RT 15 140 95 29.0 93 87 14
& Strip 600 129 88.4 24.4 87 81 13. 5
1000 115 81. 7 19. 8 81 75 12. 5
1400 52 50. 3 14.2 50 47 15. 3
K-MONEL Sheet, Age Hardened RT 15 125 90 26.0 88 82 13. 5
MONEL Sheet, Cold Rolled & Annealed RT 35 70 28 26.0 20 17 6. 4
INCONEL-X RT 20 155 105 31.0 104 100 23. 5
400 152 95. 6 28.9 94 89 17
800 141 90.2 26.4 88. 6 84 18. 5
1200 104 83 23.2 82 78. 6 21
 1d2e Rl. 1 Values of Ftu, Fdv, EC, FO. 7, FO. 85, n, for Various Materials Under Room & Elevated Temperatures (From Ref. 6) (Continued)
I -

Temp. Temp. e, Ftu, F

CY’ EC Fo. 7 FO. 85
I MATERIAL Exp.
Hr.
OF % ksi ksi 106psi ksi ksi
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
20 14-T6 Extrusions 2 RT 7 60 53 10.7 53 50. 3 18. 5
t 5 0.499 in. 2 300 42. 5 10.2 41. 5 40 24
2 450 2”: 21 9.2 20. 5 19. 5 25
2 600 10 8.0 7.4 5. 5 4. 5 5.4
l/2 300 51 43. 5 10.2 44.0 42. 5 25
\, l/2 450 31 26 9.2 26 25. 2 29
2014-T6 Forgings 2 RT 7 62 52 10. 7 52. 3 50 20
tz4in. 2 300 53 41 10.2 40. 5 38. 5 19
2 450 29 22 9.2 21. 5 20 12. 6
2 600 10 7. 5 7.4 4. 5 3.0 3.2
l/2 300 53 43 10.2 42. 5 40 15. 8
l/2 450 32 25. 5 9.2 25. 0 23. 5 15. 6
2024-T3 Sheet & Plate, 2 RT 12 65 40 10. 7 39 36 11. 5
Heat Treated, t f ,250 in. 2 300 37 10.3 35. 7 33. 5 15
2 500 26 8.4 24.8 22. 8 10.9
2 700 7. 5 6.4 6. 2 5. 5 8. 2
2024-T4 Sheet & Plate, 2 RT 12 65 38 10.7 36.7 34. 5 15. 6
Heat Treated, t _C0. 50 in. 2 300 34 10.3 32. 5 30. 5 14. 6
2 500 24 8.4 23 21 10. 2
2 700 7 6.4 60 5. 7 18. 5
2024-T3 Clad Sheet &Z Plate, 2 RT 12 60 37 10.7 35.7 33 12
Heat Treated, t = .020 to .062 in. 2 300 34 10.3 33 30. 3 11
2 500 24. 5 8.4 22.7 20 7.9
2 700 6. 5 6.4 5. a 5. 5 18. 5
2024-T6 Clad Sheet & Plate, 2 RT 8 62 49 10. 7 49 45 11
Heat Treated, t 2 0.063 in. 2 300 45 10. 3 44. 3 40. 7 11
2 500 22 8.4 31. 5 28 a. 3
2 700 6 6.4 7.0 6.0 6. 6
2024-T6 Clad Sheet & Plate, 2 RT a 60 47 10. 7 47 43 10. 6
Heat Treated, t < 0.063 in. 2 300 43.2 10. 3 42. 3 38. 7 10. 8
2 500 21 a.4 29. 5 26 7. 8
2 700 6 6.4 5. 00 4. 0 4.9
2024-T81 Clad Sheet, Heat Treated, 2 RT 5 62 55 10.7 56 51. 6 11.2
t -= 0.064 in. 2 300 50. 5 10. 3 51.2 46. 5 10
2
2
6061-T6 Sheet, Heat Treated & Aged, 112 RT 10 42 35 10.1 35 34 31
t -c 0. 25 in. l/2 300 29. 5 9. 5 29 28 26
l/2 450 20. 5 8. 5 19.3 17.7 10. 9
l/2 600 7. 5 7.0 6. 6 6. 2 15.2
7075-T6 Bare Sheet & Plate, 2 RT 7 76 67 10. 5 70 63 9. 2
t 5 0. 50 in. 2 300 54 9.4 55. 8 52. 5 15, 6
2 425 25. 5 8.1 25.4 23. 5 12.1
2 600 8 5. 3 7.2 5. 2 3. 7
l/2 425 30 8. 1 34. 5 32. 5 16
7075-T6 Extrusions, 2 RT 7 75 70 10. 5 72 68 16. 6
t 5 0. 25 in. 2 300 54 9.4 58. 5 54. 5 13.4
2 450 22. 5 7. 8 21.3 18. 5 7. 2
2 600 a 5. 3 6. 5 4. 3 3.2
l/2 450 25 7.8 29 26 8. a
7075- T6 Die Forgings, 2 RT 7 71 58 10. 5 58. 5 55. 1 15.2
t 52 in. 2 300 47. 6 9.4 47. 8 45 15. 6
2 450 18. 5 7. a 17. 3 16 12
2 600 7.0 5. 3 5. 0 3. 7 3. 9
l/2 450 23 7. 8 24 22 10.9
7075- T6 Hand Forgings, 2 RT 4 72 63 10.5 63. 8 61. 5 25
Area 5 16 sq. in. 2 300 51. 6 9.4 52. 2 50 21. 5
2 450 20.2 7. 8 20. 3 19 13. 7
2 600 7.6 5.3 6. 0 5. 0 5. 8
l/2 450 24 7. a 26. 5 25. 3 19. 5
7075-T6 Clad Sheet & Plate, 2 RT 8 70 64 10. 5 64. 5 61. 6 19. 5
t I 0. 50 in. 2 300 50 9.4 54 51. 7 20
2 450 20. 5 7.8 19. 7 17. 5 4.6
2 600 7. 7 5. 3 7. 7 5. 5 3. 6
l/2 450 23 7.8 27. 2 25. 3 12.4
7079-T6 Hand Forgings, l/2 RT 4 67 59 10. 5 59. 5 57. 5 26
t 5 6.0 in. l/2 300 47 9.4 46. 5 45 29
l/2 450 21 7.8 20 18. 5 12
l/2 600 7.0 5. 3 5. 5 3. 5 3.0
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
AZ61A Extrusions, RT a 38 14 6.3 12.9 12.3 19
t 5 0.249 in.
HKSlA-0 Sheet l/2 RT 12 30 12 6. 5 10 8.4 6
t = 0.016 to 0.250 in. l/2 300 20 11.1 6. 16 8. 9 6. 9 4. 5
112 500 15 9. 3 4.94 7. 5 5. 6 4. 2
l/2 600 10 4.9 3.77 3. 3 1. 6 2.2
HK3 1A- H24 Sheet, l/2 RT 4 34 19 6. 5 17. 3 14.6 6. 2
t 4 0.250 in. l/2 300 22 17.7 6.2 15. 6 12. 6
112 500 17 14. a 4.9 13. 1 10. 5 z
l/2 600 11 7. a 3. 8 6. 7 5. 2 4: 5
TITANIUM ALLOYS
Ti-8Mn Annealed Sheet, 1000 RT 10 120 110 15. 5 119.5 102 13.7
Plate & Strip
Ti-6Al-4V Annealed Bar l/2 RT 10 130 126 16.0 127 124. 5 43
& Sheet, t 5. 187 in. l/2 400 105 96 14.1 97 93 22
l/2 600 99 84.5 13.0 85. 5 a2 22
l/2 800 a7 79.4 11. 8 80. 5 77 21. 5

--
l/2 1000 70 60. 6 7. 7 61 59. 5 36
Bl. 12 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Fig. B1.15 (curves A and B) show the Bl. 15. The General Creep Pattern.
stress-strain curve for a material. Curve (A)
Is for a low elevated temperature condition A typical manner of plotting creep-rupture
and curve (B) that of a high elevated test data is Illustrated in Fig. B1.16. For
temperature condition. The results were ob- metals tested at high value of stress or
talned by a normal testing machine procedure temperature, three stages in the creep-time
requiring a short time test period, hence the relation can be observed as shown in Fig. E1.16.
results can be considered as independent of The initial stage, often called the stage OJ
time. primary creep, includes the elastic deformaf;Lon
and that region where the rate of creep de-
formation decreases rather rapidly with time,
which no doubt indicates an influence of strain
hardening. The second stage, often referred
to as the secondary creep stage, represents a
stage where the rate of strain has decreased
to a constant value (except for high stress)
for a considerable time period, and this stage
represents the period of minimum creep rate.
The third stage, often called the tertiary
creep stage, represents the period where the
reduction in cross-sectional area leads to a
higher stress, a greater creep rate and finally
rupture.

Transition Point. The inflection point between

the constant creep rate of the second stage and
the increasing rate of the third stage is
referred to as the transition point. Failure
Fig. Bl. 15 (Ref. 2) - Effect of temperature and time on the generally occurs in a relatively short time
strength characteristics of metals. after the transition point. Transition points
may not occur at very low stresses and may
The figure shows that the higher also not be definable at very high stresses.
temperature (curve B) reduces the ultimate Minimum -- creep rate is that indicated in the
strength, yield strength and modulus of second stage, where the creep rate is practi-
elasticity of the material as compared to cally constant.
curve (A) which is a test at a lower temper-
ature.
Initial 1 Second Stage ,I, Third 1
EFF’IXT OF TIME a
Stage 1 (Approx. Constant) : Stage ‘)
I Rupture
1 t Point
If temperature and stress are of such 1I I I-
combination as to produce appreciable creep,
then time becomes an important effect. For
example, in Fig. B1.15, if the material at low
temperature (curve A) is stressed to a value P
within the elastic limit of the material, and
this stress is maintained for a considerable
time period, very little creep, if any, will
be detected, and when the stress is removed,
the material will practically resume its L Creep Intercept
original dimensions. However, if the material
is stressed to the same value P but under a
Time - Hrs.
high temperature condition, creep will occur
Just as long as the stress P remains applied Fig. Bl. 16 Typical creep-rupture curve.
and the stress-strain curve will take a shape
like curve (C) in Fig. B1.15. This time Fig. BL17 shows a plot of creep-tine
dependent strain will follow a characteristic curves for a material at constant temperature
pattern. The material will never return to and several stress levels. It is noticed
its original shape after creep has taken place that increasing stress changes the creep-time
regardless if the stress is removed. If both relationship considerably.
stress and high temperature continue, rupture
produced by creep will finally occur. Bl. 16 Stress-Time Design Charts.

In many structural design problems in-

volving elevated temperatures such as power
 Bl. 13

Tempecot ure, F

Fig. Bl. 19 (Ref. 3) - Effect of exposure at elevated temper-

atures on the room-temperature tensile yield strength (Fty)
of 70794’6 aluminum alloy (hand forgings).

Fig. Bl. 17 (Ref. 2) Creep curves for a material at constant

temperature and various stress levels showing the character-
istic stages of creep behavior.
plants, the critical design factor is not
strength but the permissible amount of creep
that can be allowed to still permit the
structure or machine to function or operate
satisfactorily. Extensive tests are usually
necessary to provide reliable creep design Temperature, F
information and such test information is often
recorded in the form as illustrated in Fig. Fig. Bl. 20 (Ref. 3) - Effect of temperature on the tensile
B1.18. yield strength (Fty) of 5 Cr-MO-V aircraft steels.

stresses at a given temperature when heated

from zero up to 200°F per second under constant
load conditions than when loaded after the
material has been l/2 hour or longer at
constant temperature. Increasing the temper-
ature rate from 200°F to 2000°F per second or
more results in only a small increase in
strength. Figs. B1.21 and B1.22 (Ref. 4)
show the effect of temperature rates up to
Fig. Bl. 18 (Ref. 2) - Stress-time design chart at a single lOOoF per second upon the yield and ultimate
constant temperature for selecting limiting stress values.
70

Bl. 17 Effect of Time of Exposure.

60.

In general materials can be roughly

classified into those which time of exposure
to elevated temperatures has great influence
on the mechanical properties and those where (stress-stmintest)
such exposure produces relatively small effect. 40

strsS
This general fat t is illustrated in Figs. ksi
30
B1.19 and B1.20. The yield strength of the
aluminum alloy In Fig. B1.19 is far more
influenced by time of exposure to elevated
temperature than the steel alloy as shown In
Fig. B1.20.

Bl. 18 Effect of Rapid Rate of Heating Temperotwe

“F/see
rote,
L
100 xx) xx) wo 500 600 700 800
Supersonic aircraft and missiles are Tempaotw, 4

subjected to rapid aerodynamic heating. The Fig. Bl. 21 - Tensile yield stress of 2024-T3 aluminum
results of tests indicate that in general alloy for temperature rates from 0.2OF to lOOoF per
metals can withstand substantially higher 1 second and of stress-strain tests for l/%-hour exposure.
 - - - . . _ _ _
_ I - _ - - . - - 1 _ ^ _ - -

Bl. 14 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

0
70, ^\-\
\
..--Ulhmote stress
\,j tstfess-stmul ted

I I I met
0 loo 200 300 400 500 600 700 a00 9m
Temperutuq S

Fig. Bl. 22 - Tensile rupture stress of 2024-T3 aluminum Fig. 1.23 (Ref. 3) - Effect of Temperature on Ultimate
alloy for temperature rates from 0.2OF to lOOoF per second Strength (Ftu) of 2014-T 6 Aluminum Alloy.
and ultimate tensile stress of stress-strain tests for l/2-
hour exposure.
vehicles. Fatigue failure is failure due to
strength respectively of aluminum alloy as being stressed a number of times. For example,
compared to values when loaded after the a beam may be designed to safely and efficient-
material has been exposed l/2 hour at constant ly carry a design static load and it will carry
temperature. this static load indefinitely without failure.
However, if this load is repeated a large
Bl. 19 General Effect of Low Temperatures Upon Material enough number of times, it will fail under this
Properties. static design load. The higher the beam stress
under the static design load, the less the
The development of the missile and the number of repeated loadings to cause failure.
space vehicle brought another factor into the
ever increasing number of environmental con- To date no adequate theory has been
ditions that effect structural design, namely, developed to clearly explain the fatigue
extremely low temperatures. For example, in failure of materials. Fatigue failure appears
space the shady side of the flight vehicle is to begin with a crack starting at a point of
subjected to very low temperatures. Missiles weakness in the material and progresslng along
carry fuels and oxidizers such as 11quld crystal boundaries. A microscopic exa+minatAon
hydrogen and oxygen wh1.ch boil at -423 and of metals indicates there are many small
-297OF respectively. In general, low cracks scattered throughout a material. Under
temperatures increase the strength and stiff- the action of repeated stress these small
ness of materials. This effect tends to cracks open and close during the stress cycle.
decrease the ductility of the material or, in The cracks cause higher stress to exist at
other words, produce brittleness, a property the base of the crack as compared to the
that is not desirable in structures because stress if there were no crack. Under this
of the possibility of a catastrophic failure. repeated concentration of stress, the cracks
In general, the hexagonal closely packed will gradually extend across the section of
crystalline structures are best suited for the member and fInally causing complete
giving the best service under low temperatures. failure of the member.
The most important of such materials are
aluminum, titanium, and nickel-base alloys. Fatigue testing consists of 3 types:-
Fig. B1.23 shows the effect of both elevated (1) the testing of material crystals, (2) the
and low temperatures on the ultimate tensile testing of small structural test specimens,
strength of 2014-T6 aluminum alloy under and (3) the testing of complete composite
various exposure times. structures. A tremendous amount of test
information is available for the second type
Bl. 20 Fatigue of Materials. of testing. More and more attention is being
given to the third type of testing. For
Designing structures to provide safety example, a complete airplane wing or fuselage
against what is called fatigue failure is one is often subjected to elaborate fatigue
of the most Important and difficult problems testing in order to insure the safe design
facing the structural designer of flight life of the airplane.
 Bl. 15

The presence of cracks initially is not magnitude of stresses in aircraft structures is

necessary to start a fatigue or progressive discussed brief,ly in Chapter A4. The limited
failure as irregularities such as slag discussion which follows will deal only with
inclusions, surface scratches, pitting, etc., the effect of impact loads on the behavior of
can cause corrosive action to start, thus materials.
supplying the condition for the promotion of
cracks and the resultant progressive failure. IMPACT TBTING METHODS

The strength of ferrous metals under There are in general two types of tests to
repeated stresses is often referred to as the determine the behavior of materials under
endurance or fatigue limit. The endurance impact loads. The usual impact test which has
limit stress is the stress that can be repeated been conducted for many years is referred to as
an infinite number of times without causing the notched bar test and consists of subjecting
fracture of the material. Non-ferrous notched specimens to axial, bending and torsional
materials,such as the aluminum alloys do not loads by the well known Charpy or Izod impact
have an endurance limit as defined above but testing machines. In both of these machines
continue to weaken as the stress cycles are an impact load is applied to the specimen by
increased. Due to this fact and also since swinging a weight W from a certain vertical
the required service life of structures and height (h) to strike and rupture the notched
machines vary greatly, it is customary to specimen and then stopping at a vertical
refer to the strength under repeated stresses height (h ‘) . The energy expended in rupturing
as endurance or fatigue strength instead of the specimen is then equal approximately to
endurance limit. Thus the fatigue strength (Wh-Wh’). This type of test is primarily used
is the maximum stress that can be repeated for studying the influence of metallurgical
for a specified number of cycles without variables.
producing failure of the structural unit.
The other type of impact testing is made
The results of testing a specimen under on unnotched specimens and the general purpose
repeated stresses such as tension, compression, is to obtain the stress-strain diagram of
bending, etc., is often plotted in a form materials under impact load or the load-
which is referred to as the S-N (stress versus distortion diagram of a structural member or
cycles) diagram, as illustrated in Fig. B1.24. composite structure as the unit is completely
fractured under an impact load.
l-7----7--\ Bl. 22 Examples of Some Results of Impact Testing
of Materials.
I2
& llx lo4
Figs. B1.25, 26 and 27 show the results
of impact tests upon the stress-strain curve
G 9 x lo* as compared to the static stress-strain
3 diagram (Ref. 5).
E
ca 8~10~ I I I I

L-------I 10 6
7 x lo4 lo ,&
10 8 107 100.
I I
!I ‘11’
I
b........ .!...... 1
Number of Cycles for Failure, 1ogN -
Fig. Bl. 24 $
The problem of fatigue design of aircraft a
8 60

airframes is covered in Chapter Cl3 of this

book.

Bl. 21 Effect of Impact Loading on Material Properties.

0 .04 .08 .I2 ./6 .2O .24 .28 .32 .36
An impact load when applied to a structure Unit elongohbn, in./in.

produces appreciable shock or vibration. To

produce such action, the load must be applied
rapidly, that is, in a short interval of time. Fig. Bl. 25 - Stress-Strain curves, 24ST aluminum alloy.
The effect of impact loads differs from that
of static loads in that impact loads appreciabl
effect the magnitude of the stresses produced
in a member and also the resistance properties
or behavior of the material under load. The
importance and effect of dynamic loads on the
Bl. 16 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Table B1.2 shows additional impact testing

results as compared to the static test results.
!__I-: : ! -~
‘V = 60 ff/sec Table Bl. 2
I 1 1 1

Comparison of Strengths, Ductility and

Energy Absorption Under Impact
and Static Loads.-

I Material
I Ratio of Impact to Static Value For,

0 .02 .04 .06 .Gt? ./O ./2 ./3 ./6 ./3 Yield Maximum Elong- Energy
Unit elongation, h//n. Point Load ation

SAE No. 6140x 1.020 2.205 2.865

Fig. Bl. 26 - Stress-strain curves, Dow metal X. SAE No. 1015= 1.328 1.285 1.418 1.376
SAE No. 1018 1.995 1.397 0.992 0.946
18-8 Alloy 1.224 1.212 0.682 0.600
17ST Alum. AI. 1.294 1.094 1 000 0.885
Brass= 1.387 1.142 1: 163 1.203
Aluminum 1.522 1.323 1.628 1.627
Copner 1.433 1.390 1.527 1.597
-
240 i
!
I I x Oil quenchedfrom1620oF.
-i--- /
I
, I ! xx Cold-rolled.
I I I! I / / xxx From “Stress-Strain Relations Under Tension and
Impact Loading” by D. S. Clark & G. Datwyler,
Proc. A.S. T. M. 1938, Vol. 38.

REFERENCES
a-
\ 1 ! : 1 I I I I I I I” -,‘JY”/scL1 r- I Ref. 1. Ramberg & Osgood, Description of
Stress-Strain Curves of 3 Parameters.
NACA, Tech. Note 902.
Ref. 2. Time and Temperature Gremlins of
Destruction. By L. A. Yerkorvich,
Cornell Aero. Lab. Research Trends.
.03 .06 .Gd ./O
Sept. 1956,
0 .G2 .!2 ./4
Unit elongation, 1n.//i7. Ref. 3. Military Handbook (MIL-HDBK-5)
Aug. 1962,
Ref. 4. NACA Technical Note 3462.
Fig. Bl. 27 - Stress-strain curves, SAE 6140, drawn 1020°F. Ref. 5. NACA Technical Note 868.
Ref. 6. From Structures Manual, Convair ,
Astronautics.
 CHAPTER B2

MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC

MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

General Explanation.It would require several hundred pages to list the properties of the many
materials used In flight vehicle structural desii:;n. The metallic materials presented in this
chapter are those most widely used and should bc sufficient for the USC of the student in his
structural analysis and design problems. All Tables and Charts in this chapter are taken from
the government publication “Military Handbook, MIL-HDBK-5, Au~gust, 1062. Metallic Materials and
Elements for Flight Vehicle S’cructui.es”. This publication Is for sale by the Supt. of Public
Documents, Washington 25, D.C. The properties riven In the various tables are for a static
leading condition under room temperature. The effect of temperature upon the mechanical
properties Is given In the various graphs.

AISI fiLLOY STEELS

Table B2.1 (AI%) Alloy Steele

-
Alloy (1.AISI 4130, 8630, AISL 4130, 4140, 4340, 1 4140 AISI
and 8735 8630, 8735, and 8740 1 4340 4340
8740

Form Sheet, strip, All wrought forms

plate, tubing

Condition. N Heat treated (quenched and tempered) to

obtain Ft, indicated

Thickness or diameter, in..

l- --
I--20.187 >0.187
.-

-- .- - - -
Basis. .. ...
-- _- .- -- --
Mechanical properties:
F,,, ksi.. 95 90 125 150 180 200 260
FI,, ksi.. 75 70 103 132 163 176 217
F,,, ksi. 75 70 113 145 179 198 242
F.,, ksi.. 55 55 82 95 109 119 149
F Oru, ksi:
(e/D=1.5). 194 219 250 272 347
(e/D-2.0). 140 140 251 287 326 355 440
Fbr,,, ksi
(e/D-1.5). 151 189 230 255 312
(e/D=2.0) - 180 218 256 280 346
-
I
-
e, percent.
See table bL 10
See table 2.3.1.1(c)
2.3.1.1(b) bT 3
- --
E, 108psi.. 29.0
E,, 108 psi. I 29.0
G, IO6 psi. 11.0
I- - -
Physical properties:
W, lbjin.3. 0.283.
C, Btu/(lb) (F) 0.114 (at 32’ F).
K, Btu/‘((hr) (ft2) (F)jft I. i 22.0 (at 32” F).
a, 10-a in.,‘in./F.. 6.3 (0’ to 200” F).

B2.1
B2.2 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

AISI ALLOY STEELS (Cont.)

Fig. B2. 2. Effect of temperature on the compressive

yield strength (Fey) of heat-treated AISI alloy steels.

100

80

60

40

20

Oo 1200 woo 1600

Fig. B2. 3. Effect of temperature on the ultimate

shear strength (Fsu) of heat-treated AISI alloy steels.

-400 0 400 BOO 1200

Temperature, F
Fig. B2. 1. Effect of temperature on Ftu, Fty, and E of
AISI alloy steel

Temperature. F
Fig. B2.4. Effect of temperature on the ultimate
bearing strength (Fbru) of heat-treated AISI alloy steels.

Temperature. F

Fig. B2. 5. Effect of temperature on the bearing

yield strength (Fbr~)
--, of heat-treated AISI alloy steels.
 B2.3

5 Cr-No-V AIRCRAFT STEXL

Table B2.2 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of BCr-MO-V Aircraft Steel

Alloy. I 5Cr-MO-V aircraft steel.

Form , All wrought forms.
Condition. Heat treated to obtain the F,, indicated.
Fig. B2.8 Effect of temperature on
Section size. Up to 12 in. diam. or equivalent. the tensile and compressive modulus
- (E and Ec) of 5 Cr-MO-V aircraft
steels.
Basis. (0) (0)
.- _-
Mechanical properties:
F,,,, ksi. 240 260 280
F,,, ksi.. 200 220 240
F <“,ksi 220 240 260
F,,, ksl. 145 155 170
F bru, ksi:
c,e,‘D= 1.5). ., ,....... . . . . .
(e/D-2.0). .1 400 435 465
F hry, ksi:
(e,D=1.5). ., . . . Fig. B2. 9 Effect of temperature on
(e,‘D ~2.0). 315 340 365 the compressive yield strength (Fey)
e, percent: of 5 Cr-MO-V aircraft steels.
Bar, in 4D.. 9 8 7
Sheet, in 2 in. (b) 6 5 4
Sheet, in 1 in.. 8 7 6
-
E, 10” psi., 30.0
E,, 10” psi.. 30.0
G, 10epsi. .,. 11.0
-
Physical properties:
W, lb/in.a.. 0.281. Fig. B2. 10 Effect of temperature on
C, Btu/(lb) (F) 0.11(c) (32” F). the ultimate shear strength (Fsu) of
K, Btu/[(hr) (fts) (F)/ft]. 16.6 (400” to 1,100’ F). 5 Cr-MO-V aircraft steels.
a, 10-e in.jin./F.. 7.1 (80” to 800” F); 7.4 (80°-1,200” F).
-
0 Minimum properties expected when heat treated as recommended in
section 2.5.1.0.
b Forshcrt thickivss greater than 0.050 inch
c Calculated value.

Fig. B2. 11 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate bearing strength (Fbru)
of 5 Cr-MO-V aircraft steels.

Fig. B2. 6 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 7 Effect of temperature on Fig. 82. 12 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) of the tensile yield strength (Fty) of 5 the bearing yield strength (Fbry) of 5
Cr-MO-V aircraft steels. Cr-MO-V aircraft steels. Cr-MO-V aircraft steels.
B2.4 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

17-7 PH STAINLESS STEEL

Table B2.3 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 17-7 PH Stainless Steel

Alloy..................... 17-7 PH
-
Form. Sheet, strip, and plate(a) Bars and Forgings(b)
-
Condition.. . .. TH 1050 RH 950 TH 1050 RH 950
- - .__
Thickness or diameter, in. 0.005 to 0.005 to 0.1876 to 6 and under
0.500 0.1874 0.500
_- .- --
Basis.. .. S
_-
Mechanical properties:
Ft,, ksi.. 180 210 200 170 185
Ft,,, ksi. 150 190 180 140 150
F,,, ksi. 158 200 189 147 158
F.,, ksi.. 117 136 130 111 120
F br,,, ksi:
(e/D=1.5). 297 346 330 280 305
(e/D=2.0). 360 420 400 340 370
F brvt ksi :
(e/D=1.5). 225 285 270 210 225
(e/D=2.0). 247 I 313 297 231 247
e, percent.. See!t able 2.7.2.1 (b) 6 6

E, 108 psi ............. 29.0

E,, 106 psi. ........... 30.0
G, 106 psi ............. 11.0

Physical properties:
W, lblin.3.. 0.276.
C, Btu/(lb) (F) 0.11. (d)
K, Btu/[(hr) (ft2) (F)/ft] 1 9.75 (at 300’ F).
a, 10-o in./in./F.. . 6.3 (70’ to 600” F) for TH 1050,
6.8 (70’ to 600’ F) for RH 950.

l Test direction longitudinal for widths less than 9 in.; transvcrsc lor short transverse (thickness) direction.
widths 9 in. and over. e Vendors guaranterd rninimmns for F,., F(,, and e.
b Test dire&m longitudinal; these properties not applicable to the d Calculotcd value.

Twtvw#un. F Tmpmalum. F

Fig. B2.13. Effect of temperature on the ultimate Fig. B2. 14. Effect of temperature on the tensile yield
tensile etrength (Fd of 17-7 PH (TH1050) stainless steel. strength (Fty) of 17-7 PH (TH1050) stainless steel.
 17-7 PH STAINLESS STEEL (Cont.)

T-F Tnwmtun.F

Fig. B2. 15. Effect of temperature on the compressive Fig. B2. 18. Effect of temperature on the ultimate
yield strength (Fey) of 1’7-7 PH (TH1050) stainless steel. bearing strength (FbN) of 17-7 PH (TH1050) stainless steel.

T~mpamtum, F Twnw’Wum, F

Fig. B2. 16. Effect of temperature on the ultimate Fig. B2.19. Effect of temperature on the bearing yield
shear strength (Fsu) of 17-7 PH (TH1050) stainless steel. strength (Fbry) of 17-7 PH (TH1050) stainless steel.

6
T-tu*F

Fig. B2.20. Effect of temperature on the tensile and

compressive modulus (E and Ec) of 17-7 PH (TH1050)
stainless steel.
B2.6 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

17-4 PH STAINLESS STEEL

Table B2.4 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 17-4 PH Stainless Steel

--
Alloy, 17-4 PH

Form. Plate Bars and forgings (*)

-_ Fig. B2.23 Effect of temperature on
Condition. . H 900 H 900 the compressive yield strength (Fcv)
of 17-4 PH (H900) stainless steel.
-,-
Thickness or diameter, in.. 8 and under

Basis. S

Mechanical properties:
F,,, ksi.. 190 190
F,,, ksi, 170 170
F,,, ksi. 178 178
F,,,ksi ,._...._,_.... 123 123
F bru, ksi: Fig. B2.24 Effect of temperature on
(eiDz1.5). . 313 313 the ultimate shear strength (Fsu) of
(e/D=2.0). . 17-4 PH (H900) stainless steel.
380 380
Fbrv, ksi.
(eiDz1.5). 255 255
(e/D=2.0). 280 280
e, percent:
In2in ._.......... 10
In4D .._......

!
E, 108 psi. ............
E,, 100 psi ............
G, 10epsi., ........... Fig. B2.25 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate bearing strength (Fbru)
of 17-4 PH (H900) stainless steel.
Physical properties:
W, Ibiin.3. _. 0.282.
C, Btu:(lb)[F) _. 0.11 (32” to 212” F).
K, Btu’[(hr)(ft*) (F)fftl. 10.3 (at 300’ F); 11.2 (at 500” F); 13.1 (at 900° F).
01, lo-” in./in./F. 6.0 (70’ to 200” F); 6.1 (70” to 400° F); 6.5 (70° to
900° F).

Fig. B2. 26 Effect of temperature on

the bearing yield strength (Fbry) of
17-4 PH (H900) stainless steel.

t
00 IM 402 6x 8x, laxi 1x.2 iim ,652 4 E.x
TwnpCrolvm.
F -ml~rOf”le.F
Fig. B2.21 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 22 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2.27 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) of the tensile yield strength (Fty) of the tensile and compressive modulus
17-4 PH (H900) stainless steel. 17-4 PH (H900) stainless steel. (E and Ec) of 17-4 PH (H900)
stainless steel.
 B2.7

AM-550 STAINLESS STEEL

Table B2. 5 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of AM-350 Stainless Steel

~~-__. ~___
AllOS ..................... AM-350

Form. ................... Sheet and stripa Sheet and strip”

-___
Condition, ............... DA SCT
l- -
Thickness, in ............... 0.187 and under 0.187 and under
_~___.. __-
Basis. ................. S S
--__ -.- Fig. B2.30 Effect of temperature on
the compressive yield strength (Fey) of
Mechanical properties: AM-350 stainless steel (double-aged).
F,,, ksi .............. 165 185
F,,, ksi. .............. 135 150
F,,, ksi. ............ 142 158
F,,, ksi. .............. 107 120
Fhiur ksi:
(e/D=1.5). ........ 272 305
(e/D= 2.0). ........ 330 370
F,,,, ksi:
(e/D=1.5). ........ 202 225
(e/D=2.0). ........ 223 247
c, percent. ............ 10 10

E, 106 psi ............. 29.0 Fig. B2. 31 Effect of temperature on

E,, 10” psi. .......... 30.0 the tensile and compressive modulus
G, 106psi ............. 11.0 (E and EC) of AM-350 stainless steel
--__- (double-aged).

Physical properties:
W, lb/in.? ............. 0.282.
C, Btu,'(Ib)(F) 0.12 (32” to 212” F).
K, Btu/[(hr) (ftz) (F)/ft] .. 1 8.4 (at 100’ F); 11.7 (at 800’ F).
o(, 1O-6 in./in./F. ....... 6.3 (70” to 212’ F); 7.2 (70” to 932’ F).

0 Test direction longitudinal for widths less than 9 in.; transverse for widths 9 in. and over.

E‘ig. B2.32 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) of
AM-350 stainless steel (XT).

Fig. B2. 28 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 29 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 33 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) of the tensile yield strength (Fty) of the tensile yield strength (Ft ) of
.\
AM-350 stainless steel (double-aged). AM-350 stainless steel (aouole-ageal. AM-350 stainless steel (SCT
. 3I .
B2. 8 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

AY-350 STAINLESS STEEL (Cont.)

Fig. B2. 34 Effect of temperature on the tensile and Fig. B2. 36 Effect of temperature on the compressive
compressive modulus (E and Ec) of AM-350 stainless vield strength (Fey) of AM-350 stainless steel (SCT).
steel (SCT).

Temperature. F Temperature, F

Fig. B2.35 Effect of temperature on the bearing Fig. B2. 37 Effect of temperature on the ultimate
yield strength (Fbry) of AM-350 stainless steel bearing strength (Fbru) of AM-350 stainless steel
(SCT). (XT).

Temperolure. F

Fig. 82.38 Effect of temperature on the ultimate

shear strength (Fsu) of AM-350 stainless steel
(XT).
 a.9
AISI 301 STAINLESS STEEL

Table B2. 6 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of AISI 301 Stainless Steel

.-
Alloy .................... AISI 301 a
-
Form. .................. Plate b, sheet, and strip
- - -
Condition. ............... Annealed $/4hard $1 hard ?i hard Full hard
-- _-
Basis. ................... S S s s s
_- -- _-
Mechanical properties:
FLU, ksi:
L ............... 75 125 150 175 186
T ............... 75 125 150 175 186
F,,, ksi:
L ............... 30 75 110 135 140
T ............... 30 75 110 135 140
F,,, ksi:
L ............... 35 43 58 76 85
T ............... 35 80 118 160 179
F.,, ksi .............. 40 67.5 80 95 100
F bru, ksi:
(e/D=1.5). ...... . . . . .. . .... .
(e/D=2.0). ...... 250 300 350 370
Fbrv, ksi:
(e/D= 1.5) ....... . . . ... . . . 1. . .
(e/D=2.0). ...... “ii” 140 200 240 270
e, percent ............ (“1 (9 (‘1 (3 (3
E, 106 psi:
L ............... 29.0 27.0 26.0 26.0 26.0
T ............... 29.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0
E,, lo8 psi:
L ............... 28.0 26.0 26.0 26;O 26.0
T ............... 28.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0
G, 108 psi ............ 12.5 12.0 11.5 11.0 11.0
- -
Physical properties:
W, lb/in.3 ............. 0.286.
C, Btu/(lb) (F) ........ 0.108 (at 32O F).
K, Btu/[W VW (F)/ftl 7.74 (at 32’ F).
a, 10-n in./in./F .. ‘1
9.2 (70” to 200’ F).

0 Properties for annealed condition also applicable to amwaled AISI

302,303,304,321, and 347.
b Only annealed condition applicable to plate.
c See table 2.8.1.1(b).

Non-Yield strength, particularly in compression, and modulus of

elasticity in the longitudinal direction may be raised appreciably by
thermal stress-relieving treatment in the range 500’ to 800” F.
B2.10 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

301 STAINLESS STEEL

Fig. B2. 39 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 48 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) of the compressive yield strength (F,y)
AISI 301 (half-hard) stainless steel. of AISI 301 (full-hard) stainless steel.

Fig. B2. 44 Effect of temperature on

the bearing yield strength (Fbry) of
AISI 301 (half-hard) stainless steel.

Fig. 82.40 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 49 Effect of temperature on

the tensile yield strength (Fty) of the ultimate shear strength (Fsu) of
AISI 301 (half-hard) stainless steel. AISI 301 (full-hard) stainless steel.

& TmnperalYm. F

Fig. 82.45 Effect of temperature on

the tensile and compressive modulus
(E and EC) of AISI 301 (half-hard)
stainless steel.
%wmnm8, F

Fig. B2.41 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 50 Effect of temperature on

the compressive yield strength (Fey) the ultimate bearing strength (Fbru)
of AISI 301 (half-hard) stainless steel. of AISI 301 (full-hard) stainless steel.

Fig. B2.46 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate tensile strength (Ft”) of
Fig. 82.42 Effect of temperature on AISI 301 (full-hard) stainless steel. Fig. B2. 51 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate shear strength (Fsu) of the bearing yield strength (Fbry) of
AISI 301 (half-hard) stainless steel. AISI 301 (full-hard) stainless steel.

Fig. 82.43 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2.47 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 52 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate bearing- strength (Fbru) the tensile yield strength (Fty) of AISI the tensile and compressive modulus
of AISI 301 (half-hard) stainless steel. 301 (full-hard) stainless steel. (E and EC) of AISI 301 (full-hard)
stainless steel.
 B2.11

2014 ALmmm ALLOYS (SHEZT xc PMTE, EXTRUSIOKS, FORGING:;)

NcY?ic:: Values in (A) columns are minim!tun garzntes.3 valu~?s. Value:; in (B)
column will he mnt or exceede’i by 90 percent, 0;‘ material supplied.

Table B2. 7 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 2014 Aluminum Alloy (Sheet and Plate)

Alloy 2014
--

l:orm Sheet and plate

Condition
- - -

0.020-0.039
--
(1.04~0.499 I
-- --
1.00-1.500
1.501-
2.000
2.001-
3.000
Loo-b
4.000

Basis A B A B A B A I3 A A A
._-----_--- -- -- --- ~-

3lwhanical properties:
Fhl, hsi
L 65 67 ti8 i0 68 70 / 67 68 65 63 59
T. 64 66 67 69 67 69 67 68 65 63 59
ST 58 54
Fr,,, ksi
L. 58 60 60 62 60 62 59 62 59 57 55
1 57 59 59 61 59 61 59 62 59 57 55
ST 53 51
F,,,, ksi
1, 60 62 60 K2 61 64 61 59 57
T 61 63 61 63 61 64 61 59 57
ST 59 57
lzJII, hsi 41 42 41 42 41 41 ‘il 39 37
Fb, ,,, ksi”
(p/l)= 1.5) 102 105 102 105 101 102 98 89 88
(e/U =2.0) 129 133 129 133 127 129 124 129 112
Fbr,,, /, sic
(c/D = 1.5) 84 87 84 x7 83 87 83 80 77
(c/D =2.0). 96 99 96 99 94 99 94 91 88
F, perecwt
L 8 6 6 ti 4 3
1’ 8 6 4 3 2 1.5
ST 1
- - -
E, 10” psi
E,, 106 /‘Xi
G, lo6 IJsi
-- --

Physical properties:
W, lb/in.3 0.101
C, Htu/clh)(F) 0.23 (at 212°F)
ii, Rtu ‘[;lbr)(ft?)(F’)/ft] !I0 (at 77°F)
a, 1Cb6 in/in./F 12.5 (68” to 212°F)

- -
B2.12 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES ’

2014 ALUMIVJM ALLOYS (SHEET & PLriTE, EXTRUSIONS, FORGINGS) (Cont.)

Table B2.8 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of Clad 2014 Aluminum Alloy (Clad Sheet and Plate)

Alloy. .. ................... Clad 2014

-.

Form ....................... Sheet and plate

Condition ..............
-
-T60
- -

Thickness, in. ............... al.039 0.040-0.499 I 0.500-1.000 1.001-1.500

Basis. ........................ A B A B A B A B
-~---------- -_ ---

Mechanical properties:
Flu, ksi
L .................... 64 64 65 67 65 67 64 65
T .................... 63 63 64 66 64 66 64 05
ST. ................
Ftv, h-i
L .................... 56 56 58 60 58 60 57 60
T .................... 55 55 57 59 57 59 57 60
ST. .................
Fey, h-i
L .................... 56 56 58 60 58 60 59 62
T .................... 57 57 59 61 59 61 59 62
ST. ................
F,,, ksi ................. ii 39 ii 40 39 iii ii 40
&,, ksib
(e/D=1.5). ........... 96 96 98 101 98 101 96 98
(e/D=2.0) ......... 122 122 124 127 124 127 122 124
Fbry, ksib
(e/D=1.5). .......... 78 78 81 84 81 84 80 84
(e/D =2.0). ........... 90 90 93 96 93 96 91 96
e, percent
L .................... 7 8 6 6
T ................... 7 8 6
A 4
E,lO~psi ................. 10.5
E,, 101psi ................ 10.7
G, 10s psi ................ 4.0
 B2.13

2014 ALUMINUM ALLOYS (SH3ET & PLhTE, EXTRUSIONS, FORGINQS) (Cont.)

Table B2.9 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 2014 Aluminum Alloy (Extrusions)

.\lloy 2014

Form Extruded rod, bar, and shapes

Ieat treated
and aged
by use?

Condition -T6C -T62 -

Cross-sectional area, in.* 325 >25, 732 Up to 32

- - - - --

Thickness. in.* .125-0.499 a1.500-0.749 aI.750-1.499 1 .5clo-2.999 1 3i.000-4.499 / 7 0.750 0.125-4.499

- -

Basis A B A B A B A B A B A A
- - - - ---

Mechanical properties:
F@, ksi
L ....... 60 61 64 68 68 73 68 73 68 73 68 60
T.:. ..... .:: 60 61 64 67 63 66 61 63 58 61 56 56
Ft,, ksi
L ................ 53 57 58 62 60 65 60 65 60 65 58 53
I’..... ........... 53 57 55 59 54 58 52 55 49 53 47 47
Fcvr ksi
L ................ 55 59 60 64 62 67 62 67 62 67 53
T. ................ 53 56 58 62 57 61 57 61 57 61 48
F,,, ksi .............. 35 35 37 39 39 42 39 42 39 42 35
Fbru, ksi
(e/D=1.5). ....... 90 92 96 102 88 95 88 95 88 95
(e/D =2.0). ......... 114 116 122 129 109 117 109 117 109 117
.pb,.,,, ksi
(e/D=15 .......... 74 80 81 87 78 85 78 85 78 85
(e/D =2.0). ......... 85 91 93 99 84 91 84 91 84 91
e, percent
L ................ 7 7 7 7 7 6
5 2 1 1
Td ............... - 5 - - - 2 - - -
E,lOapsi ............... 10.5
E,, 1O’Psi .............. 10.7
G, 106~~ ............... 4.0
B2.14 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

2014 ALTMI~ ALLOYS (SHEET & PLATE, EX'~RIJSONS, FORGINGS) (Cont.)

Table B2. 10 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 2014 Aluminum Alloy (Forgings)

Alloy 2014

Die Hand forgings Hand forgings

Korm forgings Length 73 times width Length >3 times width

I
Condition -T4 -T6

Thickness, in, ., 74 inches 76 inches

-

> 16, > 36, > 144, > 16, > 36, > 144,
(:ross-sectional area, in.l Tl6 736 7144 7256 716 736 7144 2 256
_-~- ___ _--- ---

Basis. A A A A A A A A A A
- _--- ---- _- ----

Mechanical properties:
Ft,,, ksi
L ................ 55 65 65 65 62 GO 65 65 62 60
T ..... ............. 52 62 G3 6:% 59 58 63 63 59 58
ST ............... 60 GO 56 55 60 GO 56 55
Fly, ksi
L ................ 30 55 55 53 53 52 55 53 53 52
1’ ............... 28 52 55 53 52 50 55 53 52 50
ST .............. 55 53 52 50 55 5X 5‘2 50
Fey, ksi
L ........ 30 55 55 53 53 52 55 53 53 5%
T ............. .. . .. 28 52 55 53 52 .50 55 53
ST, ..............
F,,, ksi. ................. 34 39 40 4J 38 3; iil 40
Fb,.,,, ksi
(e/D=1.5). .......... 91 91 87 84 91 91 87 84
(e/D =2.0). .......... 117 117 112 108 117 117 112 108
Fbry, hi
(e/‘D=1.5) .......... 77 74 74 73 77 7:3
(e/D =2.0) ........ 88 85 85 83 88 83
e, percent
L ....... ........ 10 9 7 5 10 9 7 5
T ................... 6 5 3 2 4 3 2.5 2
ST .............. 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
-
E,lO(psi ................ IO.5
E,, 106 psi. .............. 10.7
G, 106 psi ............ 4.0
 B2.15

EFFECT OF 'TiD%XRATIJREON 2014 ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Fig. B2. 53 Effect of temperature on the ultimate strength (Ftu) of 2014-T6 aluminum alloy (bare and clad sheet 0. 020-O. 039
in. thick; bare and clad plate 1. 501-4. 000 in. thick; rolled bar, rod and shapes; hand and die forgings; extruded bar, rod and
shapes 0. 125-O. 749 in. thick with cross-sectional area 2 25 sq. in. ).

1'40

120

20

Fig. 82. 54 Effect of temperature on the tensile yield strength (Fty) of 2014-~6 aluminum alloy (bare and clad plate
3.001-4.000 in. thick; rolled bar, rod and shapes; hand and die forgings; extruded bar, rod and shapes 0.125-o. 499
in. thick with cross-sectional area C 25 sq. in. ).
B2.16 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

EFFECT OF TEMPERATUREON 2014 ALUMINUM ALLOYS (Cont.)

Fig. B2. 55 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 58 Effect of temperature on

the compressive yield strength (Fey) the bearing yield strength (Fbry) of
of 2014-T6 aluminum alloy (all 2014-T6 aluminum alloy (all products
products except thick extrusions). except thick extrusions).

Fig. B2. 57 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate bearing strength (Fbru)
of 2014-T6 aluminum alloy (all
products except thick extrusions).

Fig. B2. 56 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 59 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate shear strength (Fs,) of the tensile and compressive modulus
2014-T6 aluminum alloy (all products (E and Ec) of 2014 and 2017 aluminum
except thick extrusions. alloys.

2024 ALUMINDI ALLOY (BARE SHEET & PLATE, EXTRUSIONS, BAR, ROD & WIRE)

Table B2. 11 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 2024 Aluminum Alloy (Sheet and Plate)

2024
Shed srd plate - Coiled sheet
I Heat trestcd
Condition Hrst.treatedb I and rolled Heat treatid
-T4 -T36 -T4
- -.
0.25c- 0.501- l.oo-
< 0.250 Low
~- 0. 0.500 l.ooO 2.m - I ~0.01 2-u ,128
-
B B
Basis A _-A A --A B -- A B --A B A
Mechaniral propertlen:
F,,, kaz
L 62 64 62 60 56 OR 68 65 67 63 68 61 64 70 72 62 66
1’ G:! 64 62 60 56 64 67 64 66 62 67 60 63 69 71 62 66
Ft,, fibi
L 40 38 38 :iR 38 48 51 46 49 44 48 42 46 60 62 40 41
40 3X 38 38 38 42 44 40 43 40 44 40 44 52 54 40 41
F,“, :s,
L 40 38 38 38 38 40 42 38 41 38 42 38 42 49 51 40 41
‘I’ : 40 38 38 38 38 45 47 43 46 43 47 42 46 56 58 40 41
F.,, ksi. 37 38 37 36 34 40 42 40 41 38 41 36 38 43 44 37 40
F~,rt,, ks+
(c/D = 1.5) 93 96 93 90 84 98 102 95 102 92 96 105 108 93 99
(P/D =2.0) 118 1’22 118 114 106 124 129 1120 129 .16 122 133 137 118 126
F bru, I;si=
(e/D=1.5) 56 53 ,53 53 53 69 71 64 6EI 62 67 60 66 84 88 56 57
61 61 61 61 79 82 74 7E1 70 77 68 7.5 96 100 64 66
(e,‘D =2.0) 64
e, p,went
1 (9 12 - 8 - 12 - 8 - (9
E, 10 psi 10.5
E,, 106 ps7 10.7
r:, 10” psi 4.6
 B2.17

2024 ALIJNINJM ALLOY (BARE SHEET & PLAT5, EXTRIJSIO;Z, BAF;, ROD & NRE)(Cmt.)

Table B2. 12 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 2024 Aluminum Alloy (Extrusions)

-
Alloy ...................... 2024
-

Form. ..................... Extruded bars, rods, and shapes

- -
ITeat Heat
treated treated
Heat treated by user* cold
worked
and aged

Condition. ................. -T42 -T81

-
Thickness, in ............... Jl thick- ~0.250
ness
-
Cross-sectional area, inz. .... 225 525, 532 232
-- - - -
Basis. .................... A B A B A B A B A B A A
- - - -

Mechanical properties:
F,,, ksz
L ............... 57 61 60 62 60 62 65 70 70 74 70 74 57 64
T ................ 57 61 60 62 60 62 58 61 54 57 50 53 50 . . .. I...
F,,, ksi
L ................ 42 47 44 47 44 47 46 54 52 54 52 54 38 56
T ................ 42 46 43 46 42 45 41 44 38 41 36 39 36
F ,“, hi
L ................ 38 39 42 39 42 44 52 50 52 50 52 38
T ................ 38 39 42 39 42 42 48 42 44 42 44 38
F 1w. ksi ............... 30 32 33 32 33 34 38 38 40 38 40 30
Fbru. ksi
(r/D-= 1.5). ...... 85 85 91 85 91 85 91 85 85 91 85
(e/D=2.0). ....... 1 08 08 14 108 14 08 14 08 08 114 108
Fbw, ksi
(e/D = 1.5) ....... 59 66 60 66 60 66 61 66 62 6“ 66 53
(r/D=2.0). ....... 67 75 69 75 69 75 71 75 73 73 75 61
P, prrccnt
L ................ 12 12 12 10 10 10 12
6 6 - 5
To .............. 2 2
- - - -
E, 108psi ............. .5
E,, lo8 psi ............
G, 106psi .............
--
B2.18 MECHANICAL AND PBYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

2024 ALUMINUM ALLOY (RARE SHXT & PLA”E, EXTRUSIONS, B;rR, ROU & :;IRZ) (Cont. )

Table B2. 13 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 2024 Aluminum Alloy (Bar, Rod, and Wire);
Rolled, Drawn or Cold Finished; Rolled Tubing

Alloy .................... 2024

Form .................. Bar, rod and wire; rolled, drawn or cold-finished Tubing
--.-
Heat / Heat
treated treated
Condition. -T4 or -T351 Heat treated by cold
user r worked
and aged
-___~
Cross-sectional area, in. I -T3 T42 -T81
.- --~~ -..- -‘-
‘- I,%1.001
Thickness,in ,Hntol l.OOl- 2.001 1.001- j.OOl- 1;:.001- 1.018 to 0.50( )’ 0.018-
.boo 1:2.000 3.000 !4I.000 i.000 i.000~ 1 (;.5001 0.500
I1- --- _- --_- --
Basis. ................... A A A A A A A A B A
-- _- _- ---

Mechanical properties:
FIu, ksi
L ............. 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 64 70 62 68
T ............... 61 59 57 55 54 52
F,,, ksi
L ........ 40 40 40 40 42 46
T ............... 40 39 38
F,,, ksi
L ............... 32 32 32 32 32 32 42 46
,I.
T ............... !
F.,, ksi, ............. -3; “ii 37 “ii .‘37 “ii’ 37. 39 -42
F bru, ksi
(e/D=1.5). ....... 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 105 96
(ejD=2.0), ....... 118 118 118 118 118 118 118 133 122
F bru, ksi
(e/D=1.5). ....... 56 56 56 56 56 56 59 64 56
(e/D=2.0) ........ 64 64 64 64 64 64 67 74 64
e, percent
L ............... 101 10 10 10 10 10 10’ 1
T ............... 10 8 6 4 2
- - - -
1’
E, 106 psi ............ 10.5
E,, 106 psi ............ 10.7
G, 100 psi, ........... 4.0

Physical properties:
W, 1biin.s. ......... 0.100
C, Btu,l(lb) (FJ ....... 0.23 (at 212’ F)
K, Btu,/[(hr) (ft2) (F)/ft 1: 70 (at 77’ F) 0
a, 10-e in.,‘in./F. ..... 12.6 (68” to 212” F)
 B2.19

CLAD 2024 ALUMINUM ALLOY (W&Q, PLATS, COILED SIC:ET

- cc
-4
31
s&
1” T
-
4
0
4
4
-

I
4
P

-
e
7
-a
-
4
4
--
4

-
=
4

-
B2.20 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

EFFECT OF TEMPEKiZTURZON 2024 ALlMINWI ALLOYS

Fig. B2. 60 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2.64 Effect of exposure at Fig. B2. 68 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate tensile strength (Flu) of elevated temperatures on the room- the ultimate bearing strength (Fbru)
2024-T3 and 2024-T4 aluminum alloy temperature ultimate tensile strength of clad 2024-T3 and clad 2024-T4
(all products except extrusions). (Ftu) of 2024-T3 and 2024-T4 aluminum aluminum alloy (sheet).
alloy (all products except thick
extrusions).

Fig. B2. 61 Effect of temperature un Fig. B2.65 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2.69 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate tensile strength (Flu) of the compressive yield strength (Fey) the bearing yield strength (Fbry) of
2024-T3 and 2024-T4 aluminum alloy of clad 2024-T3 and clad 2024-T4 clad 2024-T3 and clas 2024-T4
(extrusions). aluminum alloy (sheet). aluminum alloy (sheet).

Fig. B2.62 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 66 Effect of exposure at Fig. B2, 70 Effect of temperature on
the tensile yield strength (Fty) of elevated temperatures on the room- the tensile and compressive modulus
2024-T3 and 2024-T4 aluminum alloy teqperature tensile yield strength (E and EC) of 2024 aluminum alloy.
(all products except extrusions). (Fty) of 2024-T3 and 2024-T4
aluminum alloy (all products except
thick extrusions).

Fig. B2. 63 Effect of temperature on Fig. 82. 67 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 71 Effect of temperature on
the tensile yield strength (Fty) of the ultimate shear strength (F,,) of the elongation of 2024-T3 and 2024-T4
2024-T3 and 2024-T4 aluminum alloy clad 2024-T3 and clad 2024-T4 aluminum alloy (all products except
(extrusions). aluminum alloy (sheet). thick extrusions).
 Table B2. 15 Design Mechmicai and Physical Properties of ‘7075 Aluminum Alloy (Shec,t :md Plate)

Alloy ................... - 707.5

Form .................. Sheet and plate
Condition. -T6”
-
Thickncse, in ............. -i- I.0 15-0.039 0.040-0.249 T 0.25&0.500 T-0..501-I.000 _- 1.00-2.000 T- I :3.00-3.500 3..501L4.000
Basis ...................... A H A H A B A B A A A A
Mechanical properties:
Flu, ksi
L ................. 76 78 77 79 77 79 79 82 78 80 73 75 70 72 68 66
T .............. 76 78 77 79 77 79 77 80 77 79 73 75 70 72 68 66
ST ............... 67 69 64 66 64 62
Ft,, ksi
L .................. 66 69 67 70 67 69 69 72 68 71 62 65 60 62 58 56
T ............... 65 68 66 69 66 68 66 69 66 69 62 65 60 62 58 56
ST. .............. 61 63 59 60 56 54
Fey, ksi
I, ............... 67 70 68 71 69 71 69 72 68 71 65 67 63 65 62 60
T ............... 70 73 71 74 69 71 69 72 68 71 65 67 63 65 62 60
ST ........... 64 66 62 63 62 60
F,,, ksi ............. 46 47 46 47 46 47 47 ‘ii 46 43 43 45 41 43 40 39
FbrU, ksib
(e/D=1.5) ........ 114 117 116 119 108 110 110 115 109 112 102 105 98 101 95 94
(e/D=2.0) ... 144 148 146 150 139 142 142 147 140 144 131 135 126 130 122 119
Fbry, ksib
(e/D = 1.5). ........ 92 97 94 98 87 90 90 94 88 92 81 84 78 81 75 73
(e/D =2.0). ........ 106 110 107 112 100 104 104 108 102 106 93 97 90 93 87 84
e, percent
L ................ 7 8 8 6 5 5 5 5
T ................ 7 8 8 6 4 3 3 3 2
ST .............. 1 1 1
-
E,lO*psi .............. 1c
E,, 108 psi .............. 10.5
G, 1O’psi.. -- 3.9
Physical properties:
W, lb/in.s.. 0.101
C, Btu/(lb)(F). 0.23 (at 212°F)
K, Btu/[(hr)(ftz)(F)/ft]. 76 (at 77°F)
P, 10-s in./in./F 12.9 (68” to 212°F)

0 For the atress relieved tcmP- -T661, d Vdues for the -Tb twper appb’ With 2.001-2.600 L 62
tie ~cyption of For. Applicable Far values are aa folIoas: 2.601-3.000 L 60
Thickness (in.) Direction of teat Few (A values) b See Table a.1.1.1.1.
0.26&2.000 L 66 m
N
E
 Table B2.16 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of Clad 7075 Aluminum Alloy (Sheet and Plate)

-
Alloy ......................... Clad 7075
Form ....................... Sheet and plate
Condition ................ -TV
0.015-
0.1D3! 3 1
0.25s
b
Y-2.001- 2.501-
3.0006
- 0.1
Thickness, in. 7 0.; 2.5
Basis......................... _- -Ii- B
- B
- -A -ii-
-
Ii---
- ii-
-
B x--
-
Mechanical properties:
Fm, ksi-L .............. 70 73 72 74 73 75 75 77 75 77 77 79 76 78 71 73 68 70 66 64
T ............... 70 73 72 74 73 75 75 77 75 77 75 77 75 77 71 73 68 70 66 64
ST .............. 67 69 64 66 64 62
F,,, ksi-L. .............. ii iii 63 ii tii iti ii 61 ii 67 66 is fii 69 60 62 58 60 56 54
T ................ 60 63 62 64 63 65 64 66 64 66 64 66 64 67 60 62 58 60 56 54
ST ............. 61 63 59 60 56 54
F,, k&-L. .............. 62 ii fii ii 65 67 ss 68 66 &I ss 69 iA 69 62 64 61 62 60 58
T ............... 64 67 66 68 67 69 68 70 66 69 66 69 66 69 62 64 61 62 60 58
ST. .............. 64 66 62 63 62 60
F,, ksiC.................. 42 44 43 ii 44 45 45 4s iii 46 46 47 45 46 42 43 40 41 39 38
Fbw, ksi-(e/D = 1.5). ...... 105 110 108 111 110 112 112 116 105 108 108 111 106 109 99 102 95 98 92 90
(e/D =2.0). ...... 133 139 137 141 139 142 142 146 135 139 139 142 137 140 128 131 122 126 119 115
Fh, ksiC-(e/D = 1.5). ..... 85 90 88 91 90 92 91 94 84 87 86 88 86 90 78 81 75 78 73 70
(e/D =2.0). ...... 98 102 101 104 102 106 104 107 98 100 99 102 99 104 90 93 87 90 84 81
e, percent-L. ............ 7 8 8 8 8 6 5 5 5 5
T ............. 7 8 8 8 8 6 4 3 3 3
1 - 1
ST. ........... 1
- - _, - - - - - - - - - - -
E, 10s psi-Pri .............
10.3 10.3 10.3
set ............
9.5 9.8 10.0
EC, 106 psi-Pri ............
10.5 10.5 10.5
sec. ..........
9.7 10.0 10.2
G, 101 psi. ............... -.
Physical properties:
w, lb/in.3 ................ 0.101
C, Btu/(lb)(F) ........... 0.23 (at 212°F)
K, Btu/[(hr)(ftl)(F)/ft]. .... 76 (at 77OF)
a, 10-s in./in./F. .......... - 12.9 (68” to 212°F)

o For the etress relieved temper -T661, all values for the -T6 temper apply with the b These vrluea except in the ST direction have been adjusted to include the influence
ueeption of Fcr. Applicable For values .re aa followas: of the 1 l/20/, per side nominal cladding thickness.
Thdcknm# (in.) Directim of test Few (A valued c See Table 2.1.1.1.1.
0.260-0.499 L 62
0.600-2.600 L 64
2.001-2.600 L 60
2.601-3.000 L 68
 Table B2.17 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 70’75 Aluminum Alloy (Extrusions)

Alloy ........................... 7075

Form. ........................ Extrusions (rod, bars, and shapes)
Condition ........................ -T60 -
Cross-sectional arca, in.?. ........... 720 1 >20, 732 -- 732
Thickness *, in. ................... up tc JO 1.24Y /0.250 ,499 1.500-2.999 3.000 l-4 ,499 -- 4.500 ‘-5 .O
Basis ............................. A B A B A B A B A B A B
Mechanical properties’
F,,, ksi
L ........................ 78 82 81 85 81 85 81 85 81 85 81 84 78 81 78 81
T ........................ 76 78 77 79 73 75 72 74 66 68 62 64 62 64 60 62
F,,, ksi
L ........................ 70 74 73 77 72 76 72 76 72 76 71 74 70 73 68 71
T ........................ 64 67 66 68 63 66 62 64 56 58 54 56 54 56 53 55
F,,, ksi
L ....................... 71 75 74 78 73 77 72 76 72 75 72 75 68 72
T ....................... 71 75 74 78 73 77 72 75 69 72 65 68
F.., ksi. ..................... 43 45 45 47 45 47 45 47 45 47 45 46 43 44 43
F bIu, h-i
(e/L&5). ............... 101 107 97 102 97 102 97 102 97 102 97 101 94 97 94 97
(e/D=2.0). ............... 125 131 130 136 130 136 130 136 130 136 122 126 117 125 117 125
F bry, ksi
(e/0=1.5). ............... 91 96 80 85 79 84 79 84 79 84 78 81 77 80 75 78
(e/D=2.0). ............... 98 104 102 108 101 106 101 106 101 106 92 96 91 95 88 92
e, percent
L ........................ 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 6
T ........................ 5 5 4 3 1 1 1-
--
E, lo6 psi ..................... 10.3
E,, 108 psi. ................... 10.5
G, 106psi ..................... 3.9
Physical properties:
W, lb/in.s. .................... 0.101
C, Btn/(lb) (F) ................ 0.23 (at 212“F)
K, Bt,u/[(hr) (ft2) (F)/ft]. ........ 76 (at 77’ F)
a, 10-e in./in./F. .............. 12.9 (68’ to 212OF)

l For the strw rclicved tcnqx!rs -T6510 and -TFSIl, all ~slues for the -‘lY temper ripply, with Thickness (in.) Area (sq. in.) 01 Test K.(A oahrs)
Direction
the exception 01 Fe,-L. A&cable F L, values arrl~stccl below: 1.5w2.999 ?ZO L 70
ThicklLPs.9 (in.) Area (89. in.) Direction of ial Fe. (A oahrs) 3.OW.499 732 L 66
720 I, 70 4.500-5.000 732 I. 65
TO.249
0.2.5uo.749 720 I, 72 b For extrusions with outstanding legs, the load carrying ability of such legs shall be detmnined
0,750-l ,499 +J L 71 on the basis of the properties of the appropriate column carre.spOndin~ to the leg thickness.

m
.N
2
B2.24 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

7075 ~Lurmm ALLOY (EXTRUSIONS, FORGINGS, BAR, ROD, WIRE) (Cont.)

Table B2.18 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of ‘70’75 Aluminum Alloy
(Hand Forgings and Die Forgings)

Alloy .,...,........... 7075

Form. ., Hand-forged stock, length Hand-forged stock, length Die

73 times width >3 times width forgings

Condition. -T60 -T6

Thickness, in.. 73

Cross-sectional area, in.*. 716 >16, 736 >36, 7144 716 >16, 736 >36, 7144

Basis ................. A A A A A A
- -___

Mechanical properties:
Ftu, hi
L .............. 75 73 71 75 73 71 75
T .............. 75 71 69 73 71 69 71
ST ............ 72 68 66 70 68 66
Ft,, ksi
L .............. 64 61 60 63 60 59 65
T .............. 63 60 58 61 59 57 62
ST. ............ 63 60 58 61 59 57
Fey, ksi
L ............ 64 61 60 63 60 59 65
T ............ 63 60 58 61 59 57 58
ST. ............
F,, ksi. ............ 45 44 43 45 44 43 45
h-u, hi
(e/D=1.5). ..... 97 95 85 97 95 85
(e/D=Z.O). ..... 135 124 114 135 124 114
Fh, ksi
(e/D=1.5). ..... 90 79 78 88 i8 77
(e/D =2.0). ..... 96 91 90 94 90 88
e, percent
L .............. 9 i 4 9 7 4
T .............. 4 3 2 4 3 2
ST. ............ 2 ‘2 1 ‘7 2 1
E, lO*psi. .......... 10.3
E,, 106 psi. ......... 10.5
G, 1O”psi. .......... 3.9
-~-
 B2.25

7075 ALUMINUM ALLOY (EXTRUSIONS, FORGINGS, BAR, ROD, WIRE) (Cont.)

Table B2.19 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of 7075 Aluminum Alloy
(Bar, Rod, Wire and Shapes; Rolled, Drawn or Cold-Finished)
-
Alloy ................ 7075

Form. ............... Bar, rod, wire and shapes, rolled, drawn or cold-finished
-
Condition. ........... -T6 or -T651

Thickness, in. ........ up to 1.001 2.001 3.001

1.000 0 2.000 * 3.000 a 4.000 0

Basis. ............... A A A A
--
Mechanical properties:
F,,, ksi:
L ........... 77 77 77 77
LT, ......... 77 75 72 69
Ft,, ksi:
L ........... 66 66 66 66
LT. ......... 66 66 63 60
FcY, ksi:
L ........... 64 64 64 64
LT .......... . . . . .. . . .. .... .. .. ... ....... . ...... .
F.,,ksi.. ........ 46 46 46 46
F bru, ksi:
(e/D=1.5) .... 100 100 100 100
(e/D=2.0). ... 123 123 123 123
F brv, ksi:
(e/D=1.5) .... 86 86 86 86
(e/D=2.0). ... 92 92 92 92
e, percent:
L b7 7 7 7
LT .. : : : : : : : : : 4 3 2 1

E, 1Oe psi. ....... 10.3

E,, 10” psi. ....... 10.5
G, 106 psi ......... 3.9
82.26 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

EFFECT OF TEMF'ERATUREON 7075 ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Fig. B2.75 Effect of exposure at

elevated temperatures on the room-
temperature tensile yield strength
(Fty) of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy
(all products).

Fig, B2. 72 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 79 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) of the bearing yield strength (Fbry) of
70’75-T6 aluminum alloy (all products). 70?5-T6 aluminum alloy (all products).

Fig. B2.76 Effect of temperature on

the compressive yield strength (Fey)
of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy (all products).

Fig. B2. 73 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 80 Effect of temperature on

the tensile yield strength (Fty) of the tensile and compressive modulus
7075-T6 aluminum alloy (all products). (E and EC) of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy.

Fig. B2. ‘77 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate shear strength (F,,) of
7075-T6 aluminum alloy (all products).

Fig. B2. 74 Effect of exposure at Fig. B2.81 Effect of exposure at

elevated temperatures on the room- elevated temperatures on the elongation
temperature ultimate tensile strength of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy (all products
(Ftu) of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy (all except thick extrusions).
products).

Fig. B2. 78 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate bearing strength (Fbru)
of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy (all products).
 Table B2.20 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of AZ3lB Magnesium Alloy (Sheet and Plate)

Alloy........................ AZ31B
-

Form........................ Sheet and plate

-
I -
I -H26
Condition. ................... -0 -H24
-- - -

Thickness (in.). ...............

I-
tOO\t

- --
T 0.061-

-
0.249
-
L250
3.500
-c Go1
I :mfn
-- -
I-
I
-
).250-
0.374
-(
_-
I
-(

--
..OOl
2.OOC
j.250
3.374
l.375-
I.438
-( I.434
_-
I0.500
).501-
I.750
1.751- - I1.001-
L.000
--
1.500
.-
I 1.501-
2mO

B&........................ A B A B A
- -- - - -- - _- -- -- -- .-

Mechanical properties:
Ft., kai.
L.................... 32 36 32 36 32 30 39 40 38 37 36 34 39 38 38 37 37 35 35
T.. .. . ... . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. 40 .. 39 38 37 35 40 39 39 38 38 36 36
F,,,, ksi.
L.................... 18 19 15 19 15 15 29 30 26 24 22 20 27 26 26 25 23 22 21
T..... . .. . . . . . .. . ... 32 .. 29 27 25 23 30 29 29 28 26 25 24
F,, ksi.
L .. . . . . 12 13 12 14 10 10 24 16 13 10 22 21 18 17 16 15 14
T’ . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F,., kai . . . . 17 i?; ii ii .‘17 18 "18 “18 “ii 18 . . . .. .. .
F brr, ksi.
(e/D=1.5). . ... 50 52 50 52 50 .. . . . 58 60 56 54 . . 58 56 56 .. . . . .. . .
(e/D=2.0). . .. . 60 61 60 61 60 . . 68 70 65 63 .. . 68 65 65 .. ... . . .. .. .
F bm, ksi.
(e/D= 1.5). . . . 29 30 29 31 27 . . . . 43 44 38 34 .... . . 40 39 36 ... . .. I . . . . .. .
(e/D=2.0). .. .. . . 29 30 29 31 27 . . . . 43 44 38 34 ... . 40 39 36 .... .. . . . . . . .. . . .
e, percent
L .. ,.. . . . . . . . 12 18 12 19 12 10 6 8 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
T.......... . . -. . . . -. . -. . -. . 11. . . . . -. . . . - 8 -. . 10 - 10 - 10 10 8 8 - 8 8 8- 8 - 8
E, 1O’p.G.. . .. . . . 6.5
E,, 10” psi ................ 6.5
G, 10’ psi ................ 2.4

physical properties
0, lb/in.*. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 0.0639
C, BTU/(lb) (F) . . . .. . .. . . . 0.25 (at 78O F)a
K, BTU/(br) (ft’) (F)/ft. . . . . 56 (212 to 572“ F)
01, lO*t in&/F. . . .. .. . . . . 14 (65 to 212’ F)
’ Tramverse F.. allombks are equal to or &!reater than the km@tndinsl P., sihvabka.
l Estimated.
aN
N
4
B2.28 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

AZ31B MAGNESIUMALLOY (SHEET & mm) (Cont.)

Fig. B2.88 Effect of temperature on the ultimate shear

strength (Fsu) of AZSlB-H24 magnesium alloy.

Fig. B2.82 Typical stress-strain and tangent-modulus

curves for AZ31B-0 magnesium alloy at room
temperature (longitudinal).

Fig. 82.87 Effect of temperature on the ultimate bear-

ing streugth (Ft& of AZNB-H24 magnesium slloy.

Fig. Ba. 83 Effect of temperature on the ultimate

tensile strength (Fb) of AZNB-Ii24 magnesium alloy.

Fig. B2.88 EfYect of temperature on the bearing yield

strength (a*) of AZSB-Ii24 maguesium alloy.
10

.o
Fig. B2.84 Effect of temperature on the tensile yield
strength (Fty) of AZ31B-II24 magnesium alloy.
i
f 10

OP....‘.‘.-‘.......-

Ptg. B2.89 Typical stress-strain and tangent-modulus

Fig. B2.85 Effect of temperature on the compressive curves for AZ31B-H24 magnesium alloy at room
yield strength (Fey) of AZ31B-H24 magnesium alloy. temperature.
 Table B2.21 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of HK31A Magnesium Alloy (Sheet, Plate and Sand Castings)

Alloy. . . . HK3lA

Form . . . . . . Sheet o and plate o Sand

- castings b

Condition. . . . ..
-
-0
I
.- -
-H24
-I
) -T6

Thickness, in. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.016-

0.250
0.261-
0.500
0.501-
1.006
l.OOl-
3.000
0.016-
0.125
0.126-
0.250
0.251-
0.500
0.501-
1.009 E&l- 2.001-
3.000 . . . .
-I-
-I
Basis. ......................... A B A B A B (‘1
--
Mechanical properties:
F,., ksi .................... 30 32 30 30 29 34 36 34 35 34 34 33 33 27
F,,, ksi .................... 18 19 16 15 14 26 28 23 24 21 18 15 15 13
F,, ksi .................... 12 13 10 10 10 20 21 19 22 18 13 11 11 13
F.,, ksi. ................... 22 22 22 22 . . . . . 23 23 23 23 23 23 . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
F brr, hi
(e/D=1.5). ............ 43 46 43 . . . . . . . . 49 52 49 51 49 . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
(e/D=2.0). ............ 51 54 51 ....... . . . . . . 57 60 57 58 57 . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
Fb,, hi
(e/D=1.5). ............ 24 25 21 ....... . . . . . . 34 35 33 36 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..,.......
(e/D=2.0). ............ 24 25 21 ....... . . . . 34 35 33 36 31 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

e, percent ................... 12 20 12 I 12 12 4 6 4 8 4 10 10 8 4
E, 106 psi.. ................. 6. 5
Ee, 106 psi .................. 6. 5
G, 1Vpsi ................... 2. 4

Physical properties:
W, 1b.lin.a. .................. 0.0647
C, BTU/(lb.)(F). ............ 0.25 (32’ to 212’ F)
K, BTU/@.) (ft.‘)(F) ft. ..... 60.0 (at 68’ F)
Q, 10-a in./in./F. ............ 15 (68’ to 392O F)

. pn,perties for sheet and plate we taken parallel to the direction of rolling. Transvelsp; pr0~ertie.s lMechanical properties are based upon the guaranteed tensile properties from sePamtelY+a.9t
me equal to or gmfer than the longitudinal wwerties. test bars. The mechanical properties of bars cut from castings may be 8s low as 76 percent of the
b Refeeswa should be made to the WaOUlC requirements of the WoQlring 0I dficaring agency tabulated values.
tith regard to the use of the above values in the design of cast-.
B2.30 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

HK3lA MAGNESIUMALLOY (SHEET, PLATE & SAND CASTINGS) (Cont.)

Tempm!urg. F Tempaoture. F

Fig. B2. 90 Effect of temperature on the ultimate Fig. B2. 93 Effect of exposure at elevated
tensile strength (Ftu) of HK31A-H24,magnesium temperatures on the room-temperature tensile
alloy. yield strength (Fty) of HK31A-H24 magnesium
alloy.

Fig. B2.91 Effect of temperature on the tensile Fig. B2.94 Effect of temperature on the ultimate
yield strength (Pty) of HK31A-H24 magnesium tensile strength (Flu) of HK31A-T6 magnesium
alloy. alloy (sand casting).

Temperature, F

Fig. 82. 92 Ef:wt of exposure at elevated Fig. B2.95 Effect of temperature on the tensile
temperatures on the room-temperature ultimate yield strength (Fty) of HK31A-T6 magnesium
tensile strel@ (F’m) of HK31A-H24 magnesium alloy (sand casting).
alloy.
 B2.91

AZG~, Az63~, Az80A MAGNESIUM (EXTRUSIONS, FORGINGS, CASTINGS)

Table B2.22 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of AZ61Aa Magnesium Alloy
(Extrusions and Forgings)

Alloy Az61A

Extruded bar, rod, and

Form. solid shapes / ~:::“s:ks 1 Egdsed 1 Forging

Condition -F

Thickness, in. TO.249 0.250-2.499 0.028-0.760

Basis

Mechanical properties:
Ft,,, kei
L ....................... 38 39 36 36 38
T ....... ............. .
Ftv, ksi
L ....................... 21 24 16 16 22
T ...................... I
Fey, l&i
L ....................... 14 14 11 11 14
T ....................... . .
F,, k8i ..................... 19 19 19
Fh, ksi
(e/D=1.5). .............. 45 45 50
(e/D =2.0). .............. 55 55 60
Fh, ksi
(e/D=1.5). ............. 28 28 28
(e/D =2.0). .............. 32 32 . 32
e, percent. ................... 8 9 7 7 6
E, 10’psi .................... 6.3
E,, 1O’psi ................ 6.3
G, 106 psi .................... 2.4
- -

Physical properties :
w, lb/in.‘. .................. 0.0647
C, Btu/(lb) (F). ............... 0.25 (at 78’F) *
K, Btu/[(hr)(ft’)(F)/ft] ...... 46 (212” to 572°F)
01, 10-e in/in/F. ............. 14 (65” to 212’F)

D Properties for extruded bars, rods, shapes, tubes, and forgings are during fabrication.
taken parallel to the direction of extrusion or maximum metal flow b Estimated.
B2.32 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

Az6u, Az63A, Az80~ MAGNESIUM (EXTRUSIONS, FORGINGS, CASTINGS) (Cont. )

Table B2.23 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties of AZ80Aa Magnesium Alloy
(Extrusions and Forgings)

Alloy. ..................... AZ80A

Form.

Condition.
......................

.................
Extruded

-F
bars, rods,

i-
and solid shapes

-T5
r
t
-F
Forgings

-T5
- ----

Thickness, in. ............... 70.249 0.250- 1.500- 70.249 0.250- 1.500-

1.499 2.499 1.499 2.499
--

Basis
-- --

Mechanical properties:
F,,,, ksi
L ,,,.,_._........... 43 43 43 47 48 48 42 42
1’.
Flu, ksi
L.................... 28 28 28 30 33 33 2ti 28
T.................... . .
Fc,,, ksi
L 17 17 28 27 18 25
T. :
F,,,ksi . . 19 19 19 26 i.0 20 io LO
Fb,.,,, ksi
(e/D=1.5). 48 48 48 50
(e/D=2.0). 56 56 56 70
Fbryr ksi
(e/D=1.5). 36 36 36 42
(e/D =2.0). 40 40 40
e, percent. ................ 9 8 6 4 4 4 5 2
-
E, 1O’psi................. 5.5
EC, 100 psi ................ 6.5
c, 1O”psi ................. 2.4
 AZG~A, AZ~~A, AZ~OA MAGNESIUM (EXTRUSIONS, FORGINGS, CASTINGS) (Cont.)

Table B2.24 Material Specifications for AZ63A

Magnesium Alloy

Specification Type of product

------

Q&-M-56 Sand castings

QQ-M-55. Permanenbmold castings

TULE 4.2.3.0 (b) . Deeign Mechanical and Phgeical

Propertier of AZ&TA Magneeiwn~ Alloy (Castings)

Alloy. AZ63A
-

Sand and permanenb

Form mold castings
7 -
Fig. B2.96 Typical stress-strain and tangent-modulus
Condition, -F -T4 -T5 -T6 curves for AZ63A-T4 magnesium alloy (sand casting)
-- -- _- -- at room temperature.

Thickness (in.).
----
Basisa .
-- ----
Mechanical properties:
Fru, kai ............. 24 34 24 34
Ftv, kai. ............. 10 10 11 16
Fw,ksi ............. 10 10 11 16
Fay, kai. ............ 16 17 19
bu, h
(e/D=1.5). ...... 36 36 50
(e/D =2.0) ...... 50 50 65
Fh, ksi
(e/D = 1.5) ...... 28 32 36
(e/D =2.0) ...... 30 36 45
e, percent. .......... 4 7 2 3
E, 1o*psi ...........
EC, 10’ ~~ ...........
7 z 0 e 6 6 6 IO
6.5 Shuin.QOOi in/h
G, 1o’Qsi. .......... 2.4 Tangent Modulus. IO’ PSI

Fig. B2.97 Typical stress-strain and tangent-modulus

curves for AZ63A-F magnesium alloy (sand casting) at
room temperature.
B2.34 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

Sfqn TITANIUM ALLOY (SHEET, PLATE A STRIP)

- -

,..
,.
m
 B2.35

6Al-4V TITANIUM ALLOY (BAR & SHEET)

Table B2.26 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties
of 6Al-4V Titanium Alloy

Alloy.................... BAl-4V

Form.................... Bar Sheet

Condition Annealed

Thicknew, in. 71.5 70.187

----

Basis . . A A Fig. B2.104 Effect of temperature on Ftu, Ft~r and E of

------ ------ 6Al-IV annealed titanium alloy (sheet and bar)

Mechanical properties:
Ft,, ksi
L 130 130
T............... 130
Flu, kg
L 120 120
T 120
Fcr, kni
L 126 126
T............... 126
F,,,, ksi. ii 76 T.nwwottn. F
f&,, ksi
(e/D= 1.5). 196 191 Fig. B2. 105 Effect of temperature on the compressive
(e/D -2.0). yield strength (Fey) of 6A1-4V annealed titanium alloy
248 244
(sheet and bar).
f$.,,, ksi
(e/D = 1.5) 174 163
(elDa2.0). . 205 198
e, percent. 10 10
E, IO’ psi
L 16.0 15.4
T . 16.4
E,, 10’ psi
L . . 16.4 16.0
T............... 16.9
C, lo*@. . . . . . . . . . -s.2
-

Physical properties: Fig. B2.106 Effect of temperature on the ultimate

o, lb/in.‘. . _. 0.160 bearing strength (Fbru) of 6Al-4V annealed titanium
C, Btu/(lb)(F). 0.135 (at 68°F) alloy (sheet and bar).
K, Btu/((hr)(fta)(F)/ft]. 3.8 (at 63°F)
a, 10-0 in./in./F.. 4.6 (at 200°F)

Fig. B2.10’7 Effect of temperature on the Ultimate shear

strength (Fsu) of 6Al-4V annealed titanium alloy (sheet
and bar).
B2.36 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC MATERIALS FOR FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES

INCONEL X NICKEL ALLOY (SHEET)

Table B2.27 Design Mechanical and Physical Properties
of Inconel X Nickel Alloy

-
Inconel X
-

Form ... .. ........ Sheet

-

Condition. .............. Precipitation heat-treated Fig. B2. 108 Effect of temperature on

the ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) of
precipitation heat treated Inconel X
nickel alloy.
Thickness, in. ..........
-------------

--

Uechaniral properties:
FtU, hi
L 155
T 155
Fig. B2. 109 Effect of temperature on
FQ,, ksi
the tensile yield strength (Fty) of
L 100 precipitation heat treated Inconel X
T............ 100 nickel alloy.
FEY, ksi
L 105
T. 105
F,,, kbi 108
Fbrrr, kai
(e/D=l.3).
(e/D = 2.0) 286
Fbr,, ksi
(r/D=l.5).
(r/D=2.0). 186 Fig. B2. 110 Effect of temperature on
c, percent 20 the compressive yield strength (Fey) of
E, 10s psi.. 31.0 precipitation heat treated Inconel X
E,, 10” psi. 31.0 nickel alloy.
G, 10” psi..
--

Physical properties:
W, lb!in.3... 0.304
C, Btu/(lb)(F). 0.109
K, Btu/[(hr)(ftz)(F)/fl :] 8.7 (80” to 212°F)
ix, 10-1 in./in./F 6.4 (100° to 200°F)
- Fig. B2. 111 Effect of temperature on
the ultimate shear strength (Fsu) of
precipitation heat treated Inconel X
nickel alloy.

Fig. B2. 112 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 113 Effect of temperature on Fig. B2. 114 Effect of temperature on
the tensile modulus (E) of Inconel X the ultimate bearing strength (Fbru) the bearing yield strength (Fbry) of
nickel alloy. of precipitation heat treated Inconel X precipitation heat treated Inconel X
nickel alloy. nickel alloy.
 PART C
PRACTICAL STRENGTH ANALYSIS &
DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
CHAPTER Cl
COMBINED STRESSES. THEORY OF YIELD AND ULTIMATE FAILURE.
Cl. 1 Uniform Stress Condition
Aircraft structures are subjected to many
types of external loadings. These loads often
cause axis:, bending and shearlnr; stresses
actlnc simultaneously. If structures are to be
designed satisfactorily, combined stress re-
lationships must be known. Although in practl-
cal structures uniform stress distribution Is Fig. Cl. 3 Fig. Cl.4
not common, still sufficient accuracy for
design practice Is provided by using the stress stresses.
relationships based on uniform stress assump-
tions. In deriving these stress relatlonshlps, Flg. Cl.4 shows a free body after th,a
the Greek letter sigma (a) will represent a block has been cut along a dlagonal sectlon.
stress intensity normal to the surface and thus
a tensile or compressive stress and the Greek For equillbrlun the sum of the forces along
letter tau (2) will represent a stress Intensity the x-x axls equals zero.
p&rallel to the surface and thus a shearing
stress.
ZF, = -a+ 2 (,cl cos 45O) = 0
Cl. 2 Shearing Stresses on Planes at Right Angles.
hence u = 2 (T 1 cos 45O) cos 45O = z
f 1 - - (2)

Therefore when a point In a body Is sub-

jected to pure shear stresses of lntenslty 7,
normal stresses of the same lntenslty as the
shear stresses are produced on a plane at 45’
with the shearlng planes.

Cl. 4 Principal Stresses

Fig. Cl. 1 Fig. Cl.2
For a body subjected to any comblnatlon of
Fi,r. Cl.1 shows a circular solid shaft stresses 3 mutually perpendicular planes can be
subjected to a torsional moment. The port lon found on which the shear stresses are zero. The
(A) of the shaft exerts a shearlng stress ‘tz on normal stresses on these planes of zero shear
section (1-l) and portlon (B) exerts a reslst- stress are referred to as principal stresses.
lng shearlng stress ~z on section (2-2). Flg.
cl.2 Illustrates a differential cube cut from Cl. 5 Shearing Stresses Resulting From Principal
Stresses.
shaft between sectlons (l-l) and (2-2). For
equlllbrlum a reslstlng couple must exlst on In Fig. Cl.5 the differential block Is
top and bottom face of cube. Taking moments subjected to tensile principal stresses ax and
about lower left edge of cube: uz aqd zero principal stress ay. The block Is
cut along a dlagonal section glvlng the free
‘rx dxdy (dz) - ‘rz dzdy (dx) = 0 body of Fig. C1.6. The stresses on th? dlagonal
section have been resolved into stress compon-
hence, ~~ = =z _ - - - _ - - - - _ - _ _ _ (1) ents parallel and normal to the section as shown.
For equlllbrlum the summation of the stresses
Thus If a shearlng unit stress occurs on along the axes (1-l) and (2-2) must equal zero.
one plane at a point In a body, a shearing unit
stress of same Intensity exlsts on planes at ZF,-, = 0
right angles to the flrst plane.
Un dudy - ux dzdy COS 0 - uz dydx sln 8 = 0,
Cl. 3 Simple Shear Produces Tensile and Compressive
Stresses. ox dzdy cos 8 + uz dydx sln 8
whence an =
Fig. Cl.3 shows an elementary block of dudy dudy
unit dlmenslons subjected to pure shearing
Cl. 1
Cl. 2 COMBINED STRESSES. THEORY OF YIELD AND ULTIMATE FAILURE.

I
Cl. 6 Combined Stress Equations
tazdyb
Fig. Cl.7 shows a different121 block sub-
jected to normal stresses on two planes at rlght
angles to each other and wlth shearlng forces on
the same planes. The maximLrm normal and shear-
lng unit stresses will be determined.

Fig. Cl.8 shows a free body dia?;ram of a

portion cut by a diagonal plane at angle 8 as
shown.

Fig. Cl. 5

Fig. Cl. 7
1’ 1U,dYk
Fig. Cl. 6

But = = cos 8 and s = sin 8, whence

dudy
an = ux COS’Q + uz sinaQ - - - - - - - - - (2a)
The normal stress Bn at a point 1s always
less than the maximum prlnclpal stress ax or
uz at the polnt.

ZF,-, = 0 I Fig. Cl. 8

- 7; dudy - ax dzdy sln 8 + uz dydx cos 0 = 0

For equlllbrlum the sum of the forces in the z
But dzdy = cos 8 and E = sin 8 and x dlrectlons must equal zero.
dudy
ZF, = 0
hence, z = uz sin 8 cos 8 - ax cos 8 sln 8
7= (a, - ux) sin 8 cos 8 u, dudy cos 8 + z dudy sin 8 - ax dzdy - %&xdy
or, = o- - - - -- - - - - - - _-- ---(4)
or, T = (l/2) (a, - a,) sln 2 8, where uz Is
maximum prlnclpal stress and ux Is minimum ZF, = 0
prlnclpal stress.
(311dudy sin 8 - z dudy cos 0 - uz dydx - ‘c,,dzdy
=o---------------- - -(5)
Since sln 2 8 Is maximum when 8 = 45’,
By dlvidlng each equation by du and noting that
7 = (umx - Urnin)/ - - - - - - - - - (3)

Stated In words, the maximum Value of the shear -dzdy = cos 0 and B = sin 8, we obtain:
dudy -
lng unit stress at a point In a stressed body
Is one-half the algebraic differences of the (u~+~) co8 8 + ('t - Zxz) Sin 8 = 0 - - - -(6)
maximum and minimum prlnclpal unlt stresses.
 Cl. ‘7 Mohr’s Circle for Determination of Principal
bn - uz) sin 8 - (z - zxz) cos 8 = 0 - - -(7) Stresses.
It is sometimes convenient to solve
The maximum normal stress Un will be maxlmum
graphically for the principal stresses and the
when 8 equals such angle 8’ as to make z = zero. Mohr’s circle furnishes
maximum shear stress.
Thus if T = 0 and 8 = 8’ In equations (6) and
a graphlcal solution. (Fig. C1.9a). In the
(71, we obtain, Mohr method, two rectangular axes x and z are
chosen to represent the normal and shearing
(an - ox) cos 8’ - ~~~ sin 8’ = 0 - - - - -(8) Taking point 0 as the
stresses respectively.
origin lay off to scale the normal stresses ux
(an - a,) sin 8’ - Txz cos 8’ = 0 - - - - -(9)
and uz equal to OB and OA respectively. If ten-
In equations (8) and (9) Un represents the slon, they are laid off to right of point 0 and
principal stress. Dividing one equation by to the left If compression. From B the shear
stress ~~~ is laid off parallel to 0, and with
another to eliminate 8’ ,
the sense of the shear stress on the face DC of
Fig. C1.9b, thus locatlng point C. With point
on - ox = Txz whence, E the midpoint of AB as the center and with
7x3 % - fJz radius EC describe a circle cutting OB at F and
Uris - u~)u~+u+J~=T~~*, or G. AD will equal BC and will represent the
(ox -
shear on face AB of Flb. b. It can be proven
that OF and OG are the prlnclpal stresses omax,
u, = ax ; 0% +-\I(” 2 “z) =+ Txz”- - (10)
and %in, respectively and EC is the maxlmum
shear stress ~~~~~~ The prlnclpal stresses occur
on planes that are parallel to CF and CG. (See
In equation (lo), tensile normal stress is
plus and compresslon minus. For maximum Un use Figs. c and d). The maximum shear stress occurs
plus sign before radical and minus sign for on two sections parallel to CH and CI where HE1
mlnlmum a,. is perpendicular to OB. If ax should equal zero
then 0 would colnclde with A.
To find the plane of the principal stress- Z
es, the value of 8’ may be solved for from
equations (8) and (9), which gives: un(max)

tan 2 8’ = 2 ‘xz - - _ - - _ _ _ - _ _ _ (11) h

ax - uz
8’ is measured from the plane of the
largest normal stress ux or uz. The dlrectlon
of rotation of 8’ from this plane 1s best de-
termlned by inspection. Thus If only the
shearing stresses zxz were acting, the maximum
principal stress would be one of the 45’ planes,
the particular 45’ plane belng easily deter-
mined by inspection of the sense of the shear
stresses. Furthermore If only the largest
normal stress were acting It would be the maxl-
mum principal stress and 8’ would equal zero.
Thus if both u and z act, the plane of the
prlnclpal stress will be between the plane on
which u acts and the 45O plane. As stated (4
before u refers to either ox or uz whichever
is the largest. Z Fig. Cl. 9
Maximum Value of Shearing Stress. (‘rmax.)
Cl. 8 Components of Stress From Principal Stresses by
Mohr’s Circle.
The maximum value of 7 from equation (3)
equals, In certain problems the principal stresses
may be known as in Fig. Cl.9 and It is desired
to find the stress components on other planes
deslgnated by angle 8. In Fig. Cl.11 the axes
Substituting the maximum and mlnlmum values of x and z represent the normal and shear stresses
u, from (10) in (12), we obtain maximum shear- respectively. The principal stresses are laid
ing stress as follows: off to scale on ox giving points D and E respec-
tively. Construct a circle with A the midpoint
*max. = +
- yJ(%p)’ + TxzS - - (13) of DE and with diameter ED. Draw angle CAB equal
Cl.4 COMBINED STRESSES. THEORY C lIELD AND ULTIMATE FAILURE.

to 28. It can be proven that OB represents the 7;= = 5000

normal stress on the plane deft of Fig. C1.10,
and CB represents the shear stress 7 on this P
i!- \
plane. ox = 10000 ----4X = 10000
-!I-----
‘I tJ
XN
Fig. Cl. 12 zxz = 5000

Z
I

Uz, Ux are principal

Fig. Cl. 10 u-z stresses.

un on plane (deft) 13

Substituting values,

Un =
10000 + 0 +
- 4 10000 + 0 > * + 5ooo2 = 5000
2 2

+ 7070 hence, Un(max.) = 5000 + 7070 = 12070 psi

uz+ax ---k,j
2 u,(~~~.) = 5000 - 7070 = - 2070 psi
ox -
~ ) (Ref.Eq.12)
i Fig. Cl. 11 %ax . = (“‘)(‘n(max.) - On(min.)
= (l/2)(12070 - (-2070)) = 7070 psi
Cl. 9 Example Problems.
Tmax.can also be computed by equation (131,
EXamDle Problem 1.

The maximum normal and shear stresses will be

determined
Fig. C1.12.
for the block loaded as shown in
whence,
%ax. = -+VT 10000 + 0 ) 8 + 5ooo* _- +
2
- 7070 psi

The graphlcal solution making use of Mohr’ tan 28” = uf ?z = 10000

2 x 5ooo =1
circle Is shown in Fig. C1.13. From reference Z - 0
axes x and z thru point 0, the given normal
stresses ux = 10000 Is laid off to scale on ox hence, Bn = 22.5’.
and toward the right giving point B. From B th
shear stress zxz = 5000 is laid off parallel to Example Problem 2.
oz to locate point C. With E the mldpolnt of
OB as the center of the circle and wlth radius The maxlmum normal and shear stresses will
EC a circle is drawn which cuts the Ox axis at be determlned for the block loaded as shown In
F and G. The maximum and minlmum PrlnClPal Fig. C1.14.
stresses are then equal to OF and oG which 80 u, = 20000
equals 12070 and -2070 respectively. The maxl- $:
mum shear stress equals EC or 7070.

Algebraic solution: From eq. (lo),

Ux
Un =
---& = 12000
Fig. Cl. 14
t
fJz = 20000
 Cl. 5

Fig. Cl.15 shows the graphical solution u= - uy + UZ)cP + (u$Jy + aya, + uxuz
(u.x +
using Mohr’ s circle. From point 0, ox = 10000
and CJ~q -20000 are laid off equal to OB and OA
- ryz2 - Yxy2)U - (u,uya, + 2ry’yzYxzrxy - axryze
respectively. ~~~ equal to 12000 is laid off - uyyxz* - u,yxyz = 0 - - - - - - - - - - -(14)
parallel to OZ at B locating C. W?th E the
midpolnt of AB as the center of a circle of
radius EC a circle 1s drawn which cuts the ox
axis at F and D. The maximum normal and shear
stresses are indicated on the figure.

Y Fig. Cl. 16

Fig. Cl.17 shows the principal stress

X- system which replaces the system of Fig. C1.16.
It can be shown that the maximum shear stress
max. is one of the following values.
+ 1
Ymax. = -z (UI - U.1

or rmax. = +- 21 (a, - a,) ---- - -(Xi)

Or rmax. q
+1
- z (03 - 0,)

I
The planes on which these shear stresses
act are indicated by the dashed lines in Fig.
Algebraic Solution C1.18, namely, adhe, bdge and dcef. The
largest of the shear stresses in equations (15)
depends on the nagn1Lude and signs of the
prlnclpal stresses, remembering that tension
Is plus and compression is minus when maklng
= 10000 - 20000 + 10000- (-20000) *+ 12000P the substitution in equatlons (15).
2 - 4 2 >
= - 5000 + 19200

hence 9 un (max. ) = -5000 - 19200 = -24200 psi

un(min. ) = -5000 + 19200 = 14200
Fig. Cl. ,18
Tmax. = + 19200, tan 28’ ,o”,ox- ~~$$~oo) = .8 Fig. C

Q’ = .a0- 50’ Cl. 11 Principal Strains

Cl. 10 Triaxial or Three Dimensional Stresses The strains under combined stresses are
usually expressed as strains in the direction
For bodies which are stressed 1n three of the principal stresses. Consider a cese of
directions, the state of stress can be defined simple tension as illustrated In Fig. C1.19.
completely by the six stress components as The stress ar causes a lengthening unit strain
Illustrated In Fig. C1.16. Using the same E in the direction of the stress uI, and a
procedure as was carried out for a two-dimen- shortening unit Strain E’ In a direction at
slonal stress system, it can be shown that there right angles to the stress uL.
are three prlnclpal stresses ur, bn and us,
whose values are the three roots of u In the The rat10 of E’ to E is called Poisson’s
following cubic equation. ratlo and is usually given the symbol 1. Thus,
CL= E’/E
Cl. 6 COMBINED STRESSES. THEORY 0 IELD AND ULTIMATE FAILURE.

The strain energy can be expressed in

terms of stress by substituting values of E in
terms of u from equations (17) into equation
(19), which gives,

u =- BE
l 0: + o”,+ a,” - 2~(0,0. + uaua + USUl)

-----------------
;--f-r--’
uI Fig. Cl. 19
-cm)

Since E = al/E, we obtain, For a two dlmenslonal stress system,

0s = 0 and equation (20) becomes
E’ = p 0,/E _ - _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ -(16)
IJ== 1 (5: - 2/J u,a, + 5;) - - - - -(21)
Now consider the cubical element in Fig.
Cl.20 subjected to the three prlnclpal stresses
%, us and oa, all being tension. The total Cl. 13 Structural Design Philosophy. Limit and Ultimate
unit strain E, in the direction of stress CT, Loads. Factors of Safety. Margin of Safety.
will be expressed. Obviously, CT, tends to
stretch the element in the directlon of u, The basic philosophy governing the
whereas stresses ue and ua tend to shorten the structural design of a flight vehicle is to
element In the direction of u,, hence, develop an adequate light weight structure that
will permit the vehicle to accomplish the
operations or mlssions that were establlshed
El =- 01 -- --, whence
E 5’ %’ as deslgn requirements. The job of a
commercial alrllner Is to carry passengers and
cargo from place to place at the lowest cost.
El =Eul - pa, + us) - To carry out this job a certain amount of
flight and ground maneuvering is required and
and similarly for E, and E,, the loads due to these maneuvers must be
carried safely and efflclently by the structure.
A military fighter airplane must be maneuvered
in flight far more severely to accomplish Its
desired job as compared to the commercial alr-
liner, thus the flight acceleration factors
for the military fighter airplane will be
For a two-dimensional stress system, that

_---
considerably higher than that of the alrllner.
Is, stresses acting in one plane, u, = 0 and In other words, every type of flight vehicle
the principal strains become, will undergo a different load environment,
which may be repeated frequently or infre-
El = ; (u, - pu,) quently during the life of the vehicle. The
load environment may involve many factors such
as flight maneuvering loads, air gust loads,
-(18) take off and landlng loads, repeated loads,
hlgh and low temperature conditions, etc.

Llmft Loads. Limit loads are the calculated

maximum loads which may be subjected to the
Equations 17 and 18 give the stralns when flight vehicle In carrying out-the Job it is
all the principal stresses are tensile stresses designed to accomplish during Its life time
For compressive principal stresses use a minus
of use. The term limit was no doubt chosen
slgn when substltutlng the principal stresses because every flight vehicle is limited
in the equations. relative to the extent of its operations. A
Cl. 12 Elastic Strain Energy flight vehicle could easily be designed for
loads greater than the limit loads, but such
extra strength which la not necessary for
The strain energy In the elastic range for safety would only Increase the weight of the
the unit cube in Fig. Cl.20 when subjected to structure and decrease the commercial or
combined stresses Is equal to the work done by military payload or in general be detrlmental
the three gradually applied principal Stresses to the design.
ul , a, and 0, . These stresses produce Strains
equal to E, , E, and E, and thus the work done Factor of Safety. Factor of safety can be
per unit volume equals the strain energy. Thu: defined as the ratio considered In structural
if U equals the strain energy, we obtain, design of the strength of the structure to
the maxlmum calculated operatlonal loads,
that Is, the limit loads.
 Cl. 7

Yield Factor of Safety. This term is defined Incapable of performing its required function.
as the ratio of the yield strength of the Failure may be due to rupture or collapse or
structure to the 1Imlt load. due to excessive deflectjon or distortion.

Ultimate Factor of Safety. This term is Cl. 15 Determination of the Ultimate Strength of a Structural
deflned as the ratio of the ultimate strength Member Under a Combined Load System. Stress
of the structure to the limit load. Ratio-Interaction Curve Method.

Yield Load. This term Is defined as the limit Since the structural designer of flight
load multiplied by the yield factor of safety. vehicles must insure that the ultimate loads
can be carried by the structure tilthout failure,
Ultimate Load. This term can be defined as the It is necessary that reliable methods be used
limit load multiplied by the ultimate factor to determine the ultimate strength of a
of safety. Thls resulting load Is often structure. Structural theory as developed to
referrea to by engineers as the design load, date is In general sufficiently developed to
hhlch is misleading because the flight vehicle accurately determine the ultimate strength of
structure must be designed to satisfy both a structural member under a single type of
yield and ultimate failure and either one may loading, such as axial tension or compression,
be crltlcal. pure bending or pure torsion. However, many
of the members which compose the structure of
Yield Margin of Safety. This term usually a flight vehicle are subjected simultaneously
expressed In percent reoresents the additional to various combinations of axial, bendlng and
ylkld strength of the structure over that torslonal load systems and thus a method must
strength requlred to carry the limit loads. be available to determine the ultimate strength
of a structure under combined load systems.
Yield Strength _ 1 A strictly theoretical approach appears too
Yield MargIn of Safety =
Limit Load difficult for solution since failure may be
due to overall elastic or inelastic buckling,
Ultimate Margin of Safety. Thls term usually or the local elastic or lnelastlc instability.
expressed in percent represents the additional
ultimate strength of the structure over that The most satisfactory method developed to
strength required to carry the ultimate loads. date Is the so-called stress ratio.
- -’
inter- -
action curve method, originally developed and
Ultimate Strength-l presents Shanley. In thls method the
Ultimate Margin of Safety=
Ultimate Load stress conditions on the structure are repre-
sented by stress ratios, which can be con-
Cl. 14 Required Strength of Flight Structures. sidered as non-dimentional coefficients
denotlng the fraction of the allowable stress
Under Llmlt Loads:- or strength for the member which can be
The flight vehicle structure shall be developed under the given condltlons of com-
designed to have sufficient strength to carry bined loading.
simultaneously the limit loads and other
accompanying environmental phenomena for each For a single simple stress, the stress
design condltlon without undergoing excessive ratio can be expressed as,
elastic or plastic deformatlon. Since most
materlals have no definite yield stress, It is
R = stress ratio = + - - - - - - -(22)
common practice to use the unit stress where a
.002 Inches per inch permanent set exists as
the yield strength of the material, and 1n where f Is the applied stress and F the
general this yield strength stress can be used allowable stress. The margIn of safety in
as the maximum stress under the llmlt loads terms of the stress ratio R can be written,
unless definitely otherwlse speclfled.
M.S. = + _ 1.0 _ _ _ _ _ - _ - - -(x5)
Under Ultimate Loads : -
The fllaht vehicle structure shall be
designed to wlthstand simultaneously the Load ratios can be used instead of stress
ultimate loads and other accompanying environ- ratios and is often more convenient.
mental phenomena without failure. In general
no factor of safety Is applied to the snvlron- For example for axial loading,
mental phenomena but only to the limit loads.
R = P/Pa 9 where P = applied axial load
Failure of a Structure:- and Pa the allowable load.
This term In general refers to a state or
condition of the structure which renders It
Cl.8 COMBINED STRESSES. THEORY 0: IELD AND ULTIMATE FAILURE.

For pure bending, 1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory

2. Maximum Shearing Stress Theory
R = M/M?, , where M = applied bendlng 3. Maximum Strain Theory
moment and Ma the allowable bending moment. 4. Total Strain Energy Theory
5. Strain Energy of Distortlon Theory
For pure torsion, 6. Octahedral Shear Stress Theory

R = T/Ta , where T is applied torsional The reader may revlew the explanation and
moment and T, the allowable torsional moment. derivation of these 6 theories by referring
to such books as listed at the end of this
For combfned loadings the general chapter.
conditions for failure are expressed by
Shanley as follows:- Test results indicate that the yield
strength at a point in a stressed structure
R’: + R: + RZ, + -_---_ = 1.0 _ - _ -(24) is more accurately defined by theories 5 and
6 followed In turn by theory 2. Since
In this above expression, R,, R, and R, theories 5 and 6 glve the same result, they
could refer to compression, bendlng and shear might be considered as the same general theory.
and the exponents x, y, and z give the In thls chapter we will only give the resulting
relationship for combined stresses. The equations as derived by theory 6, since
equation states that the failure of a theories 5 and 6 appear to be the theories
structural member under a combined loading will used in flight vehicle structural design.
result only when the sum of the stress ratios
is equal to or greater than 1.0. Cl. 17 The Octahedral Shear Stress Theory.

For some of the simpler combined load Since this theory gives the same results
systems, the exponents of the stress ratios in as the well known energy of distortlon method
equation (24) can be determined by the various It is often referred to as the Equivalent
well known theories of yield and failure that Stress Theory. The octahedral shear stress
have been developed. However, in many cases theory may be stated as follows:- In elastic
of combined loading and for particular types action at any polnt in a body under combined
of structures the exponents in equation (24) stress actlon begins only when the octahedral
must be determined by makIng actual failure shearlng stress becomes equal to 0.47 f,,
tests of combined load syst’ems. where f, is the tensile elastic strength of
the material as determlned from a standard
Since the stress ratio method was pre- tenslon test. Since the elastic tensile
sented by Shanley many years ago, much testlng strength is somewhat indefinite, It Is common
has been done and as a result reliable inter- practice to use the engineering yield strength
action equations with known exponents have Fty. In thls theory It is assumed that the
been obtained for many types of structural tensile and compressive yield strengths are
members under the various combined load the same.
systems. In a number of the following chapters
the interaction equations which apply will be Figs. Cl.21 and Cl.22 illustrate the
used In determinlng the ultimate strength cond1tlons of equllibrlum involving the octa-
design of structural members. hedral shear stress. In Fig. C1.21, the cube
Is subjected to the 3 principal stresses as
Cl. 16 Determination of Yield Strength of a Structural shown. A tetrahedron is cut from the cube
Member Under a Combined Load System. and shown In Fig. C1.22. Three of the sides
of this tetrahedron are parallel to the
As explafned In Art. C1.14, the flight
vehicle structure must carry the limit loads 3
without yleldlng, which In general means the 3
yield strength of the material cannot be f3
exceeded when the structure Is subjected to I f act fI
the llmlt loads. In some parts of a flight
/
vehicle structure involving compact unit or /
pressure vessels, biaxial or triaxlal stress fzC---
I
;
’ fz
fa
conditions are often produced and it Is / fsoct
necessary to determine whether any yleldlng 2 _------ 2
/‘- ---- 0’
will occur under such combined stress action /’ /’
f, J,/
when carrying the limit loads. For cases 1’
.:::--‘B 1 I
where no elastic instabillty occurs, the f3
f3
following well known theories of failure have
been developed. Fig. Cl. 22
Fig. Cl. 21
principal axes, while the normal to the fourth For a trlaxial stress system,
side makes equal angles with the principal
axes. The octahedral shear and normal stresses
are the resulting stresses on the fourth side.
------_------- - -(31)
The equation for the value of the normal
octahedral stress Is, For a biaxial stress system, fy, f,
fsyx = 0 YZ’

fact = + (f, + fz + f,) - - - - - -(es) 7 = J P; + f; - f,fz + 3f;xz - - -(32)

The equation for the octahedral shear Cl. 18 Example Problem 1.

stress Is,
A cylindrical stiffened thin sheet fuse-
lage is fabricated from 2024 aluminum alloy
f S act =-1Je
3 .-r,)“+(f,-f,)“+(f,-f,)e _ -(26) sheet which has a tensile yield stress
Fty = 40000. Find the yield margin of safety
Now the octahedral shear stress Is 0.47 under the following llmlt load conditions.
of the normal stress.
(1) A limit bendlng moment produces a bendlng
Let 7 be the effective axial stress In stress of 37000 psi (tension) at top
unlaxial tension or compresslon which results point of fuselage se&Ion. The flexural
In the given octahedral shear stress. shear stress Is zero at this point.

(2) Same as cond1tlon (1) but pressurization

?=f Sect/0.47 =$ fsoct - - - - -(27)
of fuselage produces a circumferential
tenslon stress of 8600 psi and a longl-
tudinal tension stress of 4300 psi.
Therefore multiplying Eq. (26) by
3/a we obtain for a condition of principal
(3) Same as condition (2) but a yawlng
triaxial stresses,
maneuver of airplane produces a limit
torslonal shearlng stress of 8000 psi
f=-& J(f,-f,)e+(f,-f,)P+(f,-f,)8 - - - -(28) In fuselage skin.

SOLUTION: Condition (1)

Let F equal the allowable tensile or
compressive stress. If the yield strength is
This is a unlaxlal stress condition for
being determined then
point belng considered.
F
Margln of Safety M.S.= -=f-- 1 - - -(29) FtY
Yie1dM.S. =ft-l=$$$$- 1 = .08

For a biaxial stress system taking f, =O, SOLUTION: Condition (2)

we obtain,

7 = Jl-: + f; - f,f, - - - - - - -(30) There are no flexural shear stresses at

the fuselage point being considered. Since
It Is often more convenient to use the x, y no torslon 1s being applied
to fuselage no torsional fz
and z component of stresses instead of the
principal stresses. Fig. Cl.23 illustrates shear stresses exist. The
the various component stresses. stress system at the point
belng considered 1s thus a fr- -f1
blaxlal stress system and
f, and f, are principal
stresses.

f, = 37000 + 4300 = 41300 psi

L
f, q 8600 psi
0 fx
From equatlon (30),

i = J f: + f,” - f,f,

Fig. Cl . . 23 = J 41300* + 86009 - 41300 x 8600

Cl. 10 COMBINED STRESSES. THEORY 01 IELD AND ULTIMATE FAILURE.

whence 7 = 37700 psi The vessel wall is to be stressed to the

yield stress of 42000, thus 7 = 42000.
M.S. + 1 = 40000
- - 1 = .06
37700 Whence

SOLUTION: Condltlon (3) (42000)B q @* + ($,* - ($,($)

Since a torsional
shear stress has now Solving, p = 970 psi.
been added, the new
stress Is still two PROBLEMS
dimentlonal, however fx -
the given tenslon (1) The combined stress loading at a polnt
stresses are not in a structure is as follows:- f, =
principal stresses -1000, f, = -2500, f, = 2000. Determine
due to the addltlon the magnitude and dlrectlon of the
of the torsional shear principal stresses. Determine the
stress. maxlmum shearing stress. Solve both
analytically and graphlcally.
fx=41300 psi. f,=8600 psi. f,=8000 psi.
(2) Same as Problem 1, but change f, to 4000
Instead of findlng the principal stresses and fx to -3000 and f, to 2500.
and using Eq. (30), we will use the fx and f,
stresses and use Eq. (32) (3) A solid circular shaft Is subjected to a
limit bendlng moment of 122000 inch
+Jf;+f;- fxf, + 3fi pounds and a torslonal moment of 250,000
Inch pounds. If diameter Is 4 Inches
= 4 41300a+ 86008- 41300x8600+3x8000* and the yield tensile stress Is 42,000,
what is yield Margln of Safety.
40000 - 1 = -.Ol A thin walled cylinder of dlameter 6
7 = 40200 psi. M.S. = -40200 (4)
inches is subjected to an axial tensile
load of 15,000 pounds, and a torslonal
Thus yield is indicated since M.S. Is moment of 12,000 inch pounds. What
negative. should be the wall thickness If the
permissible yield stress is 30,000 PSI.
Example Problem 2.

(5) A closed end cylindrical vessel Is 15

A cyllndrlcal pressure vessel is 100 inches in diameter and a wall thickness
inches in diameter and 1 inch thick. The of 0.25 inches. The vessel Is subjected
vessel is made of steel with Fty = 42000 psi. to an Internal pressure of 10,000 psi,
Determlne the internal pressure that ~111 and a tensile load of 22,000 pounds. If
produce yielding. the yield tensile stress of the material
is 75,000 p I, what torsional moment can
SOLUTION: This applied stress system Is be added without causing yield.
biaxial with no flexural or torsional shear.
REFERENCES: -
Let: p equal internal pressure f,
t = wall thickness = 1 in. Nadal, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Sollds.
d = dlameter = 100"
--f, Tlmoshenko, Strength of Materials.
fa = circumferential stress due
to pressure p Freudenthal, The Inelastic Behavior of
-+
Engineering Materlals and Structures.
Mar-in, J., Englneerlng Materials.
From Eq. 30
Seely & Smlth, Advanced Mechanics of Materials.
+J f: + f; - f,f,
 CHAPTER C2
STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WITH STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

C2.1 Methods of Column Failure. Column Equations. The range AB in Fig. C2.1 Is for a range
of L/p values of below 20 to 25, and repre-
In Chapter A18, the theory of the elastic sents a range where failure Is due to plastic
and inelastic instabillty of the column was crushing of the column. In other words, the
presented. The equations from Chapter A18 column is too short to buckle or bow under
for a pin end support condition are:- end load but crushes under the high stresses.
Thls column range of stresses is usually
For elastic primary failure, referred to as the block compresslon strength.

Fc=- nBE __------ ___- A column, however, may fall by local

(1) buckling or crippling due to distortion of
(L/p 1” the column cross-section In its own Plane.
The horizontal dashed line in Fig. C2.1
For Inelastic primary failure, represents the condition where the primary
cqlumn strength is llmitecl by the local weak-
F,= #Et ---_----_--- This line moves up or down according
(2) ness.
(L/p 1” to the value of the local weakness. The
determination of the column strength when
Where Fc = compressive unit stress at failure is due to local weakness Is covered
failure = P/A stress. in another chapter.
E = Young’s modulus
C2.2 Column End Restraint. Fixity Coefficients.
Et = tangent modulus Column Effective Length.

L = column length
The column strength Is influenced by the
P = radius of gyration of cross- end support restralnt agalnst rotation and by
section any lateral supports between the column ends.
The letter c is commonly used to indicate the
Fig. C2.1 shows a typlcal plot of F, end flxlty coefficient, and c = 1.0 for zero
versus L/p . If the column dimensions are such end restraint against rotation, which can be
as to cause it to fail in range CD in Fig. produced mechanlcally by a pin or ball and
C2.1, the primary failure Is due to elastic socket end support fitting. Thus including
Instability and equatlon (1) holds. This the end restraint effect equations (1) and (2 1
range of L/p values is often referred to by can be written,
engineers as the long column range.
cnaE ,F,dnsEt ---
A C
F, = ~ - - (3 1
I
(L/p 1” (L/p 1”
I P

--- Local Crippling Limit Let L’ = effective length of the column

which equals the length between inflection
points of the deflected column under load.
Fc
Then L’ = L/C - - - - - - - - - - (4)
2
Thus equation (3) can be wrltten as,
0
L’/ p
718E = naEt
Fig. C2.1
Fc = - (5)
(L’/p)8 ’ Fc (L’/pJ2 - -
The range BC represents the range of L/p If we let P = failing or critical load,
values where failure is due to inelastlc in- equatlon (5) can be wrltten as equation (6)
stability of the column as a whole and equation by realizing that P = F,A and p = m.
(2) applies. This range BC is often referred
to as the short column range. neEI n*EtI
p=- p=- ------ (6)
/I’\=
Y I
’ IT’ je
\
 c2.2 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WI TH STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. C2.2 shows the deflected column TABLE C2.1

curve under the load P for various end and
17-7 PH(TH1050) Stainless Steel Sheet
lateral support conditions. The effective
lengths L’ and
are also listed.
the end flxlty coefficients T 3 =laop
Ooo
cy = 160,000 E = 29 x 10’

Fc Et u/p = ndx

20,000 29 x los 119.56

30,000 29 x lo8 97.62
40,000 29 x 10 8 84.54
50,000 29 x 10 8 75.62
60,000 29 x lo8 69.03
70,000 29 x 10 B 63.91
80,000 29 x 10 B 59.78
89,600 29 x 10 8 56.49
96,000 27.55 x 10 8 53.19
102,000 26.10 x 10 B 50.22
- r,” -r,” -i,” -ig’ -,i;A 7tpr 107,400 24.65 x 10 8 47.57
112,200 23.20 x 10 B 45.15
117,000 21.75 x 10 8 42.81
C=l c=4 c=9 c=4 c=1/4 c=2.05
121,500 20.30 x 10 B 40.58
125,800 18.85 x 10 8 38.43
Fig. C2. 2 130,000 17.40 x 10 8 36.32
134,000 15.95 x 10 6 34.25
C2.3 Design Column Curves for Various Materials. 137,700 14.50 x 10 6 32.22
147,000 11.60 x 10 B 27.89
For routine design purposes It is con- 158,100 8.70 x 10 * 23.29
venient to have column curves of allowable 167,600 5.80 x 10 B 18.47
173,800 2.90 x 10 B 12.82
failing column stress Fc versus the effective
slenderness ratio l’/p. In equatlon (5) we
will assume values of Fc, then flnd the This equation Is plotted In Fig. C2.16.
tangent modulus Et corresponding to this For a given material, n, F,., and E must be
stress and then solve for the term L’/p. known. Then assuming values of F, we can
Table C2.1 shows the calculations for find corresponding values of Et,/E from F1g.
17.7 PH (TH1050) stalnless steel sheet at 22.16. For values of E, F,., and n refer to
room temperature. The results are then plotted Table B1.l In Chapter Bl.
in Fig. C2.7 to give the column strength curve.
Slmllar data was calculated for the material C2.5 Non-Dimensional Column Curves.
under certain exposure time to different
elevated temperatures and the results are also Quite useful non-dimentional column
plotted ln Fig. C2.7. Figs. C2.3 to C2.15 curves have been derived by Cozzone and
glve column curves for other materials under Melcon (See Ref. 3).
various temperature conditions. Use of these
curves will be made in example problems later The Euler column equation Is
in this chapter. The horizontai dashed line F = n*Et/(L’/p)‘, which can be written,
Is the compressive yield stress. Values
above these cut-off lines should be sub- Et (L’/p )”
stantiated by tests. ---
F- nB
C2.4 Tangent Modulus Et from Ramberg-Osgood
Equation. The problem therefore resolves itself
into obtaining and expression for Et/F from
The basic Ramberg-Osgood relationship the non-dimensional relationship. TO do thls
multiply both sides of equatlon (7) by F,.,/F
for Et Is given as follows: (See Ref. 1)
and equate to B ‘.
Et 1
-= 1
- (7)
E F n-l ------ F n=B8 - - (8)
1+ $n (~1
0.7
F +$n (----I
F 0.7 F 0.7

Et = tangent modulus of elastlclty Fig. C2.17 shows a plot of thls equation

as taken from Ref. 3, and shows F/F,., versus
E = modulus of elastlclty B for various values of n.

For definition of other terms see Article The shape of the knee of the stress-
B1.12 of Chapter Bl. strain curve is given by the shape parameter
n and the abscissa B incorporates the
0
0 8
*c 8 8
.
C%. 6 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WITH STABLE CROSS-SECTION

110
50
100

80

10

LVQ
L’/P
Figure C2.14
Figure C2.15

Fc is in ksi
sl. 00 1.00
e
g 101
F . 90 .90

80 .80

EL
E 70 .70

. 60 .60

Et
ii ’ 50 . 50

. 40 .40

. 30 .30

20 .20

. 10 . 10

. 10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1. 50

F&J . 7 Fig. C2.16 (Ref. NACA T. N;902) 0 = s/s1

0

1.0

2’0
C2.8 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WI H STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

particular properties of the material Eo.7/F. Thus in Fig. C2.18, the deflection of
point (0) away from tangent at midpoint c
Inserting value of F = n‘%t/(L’/p)’ in equals unlty In our assumed condltlons and It
equatlon (a), also equals the first moment of the area of

Et )( >
na Et/(L’/p)*
F 0.7
E = Ba
the M/E1 diagram between (0) and (C) about (0).
(Fig. C2.19).

The value of the ordinate for M/E1 diagram

at any point x from 0 is -&sin y .
The total area under the curve ls,

The use of the curves in Fig. C2.17 will

be Illustrated later In the example problem area = j& fL sin 2x dx =~[-4~os2x] 1
0
solutions.

C2.6 Strength of Columns with Variable Cross-Section = & -{[; (- l)][- 4 (1,]/ =& (k+ ;)
or Moment of Inertia.
hence area = 2pL
nEI and half area = -%
To save weight In a bullt up column or JlEI
forged column, the member is tapered or is
made with a non-uniform cross-section. To The center of gravlty of the half area IS
find the ultimate strength of such colts,
it is usually necessary to use a trial and fi=/xda
error method. The general method of solution
involving a consideration of column deflection L/2
will be illustrated for a case of a long (g+i=$f x sln:x dx ,
column with uniform cross-section. 0

Fig. C2.18 shows a pin ended column In a L/2

L-
deflected neutral equilibrium position when TX’/ x sin z x dx
carrying the ultimate or critical load P. 0
Assume that the shape of the deflected column
follows a sine curve relationship with the Integrating thls simple expression and solving
deflection at midpoint equal to unity (see for x we obtain:
Fig. C2.18).
z = L/n
The equation of the deflected column
sin nx Taking moments about point (0) of the H/E1
curve is y =L. If P IS the end load, the
diagram between 0 and C about 0:
bending moment at any point = M = Py = P
sin E-5 PL L = PLS
L * y,=l=-.- - hence, P q ?!??
nE1 n n*EI LP
By the well known “moment area” principle
(see Chapter A7; Art. A7.14), the deflection which Is the Euler equation, and thus the
of a point (A) on the elastic curve away from assumed sine curve was the proper one for the
a tangent to elastic curve (B) equals the first deflected elastic curve of the column.
moment of the M/E1 diagram between (A) and (B)
about (A). Suppose that the elastic curve of de-
flected column had been assumed as a parabola
with unit deflectlon at mldpolnt. Fig. C2.20
P shows the M/E1 diagram.
sl(IL The area of one-half the diagram =
cuwe

r -9’1
$ ($Lx&) =$

-“.
L i+ c Taking moments about 0 of the area between 0
and C;
Fig. C2.18 Fig. C2. 19 PL hence,
yo=l=m.
 c2.9

48EI 9 6 EI ,
-A----- (9) Solve for load P by writing an expression
P=== which compares with P = for the deflection at the center point
LB 9. SEI/L ’ of the Euler which equals unity. Thls Is done by
equation or an error of using the moment area principle as was
3 percent. done in the previous example problem in-
volvlng a column with uniform section.

In the above outlined procedure, E has

been assumed constant or, in other words, the
column failure is elastic or failing stresses
are below the proportional limit stress of the
material. The practical problem usually
Involves a slenderness ratio where failure is
due to inelastic bending and thus E Is not
constant. For this case, a trial and error
method of solution in necessary using the
tangent modulus of elasticity which varies
Fig. C2.20
with stress In the inelastic stress range.

C2. ‘7 Design Column Curves for Columns with Non-

We can now apply the same procedure to Uniform Cross-Section.
a column with non-uniform cross-section. The
steps In this procedure for a column Figs. C2.21 and C2.22 give curves for
symmetrical about the center point are as rapid solutlon of two types of stepped columns.
Pollows: - Figs. C2.23 and C2. 24 gives curves for the
rapid solution of two forms of tapered columns.
(1) Assume a sine curve for the deflected Use of these curves will be illustrated later
column wlth unit deflection at center in this chapter,
point.
C2.8 Column Fixity Coefficients c for Use with Columns
(2) Plot a moment of inertia (I) curve for with Elastic Side Restraints and Known End
Bending Restraint.
column cross-section.

(3) Flnd the bending moment curve due to end Figs. C2.25 and C2.26 give curves for
load P times the lateral deflection. finding fixity coefficient c for columns with
one and two elastic l.ateral restralnts and
(4) Divide these moment values by the EI Fig. C2.27 gives curves for findlng c when
values to obtain M/E1 curve. The modulus restraining moments at column ends are known.
of elastlclty E is considered constant. Use of these various curves will be
illustrated later.
(5) Find the deflected column curve due to
this M/E1 loading. C2.9 Selection of Materials for Elevated Temperature
Conditions.
(6) Compare the shape of the derived column
defl.ection curve with that originally Light welght is an important requirement
assumed as a sine curve. Thls can be In aerospace structural design. For columns
done by multiplying the computed de- that fall in the inelastic range of stresses,
flections by a factor that makes the a comparison of the Fey/w ratio of materials
center deflection equal to unlty. Since gives a fairly good picture of the efficiency
the assumed sine curve Is not the true of compression members when subjected to
column deflectlon curve, the computed elevated temperature conditions. In this
deflection will differ somewhat from the ratio Fey is the yield stress at the particular
sine curve. temperature and w is the weight per cu. inch
of the material. Fig. C2.28 shows a plot of
(7 ) With the computed deflection curve, F, /w for temperature ranges up to 6000 F.
modlfled to give unity at center point, wi t h l/2 hour time exposure for several im-
repeat steps 3, 4, 5 and 6. The results portant aerospace materials.
this time will show derlved deflection
curve still closer to the assumed C2.10 Example Problems.
deflection curve.
PROBLEM1.
(8) To obtain the desired accuracy, the pro-
cedure in step (7) will Usually have to Fig. c2.29 shows a forged (I) sectlon
be repeated agaln. member 30 inches long, which Is to be used as
 CRITICAL LOADS-NON-UNIM)RM COLUMNS
CRITICAL
-- LOADSaNON-UNIFORM COLUMNS
Fig. C2.21 ed-PinEnded
Fig. C2.22
Single Stepped - Pin Ended

B(U)1
Pcr-- ,2

n 5

0
5 6 7 0
@a/ml2

CRITICAL LOADS-NON-UNIFORM COLUMNS CRITICAL LOADS-NON-UNIFORM COLUMNS

Constant Thickness - Taper in Plan-Form Solid Prisms Tapering in Wi@h and Thickness WI)1
*cc
s(U), Solid CyIinders Tapering to Cones pcr- $ Fig. C2.24
L2

B 8

1 2 3 b 5 6 7 0 g I.Q IJ u 13 14

Fig. C2.23 cn$/irr,,

Reference - N. American Avaiation Structures Manual

 c2.11

%.
G

rl
.
 c2.12 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WIT1 STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. C2.28 Solution:

(1) AISI Steel, Ftu= 180,000
Since the column may fail by bending about
(2) 17.7PH. Stainless Steel, Ftu=210,000 either the X or Y axes, the column strength for
(3) 7075-76 Alum. Alloy bending about each of these axes will be calcu-
(4) AZ31.B Magnesium Alloy
lated. Since the column strength is a function
of the radius of gyration of the cross-sectlon,
(5) 6AL-4VTitanium Alloy the first step in the solution will be the cal-
culation of Ix and Iy, from whichox and py can
be found.
800
Calculating Ix: In Fig. C2.30 the section will
be first considered a solid rectangle 2.5 x
2.75 and then the properties of portions (1)
and (2) will be subtracted.
600
1
Ix (rectangle) = TX 2.5 x 2.75” = 4.32
Ic,

Portions (1 ) and (2)

1 .25x1.29Za) =
Ix = -x7 x 1 5 x 1.2s3 -4(.625x
-1.29

(I, of (2) bout its x centroidal axis is

negligible)

I, = 4.32 - 1.29 = 3.03 in/

100 200 a00 400 500 600

TEMP. OF
px = J I,, Area A = 2.5x2.75-2x.75x1.25-
A 4x .25x.625) = 4.375 sq.
in.
a compression member. Find the ultimate
strength of the member if made from the px = J/ 3.03/4.375 = .83 in.
following materials and subJected to the given
temperature and time conditions. Calculation of Iv:
Case 1. Material 7079.T6 Alum. Alloy hand
forging and roOm temperature. Iy (solid) = $ x 2.75 x 2.5’ = 3.58

Case 2. Same as Case 1, but subjected l/2 Portion (1) = -(1.25x.75~.875’)2 -(1.25x
hour to a temperature of 300°F. .75”/12)2 = - 1.52

Case 3. Same as Case 2, but for 6000F. Portion (2) = -(.25x .625x .833a)4-4(.25~
1.258/36) = - 488
Case 4. Material 17-4 PH stainless steel,
hand forging at room temperature. IY = 3.58 - 1.52 - .488 = 1.58 in?
py = j/ 1.58/4.375 = .60”
Column strength is considerably influenced
by the end restraint conditions. For failure
by bending about the x-x axis, the end restraint
against rotation is zero as the single fitting
bolt has an axis parallel to the x-x axis and
thus c the fixity coefficient is 1. For
failure by bending about the y-y axis we have
end restraint which will depend on the rigidity
of the bolt and the adJacent fitting and
x structure. For this example problem, this
restraint will be such as to make the end
fixity coefficient c = 1.5.

Fig. C2.30

---- ________
 c2.13

For failure about x-x aXIS, Thus we make use of the curves in Fig.
C2.17.
L’ = L/G= 30/c = 30, L’/p, = 30/.83
Case 1. Material 7079-T6 Alum. Alloy forglng.
= 36
Table B1.l of Chapter Bl summarizes certain
materlal properties. The properties needed
For failure about y-y axis, to use Fig. C2.17 are the shape factor n, the
moduls E, and the stress F,. , . Referring to
L’ = 30/m= 2406, L’/py = 24.6/.60 Table B1.l, we find that n = 26, Ec =
= 41 10,500,OOO and F,., = 59,500.

Therefore failure is critical for bending The horizontal scale in Fig. C2.17 in-
about y-y axis, with L’ /p = 41. volves the parameter,

Case 1. The material is 7079-T6 Alum. Alloy F

hand forglng . Fig. C2.14 glves the failing B,1 f- * (L’/p)
n
stress F, for this material plotted against
the L’/p ratio. Thus using L’/p = 41 and the
Substitutlng:-
room temperature curve, we read Fc = 50500 psi.
Thus the falling load if P = FcA = 50500 x
4.375 q 220,000 lbs. B = +z (41) = 1.01
, ,
Case 2. Uslng the 3000F curve in Flg. C2.14 Using Fig. C2.17 with 1.01 on bottom
for the same L’/p value, we read F, = 40,400,
scale and projecting vertically upward to
and thus P = 40,400 x 4.375 = 177,000. n = 26 curve and then horizontal to scale at
left slde of chart we read Fc/FO., = .842.
Case 3. Using the 600°F curve, F, reads 6100
and thus P = 6100 x 4.375 = 26700 lbs. Thus
subjecting this member to a temperature of Then F, = 59,500 x .842 = 50,100, as
600°F for l/2 hour reduces its strength from compared to 50,500 In the prevlous solution
using Fig. C2.14.
220,000 to 26,700 lbs., which means that
Alum. Alloy is a poor material for carrying
loads under such temperatures since the Case 2. From Table B1.l for this material
subjected to a temperature of 6000F for l/2
reduction in strength is quite large.
hour, we find n = 29, F, = 9,400,OOO and
F 0.7 = 46,500.
Case 4. Material 17-4 PH stainless steel
forging. Fig. C2.8 gives the column curves 46,500
for this material. For L’/p = 41 and using Then B = i J 9,400,000 (41) = .917
the room temperature curve we read F, =
135,200 and thus P = 135,200 x 4.375 =
591,000 lbs. From Fig. C2.17 for B = .917 and n = 29,
we read F,/F,., q .88, thus F, = 46,500 x .88
C2.10 Solution Without Using Column Curves. = 40,900 as compared to 40,400 In the prevlous
solution.
W’nen primary bending failure occurs at
stresses above the proportional limit stress, EXAMPLEPROBLEM2.
the failing stress Is given by equation (5)
which Is, Fig. C2.31 shows an extruded (I) section.
A member composed of this sectlon is 32 inches
F, = n’Et/(L’/p)* long. The member is
braced laterally in the I- 3 -I
14
Since Et is the tangent modulus of x direction, thus
elasticity, it varies with F,, and thus the failure will occur by
relation of Et to Fc must be known before the bending about x-x axis.
equation can be solved. To plot column curves The member is pin ended
for all materials In their many manufactured and thus c = 1. The
forms plus the various temperature conditions material is 7075-T6
would require several hundred Individual Extrusion. The problem
column charts. The use of such curves can be is to find the failing ‘Y
avolded if we know several values or parameters stress F, under room
regarding the material as presented by temperature conditions. Fig. C2.31
Ramsburg and Osgood and expanded by COZZOne
and Melcon (see Arts. C2.4 and C2.5) for use This (I) sectlon corresponds to Section
in column design. 15 In Table A3.15 in Chapter A3. Reference
c2.14 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WI [ STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

to this table glves, Is due to the fact that the stress existing
under a L'/p value of 51.7 Is near the pro-
A = .594 sq. In. Px = .618 portlonal limit stress or Et Is not much
different than E,, the elastic modulus.
L' = L, sln c = 1, L'/px = 32/.6X3 = 51.7
To Illustrate a situation where the 7075
Flg. C2.11 gives the column curves for materlal becomes more efficient In comparison
this material. For L'/p = 51.7 and room to the 2014 alloy, let us assume that our
temperature we read F, = 38,500 psl. member has a rlgld connection at Its end which
~111 develop an end restraint equivalent to a
Solution by using Flg. C2.17, flxlty coefficient c = 2.
From Table B1.l, n = 8.8, E, = 7,800,000 Then L' = 32/n= 22.6 and L'/p =
and F,., = 29,000. 22.6/.618 = 36.7.

B =; /x (51.7) = 1.00 For the 7075 material from Flg. C2.11, F, =

, , 58,300
From Fig. C2.17 we find FJF,., = .74 For the 2014 material, we use Fig. C2.17
Then F, = .74 x 29,000 = 21,450 psi
B = ; d=C (36.7) = .823.
Conslder the member Is subjected to a , ,
tem;?erature of 4500F for l/2 hour. From Flg. C2.17 for B = .823 and n =
From Fig. C2.11, Fc = 21400 psi 18.5, we read Fe/F,., = .87, when F, = .87 x
53,000 q 46,100 as compared to 58,300 for the
Using Fig. C2.17:- 7075 materlal, thus 7075 material would permit
llghter weight of required structural material.
From Table B1.l, n = 8.8, E, = 7,800,000 The student should realize that if the
ad F,., = 29,000. stress range is such as to make Et = E,, then
the bendlng failure Is elastic Instead of
B = ; Jx (51.7) = 1.00 Inelastic and equation (5), using Young's
, , modulus of elasticity E,, can be solved
directly wlthout resort to column curves or
From Fig. c2.17 we find F,/F,., q .74 a conslderatlon of Et, since Et Is equal to
Then F, = .74 x 29,000 = 21,450 psl EC -
The student should realize that equatlon
A very common aluminum alloy In aircraft (5) Is for strength under prlmary column
construction is 2014-T6 extrusions. Let it failure due to bending as a whole and not due
be required to determlne the allowable stress
F, for our member when made of this material. to local buckling or crippling of the member
or by twlstlng failure. The subject of
Since we have not presented column curves column design when local failure is involved
is covered In a later chapter.
for thls material, we will use Flg. C2.17.
From Table B1.l, for our materlal, we In example problem 2, we have assumed
that local crlppllng is not crltlcal, which
find n = 18.5, E, = 10,700,OOO and F, , = calculation ~111 show is true as explalned
53,000 and covered In a later chapter.

Then B = n' Jx (51.7) = 1.16 C2.12 Strength of Stepped Column.

, 9
The use of curves In Fig. C2.22 will be
From Fig. Cl.17 for B = 1.16 and n = 18.5, illustrated by the SOlutlOn for the strength
we read F,/F,., = .71, hence F, = .71 x of two stepped columns in order to Illustrate
53,000 = 37,600. both elastic and inelastic failure of such
columns.
The result shows that the 2014-T6 material
gave a falling stress of 37,600 as compared to Case 1. Elastic failure.
38,900 for the 7075-T6 materlal which has a
Fey of 70,000 as compared to Fey = 53,000 for Fig. C2.32 shows a double stepped pin
the 2014-T6 material. The reason for the ended column. The member is machlned from a
7075 material not showing much hlgher column 1 Inch diameter extruded rod made from
falling stress Fc over that for the 2014 ailoy
 c2.15

7075-T6 material. The problem Is to find the This is a relatively short column so the
maximum compressive load this member will failing stress should fall in the inelastic
carry. range where E Is not constant, therefore the
solution Is a trial and error procedure. We
Portion 2 Portion 1 will base our first guess or trial on an
average L/p value.

p for portlon 1 is 0.25 inches

L=60” p for portion 2 Is 0.1875

Fig. C2.32 Average p = (6 x .25 + 6 x 0.1875)/12
= 0.22
PORTION 1 PORTION 2
Then L/p = 12/0.22 = 54.5, use 55.
A, = .7054 in.2 A, = .4418
I L q .0491 in.4 I, = .0155 Flg. C2.11 1s a column curve for 7075-T6
EC = 10,~00,000 E, = 10,500,OOO Alum. Alloy extruded material. With L/p =
55, we read allowable stress Fc = 33,500 psi.
From Flg. C2.22, P,, = -B(EI 1) ~ This is Therefore
Ta
the Euler equatlon for failurebunder elastic P = Fc A q 33,500x0.7854 = 26,300 lb.
bendlng. If the ratio a/L equals 1 or a
uniform section, B becomes I? or 10 as shown f, q 33,500 and fz q 26,300/.4418
in Fig. C2.22. The curves In Fig. C2.22 = 59,500.
apply only to elastic failure. Since the
member In Fig. C2.32 Is rather slender we The stress f In portion 2 is above the
will assune the failure Is elastic and then proportional limit stress so a plasticity
check thls assumption. correction must be made in using the curves
In Fig. C2.22.
EI I 10,500,000 x .0491
-=
EIa 10,500,000 x .0155 = 3.17, a/L = 30/60 Referrlng to Table B1.l in Chapter Bl,
= 0.5 we find the following values for 7075-T6
extruslonsz- n = 16.6, F,., = 72,000,
From Fig. C2.22 for a/L = 0.5 and EII/EIe E, = 10,500,OOO.
= 3.17 we read B = 7.0
The tangent modulus Et will be found for
Whence, Per = -B EI, _- 7x10,500,000x.0491 = the stresses fl and fz.
LZ 60' For Portion 1, fl/F,., = 33,500/72,000
1000 lb. = .465
The stresses in each portion are, Referring to Fig. C2.16 and using 0.465
and n = 16.6, we read Et/E = 1.0, thus Et =
fl = 1000/0.7854 = 1280 psi E and thus no plasticity correction for
Portion 1.
f* = 1000/.4418 = 2270 psi
For Portion 2, f,/F,., q 59,5oo/72,om
These compressive stresses are below the q .826
proportional limit stress of the material so
E, Is constant and our solution is correct. From Flg. C2.16, we obtain Et/E = .675
whence, Et = .675 x 10,500,OOO = 7,090,OOO.
Case 2. Inelastic Failure.
EI, 10,500,000 x .0491
The column has been shortened to the -=
EI, 7,090,000 x .0155 = 4.7
dimensions as shown In Fig. C2.33. The
diameters and mater-la1 remain the same as In From Fig. C2.22 for a/L = .5, we obtaln
Case 1. B = 5.6.
Portion 1 Portion 2
B EI,
= 5.6x10,500,000x .O491
Then P,, = -
b=3” me a=6” 4b=3” LB 144
= 20,000 lb.
Fig. C2.33
C2.16 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WI [ STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

Our guessed strength was 26,300 lb. Cur C l-1/4 -.058 A l-1/4 -.058 B l-1/4 -.058 D
guessed strength and calculated strength must
be the same so we must try agaln.
;;
Trial 2. Assume a crltlcal load P =
23500 lb.

= 23500,'.7854 = 29900 E
f, I+---- 30" .-&- 30"--&- 30" --+"
f, = 23500/.4418 = 53100 Fig. C2.34

Portlon 1. f Do.7 = 29900/72000 = .415 The member AB Is welded to three adjacent

tubes at jolnts (A) and (B). Since these
From Fig. C2.16 f or n = 16.6, we read tubes are the same at jolnts (A) and (B), the
Et/E = 1.0. flxity at the ends (A) and (B) of member AB
Is the same.
Portlon 2. f,/F,., = 53100/72000 = .738
Referring to Flg. C2.27, the term p Is
From Flg. C2.16, Et/E = .90, whence deflned as the bendlng restraint coefflclent-
Et = .90 x 10,500,000 = 9,450,ooo. sprlng constant expressed as Inch pounds per
radlan. In Fig. A,
EIi 10,500,000 x .0491 the moment M re-
-= qulred to rotate EI (c0nstant) B
EI, 9,450,ooo x .0155 = 3*52- end (A) through 1 MC
t”+------II
radlan when far end
From Flg. C2.22 for a/L = *5, we read is fixed Is 4EI/L. Fig. A
B = 6.62. For derivation of
thls value refer to Art. All.4 of Chapter
6.62x10,500,000x.0491
The Per = -B EIL = 2 All. If the far end (B) Is pinned in
La 144 (Fig. A), a moment M = 3EI/L ~111 rotate end
(A) through one radlan. To be slightly
23,650 lb.
conservative, we ~111 assLrme the far ends of
members coming Into jolnts (A) and (B) as
This practically checks the assumed value, pinned. Thus p = SEI/L. The sum of p =
thus the answer Is between 23,500 and 23,650 SEI/L ~111 be computed for the 3 members
and If further accuracy Is desired another which form the support of member AB at end
trial should be carried through.
(A).
The other types of columns wlth non-
Member AC:- I = .03867, I/L = .001289
uniform cross-sectlons as shown in Figs.
C2.21, C2.23 and C2.24 are solved In a slmllar Member AE:- I = .02775, I/L = .00071
Member AF:- I q .02402, I/L = .000962
manner. These charts are to be used only with
pln ended columns. The end fixlty coefficient /J = Z SEI/L
c for tapered columns Is not the same as for
uniform section columns.
= 3(.001289+ .00071+ .000962) 29,000,OOO
C2.13 Column Strength With Known End Restraining p = 258,000
Moment.

In Fig. C2.27 we need term p L/EI. The

-Fig. C2.27 shows curves for findlng the
end fixity coefficient c for two conditions L/E1 refers to member AB. Thus CLL/E1 =
(258,000x30)/29,000,000x .0367 = 7.28.
of known end bending restraint.

To illustrate the use of these curves, We use the upper curve in Flg. C2.27
a simple problem will be solved. since restraint at both ends of member AB
is the same. Thus for p L/E1 = 7.28, we
read end fixlty coefficient c = 2.50.
Fig. C2.34 shows a 3-bay welded steel
tubular truss. The problem Is to determlne Then L' q L/G= 30/J-z% q 18.6.
the allowable compressive stress for member
AB. Thls strength is Influenced by the flxlty p for member = .422 Inches.
existing at ends A and B. The diameter and
wall thickness of each tube In the truss Is ~‘/p = 18.6,‘.422 = 44.0
shown on the figure. The material Is AISI
steel, Ftu = 90,000, Fty = 70,000, E = From column curve In Fig. C2.3, we read
29,000,000.
 c2.17

allo;uable failing stress to be F, = 55,200 C2.15 Problems.

PSI.
(1) 6061-T6 Aluminum Alloy sheet, heat-treated
If the far ends of the connecting members and aged has the following properties:
were assumed fixed Instead of plnned, then
~1 = 4EI/L, or we can multiply PreViOUS value (a) Under room temperature:- FO., =
of 7.20 by 4/3, which gives 9.7 which, used in 35,000 psi, E, = 10,100,000 psl, and
Fig. C2.27, gives c = 2.80. n = 31

L’/p = 30/-x .422 = 42.5. Then from (b) For l/2 hr.exposure at 300°F:- F,., =
Flg. C2.3, F, = 56,600 psi. Since the far 29,000, E, = 9,500,OOO and n = 26.
ends are less than fixed, the assumption that
far ends are pinned gives fairly accurate For the above two cases (a) and (b),
results. determine Et (tangent modulus values) from Fig.
C2.16 and then calculate and plot column curves
In a truss structure all members are for these 2 material condltlons.
carrying axial loads and axial loads affect
the ability of members to resist rotation of (2) Flg. C2.36 shows
their ends s Art. All.12 of Chapter All the cross-section
explains how to take account of the effect of a compression
of axial load upon the stiffness of a member member. Calculate
as required In calculating the end restraint the falling com-
coefficient p. presslve load under
the following
CZ. 14 Columns With Elastic Lateral Supports. cases : -

Figs. C2.25 and C2.26 provide curves for Case 1. L = 25 inches.

finding the end fixity coefficient c to take Material AISI Steel 4140, I---- +I
care of elastic lateral supports at polnts = 180,000. Take end* Y
Ftu
midway between the column ends. flxity coefficient c = 1 Fig. C2.36
for bending about x-x
To Illustrate the use of these charts, a axis and 1.5 about axis y-y.
round bar 0.5 Inches In diameter and 24 Inches
long Is braced laterally as shown In Fig. (3) Same as Problem (2) but member Is sub-
c2.35. The bar Is made of jected to a temperature of 850°F for
AISI Steel, heat treated to l/2 hour.
Ftu = 125,000. The spring
constant for the lateral -T- (4) Two extruded channel sections identical
support is 775 lbs. per 14 T to Section No. 50 In Table A3.11 in
inch. 4 L=24 Chapter A3, are riveted back to back
and used as a column member. If member
Moment of Inertia of l/2” + Is 26 inches long and end flxlty is
x = 10
rod = .003068, 1 c = 1 and material Is 7075-T6 extrusion,
Ii
what ls the failing compressive load.
Radlus of Gyration =
.125 inches. Fig. C2.35 If member 1s fastened rigidly to adjacent
structure which provldes a flxity c = 2,
I?La 775 x 24" what will be the falling load.
9=-K= 29,000,OOO x .003068 = 12’
(5) Consider the column In problem (4) is
From Fig. C2.25 for x/L = lo/24 = .416 made from 2O.l4-T6 Aluminum Alloy extrusion.
and q = 120, we find c = 2.92. Find failing load.

Then L’ = L/G = 24/d= = 14.00 (6) The pin ended single stepped column as
shown in Flg. C2.37 Is made of AISI-4130
L’/p = 14.08/0.125 = 113 normalized steel, Ftu = 90,000, Foy =
70,000. Determine the maximum compressive
nsE = n8x 29,000,000 load member ~111 carry.
F, = = 22,500
(L’/pP (113)8 PSI

If the stress Is above the proportional

t-- a=21”
limit stress for the material, then the trial
and error approach must be used as illustrated * L = 30”
3
In the problem dealing with a tapered column. Fig. C2. 37
C2.18 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS WITH STABLE CROSS-SECTIONS

(7) Same as Problem (5) but member is exposed (11) The cyllndrlcal tapered member in Fig.
l/2 hour to a temperature of 500°F. C2.39 is used as a compression member.
If member Is made from AISI Steel 4140,
(8) Same as Problem (5) but change dimension Ftu = 125,000, what Is the failing load.
(a) to 10 inches, and L to 14.28 inches.
1” Dia. Rod l/2” Dia. Rod
(9) Find the failing compressive load for
the doubly stepped column in Fig. C2.38
if member Is made from 7079-T6 hand
lb-9 +a;;‘-+b=G’
forging.

l-3/8 Dia. Rod Fig. C2. 39

1 -l/8 Dia. Rod
(12) Same as Problem (7) but change dimensions
to a = 6”, b = 4-O”, L = 14 inches.

References:
Fig. (X.38
(1) NACA Technical Note 902.
(2) Non-dimensional Buckling Curves, by
(10) Same as Problem (7) but change dimensions Cozzone ,Z Melcon, Jr. of Aero. Sciences,
a = 6”, b = 4”, L = 14”. October, 1946.
(3) Chart from Lockheed Alrcraft Structures
Manual.
 CHAPTER C3
YIELD AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH IN BENDING

C3.1 Introduction. compression. In this example solution, we will

find thl? internal resist in: moment when ‘We
MsnSers szjjv3Ct33 to bending alone or In limit the unit strain at the extreme edge on
combination Nith axial and torsional loads are tile compressive side of the beam section to
q-iit? co,mlon in flight vehicle structures S 0.010. Now plane sections remain plan’ after
Th? 1tmit Lesicn loads on a stri\-,tural member b?,ndinz in both elastic and inelastic stress
must 93 carried ?%ithout permanent distortion conditions when member is in pure bending.
an? the ultimate design loads must b-: carried ‘de will gu?ss ths neutral axis as located
withoat rupture or failures The well kno;vn 0.0375 inches above the centroidal axis as
bending stress equation f. = Me/I, assurmes a shown in Fiq. C3.lb. Having assumed the
linear variaticn of stress with strain or, in maximum unit strain as .OlO, we can draw the
other words, the equation holds for stresses strain diagram of Fig. C3.lb. ‘de no8 divide
beloh the prouortional limit stress or, in the cross-section in Fig. CS.la into 20
gensr::?, the ilactic rang;e. Failure of a narrow horizontal strips. Having the strain
:nemb,-r in bendin?, urless there is local curv3 in Fir:. C3.lb, we can find the unit
weakri,ss, does not occur at stresses in the
elastic range but occurs at stresses In ths
inelastic rs?ge. Sin-e the ultimate stren:gth
of a member is n?elie: to comioar~e aE:ainst the
ulti.m~ate design load to be carried, a theory
or ?rocedure is necessary which will accurately
detefmtne the ultimate and yield strength of a
member in bending.

C3.2 Basic Approach to Finding the Bending Strength

of Members.

The problem is to determine the internal

resisting moment of a beam section when sub-
jected to stresses which fall in the inelastic
range of stresses. This stress can be taken
9s th? ultimat? tensile or compressive stress
of the material or limited to some: stress or
deformation in the inelastic ranr;e. To obtain
the truf: internal r-&es
istine: moment, we must
know how tha normal tension and compressive
stress varies over th? cro:s-section. The
stress-strain cu~o for thb material provides
the so-Jrca for obtainin? the true stress
picture. If a material has a different shape
In the tensile and compressive inelastic
zones, the neul;ral axes does not coincide with
the centroidzl axis, thus addinq some difficult Y
to an analysis m$?thod. The analysis procedure Fig. C3. 1
for determining th- truf? internal resisting TENSILE
STRCSS
moment is b?st explained by an example
solution.

C3.3 Bending Strength of a Solid Round Bar.

Fig. C3.la shows the cross-section of a

round solid bar made of aluminum alloy. The
stress-strain curve up to a unit strain of
,010 in. per inch is given in Fig. C3.2. Note
that the shape of the curve in the inelastic
zone is not the same for both tension and
c3.1
c3.2 YIELD AND ULTIMATI TRENGTH IN BENDING

strain at the midpoint of each strip. 11th th given bending moment, and also for determining
strain known on each strip, the stress existin the true internal resistin: moment of a boa,.:
can be found by use of the stress-strain curve section, structurnl desic;n enqineers nake ;~se
In Fig. C3.2. The total load on each strip of a fictitious feilin? bendin? stress Fb,
then equsls the stress times the area of the which is referred to as a -;lodulus of ru.7ture
strip. The internal resisting moment then stress in pure bendirirp. Th% the ultimate
equals the summation of the load on each bendin!: moment that can be developed by a
strip times the distance from the strip to given beam cross-section and a given mstzriil
the neutral axis. is M = FbI/C. Design curves for finding F,,
the modulus of rupture, are given later in
Table C3.1 shows the detail calculations. this chapter.
If the neutral axis has been selected in the
correct position, the values in column (6) Since there are many flio;ht vehicle
of the table should add up to zero since total materials and all kinds of shaues used in
tension must equal the total campresslon on StI”UCtUral mOmtiers, the basic approach for,
the beam cross-section. The small discrepancy solution as illustrated In Table C3.1 becomes
of 740 pounds ‘In the summatlon of column ‘(6) very time consuming. Design engineers always
is not enough to change the location of the search for simplified methods which eive
neutral axis or the total internal resisting sufficient accuracy. Thus Cozzone (Ref. 1)
moment appreciably. Column (7) gives the has developed a simplified procedure for
total Internal resisting moment as 56735 In. finding the modulus of yield or rupturlng
lbs. when the strain is limited to the .OlO bendln,g stress Fb. The method is widely used
strain as previously discussed. The stress In the aerospace industry in structural
at this strain from Fig. C3.2 is 49000 psi. design.
Uslng this stress in the well known beam
formula M = fI/c, we obtain M = 49000 x 0.785 C3.4 The Cozzone Simplified Procedure.
= 38450. which is much less than the true
value 0; 56735. The Cozzone method in its simplest form
assumes a symmetrical rectangular beam section
TABLE C3.1 and the same shape of the stress-strain curve
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 In both tension and compression. Fig. C3.3
represents the true bsndlng stress variation
Strip Unit Res. over the beam cross-section when failure
Strip E
No.
Area Y Stress F=oA
I
occurs. Cozzone now replaces this true curve
“A” M = Fr
5 by a trapizoidal stress variation as shown In
.058 0.935 00867 53000 3075 2760 Fig. C3.4. The stress f, Is a fictitious
:, .102 0.840 :00773 52500 5350 4300 stress which is assumed to exist at the neutral
3 135 0.75 .00685 52100 7025 5040 axis or at zero strain.
4 :153 0.65 .00591 51500 7870 4820
51000 8410 Fig. C3. 3 Fig. C3.4
5 .165 0.55 .00494 4310 I+-fm --+I
6 .180 0.45 .00398 43000 7740 3200 f MAX = fm fMfi’fmlcfo -+fb +j
7 185 0.35 .00302 33200 6140 1920
a : 195 0.25 .00205 22800 4450 945
9 197 0.15 .00108 12500 2460 280
10 :200 0.05 .00012 3200 640 10
11 .200 -0.05 -.00084 - 7250 -1450 130
12 197 -0.15 -.00181 -17800 -3510 660
13 :195 -0.25 -.00276 -29500 -5750 1650
14 .185 -0.35 -.00374 -35500 -6560 2540
True Assumed Assumed
15 .180 -0.45 -.00470 -40000 -7200 3510 Stress Stress Stress
16 .165 -0.55 -.00566 -43000 -7100 4170
17 153 -0.65 -.00663 -44800 -6850 4710
-0.75 -. 00759 -46000 -6210 Fig. C3. 6
18 :135 4880
19 102 -0.84 -.00846 -47200 -4610 4210
20 :05a -0.935 -. 00937 -48000 -2780 2690
I.140 L
740 56735

201. 1 Rod divided into 20 strips . 1” thick.

301. 3 y = distance from centerline to strip c. g.
Zol. 4 E = strain at midpoint = (y - .0375)/103.75. Strain Curve
201. 5 Unit stress for E strain from Fig. C3.2.
301. 6 Total stress on strip.
Zol. 7 Moment about neutral axis. r = (y - .0375).

Since it is desirable to use the beam Strain E iMAX

fFormula in finding bending stresses due to a Fig. C3. 5
 The value of f, is determined by making Fig. C3. ‘7 k Factor for Some Typical Shapes -*
the requirement that the internal moment of
the true stress system must equal the moment
of the assumed trapezoidal stress system
which results from thz assumed stress-strain
curve as shown in Fig. C3,5. Fig, C3.6 sho!Ns
the trapezoidal stress pattern drawn to a
larger scale and showing only one half of the
sy;nmetrIal beam section, The trapezoidal
stress pattern has been divided into a
rectangle (r) and a triangle (b) as shown in
the f igtire 0 K vOtu8.
about
Oppiy
X - X alla
IO brndwq

K ZOc/l --T
l
n-- mB n-----K
I/c= Sccl~on modulus
1
Let, Mb = total intern21 resisting moment. 0 * Slotx
nrutrot 0x1s
moment
01 or80
obouf
on one ci- nti
81br of nrutrol 0th
mr = internal moment developed by F- -8 +I

portion (r) 0
mb = internal moment develoDed by
portion (b) 0

Then Mb = mr + mb

sfnae fb varies linearly from zero to fb,

the stress is elastic and thus the beam
equation holds, or

mb = fbI/c for entire beam Section. The 0 0.1 02 03 09 05 07 08 09 1.0

stress variation on portion (r) is constant or m

rectangular, thus
Fig. C3.8 Section Factor K for I, 0, and C Sections (Ref. 2)
mr = foSo@YdEl, let foCydA = Q
C3. 5 Design Curves for Finding Modulus of
Then mr = fo2Q for entire beam section Rupture (Fb)*

But fb = fm - fo (from Fig. C3.6) The modulus of rupture F’b may be a yield
modulus, that is, In equt-M.o? (3) th? value of
Thus, Mb = (fm-fo) $ + 2f,Q, or fm is equal to the yield stress of the material.
It may also be the uI.tirnato morjulus of ruoture,
Mbc in which case th? valuz (If f rrl in equation (3)
--=fm+fo(3L-1)------- 0) equals the ultim!Qz stre:r;~+~ of the material Q
I I/c The modulus of r11 16‘1 m.-3(3
t/IT)tlu.r ‘-t 3 I lrnitxd. to a stress
between the yield r ant-l 1.11t&r! t;e stress of the
material because eI’ IxXL crip~l..in: or by
excessive distorti.on. &yaladl$C:;: of v/hat value
is used for f, in e(-pu*GA8:!n(Z), th? oorres-
k is a beam section shape factor.
ponding value of f c) must, be krls,::n before the
Let Fb = Mbc/I, value of Fb can be clete:-M_ne,-1O Figs b c309 to
then from equation 1
C3.23 give strain curve:? f~ v~ious material
= fm + fo (k - 1) - - - - - - - - (3) and the corresponding; f cj r:1~r\re. Tkle UTO .U” 0-f
Fb these two curves per:nI t t-he c?etterinInat ion of
Fb is a fictitious MC/I stress or the l?t, if the k shape fat tiw for1 t_% pwt icular
modulus of rupture for a particular cross- beam sect i on being (23n;-;1Gr*& I s kno;vn c In
section at a given maximum stress level. deriving the values ~rf’ f,), th:-? ;‘ollo:n:ing
assum$ions are made +
The values of k vary beWeen 1 and 2.0.
If calculated value of k is greater than 2 (1) The stress-stra 3-n (I:~wv~ j_,C:assumed
use 2.0. Fig. C3,7 shows the value of the the same in tens I.on a.nd co:npressi on,
shape factor k for several typical shapes,
Fig. C3.8 sho,vs curves for the ranid (2) The neutral axis Is assumed to coin-
determination of the k factor for3 common cide with the centrnida1 axis a
beam sections,
(3) During b er!.A..i t?c r~larie ilec t iOnS remain
plar .e o

(4) The cross---z-:ct_ion is WA su.bject t-o

local or torsiongI j i::WAi .I 1tj; _

--
c3.4 YIELD AND ULTIMATE rRENGTH IN BENDING

(5) Beam-column, curvature and shear lag to give the value of f,. The value of f, frozn
effects are considered negligible. this chart operation drives f, = 29GOO. Then
from equation (3)
C3.6 General Accuracy of Method.
Fb yield = 65000 + 29030 (1.5 - 1) = 79500 psi.
(1) It is exact for a rectangular section
under pure bending with moment vector parallel Then yield bending mOment = Myp z FbI/C
to a principal axis.
Thus Myp = 79500 x .0938 = 7460 in. lb.
(2) For double sy?mmetric SdciOns under
pure bendlng and moment vector parallel to a For finding the ultimate resisting
principal axis, the accuracy should be within bending, we use Ftu which is 75000 as the
5 percent. value of f, in equation (3). Again going to
Fig. C3.17 to stress of 75000 on stress-strain
(3) Slnsle symmetric sections will vary curve and the vertically do:m to fo curve, we
from practically exact to definitely uncon- obtain f, = 70500.
servatlve (moment vdctor normal to axis of
symmetry). Then Fb(ult)= 75000 + 70500(1.5-l)= 110250 psi

(4) For sections subject to combined Then M,lt = FbI/c = 110250x. 0938 = 10370 in, lb.
bending and axial load, the results will vary
from practically exact to conservative. Let us assume that is is desired to limit
the strain in the extreme fiber to .03 inches
(5) For unsymmetrical bending, wlth and per inch. !dhst %‘ould be the bonding moment
without axial load, the results will vary from developed under this limitat,ion.
practically exact to conservative.
From Fig. C3.17 for a unit strain of .03
C3. 7 Example Problems in Finding Bending Strength. the corresponding stress fron the stress
strain curve is 74701~ and the f, stress is
EXAMPLEPROBLEV 1. 61203 *

A rectangular bean section is 0.25 inches Then Fb = 74700 + 61200 (1.5-l) = 105300
wide and 1.5 inches deep. What yield and
ultimate bending moment will the section Then M q FbI/c = 105300 x .0938 = 9900 in. lb.
develop when made from 7075-T6 extruded
aluminum alloy. EXAMPLE PR03LEM 2.

Solution: The modulus of bending stress Is The symmetrical I beam section In Fig.
given by equation (3), (a) is subjected to an ultimate design pur’e
bending moment M = 14030 in. lb. What 1s
Fb = f, + f, (k - 1) - _ - _ _ - - _ (3) the margin of safety If
the bea-n is made of
k=I/c- 2Q _ 2 x 0.75 x .23 x .375 x = .1408
s0938 magnesium forging AZGlA
which has F
(&, .25 x 1.5 ‘(l/.7.5)

k = 1.50 Ix =&i 1.375 x 23-

The value of k could also be found in Fig. Fig. (a)

& x 1.25 x 1.753
c3.7.

Material is 7075-T6 aluminum alloy. From = .916 - -558 = .358.

Fig. C3.17, Ftu = 75000, Fty = 65000.
I,/, = .358/l = 0.358
To find the yield bending strength, the
value of f, In equation (3), the maximun Q = 1.375 x .125 x s937.5 + .a75 x .125 x
stress permitted on the most remote fiber is .4375 = 0.209
65000, the yield stress of the material. To
find fo, we go to Fig. C3.17 and find the k _--- ‘32. - 2 x .xX =
1.17
IX/C 0.358
point on the stress-straln curv% that
corresponds to a stress of 65000. This point
1s projected vertically downward to intersect k could have been from Fig. C3.8 when
the curve fo. This point is then projected using m = .125/1.375 q -091, and n = .125/
to the stress scale at the ed;e of the chart 2.00 = .062.
 From Fig. C3.19, for fm = Ftu = 38000 we bending strength was developed. From Fig.
find in projecting vertically downward to f, C3.19, the unit strain when stress is 38000
curve gives f, = 23700. Then subt. in is .035. Then since plane sectZons remain
equation (3) plane after bending, the unit strain at point
.50 inch from neutral axis is (.5/l) (.035) =
Fb = 38000 + 23700 (1.17 - 1) = 40770 00175 l From Fig. C3.19, the stress existing
at this strain is f = 31000 psi. A linear
Mult = F&C = 40770 x 358 = 15000 In. lb. * variation of stress as used in the flexural
equation would give half the maximum stress
or 38000/2 = 19000 psi as against the true
Margln of Safety = ?I
M 1-t - 1 = 14ooo-
15000 1 =
L
07
stress of 31000.

Assume we desire the stress intensity at

a point 0.5 inches from neutral axis if full
60

50
60

,B 10
20

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

& in/in

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

E is/in

60

” U
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
e in/in e in/in

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
e in/in e in/in

Curves for finding Fb. Fb = fm + fo (k - 1).

br
.
f m, f, (ksi)
f m, f, (ksi)

II

+
 ca. 7

portion on each side of the neutral axis of the

entire section.

Label the beam portion below the neutral

axis as (1) and that above by (2).

Portion 1. Fig. (d) shows

how the lower portion (1)
is made a symmetrical
section about neutral axes
by adding the dashed
portion. The internal
bending.resistance will be
found for this entire
Fig. (d)
section in Fig. (d). One
0 0.01 0.02 0.0s 0.04 0.05
half of this amount will
& in/in
then be the true moment developed by portion (1).
EXAMPLE PROBLEM3. Unsymmetrical Section.
I = & bh8 = &x 0.1 x 2.788 = 0.1’78
Fig. (b) shows a tee beam section,
symmetrical about the vertical axis. If the L/C& = 0.178/1.39 = .128
material is 17-4 PH stainless stee’l, what
ultimate bending moment will be developed if Q 1 = 1.39 x 0.1 x .695 = .0965
bottom portion is the tension flange.
a 1 = .193
(tl-l/2 e-4 &a=. 0154
--a----I -----
I kz = 2Q&,/c, = f# = 1.5
.

From Fig. C3.22, Ftu = 180000 which equals

2” fm.
f, from curve = 156000

1
-s-- Then Fb a = fm + fo (k- 1)
0. l”+I &-x=. 035
Fig. (b) J%* (4
= 180000 + 156000 (1.5 - 1) = 258000

M - (Fb,I,/C& = 258000 x .128 x

The neutral axis will first be determined.
0.5 = 16550 in. lb.
=Y - 2 x .l x 1 + 1.4 x .l x 1.95 = 1 . 39
y=xr 2 x .l + 1.4 x .l The factor l/2 is due to the fact that
portion (1) is only one half the beam section
Fig. (c) shows the unit strain picture. in Fig. (d).
The lower edge of the beam section is strained
to the maximum value of .035 as shown on the Portion 2. Fig. (e) shows the developed
stress-strain curve in Fig. C3.22. Since symmetrical section for the upper portion (2)
plane sections remain plane the unit strain of the beam section.
ea at the upper edge of section is e* = .035 x
.61/1.39 = .0154.

Equation (3) was derived for a symmetrical

section about the neutral axis. The equation
involves finding the resisting moment
developed by one half the beam section and
multiplying by 2. This is permissible since
the unit strain at both top and bottom edges The unit strain picture is shown in Fig.(f)
is the same. In this solution we will continue
to use equation (3,). To do this it is
- necessary to make symmetrical sections for the I, = & x 1.5 x 1.228 - 6 x 1.4 x 1.02b = .104
C3.8 YIELD AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH IN BENDING

Ie/C, = .104/.61 = .1704 19/C= = .0514/.61 = -0842,

Qe = .61 x .1 x .305 + 1.4 x 0.1 x 0.56 = .097 Qe q 0.61 x 0.1 x .305 + 1.4 x . 1 x .561
= .0971
2Q, = 0.194

kz = .0971/.0842 = 1.15
k, = 0.194/.1704 = 1.14
As explained In solution (l), for E =
The stress for a unit strain of .0154
from the stress strain curve In Fig. C3.22 is .0154, f, = 172000 and f, = 129400.
172000, and f. = 129400.
Fb.e= 172000 + 129400 (1.15-l) = 191400
Then Fb 2 = 172000 + 129400 (1.14-l) = 190100
MS3 = 191400 x .0842 = 16100
Me = $ (Fb, 1,/C.) = 190100 x .1704 = 16200 Mtotal = M, + M, = 16620 + 16100 =
32720 in. lb.
= M, + M, = 16550 +
EXAMPLE PROBLEM4. Fig. C3.24 shows an un-
symmetrical I beam sectlon. The material Is
Solution 2. 7679-T6 aluminum alloy die forging. The
upper portion is in bending COmpreSSiOn. It
Instead of making each portion a will be assumed that the compressive crippling
sy;nmetrical section as was done In solution (1) stress for the outstanding upper legs of the
and dividing the results by two, we ~111 find sectlon is 65000 psi. (The theory and method
the internal bendin resistance of each portlon of calculating crippling compressive strength
as is when bendlng about the neutral aXiS of Is qlven In another chapter.) The ultlmate
the entire section. Equation (3) now becomes design bendlne; moment is 16500 in. lb. Find
for each portlon of beam sectlon, M.S.

8-b = f, + f, (k - 1) - - - 3' Ic---1.5+ E=. 009

where k, = Q, k, = Qa
1,/c, ' Is/Ca
The section modulus of each portion refers
to neutral axis of entire beam section. Fig,
(g) shows lower portion (1).

1,
= ;bc: = i x .1 x 1.33" - N. A.
t
1.39=c 1
= -0895 1-, Fig. C3.24 Fig. C3. 25
u.L
b--+1 IcO.1
11/Cr = .0895/1.39 = .0645
Fig. Cd Solution:
Qz = 1.39 x .l x .695
= .0965 jT' 2xO.1x~+1.4x.1x1.Q5+.65xO.lx.O5 = 1 17a
2x0.1+1.4x0.1+0.65x0.1
k, = Q,/Il/c, = .0965,'.0645 = 1.50
The msxlmum compressive stress permltted
From equstlon (3'), Fb = 180000 + 156000 is 65000 psl. From Fig. C3.23, using the
(1.50 - 1) = 258000 stress-strain curve, we obtain a unlt straln
of .009 for this stress. The unit strain at
ML = Fb, x Il/Ci = 258000 x .0645 = 16620 the bottom edge of section is .OOQ (1.178/
0.822) = .0129 as shorn In Fig. C3.25. From
Fig. (h) shoiis u>;ior Fig. C3.23 this strain causes a stress of
portion (2) 67500 psi.
I+--- l-50 ---Y L
1, =;x1.5x .61a - Upper portlon: (See
Flg. I)
+x 1.4 x .51=
Fig. (h)
= .0514 xl.4 x 0.7229 = .102 Fig. (i)
 c3.9

I/c = .302/.8'2 = .124 section will develop in bending about x

axes and Mx the design bending.
Q = 0.822 x 0.1 x 0.411 + 1.4 x 0.1 x 0.772
= .1418 (2) Using My, carry out the same procedure for
bending about y axes and find,
k = .1418/.124 = 1.142
RbY = My/May
fmax = 65000. From Fig. C3.23, f. = 30000 Then the moment ratio Rb for combined
bending Is,
Then fb = 65000 + 30000 (1.142-l) = 69260
Rb = Rb, + Rb
ml = fbI/c = 69260 x .124 = 8580 In. lb. Y
Then margIn of safety M.S. = 1- 1.
Lower Portion. Rb
INA = $X 0.75 x 1.1785 - -N. A. C3.9 Section with One Axis of Symmetry.with Moment
Vector not Parallel to Either Axis.

- $ x 0.65 x 1.073* Since the symmetrical axis Is a principal

axls, the procedure in this case is the same
INA = .137, I/c = .137/ as for the double symnetrlc case.
1.178 = .1164
Fig. (j) Rb = Rb, + Rb
k = .1425/.1X4 = 1.222 Y
M.S. = L- 1
f max = 67500 Rb
From Fig. C3.23, fo = 44500 C3.10 Unsymmetrical Section with No Axis of Symmetry.

fb = 67500 + &00 (1.222-1) = 77370 psi

Fig. C3.27 yb y
\ 1 M
ma= .1164 x 77370 = 9000 in. lb. shows an unsym-
metrical section
Total internal allowable reslstlng subjected to the YxP
moment = m, + m, applied moment x- 5=-x
c. g.
vector M. xp-
or Ma = 8580 + 9000 = 17580 In. lb. I\
For this Fig. C3.2’7
=M _ 16500 case the pro-
Rb M, - -17580 = 0.94 (Load ratlo) cedure is as ~ Y
follows: yP

M,S.= -in- 1 = k4
*
- 1 = .06 (1) DetermIne
Rb
prlnclpal axes
C3.8 Complex Bending. Symmetrical Section. Moment location by equation,
Vector Not Parallel to Principal Axis.
2Ixy
Fig. C3.26 shows a tan 2Q = Iy-1,
double symnetric section.
The x and y axes are where x and y are centroIda1 axes, I,
therefore principal and Iy are moments of inertia about
axes. these axes and Ixy the product of
inertia.
The following pro-
cedure can be folloried (2) Resolve the given moment M intc compon-
which Is quite con- ents Mx and M
servative. P YP'
(3) Follow the same procedure as before.
(1 ) Resolve the given moment Into components
about x and y axes, or Mx and My. (4) The stress ratio Rb = Rbxp + Rbyp

(2 ) Using Mx follow the procedure as glVen

In the example problems and find Rbx = M.S. = 1 - 1
Mxmax 9 where Max is the internal moment Rb
c3.10 YIELD AND ULTIMATE FRENGTH IN BENDING

C3.11 Alternate More Exact Method for Complex a shear V = 600 IbS. The problem is to find
Bending. the margin of safety under thic combined
loading 0
A beam section when resisting a pure
external bending moment bends about an axis For pure bending only the stress ratio is
that is called the neutral axis. No matter M
=-=---b--z14000 -
.933 (the value of 15000 is
what the shape of the beam CrOSS-Section for Rb Ma 15000
any glven external moment, there Is an axis obtained from example problem 2).
about which bending takes place. The general
case lnvolves an unsymmetrical beam cross- The stress ratio in shear Is R, = fS/FSU,
section and material which has different where f, Is the flexural shear stress and FSu
stress-strain curves In compression and the ultimate shear stress of the material.
tension in the inelastic range. The neutral The problem therefore Is to find the value of
axis therefore does not pass through the
centrold of the cross-section and thus the
method of solution is a trial and error The equivalent trapezoidal and trlangular
approach b The solution procedure is outlined bendlng stress distribution ~111 be determined
In Chapter A19, Article Al9.17, and therefore for the design bendlng moment of 14000 In. lbs.
will not be repeated here. Also the chapter
dealing with the design of beams wlth non- For a triangular stress variation,
buckling webs explalns and illustrates how = MC/I = 14000/0.358 = 39150 psi.
Fb
the ultimate bending resistance of an entire
beam section is determined. From example problem (2) the shape factor
k was 1.17. On Flg. C3.19, the curve for
C3.12 Strength Under Combined Bending and k = 1.17 has been plotted. Starting with the
F1exura.l Shear. Fb stress of 39150 at the left scale, run
horizontal to an Intersection with the k =
The previous part of this chapter has 1.17 curve, the projecting vertically down-
dealt with the determination of the strength ward to intersections with the stress- Strain
of a beam sectlon In pure bendlng. The usual curve and the f, curve to give 35800 for fm and
beam deslgn problem Involves flexural shear 19700 for f,. The stress results are Shown
with bending. In finding the true internal graphically in Fig. C3.28a and Fig. C3.28b.
resisting moment, the Cozzone simplified
method derives a trapezoidal bending stress
distribution which will produce the same ~~~~~~~~-~~
internal resisting moment as the true internal
bending stress system. A triangular stress
system is then derived which will also give
the true bending moment.

Now the equation for flexural shear stress +II+-8 .

+l WOI-
for a triangular bendlng stress distrlbutlon l/2 Beam Section Fia. C3.28a Fia. C3. 28b
is case 1 case 2

The flexural shear stress is a funCtIOn

fs =v&It - - - - - - ^ - - - - - - (A)
of the rate of change of the bending stress.
Thus we can obtain a shear correction factor
Thus to use equation (A) for a C by comparlng the bending stresses in the
trapizoldal bending stress, a correction factor two stress distribution dlagram.
(C) must be applied or equation (A) becomes
The shear stress is maximum at the
fs=F ---------e---(B) neutral axis In this particular problem.
The total normal force on the cross-section
of beam above the neutral axis equals the
To illustrate how the correction factor stress times the area.
(C) can be determined, the I beam section used
In example problem (2) will be used. For simplification, the beam section will
be divided into the two portlons labeled (a)
We will assume the ultimate design moment and (b).
of 14000 in. lbs. Is produced by a load of
600 lbs. acting on a cantilever beam at a
point 23.30 inches from the flxed end of the
beam. Thus the beam section at the support
is subjected to bending moment of 14000 and
 c3.11

For Case l:- the cross-section will bo determined. The

co:-rectlon factor :‘or this point is found by
Load on portion (a) Is, cornoaring the loads on ijortion (a) for Case 1
anl Case 2 st.rass pattern?.
19700 x 1.375 x 0.125t = 3380 lb.
C’iSO 1. Lotid on (a) = 3380 + 2603 = 5980
16100 + 14100
2 x 1.375 x 0.125 = 2600 lb. case i. Load on (a) = f300.

Portlon (b) Hence, C = 5930/1;300 = .95

19”QO x 0.875 x 0.125 = 2155 C3.13 Strength Under Combined Bending Flexural Shear
and Axial Compression.
14100 x 0.5 x 0.575 x 0.125 = 771
Tile subject of trif2 ultimate strength
Total Force 8906 lbs. design un ier combined loads is treated In
detail in a later chapter.
For Cast: 2:-
A canservdtive interaction equation for
Portion (a) combined bending;, shear and axle.1 load Is,

3-jl.50 + 34250 (Ra + Rb)’ + Ri = 1

X 1.375 x 0.125 = 6300
2
1
Portion (b) 01" M.S. = - 1
(R, + Rb)’ + R;

34250 x o.;, x 0.875 x 0.125 1874

= m4 lbs. Rb includes effect of secondary bend-
in!; moment due to ax:al lost1 times de-
flzctlon.
Thus the correction factor is,
C3. 14 Further Values of f, and f,.
C = 8!306/8174 = 1.09
Table C3.2 rrives the yield and ultimate
Then f, at neutral axls is, vrlues of fm and f, for a number of other
materials cownon to the aerospace field of
fs2& 1.09 x 600 x 0.209 = 3060 psi. structures. The yield and ultimate m’odulus
0 . 358x0.12.5 Ln bendin; Fb is found by substituting in
the equation.
The ultimate shear stress for this
particular magnesium material is 19300 psi. Fh = fm + f, (k - 1)
(See chapter on material properties.)
TABLE C3. 2 Values of i, and f. for Fmdmg Fb
Stress Ratlo R, =fS= 3060
-----z O 161 Fb = f, +fo(k- 1)
FSW 19000 - Yield Ultimate

35
I!
f,
The InteractIon equation for combined 2014.T6 Alum. AI. D1.z Forgmgs t
bending and flexural shear is 6061-T6 Alum. Al. Sheet 17.5 42
7015.T6 Alum. Al. Die Forgmgs 65 25.5 75
1019-T6 Alum. Al. Hand Forgmgs(L) 62 33.5 71
Ii; + R; = 1 A-261A Mzqnes,um Al. Exlru. (Long) 21 7.6 38
HK31A-0 Magnesmm Al. Sheet ia 4.0 30
ZKGOA Mqnesmm Al. Forgmgs (Long)
AISI Alloy Steel (Nurmal,zed)
whence, MarCin of Safety = AISI Alloy Steel (Normalued)
@-kp AISI Alloy Steel (Heal Treated)
AISI Alloy Steel (Heat Treated)
AISI Alloy Steel (Heat Treated)
1 AISI Alloy Steel (Heat Treated)
or, M.S. = J.~~~z+ .161a - 1 = .05 17.7PH Stainless Steel
PH15-7 MO (RH950) Stamless Steel
- TI-8MN T~tari,um-__Alloy __~-.~

Thus th= effect of the flexural shear

stress ‘was to reduce the margin of safety of PROBL?NS
.07 in pure bending to .05 in the combined
stress action. (1) A round tube l-l/2 inch-?.: in diameter
has a wall thickness of .095 inches.
As further calculation of the shear It is made of aluminum alloy whose
correction factor C, its vslue Tar the shear stress-strain curve Is shown in Fig.
stress at trle u,?per ed,;e of portion (b) of C3.2. If the mnxlmlun unit strain in
c3.12 YIELD AND ULTIMATE STRENGTH IN BENDING

1
compression is limited to .OO8, what Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3
bending resisting moment will the section
develop e (Note, since stress-strain
curve has different shape in tension and
compression, neutral axls does not
colnclde with center line axls, thus use
trial and error method.

(2) Same as Problem (1) but use a square tube

with l-1/4 Inch outside dimension and
.081 inch wall thickness.

Use the Cozzone method for solving the

following problems.

(3) Flnd the ultimate bendlng moment that

each of the following beam sectIons will
develop when bending about the principal
axis and made from each of the following
I (4)
Fig. 4

A simply supported
Fig. 5 Fig.

beam has a span of 24

6

materials. inches. Depth of beam limited to 2 inches.

It must carry an ultimate load of 4000
(a) 7075-T6 AluminLLm Alloy Extrusion. lhs. located at midpoint of beam. Material
Ftu = 75000, Fty = 65000. is 7075-T6 aluminum alloy extrusion.
Design an I shaped section to carry this
(b) Ti-6Al-4V Titanium Alloy. load o Neglect areas of corner fillets
Ftu = 130,000, Fty = 120,000. that would be used in extruded shapes.

REFERENCES.
I
Ref. 1. Bending Strength in Plastic Range. By
F. P. Cozzone, J. Aeronautical Sci.,
May, 1943*
Ref. 2. Vought Structures Manual;
SUBJECT: Errors in Plastic Bending DATE: 10 March 1992
Calculations
HO.: 2-51200/2AVO-027
To: Structural Integrity Personnel

mm: W. F. McCombs

REF: (1) Structures Manual

(2) Structural Design Data Book
(3) "Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures", E. F. Bruhn

Your attention is invited to the fact that there are three (3) types of errors
which occasionally occur because of improper use of the Cozzone method,
Reference (l), Chapter 5, when calculating the allowable bending momentfor
cross-sections which are unsymmetrical about the axis of bending, as in
Figure 1.

74% IL!7
Figure 1 Unsymmetrical Cross-Sections

The causes of such errors are the following.

a) The plastic bending design data, Reference (2), page 101-106, is for
symmetrical cross-sections and cannot be used directly for an
unsymmetrical section.
b) The final bending stress distribution must be such that the tension forc,e
on the cross-section is equal to (or at least within 5% of) the
compression force.
c) The strain on the extreme fiber nearest to the neutral axis is E (a/b),
where sU is the failing strain of the material, a is the most ex:reme
fiber distance on one side of the neutral axis and b is that on the other
side, where a < b.

For such cross-sections the Cozzonemethod (Reference 1, Section 5.2.3)

requires the following procedure.
1. A neutral axis position is assumedwhich divides the cross-section into
two (2) parts which, initially, have equal areas, as in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Treatment of Unsymmetrical Cross-Sections

DRPAR!MERTCWUUSSPOFJDRDCE PAGE:2
AVO: 2-51200/2AVO-027

2. Each part is then made symmetrical, per the dashed lines.

3. For the part having the largest extreme fiber distance, (l), fm is Ftuand
t its allowable moment is calculated as FbUI/c, where Fbu is obtained from
the bending modulus curve, as in Reference (2).

4. For the other part, (2), e is calculated as eU(a/b) where eU is the

failing strain of the material (corresponding to FtU). Then, entering the
fm vs f. curves with e the corresponding values of f and f0 are obtained
and used to calculate Fbu - fm + fO(K-1). Referencz (2) data is not
applicable.

5. A check must then be made to see if the load on the portion (1) is equal
to the load or the portion (2) (or within 5% of it). If not, another
location for the neutral axis is assumedand steps (2) - (5) repeated as
necessary until the loads are acceptable.
6. The allowable bending moment for the cross-section is then

An
MAll. = E (Fb"
I/c) 1 + (Fbu I/c),
1 12

error results whenever (a), (b), or (c) is not observed. An unfortunate

example of this is in the reference (3) textbook, Article C3.7, example 3,
where step 5 has not been carried out. It should have been stated there that
the calculation shown is only the first trial and that additional trials are
necessary for orher neutral axis locations. The correct answer is actually
31,084 in-lbs, y being 1.58" up from the bottom.

li//: 2 ZVd
W. F. McCombs,TPM
Structural Methods
M/S 194-50, Ext. 63613
law
 CHAPTER C4
STRENGTH AND DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL
AND SQUARE TUBING IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING,
TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

C4.1 Introduction. steel and 2024 aluminum alloy. Observation of

Flg. C4.1 shows that for temperatures below
Before the advent of the stressed-skin SOoF, aluminum alloy is lighter unless the
structure for aircraft, or during the perlod steel Is heat-treated to Ftu = 180,000 Or
when fuselage and wing were fabric covered, above . Above 350oF, the ultimate strength of
round, oval and square tubing were used in aluminum alloy falls off rapldly, but steel
designing the major structure of the fuselage continues Its rather uniform decrease In
and wing. If the wing and tail were externally tensile strength.
braced, streamline tublng was used. The
development of the metal covered structure The graph explains why aluminum alloy
eliminated the use of tublng in fuselage and cannot be used entirely for the surface of
wing design, however, tubing continued to be supersonic airplanes flying at speeds around
used for landing gear structure, engine mOI.UYtS, 2000 miles per hour, as aerodynamic heating
control systems, fixed equipment such as would produce surface temperatures in the
passenger seats, etc. region where the strength of aluminum alloy
decreases rapldly.
With the opening of the space age, tubing
as a structural unit in space vehicles Is
agaln being widely USed because drag In space
is not an important factor. Round tubing IS
the best shape for transmitting torsional
forces and thus Is widely used in Control
systems. Round and square tublng permit SiIUPle
connection or end flttlng design. The metal3 8
industry has made available a large number of 2 500
diameter and wall thicknesses and thus the x
structural deslgner has a large number of sizes f 400
to select from. 2
k 300
C4.2 Deeign for Tension.

In general the strength design require-

ments are that the limit loads must be carried
without exceeding the tensile yield stress 100
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
(Fty) of the material and the ultimate design Temp. OF. l/2 Hr. Exposure
load which Is equal to the limit load times a
Fig. C4.1
factor of safety must be carried without
failure, which means the tensile stress cannot Practically every structural tubular
exceed the (Ftu) of the material. In general member in a flight vehicle structure must be
for aircraft, the factor of safety Is 1.5. fastened or attached to another adjacent
For unmanned missiles and space vehicles the member. The connection can be made by using
factor of safety may be as low as 1.2. Since some sort of end fitting which is fastened to
the ratio of Ftu to FtY for materials varies the tube by rlvets or bolts or by welding. If
widely, sometlmes the yield under limit loads rivets or bolts are used, holes are cut In the
is more critical than fallure under the tube walls which means the tube is weakened
ultimate design loads, thus the student should since tube area Is cut away, thus net area on
always be sure he has the critical situation. any tube cross-section must be used In calcu-
lating the tube tensile strength. If welding
Since elevated temperature and time of Is used In the connection, the welding heat
exposure effect the yield and ultimate strength causes grain growth in the tube material
of materlals, the problem of material SelectIOn adjacent to the weld area, which decreases the
relatlve to light weight becomes an important tube strength, thus a welding correction factor
design factor. Fig. c4.1 shows a plot of the must be used in calculating the ultimate tensile
Ftu/w rat10 versus elevated temperatures UP strength. Designing for tenslon will be
to 800 degrees, dhere w is the density of the illustrated later in this chapter.
material. The tube materlals are AISI alloy
C 1
 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
c4.2 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION. BENDING. TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

C4. 3 Design for Compression. any tendency of the test curve to rise rapldly
for very short lengths where failure is by
The strength of members with stable cross- block compression. Table C4.1 shows the
sections when acting as columns can be cal- resulting short and long column equations
culated by Euler’s equation if the bending after values of Fco and E have been substituted
failure Is elastic, or E is constant (eq. C4~.1) in equations C4.3 and C4.4 and E In the Euler
and for lnelastlc bending failure, Euler’s equation. The column headed transitional
equation ;vith the tangent modulus Et replacing L’/p, represents the value of L’ /p where failure
E (eq. C4.2) checks test results. (The student change from inelastic to elastic failure or, In
should refer to Chapters A18 and C2 for theory other words, It is the dlvidlng point between
on column strength.) the so-called long and short column range.
Thus if the equations are used, the L’/p value
FC=* ----------- (C4.1) must be known In order to select the proper
equatlon.
F, = ,Iliyyp$ - - - - - - - - - - _
C4.5 Column Formulas for Aluminum Alloy Tubes.

L’ is the effective length and equals From (Ref. l), the basic short column
L/v??, where c is the column end fiXity equations for aluminum alloys are:-
coefficient.
FC - Fco Cl - 0.385 (L’/p),‘n~~] - - (C4.5)
Long and Short Columns
Fc = Fe, [l - 0.333 (L’/&‘ndx] - - (C4.6)
For many years the problem or subject of
inelastic col>umn strength or failure was FC p Fco Cl - 0.272 (L’/‘p)/ndm] - - (C4.7)
treated almost entirely from a consideration
of test results. That is, sufficient tests For long columns:-
were made to establish the shape of the falling
stress curve in the region where the failure F, q ~*E,‘(L’,‘P)~ - - - - - - - - - - - (C4.8)
was at stresses above the proportional limit
stress of the material. Mathematical curves The equations for determining F,, are
were then derived to fit the test results. given In Table C4.2 (from Ref. 1). The table
Engineers referred to the columns which failed also indicates which of the three short column
by inelastic bending as short columns, and equations to use for the various alurinum alloy
thus referred to the equations that fit the materials.
test data as short column equations. The
columns that failed by elastic bending were To illustrate the use of Table C4.2, the
then referred to as long columns. The test column formula for 2024-T3 aluminum alloy
curve for long columns would follow the Euler tubing will be derived:-
column equation (C4.1) and thus tests were
not necessary to establish allowable failing From Chapter B2, we find the following
stresses in the so-called long column range. strength properties for 2024-T3 tubing,
Thus over the years short column equations
based on test results have been presented by Ftu = 64000 , FCY = 42000
official government agencies for use in
structural design. The official publication From Table C4.2, the equation for Fco is,
for the aerospace field is the Military
Handbook MIL-HDBK (Ref. 1). Fco = Fey (1 + 4 F,y/lOOO , substituting,

C4.4 Column Formulas for Round Steel Tubes. Fco = 42000 (1 + dm = 42000 (1 + .205)

From (Ref. 1) the basic short column = 50600

equations are:- From Table C4.2, we note that short
column equation C4.5 applies.
Fc = F,, [l-F co (L’/P)~/~~~E] - - - - - (C4.3)
Substituting in this equation,
F, = F,, { 1 - 0.3027 [ (L’/p)/n
~ Fc = 50600 [l- 0.385(L’/p/nd 10,500,000/50600]
d-1 I-,} - - - - - - - - (C4.4)
or F, = 50600 - 431 L’/p - - - - - - - - (C4.9)
Where FCO Is the colunn yield stress
(upper limit of column stress for primary
C4.6 Column Formulas for Magnesium Alloys.
fal lure ) . It can be determined from test
results by extending the short column curve to From (Ref. 1) the following short column
a ?olnt corresponding to zero length, ignoring equations for various magnesium alloy materials
 c4.3

Table C4. 1 Column Formulas for Round Steel Tubes

Short columns (a)
Transi- Local
Material Ftu, ksi Fty, ksi Fco, ksi tional (c) Long columns (b)
Basic failure
column formula (b) L’/p
equation

1025............... 55 36 000-l. 172(L’,‘~)~ c4. 3 122 286 x 106/(L’/p)2 . . .. (d)

4130............... 95 t&) ;:.5 79: 500-51.9(L’/p)+: c4.4 91 286 x 10B/(L’/p)a . . .. (d)
Heat-treated e alloy
steel . . . . . .. . . . .. 125 103 113 113,000-ll.l5(L’/P) 2.. c4.3 73 286 x 106/(L’/p)2 . . . . (d)
Heat-treated alloy
steel . . . . . .. . . . .. 150 132 145 145,000-l& 36(L’/p)‘. . C4.3 63 286 x 106/(L’/p)’ . . . . (d)
Heat-treated alloy
steel . . . . . .. . . . .. 180 163 179 179,000-27.95(L’/p) 2.. c4.3 56 286 x lO’/(L’/p)’ .. . . @

a Equation C4.1 may be used in the short column range if E d Not necessary to investigate for local instability when
is replaced by Et obtained from the combined stress- D/t= 50.
strain curves for the material. e This value is applicable when the material is furnished
b L’/p = L/p&z L’/p shall not exceed 150 without specific in condition N (MIL-T-6736) but the yield strength is
authority from the procuring or certificating agency. reduced when normalized subsequent to welding to 60
c Transitional L/p is that above which columns are ‘long” ksi.
and below which they are “short. ” These are approximate
values.

are given in Tables C4.4 and C4.4a. or inelastic instability of the column as a
whole. As the slenderness ratio L’/p gets
Table C4.4 Column Formulas for Magnesium- smaller, the F, stress increases. Nova if the
Alloy Extruded Open Shapesa diameter of the tube is relatively large and
GENERAL FORMULAA the wall thickness relatively small or, In
other words, if the diameter/thickness (D/t)
K( Fey 1” ratio is large, failure will result by local
Fc =(L’lp crippling or crushing of the tube wall and
this local failing stress is usually repre-
(Stress values are in ksi) sented by the symbol FCC. The values of F,,
in general have been determined by tests (see
Alloy K n m Max. Fc design charts for FCC versus D/t ratio).

MlA . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 l/2 1.0 0.90 Fey C4.9 Design Column Charts.
AZSIB, AZGlA, AZ80A. . 2,900 l/4 1.5 FCY
AZtXOA-T6, ZK60A-T5 . . 3,300 l/4 1.5 0.96 Fey In design, column strength charts are a
a Formulas given above are for members that do not fail by great time-saver as compared to substituting
local buckling. in the various column equations, thus a number
of column charts are presented in this chapter
to facilitate the strength check of columns
Table C4.4a Column Formula for AZ31B-H24 and the strength design of columns. Fig.
Magnesium-Alloy Sheet C4.2 is a chart of L’/p versus Fc for heat
(1.05 Fcy)%‘/p )’ treated round alloy steel tubing. Fig. C4.3
Fc = 1.05 Fey - is a similar type of chart for aluminum alloy
4 n8E round tubing. Fig. C4.4 gives column charts
Max. Fc = Fey for magnesium alloy materials. All three
1 charts are taken from (Ref. 1). Figs. C4.5
and C4.6 represent a further simplication for
the design of steel and aluminum round tubing.
C4.7 Short Column Equations for Other Materials.
C4. 10 Section Properties of Round Tubing.
For other metals for which short column
equations are not avallable, the use of Euler’s Table C4.3 gives the section properties
equation, using the tangent modulus Et can be of round tubing. A tube is designated by
used (eq. C4.2). Refer t,o ?haoter C2 for giving its outside wall diameter (D) and its
information on how to construct column strength wall thickness (t). Thus a 2-l/4 - .058 means
curves using this equation. a tube with 2-l/4 inch outside diameter and a
wall thickness in inches of .058. Since a tube
C4. 8 Column Failure Due to Local Failure. is symmetrical about any axis, the polar moment
of inertia, which is needed in torsion problems,
The equations as presented give the equals twice the rectangular moment of inertia
allowable stress due to failure by bending of as given in Table C4.3. For weight comparison,
the column as a whole and the action Is elastic the weight of steel and aluminum tubing is
 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
c4.4 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING, TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

Table C4.2 Column Formulas for Aluminum Alloys

Alloy and Temper Product F co Short Pransitional Lwi

Columns L’lP Columns
_-

2014-T& T4, T451 I Sheet and Plate*;

2024-T3, T35 1, T36, T4, Rolled Rod, Bar and
T42 Shapes;
Drawn Tube
_-

6052-All Tempers
5083-All Tempers
5086-All Tempers
5454--All Tempers All Products vrvU + dF,,/lOOO) Equation .732= m Equation
5456-All Tempers c4.5 C4.8
6061-T4, T451, T4510,
T4511
--

All Cast Alloys and Sand and Permanent

Tempers Mold Castings
----
2024-T3510, T3511, T4, Extrusions
T42
--

201PT6, T651
2034-T6, T81, T86, T851 Sheet and Plate*;
7075T6, T651 Rolled Rod, Bar and Equation .346* m Equation
7178-T6, T651 Shapes; Drawn c4.6 C4.8
Tube
--

6061-T6, T651 Sheet and Plate*

=- == -
2014-T6, T651, T6510,
T6511, T652
2024-T6, T81, T8510,
2024-T6, T81, T8510,
T8511, T852
7075-T6, T6510, 9’6511, Extrusions, Forgings
T652
7079-T6, T6510, T6511,
T652
7178T6, T6510, T6511
--

Rolled Rod, Bar and Equation 1.224rm Equation

Shapes; c4.7 C4.8
6061-T6, T651, T6510, Drawn Tube;
T6511 Extrusions
-_

X2020-T6, T651 Sheet and Plate*

-

‘Includes clad 8s well as bare sheet and plate. Equation C4. 6 may be used in the short column ran@? tt ?Z’ is
TIansitional L’jp is that above which the columns We “long” and replaced by I;, obtained from the compressive stress-strain curve for the
below which they are “short”. lIlaterM.
 c4. 5

given in the last tNo columns Of the table. Table C4. 5

Tension Allowables Near Welds in Steel Tubing (X-4130)

C4.11 Some General Facts in Tubing Design.
Normalized Welded after HT HT after
1. For a given area, the larger the tube Type of Weld Tube Welded or Norm. after Weld Welding
diameter, the greater the column strength
If failure due to local crippling is not Tapered Welds
critical. of 30° or Less .947 Ftu 90,000 psi .90 Ftu

All others .841 Ftu 80,000 psi .80 Ftu

2. The higher the D/t ratio of tube the lower
the crippling or local failure strength. *Note: Gussets or plate inserts considered O” “taper”
with E .
3. If columns fall within the long column :* For (X-4130) Special, comparable, values to the Ftu,
category, the use of higher strength alloy equal to 90,000 and 80,000, are stresses 94, 500 and
steel or aluminum alloy will not increase 84, 100 psi, respectively.
strength of column since E is practically Ref. Ant-5
constant for all chrome-moly steel alloys
an3 llkewlse for all aluminum alloys.
Failure is due to elastic buckling of the C4. 13 Illustrative Problems in Strength Checking
column as a whole and is therefore a and Design of Round Steel Tubes as Columns
function only of I, L’ and E. and Tension Members.

4. The column end restraint affects the neces- PROBLEM1

sary tube size. Consult the design require
men& of the Army, Navy, and C.A.A. in this Tube size = l-1/2 - .058, Length L = 30 in.
matter. In general with welded steel End fixity coefficient C = 1.
tubular trusses a coefficient of C = 2 is Materlal:- Alloy steel, Ftu = 95000. The
permissible except for engine mount and tube is welded at ends.
Nacelle structures. For trusses with Ultimate deslgn loads are:- P q -14,500
riveted joints a value of not over 1 5 is lbs. compression, and P = 18500 lbs. tension.
generally permissible. Required the Margin of Safety (M.S.)

5. The student should realize that practical Solution: The compressive (M.S.) will be
limitations such as clearance requirements determlned first . As the simplest solution,
may determine the diameter of the tube we can use the column curves in Fig. C4.5. .
Instead of strength-weight considerations. For a length of 30 and C = 1, from the upper
Thus design can consist of checking the right chart we project upward to the inter-
tubes available under the given section with the l-1/2 diameter tube and then
restrlctions. horizontally to the left hand scale to read
the column strength of 14800 lbs. which we
C4.12 Effect of Welding of Steel Tubes Upon the Tension will call the allowable falling Pa.
and Column Strength.
M.S. = Pa 14800 -
- - 1 - 14500 1 = .02
Since welding affects the grain structure P
of the tube material adjacent to the weld, The tube strength could also be found by
tests show the strength of the material using Fig. C4.2 as follows:
adjacent to the weld is decreased as compared
to the unwelded material. If a tapered weld L’ = L/C = 30/c = 30
is used, the effect of the weld is decreased.
Table C4.5 shows the allowable stresses In L’/p = 30/.5102 = 58.7. p is found from
tension to use when tension loads are carried. Table C4.3 as well as the tube area 0.2628
sq. in. Using 58.7 for L’/p on lower scale
In short columns, the primary column and projecting upward to the Ftu = 95000
failing stress may be greater than the local curve, which is the lower curve, and then
crlppllng strength of the tube adjacent to horizontally to left hand scale we read
the weld at the end of the tube. This lOCal FC = 56500 psi.
falling stress due to welding Is referred to
as the weld cut-off stress and the column Whence, Pa = F,A q 56500 x .2628 =
compressive stress F, should not exceed this 14850 lb.
value. This cut-off weld stress is shown by
the horizontal lines In Fig. C4.2 and C4.5. The solution obviously could be made by
substituting In the short column equation for
steel having Ftu = 95000, or
 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
C4.6 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING, TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

__ Heat Treated After Weldln

Heat Treated Cutoff, ksl Reference
to Ftu, ksl

I
‘0
I I I I J
20 40 60 60 100 120 140
L’/p
Fig. C4.3 2024-T3 and 6061-T6
round aluminum alloy tubing.

Fig. C4. 2 Allowable column stress for heat-treated

alloy-steel round tubing.

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 I20 140 160
i /P

Fiv. C4.4 Allowable column StreSseS for magneSiUm-alloy columns.

 0 20 40 60 80
COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES

20 40 60 80
COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES

36

C=l 0 20 40 60 80
COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES

X
P
g 20
w 0 20 40 60 80 100
COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES

Fig. C4. 5
STRENGTH OF CHROME MOLY ROUND STEEL TUBES
FTY = 75,000 PSI FTU = 95,000 PSI
C=l 0 40 80 120 160
COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES
 Weight Weight
Lb/100 ins. Lb/100 ins.
Dia. Gage A P I I/Y D/t Steel Dural Dia. Gage A P D/t Steel Dural
.-- ~------ -
,022 .01576 0810 .000103 .000825 11.38 . 45 .16 1 7/8 035 .2023 .6507 .08565 .09136 53.60 5.73 2.04
.028 .01953 : 0791 .000122 .000978 8.23 . 55 .20 : 049 .2811 .6458 ,I1720 .12500 38.25 7.95 2.84
058 ,331l .6427 .13677 a14589 32.30 9.38 3.35
3/8 .028 .03063 .1231 .000462 .002466 13.39 .86" .31 :065 .3696 .6404 .15156 .16166 28.80 10.47 3.74
.035 .03739 .I208 .000546 .002912 10.72 1.06 .38 .083 . 4673 .6342 .18797 .20050 22.60 13.25 4.73
.049 .06018 .1166 .000682 .003636 7.65 1.43 .51
2 l 049 .3003 .6900 .I4299 .14299 40.80 .50 3.04
.208 .04152 .1672 .001160 .004641 17.85 1.17 .42 .058 .3539 .6869 .16696 .16696 34.45 10.03* 3.58*
.035 .05113 .1649 .001390 .005559 14.28 1.45* 52* 065 .3951 .6845 al8514 .18514 30.75 11.19 4.00
.040 .06943 .1576 .001786 .007144 10.20 1.96 :70 :083 .4999 .8783 .2300 .2301 24.10 14.16 5.06
.095 .5885 .6744 .2586 .2586 21.05 16.11 5.76
5/8 .028 .05252 .2113 .002345 .007503 22.30 1.49 .54
.035 .06487 .2090 .002833 .009065 17.85 1.84* .66% 2 l/4 .049 .3388 .7783 .2052 .1824 45.90 9.59 3.43
.049 .08867 .2044 .003704 .011852 12.77 2.51 .90 .058 .3994 l 7753 .2401 .2134 38.80 11.30* 4.05%
.058 .10331 .2016 .004195 .013425 10.79 2.93 1.05 065 .4462 .7728 .2665 .2369 34.60 12.64 4.52
:083 .5651 .7667 .3322 .2953 27.15 16.01 5.72
.028 .06351 .2555 .004145 .011052 26.80 1.80 .65 .095 .6432 .7626 .3741 .3325 23.70 18.22 6.51
.035 .07862 .2531 .005036 .013429 21.42 2.23" .80w
.049 .10791 .2485 ‘006661 .017762 15.30 3.06 1.09 2 l/2 .049 l 3773 .8667 .2834 .2267 51.00 10.68 3.82
.058 .12609 .2455 .007601 .02027 12.94 3.57 1.28 .058 .4450 .8635 .3318 .2655 43.10 12.60 4.50
.065 .13988 .2433 .008278 .02208 11.53 3.96 1.42 .065 .4972 .8613 .3688 l 2950 38.45 14.09w 5.03*
083 .6302 8550 .4607 .3686 30.10 17.85 6.38
7/8 .028 .07451 .2996 .006689 .015289 31.23 2.11 .76 : 095 .7178 : 8509 .5197 .4158 26.30 20.34 7.27
.035 .09236 .2973 .008161 .018653 25.00 2.62++ .94*
.049 .12715 .2925 .010882 .02487 17.85 3.60 1.29 2 3/4 .049 .4158 .9551 l 3793 .2759 56.10 11.78 4.20
.058 14887 .2896 .012484 .02853 15.10 4.22 1.51 .058 l 4905 .0521 -4446 .3233 47.40 13.90 4.96
.065 :16541 .2865 .013653 .03121 13.47 4.66 1.68 .065 .5483 .9496 .4944 .3596 42.30 15.50s 5.55*
083 .6954 .9434 .6189 .4501 33.15 19.70* 7.04
.035 .10611 .3414 .012368 .02474 28.56 3.01% 1.07s : 095 .7924 .9393 .6991 -5084 28.95 22.48 8,03
.049 .I4640 .3367 .016594 .03319 20.40 4.15 1.48
.058 .17164 .3337 .019111 .03822 17.25 4.86 1.74 3 .058 .5361 1.0403 .5802 .3868 51.70 16.18 5.42
.065 l 19093 .3314 .020970 .04193 15.38 5.41 1.93 .065 l 5993 1.0380 .6457 .4305 46.20 16.95 6.06
.083 .7606 1.0318 .8097 .5398 36.15 21.55* 7.7w
1 l/8 .035 .11985 .3856 .01782 .03168 32.10 3.403, 1.21 .095 8670 1.0276 .9156 .6104 31.58 24.56 8.78
.049 .16564 .3808 .02402 .04270 22.95 4.68s 1.68 .120 1:0857 1.0191 1.1276 .7518 25.00 30.76 11.00
.058 .19442 .3780 .02775 .04933 19.40 5.51 1.97
.065 .21650 .3755 .03052 .05425 17.30 6.14 2.20 3 l/4 .058 .5816 1.1287 .7410 .4560 56.10 16.47 5.89
.065 .6504 1.1263 .8251 .5077 50.00 18.40 6.58
.035 .13360 .4297 .02467 .03948 35.70 3.78% 1.35% .083 .8258 1.1201 1.0361 .6376 39.15 23.38* 8.3w
.049 .18488 .4250 .03339 .05342 25.50 5.23s 1.87* .095 .9416 1.1160 1.1727 .7217 34.20 26.66 9.52
.058 .2172 .4219 .03867 .06187 21.55 6.15 2.20 ,120 1.1800 1.1074 1.4472 .8906 27.10 33.43 11.95
.065 . 2420 .4196 .04260 .06816 19.22 6.86 2.45
3 l/2 ,065 .7014 1.2147 1.0349 .5914 53.80 19.85 7.09
1 3/8 .035 .1473 .4739 .03309 .04814 39.25 4.17 1.49 .083 .8910 1.2085 1.3012 .7435 42.20 25.20 9.01
.049 .2041 .4691 .04492 -06534 28.05 5,78* 2.07 .095 1.0162 1.2043 1.4739 .8422 36.85 28.7OW 10.2w
.058 ,240O .4661 .05213 .07583 23.70 6.80 2.43 .120 1.2742 1.1958 1.8220 1.0411 29.15 36.00 12.89
,065 .2675 .4638 .05753 .08367 21.15 7.58 2.70
3 3/4 .065 7525 1.3031 1.2777 .6814 57.60 21.30 7.60
.035 .1611 .5181 .04324 .0576S 42.80 4.56 1.63 .083 : 9562 1.2968 1.6080 .8576 45.20 27.06 9.67
.049 .2234 .5132 .05885 .07847 30.60 6.32* 2.26+ .095 1.0908 1.2927 1.8228 .9722 39.50 30.84* 11.04*
.058 .2628 .5102 .06841 .09121 25.85 7.45 2.66 . 120 1.3685 1.2841 2.2565 1.2035 31.25 38.70 13.82
.065 .2930 .5079 .07558 10079 23.05 8.30 2.97
,083 .3695 . 5018 .09305 :12407 18.08 10.47 3.74 4 .065 .8035 1.3915 1.5557 .7779 61.50 22.75 8.12
.083 1.0214 1.3852 1.9597 .9799 42.20 28.95 10.32
1 5/8 .035 .1748 .5622 .05528 .06803 46.40 4.95 1.77 .095 1.1655 1.3810 2.2228 1.1114 42.10 32.95 11.78
.049 .2426 .5575 .07540 .09279 33.15 6.87* 2.46 .120 1.4627 1.3725 2.7552 1.3776 33.33 41.40* 14.8oW
.058 .2855 .5544 .08776 .10801 28.00 8.09 2.89
.065 .3186 .5520 .09707 .11948 25.00 9.05 3.23 4 l/4 . 134 1.7327 1.4557 3.6732 1.7408 31.75 49.103, 17.5s
.083 .4021 .5459 .11985 .14751 19.58 11.40 4.06
4 l/2 .156 2.1289 1.5369 5.0282 2.2347 28.80 60.40* 21.55w
.035 .I885 .6065 .06936 .07927 50.00 5.32 1.91
.049 .2618 .6017 .09478 .10832 35.70 7.42* 2.65* 4 3/4 .188 2.6944 1.6143 7.0213 2.9563 25.25 76.25* 27.2CF
.058 .3083 ,5986 .11046 .12624 30.20 8.73+ 3.12
,065 .3441 .5962 .12230 .13977 26.90 9.75 3.48 *AN STANDARD TUBING
.083 .4347 .5eo1 .I6138 .17299 21.10 12.32 4.40
 STRENGTH&DESIGNOFROUND, STREAMLINE,OVALANDSQUARETUBING
C4.8 IN TENSION. COMPRESSION. BENDING TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

“a
5 6000 tx
24000

!2
i?
8pI 20000
' 5000
9
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2 3
30 3000 2 12000
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0 20 40 60 80 100 120
COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES (C = 1) COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES (C = 1)

14000 <%S, ,. up
ul
!z
3 12000
0
e
I
9 10000

s
3 8000

d,.a 6000
2
z% 4000

COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES (C = 1)

COLUMNLENGTH-MCHES(C=l)

tn 24000
8iz 30000
E
~20000 2
2' 25000
2016000 s
IJ
5 20000
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0 20 40 60 80 100 120
COLUMNLENGTH- INCHES(C=l) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
COLUMN LENGTH - INCHES (C = 1)
 STRENGTH 81 DESIGN OF ROUND. STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
c4.10 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BE’kDIN G, TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS

Fc = 79500 - 51.9 (L','P)~'~ L' = L/J-Z- = 40/a = 28.4

q 79500 - 51.9 (58.7)ls6 = 56500 psi In Fig. C4.5 we can use L = 40 and c = 2
scale at bottom of chart or use c = 1 scale
The short column equation applies since, and L' = 28.4. Reading the chart we obtain
as shown in Table C4.1, the transitional L'/p pa = -9200 lbs. Thus the c = 2 fixity
Is 91 and the value for our tube is 58.7. increased the strength of the tube from 6000
to 9200.
Tensile Strength
Case 4. Same as Case 3 but heat treated to
Since the tube is welded, the tube Ftu = 150,000 after welding.
material adjacent to the weld is weakened.
The weld correction values are given in Table L'/p = 28.4/.425 = 66.8
c4.5. We will assume a weld other than
tapered. Let Pa = allowable or failing tensile From Fig. C4.2 using 150,000 curve, we
strength of tube. read F, = 63000, whence
Pa = Ftu (weld factor) (area of tube) Pa = F,A = 63000 x .1849 = 11650 lb.
= 95000 x .841 x .2628 = 21000 lbs. In this case heat treating produced
additional strength, whereas in Case 2 it did
M.S. = (Pa/p)-1 = (21000/18500) - 1 = not. The reason for this Is that failure
0.13, thus compression is critical. occurs in the inelastic stress range and heat
treating raises the material properti.es in the
PROBLEM2 inelastic range. The end flxity changed the
column from a so-called long column to a short
Case 1. Tube size l-1/4 - .049, L = 40 In. column.
c=l
Material: Alloy steel, Ftu = 95000 The strength could be found also by sub-
Find ultimate compressive load It ~111 stitutlng in the short column equal for
carry. 150,000 steel as given in Table C4.1,

Solution: From Fig. C4.5, Pa = 6000 lbs. F, = 145000 - 18.36 (L'/p)'

Case 2. If tube was heat treated to Ftu = = 145000 - 18.36 (66.8)" = 63000 psi.
150,000, what compressive load would
It carry. PROBLEM3
Solution: Fig. C4.5 cannot be used since Case 1. Tube size 2 - .065, L = 24, c = 1.5
Ftu = 150,000, thus we will use Fig. C4.2. Material Ftu = 95000. Welded at ends.
' = L/d-Z-- = 40//-i- = 4. From Table C4.3, Ultimate design load = 25000 lbs.
What is M.S.
p" = .425 and area (A) = .1849.
Solution: L' = L/C = 24/dn = 19.7
L'/p = 40/.425 = 94. From Fig. C4.2,
using the 150,000 curve, we find Fc = 32500.
Then Pa = FcA = 32500 x .1849 = 6000 lb. Thus From Fig. C4.5 for L = 19.7 on c = 1
scale, we project upward to the 2 inch tube
heat treating the tube from 95000 to 150,000
for Ftu did not increase the column strength. and note that it intersects the horizontal
weld cut-off line which gives an allowable
For a L'/p = 94, It is a long column and column load at left scale of Pa = 26700 lb.
failure is elastic and E is constant. Failure in this case Is local crippling
adjacent to welds at the tube ends.
The strength could also be calculated by
Euler's equation from Table C4.1. M.S. = Pa/p = 26700/25000 - 1 = .07
= 286,000,000/(L~/p)" Case 2.
FC Assume tube is heat treated to Ftu
= 286,000,000/(94)2 = 32500 psi, the = 125000 after welding. What is tube
strength.
same as prevlously calculated.
L'/p = 19.7/.6845 = 28.8
Case 3. Same as Case 1, but assume tube is
welded to several other tubes at its Using Fig. C4.2 with L'/p q 28.8 and pro-
end and that the end fixity developed jecting up to 125000 curve, we again note that
is c = 2. horizontal weld cut-off line is intersected
 c4.11

giving F, = 95000, whence Pa = 95000 x .3951 The results show that l-1/4 - .035 is the
= 37500 lbs. lightest. Since there is danger in welding
.035 thickness to the other heavler tube gauges
If the tube had not been welded at ends particularly the engine mount ring which Is
the dashed part of the column curve could have usually relatively heavy for this size engine,
been used, thus giving addltional strength. a minimum tu’e thickness of .049 will be used,
hence the l-1/8 - .049 tube will be selected.
PROBLEM4
____-
Conslder Member (21
Fig. C4.7 shows a steel tubular englne
mount structure for a 1050 H.P. radial engine. Des&n loads 11650 tension and 42ZO
The ultimate design tension and compressive compression. Since the tension load appears
load in each member as determined from a stress critical, th? tube will be deslcned for the
analysis for the various flying and landing tension load alIf! t,hsn cilsclked for the
conditions are shown in ( ) adjacent to each compressive load D The Ftu of the material
member. The true length L of each member Is equal? 95000 psi. Since th? engine mount in a
also shorn? 0 Using chrome-moly steel tubes, welded structure, the strength of the tube ad-
Ftu = 95000, select tube sizes for the given jncent to the end welds must be reduced to .841
loads. It is common practice to assume the x 95000 = SOTlO psi (see Table C4.5).
column end fixlty c = 1 for englne mount
members, since the mount Is subjected to Hence tube area required = 11650/80000 =
consicierable vibration and the true rigidity 0.146 sq, in. From Table C4.3, which gives
given by the engine mount ring is difficult the section properties of round tubes, we
to accurately determine. select the following sizes:
6070,
l- .049, Area = .14G, M.S. = (.146/.146)-l = 0
l- .058, Area = .172, M.S. = (.172/.146)-l =.19
l-1/8 - .049, Area = .166, M.S. = .14
l-3/8 - .035, Area = .147, M.S. = 0

To obtain a reasonable margin of safety, the

l-1/8 - .049 will be selected.
Front View
Fig. C4.7 Side View Many structural designers prefer to have
large margins of safety on engine mount members
as considerable trouble has been encountered in
Consider member (3). Ultimate design load =
the failure or cracking of englne mount members.
- 9250. Referring to the column charts of
Fig. C4.5, we find for C = 1 and L = 31.4 the
The strength of the l-1/8 - .C49 tube a.s a
follo;ving tube sizes for a strength near column for length = 31.4 and c = 1 equals -6700
- 9850 lbs.
lbs. from Fig. C4.5 which gives a margin of
safety of (6700/4250) - 1 = .58 on the maxlmum
l-l/2- .035, Pa = 8850 (weak). (Note -Pa =
allowable load) compressive load. The student should select a
tube size for member (1).
l-3/8- .049, Pa = - 10350,weight=5.78 lb./lOO”, C4.14 Illustrative Problems Using Aluminum Alloy
M.S. = (10350/9250) - 1 = .12 and Magnesium Round Tubes as Columns and
Tension Members.
l-1/4- .058, Pa = -10000, weight = 6.15, M.S.
= 10000/9250) - 1 = .08 In general alloy steel round tubes must
be heat treated to around 180,000 to 200,000
Thus use l-3/8 - .049 since it is the lightest ultimate tension strength before they can com-
as well as the strongest. pare favorably with aluminum round tubes on a
material weight basls. However, aluminum
Consider member (4), Load = - 5470, L = 30, alloy as used for tubes cannot be welded
c=1 satisfactorily and thus in a truss structure
the end connections Involving riveted and
From Fig. C4.5: bolted connections add weight and design
difficulties as compared to welded connectlons
l-1/8- .oag, pa = -7100, wt.= 4.68, M.S.= .30 in steel trusses.

l-1/4- .035, Pa = -6500, wt.= 3.78, M.S.= .19

1” e.058, pa = -6000, wt.= 4.86, M.S.= .lO

 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
c4.12 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING rORSIOk AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

PROBLFJ?1 C4. 15 Strength of Streamline Tubing.

Case 1. Tube size 1 - ,049 round. If a round tube is exposed to the alr-
L = 24, c = 1, Material 2024-T3 stream, the air drag is ab0u.t 15 times greater
Find failing compressive load. than if it were given a streamlined shape, thus
streamline tubes are used wh:n the member is
Solution: The colu?m curves in Fig. C4.6 are exposed to the airstream.
slightly conservative because the equation used
~8s slightly different from thl: equation now Streamline tubes are drawn from round
specified In (Rsf. 1). tubes. In designating a streamline tube, the
round tube from which it was made is used and
Use L = 24, we read for l-049 tube a then tha fineness ratio is also given. The
falling load of 2800 lb. fineness ratio Is the ratlo L/D, which dimen-
sions are shown in Fig. C4.8. The most common
As a second solution, we will use Fig. fineness ratio used is 2.5 to 1. Table C4.6
c4.3. L' = L/E = 24,/c = 24. L’/P = shows the sectlon properties of streamline
23,/.%67 = 71.:3.
From Fig. C4.3, we read tubing having a fineness rat10 of 2.5 to 1.
F, = 20000. Then Pa = FcA = 20000 x .1454 = Figs. C4.9 and C4.10 give curves for finding
2930 lb. the column failing stress Fc and the local
crushing stress Fee.
The ans?$er could be obtained by substl-
tilting in equation C4.9, Fig. C4.6

F, = 50600 - 431 L '/p B = .944L R = .19D

= 50600 - 431 (71.3) = 19900 D = . 5714d L = 2.5D
d = Equiv. Round Dia.
Pa = 19900 x .1464 = 2920 lb.
A c,olumn may also fail by local crushing PROBLFX 1. Case 1.
0; crippling of the tuSe wall, thils the
crushing stress FCC sh,~ld be determined to A streamline tube made from a basic round
see if it is less than the primary bending tube of 2-l/2 - .Ofi5 size has a fineness ratlo
failing stress for the column. of 2.5 to 1. The length L is 30 In. Take
c = 1. Material is alloy steel Fty = 75000.
For our tube the dlaneter over thickness Find the ultimate compressive load the member
ratio D/t = 1.0/'.049 = 20.40. Values of D/t will carry.
are given in Table C4.3.
Solution: From Table C4.6 for 2-l/2 - .065
Referring to the small chart in the upper size we find the following section properties:-
right hand corner of Fig. C4.3, we find for a Area (A) = .4972, p (major axis) = .5137 In.
D/t of 20.4 that F,, = 47500 psi. Since this Then L' = L/C = 30/c = 30, and L'/p =
stress is greater than the bending failing 30/.5137 = 58.5
column Stress of 20,000, it is not critical. D/t value for tube = 2.5/.065 = 38.5
Case 2. Same as Case 1 but use c = 1.5 and From Fig. C4.9 for L'/p = 58.5 and D/t =
change material to 6061-T6 aluminum 38.5, we read F, = 46500 psi. For D/t = 38.5
alloy. and reading from small chart in upper right
hand corner of Fig. C4.9, we read Fee = 66500.
L' = L/v%= 24/v'?-%- = 19.7, L'/p = 19.7/.336; Thus Fc Is critical and Pa = 46500 x .4972 =
23000 lb.
= 58.5
Case 2. Same as Case 1 but change material
From Fig. C4.3, F, = 22500 to 2024-T6 aluminum alloy.
rihnnne Pa = 22jOO x .1464 = 3300 lb. For this material we use Fig. C4.10.
For L'/p = 58.5, we read F, = 26000 psi.
F,, for D/t = 20.4 from Fig. C4.3 = 38500 (not For D/t = 38.5, we read Fee = 37500 (not
critical). critical) a Thus Pa = 26000 x .4972 = 12900 lb.
Case 3. Same as Case 2 but change material to C4.16 Strength of Oval and Square Shaped Tubes
magnesium alloy, Fey = 10,000. in Compression.

For L'/p = 58.5 and using lower curve on Tables C4.8 and C4.7 give the section
Fig. C4.4, we read F, = 7600. Thsn Pa = F,A = properties for square and oval shaped tubes
7600 x .1464 = 1110 lb. respectively. For the design of these shaped
 c4.13

%??dd&&TABLE C4. 6 SECTION PROPERTIES OF STREAMLINE TUBING (Fineness Ratio 2.5 to 1)

.quiv.
.ound
Wall Axes r Area
wt.
per ft.
I
Major
Z
Major
\

P
Major
I
Minor
Z
Minor M!kor
Equiv
Round
Axes
Area
wt.
per ft.
I
Major
Z
tiajor
I
Minor
Z
Minor Mkor
3.D. Ma jar Minor O.D. bec’l ;age tiajor

035 20 .0786 .2673 .0017 XI079 .1486 .0073 .0140 .3046 049 18 .3773 3.283 .I018 .I425 5194 .4063 -2343 1.0377
,049 18 .1079 .3668 .0022 .0103 .1435 .0097 .0187 .2998 058 17 .4450 1.513 .1186 .1660 .5163 .4764 .2747 1.0346
065 16 .4972 1.690 .1312 .1837 .5137 .5300 .3057 1.0325
,035 20 .0924 .3140 .0028 .0112 .1753 .0118 .0195 .3572 .1621 .2269 .6640 1.0265
083 14 .6302 2.143 .5071 .3832
.049 18 .1272 .4323 .0037 .0148 .1703 .0158 .0261 .3525 .7178 2.440 .1815 .2141 .5028 .7504 .4333 1.0224
095 13
.058 17 .1489 SO61 .0042 .0168 .1671 .0182 .0301 .3495 .9226 1.0141
120 11 .8972 3.050 .2188 .3063 .4938 .5329

.035 20 1.3485 .1061 .3607 .0043 .01y .2020 .0178 .0257 .4100 18 .4158 1.414 .1366 .1739 .5732 .5434 .2848 1.1432
a. 049
.049 18 .I464 .4977 .0057 .0200 .1972 .0239 .0345 .4044 ,058 .4905 1.668 .1593 .2028 .5699 .6372 .3340 1.1398
se 17
.058 17 .1716 .5835 .oQ65 .0228 .I939 .0278 .0402 .4023 16 .5483 1.864 .1765 ,2247 .5674 .7099 .3723 1.1379
065
,083 .6954 2.364 .2188 .2785 .5609 .8907 .4673 1.1318
.035 20 .1199 .4074 0063 .0196 .2292 .0257 .0329 .4626 2.694 .2455 .3125 .5566 1.0081 .5289 1.1279
,095 :; .7924
.049 18 .1656 .5631 .0083 .0258 .2240 .0347 .0445 .4573 .2973 -378s .S476 1.2427 .6523 1.11%
,120 11 .9915 3.371
.058 17 .1944 .6609 a094 .0292 .2205 .0402 .0516 .4549
.a% 16 .2165 -7359 .0103 .0320 -2182 .0443 .0569 .4525 .058 17 .5361 1.822 .2085 2433 $6236 .8318 .3997 1.2456
.w 16 .5993 2.037 .2312 .2698 .6211 .9265 .4452 1.2434
.035 20 1.6857 .1336 .4542 .0088 .0246 .2559 .0355 .0409 .5154 .083 .7606 2.586 .2872 .3352 .6145 1.1645 .5599 1.2373
.a
.049 18 .1849 .6285 .0116 .0325 .2509 .0482 .0557 .5107 .O95 :‘: .8670 2.947 .3229 .3768 .6103 1.3184 .6338 1.2332
61
.058 17 .2172 .7384 .0133 .0372 .2477 .0560 .0647 .5077 .120 11 1.0857 3.691 .3925 .4580 .6013 1.6289 .7839 1.2249
**
.065 16 .2420 .8226 .0145 -0406 .2451 .0618 .0714 .5053 .156 %a 1.3959 4 3746 .4824 .5630 .5879 2.0497 .9869 1.2118

.035 20 1.8543 .1473 .5009 .0118 .0300 .2828 .0476 -0549 .5683 .058 17 .5816 1.977 .2668 .2873 .6773 1.0617 .4708 1.3511
.a
.049 18 .2041 .6939 .0157 .0400 .2777 .0648 .0680 .5635 -065 16 .6504 2 211 .2961 .3189 .6747 1.1830 .5248 1.3487
.,
.058 17 .2400 .8158 .0181 .0461 .2745 .0754 .0791 .5604 .083 .8258 2.807 .3689 .3973 .6684 1.4886 -6604 1.3426
*.
.065 16 .267S $094 .0198 .0504 .2719 .0833 .0875 S581 .095 :‘: .9416 3.201 .4150 .4470 .6639 1.6873 .7489 1.3386
.12c 11 1.1800 4.011 .5062 .5452 .6549 2.0887 .9275 1.3304
.035 20 .1611 .5476 .OlS4 .0359 .3096 .0621 .0597 .6209 .1X %a 1.5186 5.163 .6251 .6732 .6416 2.6353 1.1707 1.3173
.049 .2234 .7593 .0207 XI483 .3045 .0848 .0815 .6162
,058 :; .2627 .8932 .0239 .0555 .3014 .0988 .0951 .6131 .065 .7014 2.385 .3723 .3723 .7286 1.4831 .6108 1.4541
.065 16 .2934 .9962 .0262 .0611 .2989 .I093 .1052 .6108 .083 .8910 3.029 .4645 .4645 .7220 1.8686 .7699 1.4481
.083 14 .3695 1.256 .0316 .0737 .2923 .I351 .1302 .6047 .09s 1.0162 3.455 .5234 .5234 -7177 2.1194 ,873) 1.4442
.12c 1.2742 4.332 .6400 .6400 .7087 2.6269 1.0828 1.4358
.035 20 .1748 .5943 .0198 .0426 .3365 a793 .0704 .6736 43 1.64.14 5.580 .7934 .7934 .6952 3.3221 1.3705 1.4227
.049 18 .2426 .8248 .0266 .0573 .3314 .1085 a964
.058 17 .2855 .9707 .0308 .0448 .3282 .1266 .1124 .6659 I .06: 16 .7525 2.558 .4604 .4297 .7822 1.8299 .7033 1.5594
16 .3186 1.083 .0338 .0728 .3256 .1402 .1245 xi634 .083 14 .9562 3.251 .5754 .5371 .7757 2.3073 .8871 1.5534
.065
.083 14 .4021 1.367 ml0 .0883 .3192 .1738 .1545 .6574 .095 13 1.0908 3.708 .6490 .5777 .7713 2.6195 1.0075 1.5497
.0976 .3149 .12c 11 1.3685 4.652 .7955 .7425 .7624 3.2505 1.2502 1.5412
.095 13 .4566 1.552 .0453 A949 .1732 .6541
.15C %a 1.7641 5.997 .9894 .9235 .7489 4.1192 1.5855 1.5281
.035 20 .1886 -6411 .0249 .0498 .3633 .0995 .0820 .7263
.06: 16 .8035 2.732 .5614 .4912 .8359 2.227C .a025 1.6648
.049 .2618 .8902 .0336 .0672 .3583 .1363 .1123 .7216
.058 :; 1.048 .0778 .3551 .7186 .083 14 1.0214 3.472 .7024 .6146 .8293 2.8161 1.0148 1.6604
.3083 .0389 .1592 .1312
16 .3441 1.170 .0428 .0856 .3525 .176f .1455 .7163 .09! 13 1.1655 3.962 .7933 .6941 .8250 3.1917 1.15% 1.6549
.065
.12( 1.4627 4.973 .9739 .8522 .8160 3.%61 1.4303 1.6467
.083 14 .4347 1.478 .0521 .1042 .3461 .2192 .1809 .7101
.1154 .3418 .2463 .15C ii 1.8867 6.414 1.2153 1.0634 X026 5.0332 1.8164 1.6333
,095 13 .4939 1.679 .0577 .2034 .7061
.188 56 2.2457 7.635 1.4109 1.2345 .7926 5.9364 2.1431 1.6259
20 .2023 .6878 .0308 .0575 .3902 .1227 .0943 .7789
,035
18 .2811 .9556 .0417 .0779 .3851 .1685 .12% .7743 i .065
.083
16 .8546
1.0866
2.905
3.694
.6761
.8473
.5568
.6978
.8895
.8830
2.6784
3.3817
.9082
1.1471
1.7704
1.7641
:$8’ 17 1.126 .0482 .0900 .3815 .1%9 .1515 .7712 14
.3311
.095 13 1.2400 4.216 .9574 .788S .8787 3.8426 1.3035 1.7604
,065 16 -36% 1.257 .0532 -0993 .3794 .2186 .1683 .7690
.12c 11 1.5570 5.293 1.1779 .9701 -8698 4.7789 1.6216 1.7519
,083 14 .4673 1.589 .0650 .1214 .3729 .2719 .2093 .7624
,156 2.0095 6.832 1.4729 1.2131 .8573 6.0748 2.0628 1.7387
-095 13 .5312 1.806 .0722 .1348 .3687 .3498 .2770 .7523
,188 3t 2.3930 8.135 1.7144 1.4120 .8464 7.1732 2.4365 1.7314
.1076
,035
,049
20
18
2.6970
4.
4,
.2161
.3003
.7345
1.021
.0376
.0510
.0658
.0893
.4170
.4120
.1494
.2053 .1480
.8313
.8269 i
,I
.083 1.1517
1.3147
3.915
4.469
1.0105
1.1429
.7860
.8889
.9367
.9324
4.0256
4.5759
1.2894
1.4662
1.8696
1.8656
,095
,058 .3539 1.203 .0591 .1034 .4088 .2402 .1732 .8238
.* .12c 1.6512 5.613 1.4082 1.0953 .9235 5.6952 1 a8254 1.8572
,065
,083
2
,I .39Sl
.4999
1.343
1.699
.0652
.0799
.1141
.1398
.4062
.3998
.2668
.3325
,192s
.2399
.8217
.8156 .w 2.1322 7.249 1.7650 1.3728 .9098 7.2508 2.3247 1.8441

,095 :I:
,a
3585 1.933 .0889 .1556 .3954 .3744 2703 .8115 .18E
.215
2.5403
2.9421
8.636
10.01
2.0580
2.3221
1.6007
1.8061
.9001
.8884
8.5740
9.8001
2.7498
3.1451
1.8372
1.8251

,049 18 .3388 l.lS2 .0735 .I144 .4657 .2946 .1887 .932s

,058 17 .3999 1.358 -0854 .I329 .4625 .3450 .2212 .9294
065 16 .4462 1.517 .0944 .1469 .4600 .3835 .2458 .9271
083 14 .5650 1.921 .1161 .1807 .4533 .4794 .307s .9223
,095 13 .6432 2.186 .1298 .2020 .4492 .5409 .3470 .9170
,120 11 do30 2.730 .I556 .2421 .4402 A629 .42X 3086
- -

D=Bos~c round tube dlometer

cl-
0 20 40 60 80 00 120 Ml
L’/p

Fig. C4.10 Streamline 20240T3 Tubing CHROME MOLYB MLINE TUBING.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

L’/p
 STRENGTH&DESIGNOFROUND, STREAMLINE,OVALANDSQUARETUBING
c4.14 INTENSION, COMPRESSION,BENDING, TORSIONANDCOMBINEDLOADINGS.

s~Z&Z?"t?S TABLEC~.~ SECTION PROPERTIES OF STREAMLINE TUBING

Size wt.
Side I
per ft.
Dist. Area I Z P Dec’l Gage
ACrOSS Dec’l Gage
Flats
.035 20 .1926 .6549 .0661 .0881 .5859
.022 24 .0294 .0998 .ooo6 .0031
.0038
.1415 .049
.058
18
17
2675
03150
.9Q95
1.071
.0902
.1051
.1203
.14Ol
.5807
a5776
.028 22 .0368 .1252 .0007 .I396
.035 20 .0453 .1589 .ooo9 .0045 .1372 .065 16 .3516 1.195 .1162 .1550 .5750
.049 18 .0612 .2081 .OOll Jo57 .1318 .083 14 .4443 1.510 .I436 .1915 .5686
.022 24 .03% .1348 .0016 .m5 .2023 ,095 13 l 5050 1.717 a1608 .2144 .5643
.028 22 .0499 .1697 .0020 a079 .lygl .120 11 .6284 2.136 .1940 .2586 .5556
.03s 20 .0616 .2096 .0024 a094 .1956
a49 18 .0841 .2861 .0030 .0120 .1892 049 18 .3134 1.065 .1451 .1658 .6804
.058 17 .0980 .3330 a033 .0134 .1853 ,058 17 .3693 1.255 .1691 .1932 .6766
.065 16 .1084 .3684 a035 .0141 -1804
.M5 16 .4124 1.402 .1877 .2146 .6747
.022 24 0483 .1641 .0033 .0104 .26QO .083 14 .5220 1.774 2331 .2663 .6682
.028 22 .0630 .2143 .0040 .0129 .2526 .095 13 .5938 2.019 .2618 .2992 .6640
.035 20 .0780 .2652 .CQ48 .0155 .2489 .120 11 .7307 2.484 .3175 .3628 .6592
.049 18 .1071 .3640 a063 .0201 .2420
.058 17 .1251 .4253 .0071 .0227 .2379
16 .1388 .4717 .0077 .0245 .2348 ,049 18 .3592 1.221 .2180 .2180 .7790
.w
.058 17 .4236 1.440 .2557 2557 .7769
.028 22 .0761 .2588 a064 .0168 .2890 .065 16 .4732 1.609 .2838 .2838 .7744
.035 20 .0944 .3209 .OQ78 .0206 .2866 .083 14 .5996 2.038 .3536 .3536 .7679
.049 18 .13cQ .4419 .0103 .0274 .2816
.058 17 .I522 .5175 .0118 .0313 .2784 .095 13 .6827 2.321 .3981 .3981 .7636
.065 16 .1692 .5751 .0129 .0342 .2760 .120 11 .8530 2.900 .4859 .4856 .7548
.083 14 .2113 .7184 .0154 .@I08 .2700 .156 351 1.0912 3.710 .6010 .6010 .7422
.028 22 .0892 .3033 .0103 .0236 .3390
.llOB a3766 .0125 .0288 .3364 ,049 18 .4X1 1.377 .3080 .2738 .8721
.035 20
.O49 18 .1528 .5193 .0168 .0386 .3320 .058 17 .4778 1.624 * 3607 .3207 .8689
.058 17 .1794 A098 .0193 a445 .3283 .065 16 .5341 1.816 .4000 .3556 .8654
.065 16 .1996 .6785 .0212 .0487 .3528 .083 14 .6773 2.302 .5OO7 .4451 -8598
,083 14 .2502 .a504 .0235 .0588 .3194 .095 13 .7716 2.623 .5640 .5013 .8549
.028 22 .1023 .3479 .0154 a0309 .3883 .120 11 .9652 3.281 .6918 .6149 .8466
.035 20 .1271 .4322 .0190 TO380 .3867 ,156 911 1.2372 4.206 .8765 .7791 .8418
a49 18 .1758 .5978 .0256 .0511 .3813
.058 17 .2065 .7020 .0295 .0591 .3782 .058 17 a5321 1.809 -5074 .4035 .9757
16 .2300 .7819 .0324 .0649 .3756
.065 .065 16 .5949 2.022 .5643 .4488 .9739
.083 .2890 .9824 .0394 .0788 .3693
i; .3272 1.112 .0436 .0873 .3652 .083 14 .7549 2.566 .7071 ,5625 .9678
.095
.095 13 .8605 2.925 .7981 .6530 .9631
.035 20 .1435 .4878 .0275 .0489 .4340 .120 11 1.0775 3.663 .9809 .7806 .9541
.049 .1988 .6757 .0369 .0657 .4311 ,156 962 1.3831 4.702 1.2256 .9760 .9413
.058 :; .2336 .7942 .0427 .0759 .4265
16 .2604 A852 .0471 .0838 .4241 .188 %s 1.6479 5.602 1.4257 1.3183 .9301
.cw
.083 14 .3278 1.114 .0576 .1024 .4191
.095 13 .3716 1.263 .0640 .1138 .4151 .058 17 .5864 1.993 .6792 .4940 1.0763
.120 11 .4600 1.564 .0760 .1351 .4064 .M5 16 .6557 2.229 .7559 .5497 1.0737
.4891 .083 14 .8326 2.830 .9481 .6896 1.0671
.035 20 .1599 s435 .0378 .0604
.049 .2217 .7536 .0513 .0821 .4831 ,095 13 69494 3.227 1.0724 .7799 1.0628
.058 :; .2608 .8865 .0595 .0952 .4778 ,120 11 1.1898 4.045 1.3213 a8653 1.0541
.065 16 .2908 .98M a657 .1051 .4753 .156 911 1.5291 5.198 1.6569 1.1121 1.0410
14 .3666 1.246 .0806 .1290 .4%0
.083 ,188 %I 1.8238 6.200 1.9334 1.3264 1.0296
.095 13 .4161 1.414 .0899 -1438 .4647
.120 11 .5161 1.755 .1074 .1718 .4561
.065 16 -7166 2.436 .9860 .6573 1.1730
.035 20 a1763 .5992 .0506 .0736 .5360 .083 14 .9102 3.094 1.2394 .8263 1.1669
a49 18 .2446 .8316 .0689 .1003 .5309 .095 13 1 SO383 3.530 1.4032 .9355 1.1625
.058 17 .2879 .9787 .0801 .1166 .5276 .120 11 1.3021 4.426 1.7325 1.1550 1.1544
.065 16 -3212 1.092 .0886 .1288 .5251
.1091 .1587 .5187 .156 711 1.6750 5.694 2.1793 1.4529 1.1406
.083 14 .4055 1.378
.095 13 .4605 1.566 .1219 .1773 .5145 .188 %, 1.9997 6.798 2.5503 1.7002 1.1381
.120 11 .5723 1.946 .1464 .2130 .5058 .219 $6, 2.3081 7.847 2.8873 1.9249 1.1184
--
 c4.15

tubes the primary column strength can be found C4.18 Problems Involving Bending Strength of Tubes.
by using the curves in Figs. C4.9 and C4.10.
The crushing stress Fee for oval shaped tubes PROBLE?l1
can conservatively be taken as that for
streamline tubes as given in Figs. C4.9 and A l-1/4 - .058 round tube is used as a
c4.10. For square tubes the local crushing simply supported beam with the supports at the
stress Fee can be taken as the crippling stress ends. The span or length of the beam is 24
of a flat plate. For this stress refer to the inches. It carries a uniform distributed load
chapter which covers the buckling and Crippling w in pounds per Inch. Find the value of w to
stress of flat plates wlth various widths, cause the tube to fall 1n bending if the tube
thickness and boundary edge conditions. is made from the following materials:- alloy
steel Ftu = 95000, 6061-T6 aluminum alloy, and
ULTIMATE BENDING STRENGTH 6AL-4V titanium.

OF ROUND TUBES Solution: The maximum bending moment occurs

at the midpolnt of the span and equals wLa/8 =
C4.17 Charts for Finding Modulus of Rupture Stress. w x 24'/8 = 72 w In. lb.

Chapter C3 was concerned with the theory The section properties for the tube are
and methods of determining the ultimate yield D/t = 21.55, and I/y = .0618’7 obtained from
and falling stress of a section In pure Table C4.3.
bending. It was concerned with finding a
flctltious stress Fb which, when substituted The beam equation involving the modulus
in the well known beam formula M = FbI/c, would Of Fb iS M = FbI/y.
IWptUIW Substituting 72w
give the value of the bendlng moment which for M, we obtain:
would cause failure.
FbI
The same procedure as was used In Chapter w=72y
C3 can be used to find the modulus of rupture
stress (Fb) for round tubes. However, since Conslder the alloy steel, Ftu = 95000. From
round tubes have been a standard and available Fig. C4.11 for D/t = 21.55, we read Fb =
structural member for many years, much testing 117000. Then w = (117000 x .06187)/72 = 100.2
has been done on tubes and as a result rather lb. per inch. Consider tube material as
complete deslgn curves are available for flnd- 6061-T6 which has a Ftu = 42000 psi.
ing the modulus of rupture in bending (Fb) for
round tubes. Figs. C4.11 to C4.14 inclusive From Fig. C4.12 for D/t = 21.55, we read
give curves for finding modulus of rupture Fb that Fb/Ftu = 1.06. Thus Fb = 42000 x 1.06 =
round tubes when fabricated from alloy steels, 44500.
aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys and titanium
alloy. Then w = (44500 x .06187)/72 = 38.1.
270 Tube material 6AL-4V titanium.

2 260 From Fig. C4.14 for D/t = 21.55, we read

g 250 Fb = 191600. Then w = (191600 x .06187)/72 =
118.7 lbs. per in.
c 240
PROBLEM2
2
LL 230
A beam simply supported at its ends has
O 220 a span of 30 inches. The ultimate design load
3
3 210 consists of two equal loads of 2000 lbs. each.
0 The beam is symmetrically loaded with each
g 200 load located 12 inches from the ends.
g 190 Select the lightest round tube when made
5 180 from the following material: (1) alloy steel
m Ftu = 220000, (2) 7075-T6 aluminum alloy.
p 170 Compare the resulting tube weights.
160
0 5 IO I5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Solution: The maximum bending moment is
constant and occurs between the load points.
o/t
Fig. C4.14 Bending modulus of rupture for round M= 2000 x 12 = 24000 In. lb.
BAl-4V tubing. (Titanium)
 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
C4.16 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING, TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

!sy ‘am@-+j 10 snlnpo(y hpuag ’ q~

 c4.17

Since the allowable or failing bendlng Therefore we will select a tube from Table
stress is a function of D/t, and since we do C4.3 that has a I/y value in the region of .30
not have a tube size, the design or SOlUtiOn to .37.
procedure is by trial and error.
Try 2-3/4 - 058. I/y = .3233, D/t = 47.4.
Observation of the modulus of rupture From Fig. C4.12, Fb/Ftu = 0.90. Then Fb = .90
curves show that as D/t increases Fb decreases. x 77000 = 69300 psi. Then Ma = Fb I/y = 69300
This is due to the fact that failure in bending x .3233 = 22400. This is less than the design
is a local failure and the thinner the wall and bending moment of 24000 so this tube is weak.
larger the diameter, the lower the buckling or
crushing stress. However, the larger the D/t Try 3-058. I/y q .3868, D/t = 51.7
value the greater the section modulus I/y of Fb/Ftu = .885 , Fb = .885 x 77000 = 68000
the tube, which means increasing bending m, = Fb I/y = 68000 x .3868 q 26300
resistance. Thus we have two Influences which M.S. q (26300/24000)-l = .09.
act oppositely relative to effecting the bending
strength. A study of other tubes in Table C4.3
shows that no other tube would be lighter in
There are many ways of guessing a tube weight .
size for checking purposes. In this example
problem we will assume two values for D/t and Tube weight = 30 x .5361 x -101 = 1.70
see what I/y would calculate to be. The two lbs., as against 2.22 lbs. for the alloy steel
values of D/t will be 4.5 and 25. heat treated to 220,000. Thus aluminum alloy
tubes from a weight standpoint usually yield
Consider the material alloy steel Ftu=220000:- results better than most materials. This
For D/t = 45 from Fig.C4.11, Fb=232000 conclusion applies to only low temperatures,
below 250°F, as aluminum alloys lose strength
Then I/y = M/Fb = 24000/232000 = .103 rapidly for temperatures above 250° to 300°F.
For D/t = 25, Fb = 266000
The student should calculate the lightest
Then I/y = 24000/266000 = .089 titanium tube and the lightest magnesium tube
using Figs. C4.14 and C4.l3 respectively and
Therefore we will refer to Table C4.3 and compare the weight results with the steel and
select tubes that have an I/y value near the aluminum as found above.
.089 to .103 range and then find their true
bendlng strength. Table (A) shows the ULTIMATE TORSIONAL
selection and the necessary calculations,
using Fig. C4.11. STRENGTH OF ROUND TUBES
C4. 19 Torsional Modulus of Rupture.
Table A

In Article A6.2 of Chapter A6, the torsion

Tube Size I/y Area D/t Fb M=FbI/y $$& formula for circular sections, f, = Tr/J, was
l-7/8 -.035 .09138 .2023 53.6 227000 20800 -0.13
derived. This equation assumes the maximum
shear stress on the cross-section of a round
l-3/4 -.049 .1083 . 2618 35. ‘7 248000 26400 +o. 10 bar or tube does not exceed the proportional
l-5/8 -. 049 .0928 .2426 33.15 250000 23200 I
-0.04 I
limit of the material, or the stress variation
is linear as shown in Flg. C4.15 and this
The lightest available tube with a situation exists under the flight vehicle limit
positive margin of safety Is l-3/4 - .049 and loads. Before a round bar made of ductile
its weight for a 30 inch length is 30 x .2618
x 0.283 = 2.22 lbs.

Conslder the tube made from 7075-T6 aluminum

alloy material which has a Ftu = 77000.

From Flg. C4.12:-

For D/t = 60, Fb/Ftu = .84, thus Fb = .84 X

77000 = 64700
I/Y = M/Fb = 24000/64700 = .37
Fig. C4.15 Fig. C4.16
For D/t = 30, Fb/Ftu = 1.045, thus Fb = 1.045 X
77000 q 80500 mater-la1 fails in torsion, the shear stresses
I/Y = 24000/80500 - .30 fall in the Inelastic or plastic range and
 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
C4.18 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING OFWOh AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

thus the internal shear stress distribution is

similar to that indicated in Fig. (X.16. The
shear stress-strain curve is similar in shape
to the tension stress-strain curve.and is
equal to approximately 0.6 of the ordinates.
Thus to find the ultimate internal torsional
resisting moment, we can divide the cross-
section into a number of circular elements.
From the stress curve in Fig. C4.16, the stress
at the midpoints of the circular elements can
be found. Multiplying the area of the element
by this stress times the distance of the
element from the center axis gives the moment
developed, and adding up the moment of the ‘ig. C4.31 Torsional modulus of rupture for magnesium-alloy
shear force on all the circular elements gives round tubing.
the total allowable or ultimate internal
resisting moment Ta. will it develop if made of the folloLving
naterials : (1) alloy steel Ftu = 95000,
If this mom:l?nt Ta is to be used in the (2) aluminum alloy 2024-T3.
torsion equation, we must replace the true
stress curve in Fig. C4.16 by a triangular Solution: D/t q 25. J/r = 2(1/y) = 2 x
stress curve with maximum value F,t which will 0.11948 = 0.2390. L/D = X.25/1.625 = 10.
produce the same internal resisting moment as For alloy steel, Ftu = 95000, we use Fig.
the true stress curve. Thus C4.17 where for D/t = 25 and L/D = 10, we read
Fst/lOOO = 47.3. Thus Fst = 47300.
Ta = F,t J/r, or F,t = T, r/J - - - - (C4.10)
Ta = Fst J/r = 47300 x 0.2390 = 11300 in.lb.
Fst is called the torsional modulus of
rupture stress. It is a fictitious stress, For 2024-T3 aluminum alloy, we refer to Fig.
being higher than the ultimate shear stress C4.26 where we read Fst = 29000.
of the material. Tubes subjected to torsion
usually fail by inelastic or plastic instabilit; Then Ta = Fst J/r = 29000 x 0.2390 =
or by elastic instability if the D/t ratio is 6930 in. lb.
large. To obtain reliable values of Fst,
resort is usually made to tests, and since the Problem 2.
round tube or rod is the most efficient and
most available shape, much testing has been A round tube 10 inches long is to carry
done over the years thus design curves are an ultimate torsional moment of 7000 in. lb.
readily available for round tubes of the most Select the lightest tube if made from aluminum
common flight vehicle materials. alloy 2024-T4 and alloy steel Ftu = 200,000
and compare the resulting weight of each.
C4.20 Torsional Modulus of Rupture Curves.
Solution: Since the modulus of rupture
Figs. C4.17 to C4.24 inclusive present depends on D/t and L/D and since the tube size
curves for finding the modulus of rupture is unknown, we will use the trial and check
stress F,t for steel alloys from Ftu = 95000 approach. The design calculations can con-
to 260,000 psi. It should be noted that the veniently be made in table form as follows:
torsional strength is influenced by the D/t
and the L/D values of the tube. Figs. C4.25
iiz 1 Area) D/t / J/r IL/D~ F,t
to C4.30 inclusive give curves for the various
aluminum alloys and Flg. C4.31 gives informa-
tion for one magnesium alloy. All of these
curves were taken from (Ref. 1).

The curves are based on a theoretical

investigation by Lee and Ades (see Ref. 2),
and have been found to be in good agreement
with experimental results.

C4.21 Problems Illustrating Use of Torsional Modulus

of Rupture Curves.

Problem 1. A l-5/8 - .065 round tube is 16.25

inches long. What ultimate t ors 1onal moment
P
 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
c4.20 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING, TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

\DoT c - N Y)
-I c- 2 ::

WOl/‘sj WOI/“j
 RESENTING MATFRIAL

D/t

Fig. C4.25 Torsional modulus of rupture - Fig. C4.26 Torsional modulus of rupture -
2014-T6 aluminum alloy forging. 2024-T3 aluminum alloy tubing.

I I I I I
6061-16 1UBlNG

1’0

20

0
0 IO 20 30 40 SO 60 70 Et0
0 /‘t

Fig. C4.28 Torsional modulus of rupture -

6061-T6 aluminum alloy tubing.
Fig. C4.27 Torsional modulus of rupture -
2024-T4 aluminum alloy tubing.

r,, tm i i i

tiiiitititim
0
0 IO 20 m ro 50 60 70 80

D/t

Fig. C4.29 Torsional modulus of rupture - Fig. C4.30 Torsional modulus of rupture -
7075-T6 aluminum alloy rolled rod. 70’?5-T6 aluminum alloy forging.
 STRENGTH &I DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
CL22 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING, TORSION AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

The lightest aluminum tube with a pOSitiVe equation C4.14 is not used.
margin of safety Is 2 - .049. The weight of a
10 in. length = .3003 x .lOl x 10 = .303 lbs.
The lightest steel tube is l-1/4 - .035 and Its 1.1
weight is 0.1336 x .283 x 10 = ,378 lbs.
Although the steel is heat treated to Ftu = 1.0
200,000, it still is heavier than the aluminum
.9
alloy tube.
STRENGTH OF ROUND TUBES .a

UNDER COMBINED LOADINGS .7

Reference should be made to Artiale Cl.15 .6

I SC
of Chapter Cl for general explanation of
.5
stress-ratios and interaction equations as
used in determining the ultimate strength of
structural members under combined loadings.

C4.22 Combined Bending & Compression.

.2
In tubes subjected to combined bending .l
and compression, the stress due to compression
Is uniform over the cross-section whereas the
0 .l .2 .3’ .4 .5 .6 .7 .6 .9 1.0 1.1
bending stress is not uniform over the cross-
section. The following stress ratio equation Rb
is possibly somewhat conservative but is C4.23 nlustrative Problem Involving Combined Bending
recommended by (Ref. 1). and Compression.

Rc + Rb’ = 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ _ (C4.11) Fig. C4.33 shows a round 2024-T3 tube

acting as a beam-column. It is supporte2 at
which can be written pin A and by the inclined strut BC at pCdIt C.
Let It be required to determine the margin of
f,+ fb’ = 1.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (~4.12)
safety when carrying a uniform lateral load of
10 lb./in.
FC K
To find the axial load in tube AC, take
Where fb ’ equals the maximum bending stress moments about point (B).
including the secondary moments due to axial
load times beam deflection
ZMB = - 40x10x20+20 RAU = 0, hence
Il

Fb = Bending modulus of rupture stress = 400 lb.

RAH
f C = Compressive column axial stress Thus axial load In tube is 400 lb. compression.
FC = Allowable column stress
The column strength of a 2024-T3 l-1/4 -
Equation C4.12 could also be written, .049 round tube 40 Inches long with end flxity
C = 1 is obtalned from Flg. C4.6 and equals
P
-+-= M 1.0 -- -- - -- - - - - - (c4.13) - 2100 lb., hence stress ratio
Pa Ma
Column load z!-400= -191
Rc = -2100
Where P = column load Column strength
Pa = allowable column load at failure The bending moment will be maximum at the
M = bendlng moment center of span because of symmetry of loading
and the value of the moment Is obtained from
m, = allowable ultimate bendlng moment the following equation which includes the
secondary moments due to deflectlon. (Refer-
Fig. C4.32 shotis a plot of equation C4.11. ence table A5.1 of Chapter A5. )
The margin of safety equation is,
p4nax = Wj” (1 -sec&) __-_------(A)
1 - 1 - - - - - - - - - (c4.14)
M.S. =
Rc + Rb’
Fig. C4.32 shows margin of safety curves
for estimating closely the M.S. values If
 bending and tension on round tubes, which is
widely used, is

Rb + Rtle6 = 1 - - - - - - - - (C4.15)(Ref.2)

This equation is plotted in Fig. C4.34.

The stress ratio Rt = ft/Ftu. The figure is
based on D/t = 10 and in general is conserva-
Fig. C4.33 tive for other D/t ratios.

wj8 = 10 x 860 = 8600

-L = & L 1
= ,683 .8
zl l set zj = - L
cos zj .7
From Table A5.2 of Chapter A5 cos of ,683 = +I .0
.7757.
.5
1
hence = l/.7757 = 1.29
cos L/2j

Substituting in equation (A)

%a,. = 8600 (l-1.29) = - 2490 In. lb.

From Fig. C4.12 for D/t = 25.5, we read

Fb/Ftu = 1.03. Hence Fb = 1.03 x 62000 = 64000
0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1
psi. Then M = FbI/y = 64000 x .0534 = 34.20
in. lbs. Rt
C4.24 Combined Bending and Torsion.
Stress ratio in bending Rb = -2490 = .728
3420 The Interaction equation for combined
bending and torsion from (Ref. 1) is,
Rc + Rb = .191 + .728 = .917 which shows that
member is not weak. R; + Rste= 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - B(C4.16)

Margin of safety M.S.= (- This equation is plotted in Fig. C4.35 for

Rc hib)-1 = (.191: ,728) M.S. = 0. Curves showing various M.S. values
-1 = .09
1.1
The margln of safety could be read directly
from curves In Fig. C4.32. 1.0

The student should notlce that the maximum .9

bendlng moment of 2490 in. lb. is 24 percent
greater than the primary moment which equals .8
wL”/8 = 10 x 40’/8 = 2000. The lateral de- .7
flection at the midpoint of the tube thus equals
490/400 = 1.22 lncn. & .6
The secondary moments due to lateral de- .5
flection do not vary linearly, so If deslgn
loads were Increased the calculation of the .4
maximum bendlng should be repeated instead of
assuming that the moment would Increase direct .3
lY
as the applied load to the beam. .2
C4.23a Combined Bending and Tension .l

The Interaction equation for combined 0 .l .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1

Rst
 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE. OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
c4.24 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING, T ORSIOti AND COMBMED LOADINGS.

for various values of Rb and R,t are also shown 1le = M&+ (T/M)* - - - - - - - - - - - (C4.21)
on the figure.
Having the value of T,, select tube sizes
The expression for Margin of Safety Is, t ;hat will develop this torsional moment Ts as
v ras done in Problem 2 of Art. C4.21. These
sizes are then checked for combined bending and
M-8. = JR;J : Rsta- 1 - - - - - - - - (C4.17) f ;orsion as Illustrated above in the example
I )roblem.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLRM1 I:4.24a Ultimate Strength in Combined Compression,

Bending and Torsion.
A l-1/2 -..058 round steel tube (Ftu =
125000) is 30 inches long. It is subjected to The InteractIon equatfon for combined
an ultimate design bending moment of 10,000 (:ompresslon, bending and torsion from (Ref. 1)
in. lbs. and a torslonal moment of 6000 in.
lbs. Find the Margin of Safety. 1st
Ii;l + Rit = (l-Rc)' - - - - - - - - - (C4.22)
Solution: D/t = 25.85, I/y = .0912, L/D = 20
Figs. C4.36 and 37 show a plot of this
To find Fb, we refer to Fig. C4.11 where Irquatlon. The expression for the Margln of
for D/t = 25.85 and Ftu = 125000 we read :safety Is,
Fb = 148000. Then Ma = FbI/y = 148000 x .0912
= 13500 in. lb. 1
1Y.S. = - 1 - - - - - (C4.23)
10000 Rc'JR;, +R&
Then Rb =x= m= .74
Ma
To illustrate the use of the Interaction
To find Fst, we refer to Fig. C4.18 where :urves,
I let us assume the following values for
for D/t = 25.85 and L/D = 20 we read F,t/lOOO the three stress ratios: -
to be 61, whence Fst = 61000.
R, = .333, R1; = .20, Rst = .20
=- T =m=6000 .54 ,Then
Rst Ta R&R, = .20/.333 = .60.
In Fig. C4.36 locate polnt (a) at the
M.S- = J*- IL Intersection of R, = .333 and Rb = .20. Since
the intersection polnt (a) lies inside the
1 Rst& = .60 curve, we know that a positive
= -1 = h-1 = .09 1margin of safety exists. A line Is now drawn
J .748 + .542 through (0) and (a) and extended to an lnter-
section with the R&R, = .60 curve at point
thus the ultimate strength of the tube has 9 b). Projecting vertically downward to R,
percent Margin of Safety under the combined scale, we read R, = ,538. Then M.S. = (.538/
loadlng. .X33) - 1 = .62.

In a design problem which involves a trial

and error procedure, using an equivalent
torsional moment Te which will produce the
same torslonal stress as produced by the
combined bending and torslonal loads is qulte
useful In shortening the trial and error
procedure.

Let f s(max) = T,r/21 - - - - - - - - (C3.18)

f s(max) also equals J,;+ (fb/2)8 - - - (C4.19)

Also fs = Tr/ZI, and fb = Mr/I

Substituting these values in C4.18,

f s(max) =21r [M&C (T/M)'] - - - - - - (C4.20)

Equating C4.20 and C4.18 and solving for Te,

 C4.25
L 25 25
Projecting horizontally from point (b) to =w= 1.005
Rb scale, we read Rb = .323. Then M.S. q zj= 2 x 12.43
(.323/.200) - 1 = .62, which checks value
previously found . If the ratio of R,t’R, is L 1 =- 1 = 1.87 (See Table
set aj = cos L/2j .5361 A5.2)
greater than one, we use the curves In Fig.
C4.37 and use the ratio Rc’Rst.
hence,
Substituting in equation C4.23,
1 I M q 10x154.7 (l-1.87) = -1347 in. lb.
M.S. = - 1 = .62, as given max.
.333 f J .20" + .20* The column strength for a 25 inch length
from use of curves. and end fixity c = 1 can be read from Fig.
C4.6 and equals 3700 lb. Then R, = P/Pa =
1.0 1600/3700 = s.

.9 To find the ultimate bending strength,

we refer to Fig. C4.12, where for D/t =
.8 1.125/.049 = 22.95, we read Fb/Ftu = 1.04.
.7 Then Fb = 1.04 x 62000 = 64500. Thus Ma =
F$/Y = 64500 x .0427 = 2760 in. lb.
.6 1347
Rd Therefore R1; = 2760 = &37-.
.5
To find the ultimate torsional strength
we refer to Fig. C4.26 where for D/t = 22.95
and estimating location of L/D = 25/1.125 =
22.2 line, we read Fst = 27500.

Then Ta = FstJ/r - 27500 x .0427 x 2 = 2350

Whence R,t = T = - 650 = .276

Ta 2350
0 .l .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .s 1.0
%t
M.S. =
Rc+Jh-l
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
= 1 1
A l-1/8 - .049 round tube made from -l= .992
2024-T3 aluminum alloy carries the ultimate .432 + d .487’ + .276=
design loads as Shown in Fig. C4.38. Find the
margin of safety under the combined loading. I -1 = .Ol

w = lO#/in. C4.25 Ultimate Strength in Combined Bending and

Flexural Shear.
I The interaction curve from this type of
combined loading from (Ref. 2) is,
Fig. C4.38 R; + Rs” = 1 - - - - - - - _ _ _ - _ (C4.24)
I
Solution:
M.S. = d----& - 1 - - - - - - - - (C4.25)
The maximum bending moment due to symmetry
will occur at midpoint of tube. For a beam
column carrying a uniform side load with no end The allowable flexural or transverse shear
moments, the maximum moment is given by the stress is taken as 1.2 times the allowable
following expression. (See Chapter A5, Table torsional stress of the tube (Fst).
A5.1).
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
M
max. = Wj2 (1 - set $)” A l-1/4 - .058 round aluminum alloy
2024-T3 tube is used as a simple beam and
carries an ultimate design load of 600 lb.
as shown in Flg. C4.39.
 STRENGTH % DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE. OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
C4.26 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDIN( ORSIOk AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

c + Rst + JR;, + R; = 1 - - - - - - (C4.26)

Interaction curves for this equation are

;lven in Fig. C4.40, where R, the stress ratio
:or f lexural shear can be found as explained In
Shear Diagram ;he prevlous article.

Diagram
Fig. C4.39
The crltical section is adjacent to the
midpoint of beam where shear and bending forces
are largest.

The ultimate bending strength can be found

from Fig. C4.26 where for D/t = 21.60 we read
Fb/Ftu = 1.07. Then Fb = 62000 x 1.07 = 66300
and therefore Ma = FbI/y = 66300 x .06187 =
4100. Then Rb = M/m, = 3750/4100 = .915.

The allowable shear stress Fs can be taken

as 1.2 Fst (Ref. 2).

To find Fst, we refer to Fig. C4.26 where

for D/t = 21.6 and L/D = 20, we read F,t =
28400. Then Fs = 1.2 x 28400 = 34000.

The maximum shear stress in a round tube

which occurs at the centerline axis Is given
by the equation,

f S =g (1 + dD
d’ + D
*)

where V = vertical beam shear load

A = tube area
D = outside diameter
d = lnslde diameter

An approximate formula is

fS = 2 p , for D/t ) 10 error less than 1%

Using the approximate equation,

f, = 2 x 300 = 2760 psi.

.2172

Rs =-s-z
fs 2760 .081 C4.27 Ultimate Strength in Combined Tension and Torsion.
Fs 34000
1
The interaction equation for this type of
M.S. = JR~ ; R~ -l= -1 loading as presented In Ref. 3 is,
4 .915’ + .081=
R; + R& = 1 _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ - a _ - (C4.27)
= .09
Where Rt = ft/Ftu
The effect of the shear stress Is less
than 1 percent. In using F, = 1.2 F,t, if the
result Is greater than Fsu for the material, M.S. = J R~ +lRgt - 1 - - - - - - - - (C4.28)
use F,, for Fs .

C4.26 Ultimate Strength in Combined Compression, C4.26 Ultimate Strength in Combined Tension, Torsion
Bending, Flexural Shear and Torsion. and Internal Pressure p in psi.

The Interaction equation for this comblnec Ref. 3 gives the following interaction
loadlng as presented In Ref. 2 is, equation,
 C4.27

R; + R& + R; = 1 - _ - - - _ _ _ _ - (c4.29) (3) If the truss of Fig. 2 is heat treated to

180000 psl after welding, how much weight
Where Rp = p/pmax , where p = -2-b could be saved over the results obtained
max d in problem (2).
where t = wall thickness and d q tube diameter.
(4) Same as problem (2) but change material
The expression for Margin of Safety is, to 2024-T3 aluminum alloy round tubes.
Members to be fastened together by rivets
M.S. = 1 and gusset plates. For design of tension
- 1 - - - - - - (C4.30)
4 F; + Fit f R; members assume that rivet or bolt holes
cutout 10% of tube area.
PROBLEMS
(5) Fig. 3 shows a typical tubular englne
(1) Fig. 1 shows a portion of a steel tubular mount structure. The engine Is supported
fuselage of a small airplane. The at points A and B. For design purposes
critical tension and compression load is assume that engine torque Is reacted 60%
shown adjacent to each truss member. at A and 40% at B. Tube material is steel
Assuming and end fixity coefficient c = 2 Ftu = 95000 psi. Use C = 1 for all
for all members, select tube sizes for all members. Determine tube sizes for the
members of the truss. The minimum size to following design conditions:
be used is 3/4 - .035. The top and bottom
longerons should be spliced at least once Condltlon I Vertical Load factor
= 10
using telescoping sizes. The material is (down)
alloy steel Ftu = 95000 and truss is Thrust Load factor =2
welded. (forward)
Engine Torque Load factor = 2

Condltlon II (Same as I except vertical

load factor is 5 up.
0

General Data:
T
25”
Weight of power plant
stallation = 440 lb.
in-

1 Maximum engine thrust = 400 lb. Engine

H.P. = 120 at 2000 R.P.M.

Fig. 1

(2) For the cantilever welded steel tubular

truss of Fig. 2, select the lightest Fig. 3
members for the truss loading as shown.
22 + 16 +j
4QOO#

+ 30” -..-Dj :6) The loads shown in Fig. 4 are to be

lOOO#
transmitted to the support at the left, or
2000#
in other words, a cantilever structure.
Fig. 2

The top and bottom longerons should be The problem is to deslgn the lightest
continuous members. Minimum size 3/4 - truss configuration using round tubes of
.035. Use C = 2 for web members and C = alloy steel Ftu = 95000 and welded to-
1.5 for longerons. Material (chrome-moly gether at the truss joints. Use C = 1.5
for end fixity of all members. There are
steel Ftu = 95000 psi).
 STRENGTH & DESIGN OF ROUND, STREAMLINE, OVAL AND SQUARE TUBING
C4.28 IN TENSION, COMPRESSION, BENDING, Tt 3RSIOk AND COMBINED LOADINGS.

no restrictlons on type of truss or

arrangement of members, however, the goal
is the lightest truss. Omit consideration
of weight of any gusset plates at truss C’
joints.
1500 1400 1200 A’

1000 lb.

A I I B
$- 28" -+- 28" --+- 28" -+- 28" 1
A Fig. 6

Fig. 4 (12) The ultimate design load if 20,000 lbs.

compresslon. L = 30 in. Use C = 1.
(7) Same as problem (6), but Instead of a Design the lightest round tube from the
cantilever truss use a simply supported following materials and compare their
truss with supports at points (A) and (B). weights.
(8) Fig. 5 shows a front beam and front lfft (a) Aluminum alloy 2024-T3
strut in an externally braced monoplane. (b) Alloy steel Ftu = 180,000
The wlng beam and lift strut are In the (c) Magnesium alloy Fey = 10,000
same vertical plane. The ultimate design (13) Same design load as In problem (10) but
loads on the beam for the critical design the lightest streamline tube from
conditions are w = 50 lb./In. and w = -30 2024-T3 aluminum alloy materlal.
lbs. per inch. Minus means load Is acting (14) A round tube Is to carry an ultimate pure
down. bending moment of 14000 in. lbs. Select
(a) Deslgn a streamline tube to act as the llghtest tube size from the following
the lift strut. Material Is 2024-T3 materials and compare thelr weights.
aluminum alloy. (a) Alloy steel Ftu = 240,000, (b) 2024-T3
(b) Same as (a) but made from alloy Steel aluminum alloy, (c) Magnesium alloy
FtY = 75000. Compare the weights of FCY = 30000, (d) Tltanlum 6AL-4V
the two designs. alloy.
(15) A round tube 20 inches long Is to carry
an ultimate torslonal moment of 15000 in.
lb. Select the lightest tube size from
the following materials and compare their
weights.
(a) Alloy steel Ftu = 180,000,
(b) Aluminum alloy 2024-T3, (c) Mag-
nesium alloy Ftu = 36000.
(16) Determine the lightest 2024-T3 aluminLrm
alloy round tube 10 inches long to carry
Fig. 5 a combined bending and torsional design
load of 4500 and 3000 in.lbs. respectively.
(17) Same as Problem 16, but change material
to alloy steel Ftu = 95000.
(18) A l-1/2 - .065 2024-T3 round tube 50 inches
(9 Fig. 6 illustrates the strut and wire long Is used as a beam-column. The
bracing for attaching float to fuselage of distributed load on beam is 12 lb. per
a seaplane. Determine the necessary sizes 1 inch and the axial load Is 700 lbs. What
for the streamline struts AC and BD for Is the M.S. under these loads.
the following load CondItlons. (19) If the tube In problem (19) was also
subjected to a torsional moment of 1400
Condition 1. V = -32000 lbs., in.lb., what would be the M.S.
Hz- 8000 lbs.
Condition 2. V = - 8000 lbs.,
H - -28000 lbs.
Material 2024-T3 aluminum alloy. Use C-l. References
0) Tube size 2 - .065 round.
(11 L = 44 in.,
C = 1.5. Material alloy steel Ftu = (1) Military Handbook. MIL-HDBK-5. March,
95000, welded at ends. Design ultimate 1961.
loads equal 22000 lb. compression and (2) Lockheed Report 2072.
28000 lbs. tension. Find margin of safety T. (3) M. A. Sadowsky, "A Principle of Maxlmum
(11) Same as Problem 10 but heat treated to Plastic Resistance," Journal of Applied
Ftu = 150000 after welding. Mechanics, June, 1943.
 CHAPTER C5
BUCKLING STRENGTH OF FLAT SHEET IN COMPRESSION, SHEAR,
BENDING AND UNDER COMBINED STRESS SYSTEMS

C5. 1 Introduction.

Chapter A18, Part 2, Introduced the

student to the theoretical
problem of determining
approach to the
the buckling equation
(IX
Y
for flat sheet in compression with various
edge or boundary conditions. A similar
theoretical approach has been made for other
load systems, such as shear and bending, thus
the buckling equations for flat sheet have
been available for many years. This chapter
will summarize these equations
design charts for practical
and provide
use In designing
4’
sheet and plate structures. Most of the
material in this chapter is taken from (Ref. 1)
NACA Technical Note 3781-Part
Flat Plates” by Gerard and Becker.
I, “Buckling
This report
of Fig.
09
is a comprehensive study and summary of
practically all important theoretical and
experimental work published before 1957. The
report is especially useful to structural desig
engineers.

C5.2 Equation for Elastic Buckling Strength of

Flat Sheet in Compression.

From Chapter Ala, the equation for the Fig. C5.1 (Ref. 1) Transition from column to plate as
elastic instability of flat sheet in compressio: supports are added along unloaded edges. Note changes in
buckle configurations.
is,
n8kc E Fig. C5.2 gives curves for finding the
ocr = ($)” - - - - - - (C5.1) buckling coefficient kc for various boundary
12 (1 -v;, or edge conditions and a/b ratio of the sheet.

Where kc = buckling coefficient which depends The letter C on edge means clamped or
on edge boundary conditions and fixed against rotation. The letter F means a
sheet aspect ratio (a/b) free edge and SS means simply supported or
= modulus of elasticity hinged. Fig. C5.3 shows curves for kc for
E
various degrees of restraint (E) along the
ue = elastic Poisson’s ratio sides of the sheet panel, where E is the ratio
of rotatlonal rigidity of the plate edge
b = short dimension of plate or loaded
edge stiffener to the rotational rigidity of the
plate.
t = sheet thickness
Fig. C5.4 shows curves for kc for a
C5.3 Buckling Coefficient kc flange that has one edge free and the other
with various degrees of edge restraint. Fig.
Fig. C5.1 shows the change In buckled C5.5 illustrates where the compressive stress
shape as the boundary conditions are changed varies linearly over the length of the sheet,
on the unloaded edges from free to restralned. a typical case belng the sheet panels on the
upper side of a cantilever wing under normal
In Fig. (a) the sides are free, thus sheet flight condition.
acts as a column. In Fig. (b) one side is
restrained and the other side free, and such a Fig. C5.6 gives the kc factor for a long
restrained sheet is referred to as a flange. sheet panel with two extremes of edge stiff-
In Flg. (c) both sides are restrained and this ener, namely a zee stiffener which Is a
restrained element is referred to as a plate. torsionally weak stiffener and a hat section
1
 ?-
I‘
I W

2
IO
5
i -
?
v-e
r- 05

r-

Fig. C5.2 (Ref. 1) Compressive-buckling coefficients for flat

rectangular plates.
Fig. C5.3 (Ref. 1) Compressive-buckling-stress coefficient
of plates as a function of a/b for various amounts of edge
rotational restraint.
7

4TmAT
# o/b = Q)
w 400
50
20

10

5
\ 2.40
\ 2xw
?
\ 160
/ \ 133

5
2

./

Fig. C5.5 (Ref. 1) Average compressive-buckling-stress

coefficient for rectangular flat plate of constant thickness
n2E t B
with linearly varying axial load.
(3 av = kcav
Fig. C5.4 (Ref. 1) Compressive-buckling-stress coefficient (iF 1 ’
of flanges as a function of a/b for various amounts of edge 12 (1 - Ue’)
rotational restraint.
 c5.3

which is a closed section and, therefore, a Substituting in Eq. C5.1,

relatively torsionally strong stiffener. Fig.
Cs.Ga gives the compression buckling n2 x 4.0 x 10,700,000
5cr = (9)” = 2480 psi.
coefficients kc for isosceles triangular 12 (1 - .32)
plates.
This stress is below the prooortional
limit stress for the material, thus equation
C5.1 applies and needs no plasticity correction.

C5.4 Equation for Inelastic Buckling Strength of Flat Sheet

in Compression.

If the buckling or instability occurs at

a stress in the inelastic or’ plastic stress
range, then E and 1/ are not the same as for
elastic buckling, thus a plasticity correction
factor is requlred and equation C5.1 is
written,

rl” ’ kc E
ocr = (Ji)” - - _ - - - - - - (~5.2)
3 i L ST/FFENER 12(1 -?I,“)
i
’ ’ Where 77 Is the plasticity reduction factor
I50 200 250 300 and equals ocr plastic/o,, elastic.
b/f The values of l:, and Ve are always the
elastic values since the coefficient 77 contains
Fig. C5.6 (Ref. 1) Compressive-buckling coefficient for long
rectangular stiffened panels as a function of b/t and stiffener
all chsnkres in those terms resulting from
torsional rigidity. inelastic behavior.

A tremendous amount of theoretical and

experimental work has been done relative to
the value of the so-called plasticity cor-
rection factor. Possibly the first values
used by design engineers were 77 = Et/E or
lj = Ese,/E. Whatever the expression for q it
must involve a measure of the stiffness of the
material in the inelastic stress range and
since the stress-strain relation in the plastic
range is non-linear, a resort must be made to
the stress-strain curve to obtain a plasticity
correction factor. This complication Is
greatly simplified by using the Ramberg and
Osgood equations for the stress-strain curve
which Involves 3 simple parameters. (The
reader should refer to Chapter Bl for
informatlon on the Ramberg-Osgood equations.)
Thus using the Ramber-Osgood parameters (Ref.1)
presents Figs. C5.7 and C5.8 for finding the
compressive buckling stress for flat sheet
Fig. C5.6a (Ref. 1) Uniform Compression. panels with various boundary conditions for
both elastic and inelastic buckling or in-
Illustrative Problem. Find the compressive stability.
buckling stress for a sheet panel with (a) = 10 C5. 5 Simple Problems to Illustrate Use of Curves in Figs.
and b = 5 inches, thickness t = .04 and all C5. 7 and C5. 8.
~3 cr
edges are simply supported. Material is
2024-T3 aluminum alloy.
The sketch shows a 3x9
Solution: E = 10,700,000. u, = 0.3, inch sheet panel. The sides Ss
a/b = lo/5 = 2. The boundary or edge condition are simply supported. The
corresponds to Case (c) in Fig. C5.2. Thus material Is aluminum alloy
using curve (c) for a/b = 2, we read kc = 4.0. 2024-T3. The thickness is
.094” . E = 10,700,OOO.
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF FLAT SHEET IN COMPRESSION, SHEAR,
c5.4 BENDING AND UNDER COMBINED STRESS SYSTEMS

l2

do

0 2
’ ’ 6’ ’ 6’ ’ 10’ ’ 12’ ’ 14’ ’ Lb’ ’ 16I I 20I
4
kcne E t e
12 (1 - Ue%, . , (I.?
Fig. C5.7 Chart of Nondimensional Compressive Buckling Stress for Long
Hinged Flanges. 77 = (E,/E)(l - Ve”)/(I - u”).

I.4

I2
.- I I I I I ’ r/
-.I 5

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II
0
0 2 A 6 6 IO L2 M I.6 18 2.0

Fig. C5.8 Chart of Nondimensional Compressive Buckling Stress for Long

Clamped Flanges and for Supported Plates with Edge Rotational Restraint.

q=(Es/2E){1+0.5 [ 1 + (3Et/Es)] +} (1 - V,“)/(l -v”).

u/e= 0.3. Find the buckling StreSS 0cr. Thus a further correction must be made for
alclad sheets because of the lower strength
Solution: We use Fig. C5.8 since It covers clad covering material. Thus the buckling
the boundary conditions of our problem. The stress for alclad sheets can be written:
parameter for bottom scale is,
Ocr = i (-Jcr ----------- - - (c5*3)
kc n ‘E
(;,a - - - _ - _ _ _ _ _ (A)
12 (1-qJ 00.7 , Cladding

For a/b = 9/3 = 3, we find kc from curve

(c) of Fig. C5.2 equals 4.0.

The use of Fig. C5.8 involves the use of

u and n the Ramberg-Osgood parameters.
Rii‘&lng to Table B1.l of Chapter Bl, we find Fig. C5.9
for 2024-T3 aluminum alloy that oO., = 39000
and the shape factor n = 11.5. Reference 1 gives simplified cladding
reduction factors as summarized In Table C5.1.
Substituting in (A) :- Thus the buckling stress for alclad sheets Is
determlned for the primary strength properties
4.0 ne x 10,700,000 *Og4 ’ = -98 as normally llsted for such materials as
(--- 3 ) illustrated in the two previous example
12 (1 - .3=) 39,000 problems. The resulting Ucr is then reduced
by use of equatlon C5.3, using values of
From Fig. C5.8 using .98 on bottom scale
and n = 11.5 curve, we read on left hand scale r7from Tab .e C5.1.
that ucr/uO., = .84.

Then acr = 39000 x .84 = 32800 psi.

If we neglected any plastlclty effect, ther

we would use equation C5.2 with T/ = 1.0, or,
n2X4*OX10,700,000
%r = (-‘Or)’ = -38400 psi
12 (1 - .3a)

Whereas the actual buckling stress was 32800,

or In this case the plasticity correction
factor is 328/384 q .854.

The sheet thickness used in this example

of .094 is relatively large. If we change the
sheet thickness to .051 Inches the results
would be practically no correction within the E
accuracy of reading the curves, and the buckling
Fig. C5.10 (Ref. 1) Stress=strain Curves for Cladding, Core,
stress ocr would calculate to be 11200 psi,
and Alclad Combinations. u/ucore = 1 - f +flf;p =~cl,krc,,,.
which is below the proportional limit stress
and thus no plasticity correction.
C5.6 Cladding Reduction Factors. Table C5. 1 (Ref. 1) Summary of Simplified Cladding
Reduction Factors
Aluminum alloy sheet is available with a I I

thin coverIng of practically pure aluminum and Loading U clCUcrsUpl 0 cr> U pl

Is widely used In aircraft structures. Such
material Is referred to as alclad or clad Short plate columns
aluminum alloy. The mechanical strength
propertles of this clad material Is consider-
1
ably lower than the core material. Since the Long plate columns
clad is located at the extreme fibers of the 1 + 3f
alclad sheet, It Is located where the strains
attaln their highest value when buckling takes Compression and
place. Fig. C5.9 shows make up of an alclad shear panels
sheet and Fig. C5.10 shows the stress-strain
curves for cladding, core and alclad comblna-
tions.
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF FLAT SHEET IN COMPRESSION, SHEAR,
c-5 fl BENDING AND UNDER COMBINED STRESS SYSTEMS

BUCKLING UNDER SHEAR LOADS BUCKLING UNDER BENDING LOADS

C5. 7 Buckling of Flat Rectangular Plates C5. 8 Buckling of Flat Plates Under Bending
Under Shear Loads. Loads.

The crltlcal elastic shear buckling stress The equation for bending instability of
for flat plates with various boundary flat plates in bending is the same as for
conclitlons is given by the following equation: compression and shear except the buckling co-
efficient kb is different from kc or k,. When
na ks E a plate in bending buckles, It InVOlVeS
7cr = - - - - - - - (C5.4) relatively short wave length buckles equal to
12 (1 - Ue”) Z/3 b for long plates with simply supported
edges (see Fig. C5.14). Thus the smaller
Where (b) is always the shorter dimension of buckle patterns cause the buckling coefficient
the plate as all edges carry shear. k, IS the kb to be larger than kc or k,.
shear buckling coefficient and is plotted as a
function of the plate aspect ratio a/b in Fig.
C5.11 for simply supported edges and clamped
edges.

If buckling occurs at a stress above the

proportional llmlt stress, a plasticity
correction must be included and equatlon C5.4
becomes
Fig. C5. 14 (Ref. 7) Bending Buckle Patterns

Gr =
% n= ks E
- - - - - - - (C5.5) For bending elastic buckling the equatlon
12 (1 - Ue”) is,
n= kb E
Test results compare favorably with the (+),” - - - - - - - _ (C5.6
ucr = -
results of equation C5.5 if?, = G,/G where G 12 (1 - ve”,
is the shear modulus and Gs the shear secant
modulus as obtained from a shear stress-strain For bending inelastic buckling,
diagram for the material.
n2 kb E
qb (y - - - - - - - - (C5.7
A long rectangular plate subjected to ocr =
pure shear produces internal compressive 12 (1 - Ve”)
stresses on planes at 45 degrees with the
plate edges and thus these compressive stresses Where kb is the buckling coefficient and
cause the long panel to buckle In patterns at Is obtained from Fig. C5.15 for various a/b
an angle to the plate edges as illustrated in ratios and edge restraint E against rotation.
Fig. C5.12, and the buckle patterns have a half In the a/b ratio the loaded edge is (b).
wave length of 1.25b.
The plasticity reduction factor can be
obtained from Fig. C5.8 using simply supported
edges.

BUCKLING OF FLAT SHEETS

UNDER COMBINED LOADS

The practical design case involving the

use of thin sheets usually Involves a combined
Fig. C5. 12 (Ref. 7) load system, thus the calculation of the
buckling strength of flat sheets under com-
Fig. C5.13 is a chart of non-dimensional bined stress systems is necessary. The
shear buckling stress for panels with various approach used Involves the use of inter-action
edge rotational restraint. This chart is equations or curves (see Chapter Cl, Art.
similar to the chart in Figs. C5.7 and C5.8 in Cl.15 for explanation of Inter-action
that the values uo. 7 and n must be kno;un for equations).
the material before the chart can be used to
find the shear buckling stress. C5.9 Combined Bending and Longitudinal
Compression.

The interactlon equation that has been

widely used for combined bending and longi-
 c5.7

0 ./ .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 I.0
ks@ E
12 (1 - V,“)u, . , 6)b =

Fig. C5. 13 (Ref. 1) Chart of Nondimensional Shear Buckling Stress for Panels With
Edge-Rotational Restraint. q = (Es/E) (1 - ue2)/(1 - U 7.

r-

m
,_ 40 Kw
50

36
20

I- 10
Kb"'
/ / 2’8

I\ AMXWMAfETRfC
HOOE
htMETR/C
Moot-
24
35

6
E

Fig. C5. 11 (Ref. 1) Shear-Buckling-Stress Coefficient of Fig. C5. 15 Bending-Buckling Coefficient of Plates as a Function
Plates as a Function of a/b for Clamped and Hinged Edges. of a/b for Various Amounts of Edge Rotational Restraint.
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF FLA’ EET IN COMPRESSION, SHEAR,
c5. a BENDING AND UNDER ( 31NED STRESS SYSTEMS

tudinal compression :s, I

Rb1’76 + nc = 1.0 - - - - - - - - _ - (C5,8

This equtitlon was originally presented in
Ref. 2 :A!,:: the interaction curve from plotting
this eqtiztlon is found In many of the
structures manuals of aer-csspzce companies.

Fig. C5.15 is a plot of eq. C5.S. It r”

also shows curves for various margin of safety
values .

1.

1.

Rs, (Rs + Rst), Rst

Rc
Fig. C5.17 Is a plot of equation C5.11.
If the direct stress Is tension, it Is
included on the figure as negative CompreSSiOn
using the compression allowable.

C5.12 Combined Compression, Bending & Shear.

From Ref. 5, the conditions for buckling

are represented by the interaction curves of
Fig. C5.18. This figure tells whether the
sheet will buckle or not but will not give the
Rb margin of safety. Given the ratios Rc, R, and
Rb: - If the value of the R, curve defined by
C5.10 Combined Bending & Shear. the PIVCI? value Of Rb and Rs IS greater
numerically than the given value of R,, then
The interaction equation for this com- t.hc panel ‘will buckle.
bined loading (Ref. 1 & 2) Is, 1.0

R;+R;=l ------------.-(C5.9

The expression for margin of Safety ‘-

lb, .8

M.S.=J-&-l ------ - - ( c5. 1C

.6
Fig. C5.16 is a plot of equat on C5‘0 9.
Curves showing various M.S. values are a 1 so zb . 5
shown. Rs Is the stress ratio due to
torsional shear stress and R,t Is the stress
ratio for transverse or flexural shear stress.

C5. 11 Combined Shear and Longitudinal Direct Stress.

(Tension or Compression. )

The interaction equation is (Ref. 3,4)

RL+R;=l.O -__-----___ (C5.11
0
0 .l .2 .3 .4 5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
M.S. = (RL + J R; + 4RsD) - 1 - - - - tc5.1; ks
Fig. C5, 18 (Ref. 5)
1. 8

1. 6

. 8

.6

l4

.2

0
-2.0 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1.0 -.8 -.6 -.4 0.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2
RL Longitudinal Tension RL Longitudinal Compression

I I

Fig. C5.19 (Ref. 5) Combined Compression, Bending and Shear.

 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF FLAT SHEET IN COMPRESSION, SHEAR,
c5.10 BENDING AND UNDER CC BINED STRESS SYSTEMS

The margin of safety of elastically centroid of the cross-sectlon, a bending moment

buckled flat panels may be determIned from is produced about the x-x aXiS eqUa1 to 1400 x
Ffg. C5,19. The dashed lines Indicate a 3.7 = 5170 in. lb. = M,, where 3.7 is distance
typical application where Rc = .X1, R, = .23, from load P, to x-x axis.
and Rb = .3a. Point 1 is first determined for
the specific value of Rs and Rb. The dashed
diagonal line from the origin 0 through point
1, Intersecting the related Rc/Rs curve at
point 2, yields the allowable shear and bending Area of Zee
stresses for the desired margin of Safety Stringer = . 18
calculations. (Note when R, is less than R,
use the right half of the figure; in other Member =
cases use the left half). 0.25 sq. in.

C5. 13 Illustrative Problems.

In general a structural component com-

posed of stlffened sheet panels will not fall
when buckling of the sheet panels occurs since
the stiffening units can usually continue to
carry more loading before they fail. However,
there are many design situations which require
that Initial buckling of sheet panels satisfy
certain design specifications. For example,
the top skin on a low wing passenger airplane
should not buckle under accelerations due to
air gusts which occur In normal every day
flying thus preventlng passengers from
observing wlng skin buckling in normal flying
conditions. Another example would be that no
buckling of fuselage skin panels should occur
while aIrplane is on ground with full load
aboard In order to prevent public from
observing buckling of fuselage skin. In many
alrplanes, fuel tanks are built integral with
the wing or fuselage, thus to eliminate the
chances of leakage developing, It is best to Fig. C5.20
design that no buckling of sheet panels that
bound the fuel tanks occur in flying and The sheet thicknesses, stiffener areas and
landing conditions. In some cases aerodynamic all necessary dimensions are shown on Fig.
or rigidity requirements may dictate no C5.20. The total cross-sectional area of beam
buckling of sheet panels. To Insure that sectlon Including all skin and stringers is
buckling will not occur under certain load 3.73 sq. In. The moment of inertla about x-x
requirements, It is good practice to be centroidal axis calculates to be 49.30 in.4.
conservative In selecting or calculating the
boundary restraints of the sheet panels. Since the beam sectlon is symmetrical,
the top panels A, B and C are subjected to the
Problem 1. same stress under the P, load system.

Fig. C5.20 shows a portion of a cantilever Compressive stress due to transferring

wing composed of sheet, stiffeners and ribs. loads P, to centroid of beam cross-section is,
The problem is to determine whether skin panels
marked (A), (B) and (C) will buckle under the = 2P,/area = 1400/3.73 = 375 psi
various given load cases. The sheet material fc
is aluminum alloy 2024-T3. Compresslve stress due to constant bendlng
moment of 5170 in. lbs. is,
Load Case 1.
= MxZ/Ix = 5170 x 4.233/49.30 = 444 psi
fc
P, = 700 lb., P, = 0, P, = 0
Total fc = 375 + 444 = a19 psi.
With only loads P, acting, the one Cell
stiffened cantilever beam is subjected to a The skin panels are subjected ‘co COmPreS-
compressive axial load of 2 x 700 = 1400 lb. slon as shown in Fig. a. The boundary edge
Since the P, loads are not acting through the conditions given by the longitudinal stiffeners
 c5.11

and the rib flanges will be con- The R, + Ri = .431 + .309' = .526. Since
servatively assumed as simply the result is less than 1.0, no buckling
supported. (Fccr Is Same as Ucr) ss occurs.
i-7 ss , 2
The M.S. = -1
Rcf/m

2
(See Eq. C5.1) = - 1 = .69
.431 + J .431= + 4 x .309%
a/b of skln panel = 15/5 = 3
Fig. (a)
Load Case 3.
From Fig. C5.2 for Case C,
we read k c = 4.0 Pi q 700, P, = 500, P, = 100 lb.
ne x 4.0 x 10,700,OOO B 8 The two loads P, produce bending and
FCCr= 12 (1 - 0.3") ( 5 ) = lgoo PSI flexural shear on the beam. The bending moment
produces a different end compressive stress on
Since Fccr the buckling stress Is greater the three sheet panels since the bendIng moment
than the applied stress f,, the panels will Is not constant over the panel moment. To
not buckle. simplify we ~111 take average bendIng moment on
the panel.
M.S. = (FCC,&) -1 = (1900/819)-l = 1.32
M = 200 x 52.5 = 10500 in. lb.
Load Case 2. x(av)
f, due to this bending = MxZ/I, = 10500 x
PI = 700 lb., P, = 500, P, = 0 4.23zJ49.3 = 903 psi.
The two loads P, acting in opposite Total fc = 903 f 819 = 1722 psl.
dlrectlons produce a couple or a torsional
moment of 500 x 16.5 = 8250 1n. lb. on the Rc q fdFccr = 1722/1900 = .906
beam structure, which means we have added a
pure shear stress system to the compressive The two loads P, produce a traverse shear
stress system of Case 1 loading. load V = 200 lb. The flexural shear stress
must be added to the torsional shear stress as
The shear stress in the top panels A, B found 1n Case 2 loading.
and C Is,
Due to symmetry of beam section and P,
fS = T/2At = 8250/2 x 138 x .035 = 854 psi. loading the shear flow q at mldpolnt of sheet
panel (B) Is zero. We will thus start at this
(Where A is the cell inclosed area) point and go clockwise around cell. The shear
flow equation (see Chapter A1.5) is,
The shear buckling stress is 7.20
na ks E 4i%o~// 10.94
Fscr- (:]a - - - - (See Eq. C5.4)
12 (1 - ue") (l- z31.Jg4.2//
&
I-'
% 4 // /
a/b = 15/5 = 3. From Fig. C5.11, for j-.2.5"
-&9 5' 12.34
hlnged or simply supported edges, we read
Fig. (b)
ks = 5.8.

n’ x 5.8 x 10,700,OOO (.035 e__ 2760 psi.

Qcr= 12 (1 - .3a) 5 200
-= 4.05 ZZA
Q = - 49.3
The sheet panels are now loaded In Ql q 0 (Refer to Fig. b)
combined compression and shear so the inter-
action equation must be used. From Art. C5.12 9 PI =- 4.05x2.5x.035x4.23 = - 1.50
the interaction equation is R, + R$ = 1. QPa =- 1.50-4.05x.18x3.69 = - 4.20

= f,/Fccr = 819/1900 = .431 q.3, = - 4.20-4.05x5x.035x4.23 = - 7.20

RC
q a4 =- 7.20-4.05x .25x3.69 = - 10.94
= fs&cr = 854/2760 = .309
e, = - 10.94-4.05x.051x3.69x3.69/2 = -12.34
RS

(See Fig. b for plot of shear flow)

 BUCKLING STRENGTA OF FLAT S%ET IN COMPRESSION, SHEAR
c5.12 BENDING AND UNDER COMBINED STRESS SYSTEMS

The shear flow q on panel (A) varies: from (4) A Ennet panel 5” x 12.5,” x .05i has all
4.20 t0 7.20 or ti-le average q = (4.2 +7.2j/i2 edges c !mply supported I The panel is
= 5.7. Thus the aversge c,hear stress_I is subjected to combined compression and
5.7/.035 = 163 psi. It is in the same shear loads which produce the Sollowing
direction as the torsional shear flow and thus stresses I-
Is additive.
f C = 2400 psi, applfed normal to 5” side.
Total f, = 163 f 854 = 917 psi
f S = 2800 psi. ‘Will the sheet buckle
Rs = fs/Fscr = 917/2’1’60 = .332 under the siven load system if made of
aluminum alloy 2024-T3 material. What
R, + Rs2 = 1, Subt.:- .906 + .3Z2 = 1.016, is the margin of safety.
since the result is greater than 1.0, initial
buckling has started. The m:irqin of safety is (5) If the material in problem (4) is changed
slightly negative and equals, to alloy steel Ftu = 95000 psi, what
would be the margin of safety. If sheet
2
M.S. = - 1 = - .cll was heat treated to Ftu = 180,000, what
.90!5 + Jc19052 f 4 x .332z would be the M.S.

In this examole problem, the panels were (6) A 3” x 12” x .040” sheet panel is sub-
assumed simply supported, which is conservative, jected to the following combined stresses,
Reference to Fig. C5.6 shows that kc could be f C = 3000, fb = 10000, f, = 8000. The f,
assumed higher as the panel is riveted to a and fb stresses are normal to the 3” side.
zee shaped stringer which has some torsional If sides are simply supported, will panel
resistance and thus panel is not free to buckle if made of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy.
rotate at its boundaries. What is M.S.

Panel (C) is less critical because the Xhat will be the M.S. if material is
flexural shear is acting opposite to the changed to Titanium Ti-8Mn.
torsional shear stress, thus fs total = 845 -
163 = 682 psi. The R, = 682/2760 = .246. References:-

R, + R,2 = .905 + .246’ = .966. Since the (1) NACA Tech. Note 3781, 1957.
result Is less than 1.0, panel will not buckle.
(2) ANC-F; Amendment 2. Aug. 1946.
Panel (B) carries a small shear flow,
being zero at center of panel and increasing (3) NACA ARR.No. L6A05
uniformly to 1.5 lb. per inch at the edges,
and flowing in opposlts directions from the (4) NACA ARR.No. 3K13
centerline, Thus transverse shear will have
negligible effect. Thus R, = 854/2760 = .309. (5) ANC-5 Revision of 1942

Rc + R; = .905 + .309= q 1.00, or panel General References on Theory

(B) is on the verge of buckling under the
assumptions made in the solution. (6) NACA Tech. Note 3781.

C5.14 Problems. (7) “Introduction to Structural Stability

Theory”. By Gerard. Book published by
(1) A sheet panel is 3” x 9” x .051” in size. McGraw-Hill.
Conslder all sides as simply supported.
Determine the buckling load if the (8) “Theory of Elastic Stability”, by
compressive load is applled normal to the Timoshenko, McGraw-Hill Co.
3” sides. Do so for 3 different materials,
(1) aluminum alloy 7075-T6, (2) magnesium (9) “A Unified Theory of Plastic Buckling
HKSlA, (3) Titanium Ti-8Mt-1. Of Columns and Plates”, NACA Report
898. By Stowell.
(2) In Problem (1) if all edges were clamped,
what would be the buckling load. (10) “Plastic Buckling of Simply Supported
Compressed Plates”, NACA T.N. 1817.
(3) In Problem (1) if the 9” sides were By Prfde & Heimerl.
clamped or fixed and the 3” sides simply
supported, what would be the buckling (11) “Buckling of Metal Structures” by
load. Blelgh. McGraw-HI11 Co.
 CHAPTER CG

LOCAL BUCKLING STRESS FOR COMPOSITE SHAPES

,.
C6. 1 Introduction. From Eqli;2tior: C5.1 of Chapter, Y.,, !;:IF:
.ing compressive stress for a ‘~or!g ::a~~ *’
Th;r; fI:at sheet is inefficient for carrying
~,~~.l\--‘::< :T’:: loads because t!?e buckling stresses
However, t!lls weakness or n” kc 2 (‘q
are r.xlatively low. ‘CT = 12(1-Ue “) b
fault -an be greatly improved by forming the
flat s::eet into composite shapes such as From Fig. C5.2 of Chapter C5, k, = .43,
argles, channels, zees, etc. Most of the many
then
com;>oslte s!?ages can also be made by the
?x:r.idin,g ?rscess. Formed or extruded members
%-3 ;yidel;), used in Flight Vehj cle Structures, CJc,r = l;iyo;;:, (+)’ = 0.388 E(f)* - - - C6.1
t:!us meth?-)ds of calculating the compressjve
str?n,$,h of such members is necessary. If the buckling stresses are a‘bove the
proportional limit stress, use Fig. C5.7 in
C6.2 Compressive Buckling Stress for Equal (Chapter C5 to take care of the plasticity effect.
Flanged Elements.

For formed angles, the flange width b

The sim;>lest equal flanged member that can extends to centerline of adjacent leg, but for
be formed is the angle shape. Other shapes extruded angles, the width b extends to Inside
with eqJa1 flanges are the T section and the edge of the adjacent flange or leg.
~ruilform section as shown In Fig. C6.1.
C6. 3 Compressive Buckling Stress for Simple Flange-Web
Elements.

The most common flange-web structural

Angle T-Section shapes are channels, zees, and hat sections. A
flange has one unloaded edge free, whereas a
Fig. C6. 1 web has no free unloaded edge and thus has an
unknown restraint on the boundary between the
These sections can be c,>nsldered as a group of web and the flange. Fig. C6.3 shows the break
long flanges, as illustrated, for the angle down of a Z section into two flange and one web
sectlon In Fig. C6.2. Since the flanges which plate e ement s .
make up the section are equal in size, each
flange will buckle at the same stress. There-
fore each flange cannot restraln the other and
thus It can be assumed that each flange Is
simply supported along the flange junction as
Illustrated in Fig. C6.2.

Breakdown of 2 into Flange

and Web Elements.

Fig. C6. 3

The buck.ing strength of the web and flange

elements depends on the boundary restraint
between the two elements. If this restraint
which is unknown could be found in terms of a
known rotational restraint E as presented In
Chapter C5, the buckling coefficients could be
Fig. C6. 2 found from charts in Chapter C5. Having the
C6. 1
(26.2 LOCAL BUCKLING STRESS FOR COMPOSITE SHAPES

buckling stress for each element, the critical For the plasticity correction of shapes
buckling stress will be the smaller of the two. covered in Fig. C6.4 (Ref. 4), the plasticity
The buckling load based on the buckling Stress correction for a flange free on one edge can
is not the failing load as more load can be be used with accuracy. Thus we can use chart
taken by the material in the corner regions In Fig. C5.7 of Chapter C5.to correct for
before local failure or crippling takes place. piasticlty effects.
The subject of local crippling of formed and
extruded shapes is covered in Chapter C7. The parameter for bottom scale of Fig.
C5.7 is equation (A) divlded by uO.,, or
Using the moment distribution method or a 56100/39000 q 1.44. Using this value and the
step by step analysis procedure, several n = 11.5 curve, we read from Fig. C5.7 that
research studies have determined the restraint O~~/cFo., = 1.02.
factors between web and flange elements for
simple shapes like channels, Z, H, square tubes Therefore the local buckling stress is
and formulated design charts for such shapes.
(Refs. 1 to 5 inclusive.) %X- = 39000 x 1.02 = 39800 psi.

C6.4 Design Charts for Local Buckling Stresses of PROBLEM2.

Some Composite Web-Flange Shapes.
If the member in Problem 1 Is subjected
Flgs. C6.4 to C6.7 Inclusive give charts to a 300°F temperature for 2 hours duration,
for determining the local buckling stress of what would be the local buckling stress.
channel, Z, H, square tube and hat shaped
sect ions D For formed sections, the width b From Table B1.l for this temperature
extends to centerline of adjacent element and condition,
for extruded sections the width b extends to
inside edge of adjacent element. (Jo.7 = 35700, EC = 10,300,000, n = 15

C6. 5 Problems Illustrating Use of Charts. kw n’ E 2.9 n= x 10,300,000

12(1-Ve8)(00.,) (%)’ = 12(1-.3*) (35700)
PROBLEM1.
.064 a = 1 51
(-1.436) * -
The Z section in Fig. (a)
is formed from aluminum alloy
2024T3 sheet. What compres- Using this value on bottom scale of Fig.
C5.7 and n curve = 15, we read c~~r/~~., q 1.03.
sive stress will start local
Thus ocr = 1.03 x 35700 = 36800 psi.
buckling of an element of the
member. Fig. (a) PROBLEM3.
Solution:-
Same as Problem 1, but change material to
= 1.5 - .064 = 1.436 Titanium Ti-8Mn Sheet.
%4
“f = 0.75 - .032 = 0.718 From Table B1.l we obtain for this material:-
E, q 15,500,000, uO., = 119500, n = 13.7.
bfhv = 0.718/1.436 = .50
q&f = .064/.064 = 1.0 2.9 n* x 15,500,000 .064 *
= -81200 psi.
%r = 12(1-.3=) ( 1.436)
From Fig. C6.4, we read kw = 2.9
This stress is near the proportional limit
stress so plasticity correctlon should be small
o,,=~(~)’ ----------(A) if any.

2.9 n* x 10,700,000 ( l”g6,e

. = 56100 psl ocr/o0.7 = 81200/119500 q .68
er = 12(1-.3*) .
From Flg. C5.7, using n = 13.7 curve, we
This stress is above the proportional read cTcr/GO., = .68. Then Gcr = 119500 x 0.68 =
limit stress of the material, thus a plasticity 81300, thus no plasticity correction.
correction must be made. The buckling occurs
on the flange. PROBLEM4.

From Table B1.l of Chapter Bl, we obtain The rectangular tube has the dlmenslons as
for 2024-T3 aluminum alloy:- uO., = 39000 and shown In Flg. (b). It Is extruded from aluminum
n = 11.5. alloy 2014-T6. Determine the local compressive
buckling stress.
 C6.3

0
0 .2 .6 .8 10 /.2
bf

Fig. C6.4 (Ref. 2) Channel- and Z-section stiffeners.

Fig. C6. 5 (Ref. 2) H-section stiffeners.
kwn2E t,’
% = k,neE tw2
12 (1 - ue2) 2 %r =
12 (1 - ve2> 2

I I I I
7
I 1

6
I I I

.”
Kl- I \I
4

4 3

2 as
.I
.s
-6
/
- - .6
do
I I 11Illllll I
lIlllil1l I I 0 2 4 6 .8 W Lz 14 A
OO .a r4 .6 .8 /.O 42

Fig. C6.6 (Ref. 2) Rectangular-tube-section stiffeners. Fig. C6.7 (Ref. 5) Buckling stress for hat-section stiffeners.
kTTI’E
t = tf = tw =tT; Ocr = te. (Data of Ref. 12. )
CJ cr = 12 (1 - Ve”) bT 2
C6.4 LOCAL BUCKLING STRES! FOR COMPOSITE SHAPES

Solution: - In the design of rectangular tubes, the

II Tt designer should select the tube thicknesses for
b =1- .oa = .92 both long and short sides so that buckling
occurs on both sides, thus giving the lightest
h = 2 - .OR = 1.92 section for buckling strength.
b/h = .92,/1.92 = .479
As pointed out previously in this chapter,
tb/th = 1.0 Fig. (b)
the load on the member which causes local
buckling is not the failing or maximum load for
From Fig. C1.6, we read kh = 5.2.
a short length of the member. This local failing
or crippling stress is treated in the next
5.2 n2 x 10,700,000 ( .04 a chapter . Since the buckling stress may fall in
ocr = 12(1-.X2) =). = 21900 psi.
the inelastic stress range, the buckles will not
entirely disappear when load is removed. Since
As shown in Fip;. C6.6, buckling occurs on the h limit or applied loads must be carried without
side of th,? tub-. Th-i computed buckling stress permanent distortion, it Is thus important to
is below the proportional limit stress, thus
know when local buckling starts. For those
no plasticity correction. missile and space vehicles that carry no
humans, the factor of safety on limit loads is
PROBLM 5.
considerably less than for aircraft, thus the
spread between local buckling and local failing
Same as Problem 4 but change the thickness
of the h side to .072, but leave the b side strength becomes important in design.
.04 in thickness.
C6.6 Buckling of Stiffened Flat Sheets Under Longitudinal
Compression.
Solution:-
In supersonic aircraft, it is Important
b = 1 - .144 = .8!X that the surface skin, particularly that on the
h = 2 - .08 = 1.92 wing, not buckle under flight conditions since
a buckled surface could effect the aerodynamic
b/‘n = .856,‘1.92 = .446 characteristics of the airflow around the wing,
tb/th = .04/.072 = .555 thus It 1s important to know when the skin or
its stiffening units initially buckle in order
From Fig. C6.6, kh = 4.3 to design so that such buckling will not occur
under flight conditions.
4.3 n2 x 10,700,OOO
ocr = 12(1-.3’) (-;“;;,” = 58600 psi. Gallaher and Boughan (Ref. 6) and Boughan
and Baab (Ref. 7) determined the local buckling
This stress is above the proportional limit coefficients for idealized web, Z and T stiffened
stress thus a plasticity correction is necessary plates. The results of their studies are shown
(Ref. 4) gives no value for a plasticity in Figures C6.8 to C6.12 and were taken from
correction but recommends the correction for a (Ref. 4). The initial local buckling stress
clamped long flange which is a slightly con- for plate or stiffener Is given by the equation:-
servative correction. This plasticity
correction should also be used for the hat shape
as shown in Fig. C6.7. %r = klkl;,“;, (2)’ _ - - - - - - - - - (B)

Thus Fig. C5.8 of Chapter C5 can be used If the buckling stress is above the pro-
to correct for effect of plasticity. portional limit stress of the material, correct
for plasticity effect by using Fig. C5.8 of
From Table B1.l, for our material u0 , = Chapter C5.
53000 and n = 18.5.
Problem Illustrating Use of Charts.
The value of the parameter for bottom
scale of Fig. C5.8 IS CJcr/‘DO., = 58600/53000 = Fig. C shows a plate with idealized Z
1.10. section stiffeners. The material is 2024-T3

From Flg. C5.8, using n = 18.5 curve, we

read Clcr/U0.7 = .91, Therefore Qcr = 53000 x
.91 = 48100.

Thus by changing the long side of tube

from .04 to .072, the buckling stress was in-
creased from 21900 to 48100 psi. Fig. (c)
 C6. 5

6
7 1 I

%UcKL lNG OF SK/N

I fXSTf?AfNEO BY SfIf?ENER
I 5
I

ks

2.0

18 0
A6 -

Lb“r’ i\B ?j ig. C6. 9 (Ref.

t&l
6) Z-section
= 0. 50 and 0.79.
stiffeners.

5
Web stiffeners. 0.5 < tw/t, < 2.0

Fig. C6. 8 (Ref. ‘7) Compressive-local-buckling coefficients for 4

infinitely wide idealized stiffened flat plates.
ks

3
cT cr =

0
G .6

Fig. C6. 10 (Ref. 6) Z-section stiffeners.

t&s = 0.63 and 1.0.

7
Ir I I
s
bf
t -I-
bv

&

4 .6 .8 10 12 /

v?Y c
6 8 LO

Fig. C6. 11 (Ref. 7) T-section stiffeners.

bf bW
t,/tf = l.O;-=40; ->0.25. Fig. C6. 12 (Ref. 7) T-section stiffeners.
tf tw/tf = 0.7; bf/tf - 10; bw/bs 5 0.25.
bS
C6.6 LOCAL BUCKLING STRESS FOR COMPOSITE SHAPES

aluminum alloy. Determine the initial buckling References

stress under longitudinal compression.
(1) Lundquist, Stowell and Schuette: Principles
bf
-z-z C.5 1.5 of Moment Distrlbutlon Applied to Stability
0.333, k = m= .375, of Structures Composed of Bars and Plates.
bw 1.5 bs l

NACA WRL-326, 1943.

tw
-= .0625
-= -50 Kroll, Fisher and Helmerl: Charts for
0.125 (2)
t, Calculation of the Critical Stress for Local
Instability of Columns with I, Z, channel
Using the above three values and referring and Rectangular Tube Sections. NACA
to Fig. C6.9, we read the buckling coefficient WRL-429, 1943.
k, to be 4.2. Substituting in equation (B)
(3) Kroll: Tables of Stiffness and Carry-over
4.2 na x 10,700,000 (.125 e = 39800 psl. Factor for Flat Rectangular Plates Under
ucr = -&. Compression: NACA WRL-398, 1943.
1z(1-.32)
(4) Becker: Handbook of Structural Stability.
This stress Is no doubt above the pro- Part II. Buckling of Composite Elements.
portional limit stress so a check for plasticity NACA TN.3782, July 1957.
effect will be made. For this effect we use
Fig. CS.8 of Chapter C5. (5) Van Der Maas: Charts for the Calculation
of the Critical Compressive Stress for
For our 2024-T3 material, we find from Local Instability of Columns with Hat
Table B1.l of Chapter Bl, that ooa7 = 39000 Sections. Jour. Aero. SC?. Vol. 21, June
and the shape parameter n = 11.5. 1954.
(6) Gallaher and Boughan: A Method for Cal-
The bottom scale parameter on Fig. C5.8 culating the Compressive Strength of Z
Is equation (B) dlvided by uO.,, thus it eqUalS Stiffened Panels that Develop Local In-
39800/39000 = 1.02. Using this value and the stability. NACA TN.1482, 1947.
n = 11.5 curve on Fig. C5.8, we read on left
side scale that +r/00.7 = .86. Therefore the (7) Boughan and Baab: Charts for Calculating
buckling stress ocr = .86 x 39000 = 33600 psi. the Critical Compressive Stress for Local
Instability of Idealized T Stiffened
Panels. NACA WRL-204, 1944.
 CHAPTER C7
CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES AND
SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION
SHEET EFFECTIVE WIDTHS. COLUMN STRENGTH.
C7.1 Introduction. presented in (Ref. 1). In this method the
member section is divided into equal or unequal
yhapter C6 was concerned with the local angles as illustrated in Fig. C7.2. The
buckling stress of composite sections when strength of these angle elements can be
loaded in compression. Tests of short lengths established by theory or tests. The ultimate
of sections composed of flange-plate elements strength or failing strength can then be found
often show that after the section has buckled by adding up the strengths of the angle elements
locally, the unit still has the ability to that make up the composite section.
carry a greater load before failure occurs. In
othoer .vords, the local buckling and local Needham made a large number of tests on
failure loads are not the same. For cases angle and channel sections. From a study of
where local bluckling occurs at low stress, the these test results as well as other published
crippling or failing stress will be higher. test data on channels, square and rectangular
Wnen local buckling occurs at high stress such tubes, etc., he arrived at the fOllOWing
as .7 to .8 Fey, buckling and crippling stress equation for the crippling or failing stress
are practically the same. Fig. C7.1 illustrates of angle sections.
the stress distribution on the cross-section
after local buckling has occurred but prior to
local crippling or failure.

Basic Angle Basic Angle Basic’Angle

Unit. Two Unit. One Unit. No
edges free. edge free. edge free.

Fig. C7. 1 Fig. C7.2

F,s/(FcyE) “’ = C,/(F) ‘*” - - - - (C7.1)

where,

As the load on the section is increased, Fcs = crippling stress (psi)

the buckles on the flat nortions get larger but FCY = compression yield stress (psi)
most of the increasing load is transferred to E = Young’s modulus of elasticity in
the much stiffer corner regions until the stress compression (psi)
Intensity reaches a high enough value to cause b’/t = equivalent b/t of section =
sufficient deformation to cause failure. (a + b)/2t
ce = coefficient that depends on the
A theoretical solution for the local degree of edge support along the
crippling stress for all types of shapes has edges of contiguous angle unlts.
not been developed as the boundary restraint Specifically they are:-
between flange and plate elements is unknown ce = 0.316 (two edges free)
and also the manner in which the stress builds Ce = 0.342 (one edge free)
up in the corner regions is not well understood. c e = 0.366 (no edge free)
Consequently, the methods of solution are semi-
empirical in character, and the results of such The crippling stress for angles, channels,
methods have been sufficiently proven by tests. zees and rectangular tubes can be determlned
Two methods of calculating crippling stresses directly from use of equation C7.1. The
will be presented in this chapter. crippling load on an angle unit is then,

C7.2 METHOD 1. THE ANGLE METHOD, or the PCS = F,,A _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - (C7.2)

Needham Method.
Nhei-e A IS the area of the angle.
This method which will be referred to as
the angle method or the Needham method was The crippling stress of other formed
c7.1
cl.2 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES AND SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION
I
structural shapes can be determined by dividing
the shape into a series of angle units and
computing the crippling loads for these
individual angle units by use of equations C7.1
and C7.2. The weighted crippling stress for
the entire section is obtained from the
following equation:-

2 (@rippling loads of angles)

FCC3= - (C7.3)
Z (area of angles)

C7.3 Design Curves.

Fig. C7.3 gives curves for determining the

crippling stress of angle units as per equation Fig. C7.5 Stresses and displacements of flat plates after
C7.1, and Fig. C7.4 gives curves for determining buckling under conditions of uniform end shortening
the crippling loads for angle unlts. Using (reference 4). (a) Straight unloaded edges, (b) stress free
unloaded edges free to warp in the plane of the plate.
these curves and equation C7.3, the crippling
stress of composite shapes other than angles,
channels, zees and rectangular tub:s can readily C’I. 6 The Gerard Equations for Crippling Stress.
be calculated.
The following equations are taken from
Illustrative problems, using this method, , (Ref. 3).
will be given later and the results compared
with method 2. Crippling stresses for For sections with distorted unloaded edges
composite sections should be limited to the as angles, tubes, V groove plates, multi-corner
values given in Table C7.1 unless substantiated sections and stiffened panels, the following
by test results. crippling stress equation applies within 2 10
percent llmits:-
C7.4 METHOD.%. For Crippling Stress Calculation.
(The Gerard Method). I Fcs/Fcy = 0.56

Introduction: References 2 and 3 give [(@“/A) (E/F&] ‘*“- - ((X.4)

the results of a very comprehensive study by
Gerard on the subject of crippling stresses. For sections with straight unloaded edges
From a thorough study of published theoretical such as plates, tee, cruciform and H sections,
studies and most available test or experimental the following equation for crippling stress
results, Gerard has developed and presented a applies within 2 5 percent limits.
more generalized or broader semi-empirical
method of determining crippling stresses. In Fcs/Fcy = 0.67
one sense it is generalization or broader
application of the Needham method which was [(gt a/A) (E/Fcy)1’=]0.40- - (C7.5)
presented as method 1. The student and
practicing structures engineer should refer to For 2 corner sections, Z, J, and channel
the above references for a complete discussion sections, the following equation applies within
of how the resulting crippling stress equations 210 percent limits.
were obtained and how these check the extensive
test results. In this short chapter we can Fcs/Fcy = 3.2
only present the resulting equations, design
curves for same and example problems in the use [(t “/A) (E/F,,)““] **” - - (C7.6)
of the information, in the determination of
crippling stresses. FCS = crippling stress for section (psi)
FCY = compressive yield stress (psi)
C7. 5 Stresses and Displacements of Flat Plates t = element thickness (Inches)
After Buckling Under Conditions of Uniform A = section area (In.“)
End Shortening. E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
Fig. C7.5 shows a picture of the resulting g = number of flanges which compose the
stress distribution on flat plates after composite sectlon, plus the number
buckling under conditions of uniform end of cuts necessary to divide the
shortening as determined by Coan In (Ref. 4). section into a series of flanges. See
The Gerard method recognizes the effect of Fig. C7.6 for method of cutting compo-
distortion of the free unloaded edges upon the site sections to determine value of ‘g.
failing strength of the member sectlon.
The cut-off or maxlmum crippling Stress Fcs
for a composite section should be limited to the
 1.8

EDGES FRE
1.8 160

1.4 140

1.2 120

EC
t2m 1.0 100
A
73
0.8 80

0.6 60

0.4 40

0.2 20

20 30 40 50 60 70 80
b G+b
0 t 2t
0 IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

(Note: F,, same as F,,)

Fig. (27.3 Dimensionless Crippling Stress vs. b’/t (Ref. 1)
(Note: P,, same as P,,)
Fig. C7.4 Dimensionless Crippling Load vs. by/t (Ref. 1)
c7.4 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES AND SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION

C7.7 Correction for Cladding.

Distorted Unloaded Edges
Angle Plate Tube
I Since many formed sectIons are made from
alclad sheets, the clad covering acts to reduce
the value of buckl:nE stress and tinls a
correctlon factor 17 must be used to take care
of this reduction In strength. This correction
Basic Section 1 cut 4 cuts from (Ref. 3) is,
2 Flanges 8 Flanges
g=2
Lg E=g ‘r7=[ 1+3 (oc9scr)f]/(1+3f) - - - (C7.7)

where ,
Straight Unloaded Edges
T-Section Cruciform H-Section UC1 = cladding yield stress
ocr = buckling stress
‘T ,+. -+ut f = ratlo of total claddlng thickness to
total thickness. f = 0.10 for alclad
2024-T3 and .08 for alclad 7075-T3.
Basic Section 0 cuts 1 cut
C7.8 Maximum Values for Crippling Stresses.
4 Flanges 6 Flanges
g=3
T=g T=g The cut-off or maxlmum crippling stress for
a composite section should be limited to the
values in Table C7.1 unless test results are
Fig. Ci’. 6 Method of cutting simple elements to determine g. obtained to substantiate the use of higher
crippling stresses.
Table C’7. 1
values in Table C7.1 unless higher values can Type of Section ’ Max. F,,
____-__
be substantiated by test results. The cut-off Angles .7 Fey
values given in Table C7.1 are no doubt slightly
V Groove Plates Fey
conservative a Design curves for equation C7.4,
5 and 6 are given in Figs. C7.7, C7.8 and C7.9. Multi-Corner Sections, Including Tubes .8 Fey
Stiffened Panels Fey
Tee, Cruciform and H Sections .8 Fey
2 Corner Sections. Zee, J, Channels .9 Fey

1.5
Curve for Crippling Stress F,, for
Angles, Tubes, V-Groove Plates,
1.0 and Multi-Corner Sections.
.9
.a 1/a 0.86 -
Fcs = 0. 56[(gt2/A)(E/Fcy) ]
.7 :za
:1 FCY
.6
See Table C7. 1 for Cut-off Values.
.5
-Fcs .4
F
CY
.3
.2! I--
.2cl--

. II i.:

.I
.4 . 5 .6 .7 .8.91.0 1.5 22.53 4 5 6 78910
 ,;C;~Curve for Plates, Tees, Cruci Form’
H Sections.
= 0.67 [(gt ‘/A)(E/F~~)

See Table C?. 1

Fcs
FCY

.% .25 .3 .4 .5 .6 .‘7 .8 .91.0 1.5 22.53 4 5 6 7 8910

Fig. C7.9
1.5 Crippling Stress Fcs for 2 Corner Sections,
Z. J and Channel Sections.

1.0 !k = 3. 2[(tZ/A)(Ec/Fcy) +] ’ ’”
FcY
.i See Table C7.1
.7 for Cut-off Values
.6
.5
EC& .4
FCY
.3
.25
.2

.15

1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8910 15 20 25 30 40 50 6070 8090100

(A) (F,y) 113
tz EC
C7.6 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES 1 1 SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION

C7.9 Restraint Produced by Lips and Bulbs. From Chapter C5, the compressive buckling
:oefflclent using V, = .3 is 0.388 for a flange
Quite often in formed sections, the flange jlement and 3.617 for a plate element. There-
element which has a free edge is rather small ‘ore,
in width as illustrated In Fig. a. Also for
extruded sections, a bulb is often used as
0.388 E(2)’ g 3.617 E(z)’ - - - (C7.10)
illustrated in Figs. b. The question then
arises, is the lip or bulb sufficiently large
enough to provlde a simple support to the From equations C7.9 and C7.10, the follow-
adjacent plate element. Since the compressive ng relationship Is obtained,
buckling coefficient for a plate element Is
&O 3282 - (c7.11)
tL * tf - - - - - - - -
Fig. C7.11 shows the results as a curve.
k
Lip
f
Lip Bulb
Fig. b

4.0 and 0.43 for a flange element, the use of a

small lip or bulb can increase the value of the
coefficient considerably above 0.43 and thus
produce a more efficient load carrying element.
The problem of determlnlng the dimensions of a
lip or bulb to glve at least a simply supported
edge condition to the adjacent plate element has
been Investigated theoretically by Windenburg
(Ref. 5). The results of his studies gives the
following design criterion. Fig. C7.11 Minimum lip dimensions required for flange to
buckle as simply supported plate (Ref. 5).
IL AL In extruded sections, a circular bulb is
2.73bft~-bftg 5 - - - - - - - often used to stiffen a free edge as Illustrated.
In Fig. C7.10b. The moment of Inertia of the
Where IL and AL are the moment of inertia and oulb area about the centerline of the plate
area of the lip or bulb respectively. (See slement is,
Fig. C7.10).
Bulb, I =g+zg (!$L)~

As for the case of the lip, the buckling

stress of the bulb must be greater or equal to
the buckling stress of the adjacent plate
04 element, which gives,

(+'-LB(+)= -0.374(f)' = 7.44 bf/t - (C7.12)

Fig. C7.10
Fig. C7.12 shows design curve representing
From Fig. C7.10a for the lip, AL = bLt, the above equation.
and IL = tbL=/3.

In substituting these values In equation

(C7.8), the dimensions of the lip are expressed
as

0,910 (+)s _ += 5 J$ - - - - - ((27.9)

To determlne bL and t, an additional re-

quirement is specified, namely, that the
buckling stress of the lip must be greater or
equal to the buckling stress of the adjacent Fig. C7.12 Minimum bulb dimensions required for buckle a~
plate element. simply supported plate (Ref. 5).
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES cr.7

C7.10 Jllustrative Problems in Calculating Crippling jolution Method 1.

Stresses.
Tcs = F,, = .033s = 43000 PSI
Problem 1. Find the crippling stress for the
equal leg angle shown in Flg. a. The material solution Method 2.
Is aluminum alloy 2024-T3.

Solution by Method 1. (2 ,"";,a)( 1109000

15,500,000 )I" = 1.565

Mater-la1 properties are:- From Fig. C7.7, Fcs/Fcy = 0.38, whence

Fcs = 0.38 x 110,000 = 41,800.
FCY = 40000, E, = 10,700,OOO
Fig. a Problem 4.
For this method, we use Fig.
c7.3. The parameter for bottom scale of Fig. Find the crippling stress for the channel
C7.3 is (a + b)/2t, where (a) and (b) are leg section shown in Fig. b if the material is
lengths measured to centerline of adjacent leg aluminum alloy 2024-T3. Fey = 40,000,
of angle. For our case a = b = 1 - .025 = EC = 10,700,000.
0.975. Thus (a + b)2t = 1.95/0.1 = 19.5.
Solution Method 1.
From Flg. C7.3 using 19.5 on lower scale,
and the curve for two edges free As shown In Fig. c,
the left hand scale that F,,/ v&W: r~Fizo(: the channel is composed
Since we have only one angle, the crippling of 2 equal angle units
stress Fcs - Fee = .0330x&O,000x10,700,000 (1) and (2). Since they Fig. b Ak.05
= 21600 psi. are the same size, we
need only calculate the
falling stress for one
Solution by Method 2 (Gerard Method) sngle.
For amble sections we use equation C7.4. a+b
A plot of this equation is given in Fig. C7.7. - = .725+ .725 = 14.5 Fig. c
2t 0.1
The parameter for lower scale is.
' where A = section area and g From Fig. C7.3 for b'/t = 14.5, we read
equals the number of flanges plus cuts, or F,,/I/F,~E = .045 (for one edge free)
g = 2 for an angle sectlon. Substituting,
Then F,, = F,, = .045 x
(2 ;":;,a,( 40'ooo
10,700,000 )"' = 1.138 J40,ooo x 10,700,000 = 29400 PSI
Using this value in Fig. C7.7, we read jolution Method 2.
FCS/F, = 0.50. Therefore Fcs = 0.50 x 40,000
= 20,o B0 psi. For a channel section we use equation C7.6
Nh:ch Is plotted on Fig. C7.9. The parameter
Problem 2. Same as Problem 1, but change for bottom scale of Fig. C7.9 is,
material to aluminum alloy 7075-T6.
= 8.50
F,Y = 67,000, E, = 10,500,OOO
Solution Method 1. From Flg. C7.9 Fcs/Fc = .65, whence,
Tcs = .65 x 40,000 = 26,00 6 psi.
Fcs = F,, = .0339/67000x10,500,000 = 28,000 psi
Problem 5. Same as Problem 4 but change material
Solution by Method 2. to aluminum alloy 7075-T6. Fey = 67,000,
EC = 10,500,000.
(2 ;""",,e)( 67'ooo
10,500,000 )I" = 1.485 Solution by Method 1.

From Fig. C7.7, F&Fcy = 0.40, whence Fcs = .045 x d67,OOO x 10,500,OOO = 38200 psl
Fcs = .40 x 67,000 = 26800 psi.
Solution by Method 2.
Problem 3. Same as Problem 1 but change
material to Titanium Ti-8Mn. FCY = 110,000, ( 67,000 l/S = 10.17
EC = 15,500,000. 10,500,000)
C?. 8 CRIPPLINGSTRENGTH OFCOMPOSITESHAPESP D SHEET-STIFFENERPANELSINCOMPRESSION

From Fig. C7.9, Fcs/Fcy = .57, whence .8 x 11,100 = 8900 psi. Thus unless tests
Fcs = .57 x 67,000 = 38,200 substantiate higher values, the crippling stress
should be taken as 8900 psi.
Problem 6.
Problem 8. Same as Problem 6, but change
Find the crippling material to stalnless steel 17-7PH(TH1050),
stress for the square FCY = 162,000, EC = 29,000,OOO
tube as shown in Fig. d.
Material is 2024-T3 Method 1.
alumtnum alloy. Fey =
40,000, Ec = 10,700,000. - Fcs = .0392~62,000x29,000,000 = 85,000 psi

Solution by Method 1. Method 2.

The square tube is

(12 .373 )( 162,000 f/a = .g3
considered as made up x .05= 29,000,000
of 4 equal angles with no Fig. d
edge free. From Flg. C7.7, Fcs/Fc = .595. Fcs =
162,000 x .595 = 96 , 206 psl.
b'/t = (a+b)/2t = l-95/0.1 = 19.5
Problem 9.
From Fig. C7.3, using upper curve, we obtain
FCC/w= .0392. Whence,
Fcs = F,, = .0392xJ40,000x10,700,000 =
25.600 DSi

Solution by Method 2.
Area A = .373. g = number of cuts plus
flanges or 4 + 8 = 12.
For rectangular tubes we use equation
C7.4 or Fig. C7.7.
Fig. e

Determine the crippling stress for the

formed section shown in Fig. e if material is
aluminum alloy 2024-T3. Fey = 40,000,
From Fig. C7.7, Fcs/Fcy = .70
EC = 10,700,000.
Therefore F,, = 40,000 x .70 = 28,000 psi Solution by Method 1 (Needham)
Problem 7. Same as Problem 6, but change The section is divided into 6 angle units
mater-la1 to magnesium HK3l.A-0 Sheet, subjected by the dashed lines in Fig. e. They are
to a temperature of 300°F for l/2 hour. numbered (1) to (3) since we have syrmnetry.
Solution by Method 1. The procedure will be to find the falling
load for each angle and add up the total for the
From Table B1.l of Chapter Bl, 6 angle units. The crippling stress will
QY q 11,100, EC = 6,160,OOO. then equal this total load divlded by the
section area.
F cs = .0392&1,100 x 6,160,OOO = 10,250 psi
Angle unlt (1) (One edge free)
Solution by Method 2.
b'/t = (a+b)/2t = [(.375- .02)+ (.5- .02)]/.08
g$ (-++ = (12;3~~52)(6,~~~,~oo)i/p = ,528 = 10.44

From Fig. C7.7, Fcs/Fcy = .96 From Fig. C7.3, Fc,/m = .06

Fcs = .96 x 11,100 = 10,600 psi Whence, FCC = .06x~40,000x10,700,000 q

39,300 psi
From Table C7.1, the cut-off or maximum
crippling for rectangular tubes IS .8 Fey or
Area of angle (1) = .0309 = A as Section No. 2. The area from that table is
0.113 sq. in.
PC, = .0309 x 39,300 = 1215 lb.
Solution by Method 2 (Gerard)
Angle unit (2) Area q .0459 (no edge free)
For this material Fey = 53,000, EC =
b'/t = (a+b)/2t = (.48+ .73)/.08 = 15.1 10,700,000.

From Fig, C7.3 FCC/m = .0475 The first question that arises is the bulb
size sufficient to give an end stiffness to the
FCC = d40,OOO x 10,700,OOO x -0475 = 31,100 psi (a) leg so that the bulb may be equivalent to
the normal corner.
Pcc = 31,100 x .0459 = 1428 lb.
In Fig. f, bf q 0.78, hence bf/t = 15
Angle unit (3) Area = -0509 (no edge free)
Referring to Fig. C7.12, we observe that
b'/t = (-73 + .605)/.08 = 16.7 for a bf/t value of 15 we need a D/t ratlo of
at least 3.8. The D/t value for our bulb
From Fig. C7.3, FCC/m = .046 angle Is (7/32)/.05 = 4.4, thus bulb has
sufficient stiffness to develop a corner. The
FCC = .046 x ~40,000x10,700,000 = 30,200 psi next questlon that arises should the bulb
angle still be classed as an angle section
PC, = .0509 x 30,200 = 1540 lb. for which equation C7.4 applies or be classed
as a channel or 2 corner sectlon wlth the bulb
Fcs = ZPcc/area acting as a short thick leg of the channel.
For this case, equatlon C7.6 would apply.
= (2x1215+2x1428+2x1540)/0.255 =
32,800 psi The crlppllng stress will be calculated
by both equations.
Solution by Method 2 (Gerard)
By equation C7.4 or Fig. C7.7:-
If bulb is considered as a full corner
then g = 4 flanges plus 1 cut = 5.
g = number of flanges plus number of
cuts 12 f 5 = 17.
gtAe $y+ = c5;;~1305”)(105~;)~oo)~‘~=.636
q

. , ,
Substituting in the above term,
From Fig. C7.7,
.255 )( 40,000 I/O = .573
( 17 x .04= 10,700,000)
FcdFcy = .82, hence F,s = .82 x 53000 = 43500
From Fig. C7.7, Fcs/Fc = .895, whence By equation C7.6 or Fig. C7.9,
Fcs = 40,000 x .895 = 35,606 psi.
From Table C7.1, it Is recommended for + (pa = (~Hlo5;~~ooo)“~
, , = 7.70
multi-corner sectlons that F,, maximum be
llmlted to .8 Fey unless tests can prove higher From Fig. C7.9, Fcs/Fcy = .7, hence F,, =
values. .7 x 53,000 = 37,100.

Fcsmax. = .8 x 40,000 = 32,000 psi. Since Possibly the best estimate of the
Crlppllng stress would be the average of the
thls Is less than the above calculated values, two above results or 40,300 psi.
It should be used.
In Table C7.1, the so-called cut-off
Problem 10. Find the stress for angles is .7 Fey and channels .9
crippling stress for the
extruded bulb angle shown Fc y - If we use the average value or .8 Fey,
It gives Fcs = .8 x 53,000 = 42,400 as
In Fig. f If material is maximum permissible because of llmlted test
2014-T6 extruded aluminum results on bulb angles.
alloy.
For the case where the bulb or lip does
Thls particular bulb not develop the stiffness necessary to
section is taken from ass& a full corner, then the bulb Is only
Table A3.16 of Chapter A3
C?. 10 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES AND SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION
I
considered as an additlonal flange and the g Fig. b Sheet stress distribution before buckling
count would be four instead of 5, thus reducing
the crippling stress. I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.1 11 1 1 1 1 1 I

Sheet stress distribution after buckling

EFFECTIVE SHEET WIDTHS I

Cl. 11 Introduction.

The previous discussion in this chapter

has dealt with the crippling stress of formed
or extruded sections when acting alone, that is
not fastened to any other structure along its I
1 Equivalent sheet effective width
length. However, the major structure of
aerospace vehicles, such as the wing or body, T
involves a sheet covering which is strengthened Fig. d
FST
by attached or integral fabricated stlffeners
such as angles, zees, tees, etc. Since the I
sheet and stiffeners must deform together, the l-w I-WI -+
sheet will therefore carry compressive load and IF
I
to neglect this load carrying capacity of the
sheet would be too conservative in aerospace
structural design where weight saving Is very . I I

important.

C7.12 Sheet Effective Widths.

Flg. C7.13a Illustrates a continuous flat

thin plate fastened to stiffener and the entire
unit is subjected to a uniform compressive load
Up to the buckling strength of the sheet the Sheet-stiffener panel
compressive stress distribution is uniform over
both stiffeners and sheet as in (Fig. b) assum- Fig. C7.13
ing same material for sheet and stiffeners. As
the load is increased the sheet buckles between From Chapter C5, the buckling compressive
the stiffeners and does not carry a greater stress of a sheet panel is,
stress than the buckling stress. However as
the stiffeners are approached, the skin being ken ‘E
stabilized by the stiffeners to which it is Fcr = 12 (1 _ )/,a) g-y - - - - - - - - (c7.13)
attached can take a higher stress and
immediately over the stiffeners the sheet can If we assume that the stiffener to which
take the same stress as the ultimate strength the sheet is attached provides a boundary
of the stlffener, assuming that the sheet has restraint equal to a simple support, then k,
a continuous connectlon to the stiffener. Fig. = 4.0, and if Poisson’s ratio V, is taken as
c shows the general stress distribution after 0.3, then equation C7.13 reduces to,
the sheet has buckled. This distribution
depends on the degree of restralnt provided by Fcr = 3.60E(t/b)* - - - - - - - - - - (C7.14)
the stiffeners and the panel dimenslon. I
The Von-KarmanSechler method as first
Various theoretical studies (Ref. 6) have proposed consisted of solving equation C7.14
been made to determine this stress distribution for a width (w) In place of (b), when F,, was
after buckling. In general they lead to long equal to the yield stress of the material
and complicated equations. To provide a simple since experiments had shown that the ultimate
basis for deslgn purposes, an attempt has been strength of a sheet simply supported at the
made to find an effective width of sheet w edges was independent of the width of the sheet.
which would be considered as taklng a uniform Thus equation C7.14 changes to,
stress (Fig. d) which would give the same total
sheet strength as the sheet under the true FCY = 3.60E(t/w)8 , whence,
non-uniform stress distribution of Fig. c.
w = 1.90t v%x - - - - - - - - - - - (C7.15)
The question of sheet effective sheet has
been considered by many Individuals. The Since the crlppllng or local failing
names of VonKarman, Sechler, Timoshenko, stress of a stlffener can exceed the yield
Newell, Frankland, Margurre, Fischel, Gerard, strength of the material, equation C7.15 was
and many more are closely associated with the later changed by replacing Fey by the stress
present knowledge on effective sheet width. In the stringer FST, thus giving,
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF F :GHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES cl. 11

w = 1.9ot JEW - - - - - - - - - - ((27.16) The effective sheet width as calculated by

equation C7.16 assumes that no inter-rlvet
Some early experiments by Newell indicated buckling of the sheet occurs or, In other words,
the constant 1.90 was too high and for light the rivet or spot welds are close enough together
stringers a value of 1,7 was more realistic, to prevent local buckling of the sheet between
thus 1.7 has been widely used in Industry. rivets when the sheet is carrying the stiffener
crlppllng stress. The subject of inter-rivet
If we assume the stiffness of the stiffener sheet buckling is discussed later in this
and its attachment to the sheet as developing chapter.
a fixed or clamped edge condition for the
sheet, then Fig. C7.16 illustrates a procedure to
follow for determining the effective width w
Fcr = 6.35E(t/b)’ or w = 2.52t &K when sheet and stiffener are integral in
manufacture.
For general design purposes, it is felt
that 1.9 or equation C7.15 is appropriate for Case 1 Case 2
determlning the effective width w. If ts 2 tf c 2ts tf z 2ts
stiffener is relatively light, use 1.7. Fig.
C7.14 illustrates the effective width for
sheet-stiffener
together
units which are fastened
by a single attacbent line for each
Il- Tee Section lt- I Section

flange of the stiffener.

2 = Rivet Lines
Fig. C7.16

For Case 1, find the crippling stress for

the tee section alone, assuming the verticai
stem of the tee has both ends simply supported.
For value of t in equation C7.15, use
tts + tf )/2. The effective stiffener area
equals the area of the tee plus the area of the
The crippling stress is determined for sheet of width w.
the stiffener alone. This stress is then used
In equation C7.15 to determine the effective For Case 2, determine the crippling stress
widths w. The total area then equals the for the I sectlon acting alone. Calculate w/2
stiffener area plus the area of the effective from equation C7.15 to include as effective
sheet width w. The radius of gyration should sheet area. The column propertles should
include the effect of the effective skin area. include I sectlon plus effective sheet.

Fig. C7.15 illustrates the case where C’l. 12 Effective Width W, for Sheet with One
stiffeners are fastened to sheet by two rows Edge Free.
of rivets on each stiffener flange. In this
case, the rivet lines are so close together In normal sheet-stiffener construction,
that the effective wldth w for each rivet line the sheet usually ends on a stiffener and thus
would overlap conslderably. A common practice we have a free edge condition for the sheet as
in industry for such cases Is to use the illustrated In Fig. C7.16a. The sheet ends at
effective width for one rivet line attachment
as per equation C7.16 to represent sheet width
to go with each stiffener flange. However, Fig. C7.16a
in calculating the crippling stress of the t
stiffener alone, the stiffener flange which is
attached to sheet is considered as having a j
thickness equal to 3/4 the sum of the flange
thickness plus the sheet thickness.
a distance b’ from the rivet line. For a sheet
free on one edge, the buckling coefficient in
equation C7.13 is 0.43, thus equation C7.13
reduces to,

Fcr = .387E(t/b’ )“, and replaclnq b’ by w , we

obtain,

w, = . 62t &K - - - - - - - - - - (C7.17)

cl. 12 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES AND SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION
I
Then the total effective sheet width for before the crippling stress of the stiffener
this end stiffener would thus equal w, + w/Z. is reached, which means the sheet is less
effective in helping the stiffener carry a
C7.13 Effective Width When Sheet and Stiffener Have subjected compressive load. Thus, in general,
Different Material Properties. to save structural weight, structural designers
select rivet spacings that will [Irevent inter-
In practical sheet-stiffener construction rivet buckling of the sheet. In general, the
it Is common to use extruded stiffeners which rivet spacing along the stiffeners in the
have different material strength properties in upper surface of the wing will be closer to-
the inelastic stress range as compared to the gether than on the bottom surface of the
sheet to which the stiffener is attached. For wing since the design compressive loads on the
example, in Fig. C7,17 the stiffener material top surface are considerably larger than those
could have the stress-strain curve represented on the bottom surface.
by curve (1) and the sheet to which it is
attached by the curve (2). Norm when the The following method is widely used by
stiffeneris stressed to point (B), the sheet engineers concerned with aerospace structures
directly adjacent to the stiffener attachment relative to calculating inter-rivet buckling
line must undergo the same strain as the stresses. It is assumed that the sheet
stiffener and thus t,he stress in the sheet between adjacent rivets acts as a column with
will be that given at point (A) in Fig. C7.17. fixed ends.
This difference in stress will influence the
effective width w. Correction for this The general colunn equation from Chapter
condition can be made in equation C7.17 by C2 for stable cross-sections is,
multiplying it by Fsii/FsT, which gives
FC = Cn2Et/(L/p)’ - - - - - - - - - - (C7.19)
W = l.got(FsH/FsT) ( - - - - - - (C7.18)
Where C is the end fixity coefficient and
varies from a value of 1 for a pin end support
Where f8T iS the stiffener stress and f8H is the to 4 for a fixed end support.
sheet stress existing at the same strain as
existing for the stiffener and obtalned from a The effective column length L’ = L/v’C,
stress-strain curve of the sheet material. thus equation C7.19 can be written

Fc = ~‘E&L’/P)~ - - - - - - - - - - (C7.20)
eM,
v) Let p the rivet spacing be considered the
g 50
column length L. Assume a unlt of sheet 1 inch
wide and t its thickness. Then moment of
f53 40 inertia of cross section = 1 x t”/12, and area
A= 1xt=t. Then radius of gyration p =
0
% 30 0.29t. Then substituting in equation C7.20 to
obtain the inter-rivet buckling stress Fir,
z 20
2 naEt
5 10 Fir = - - (C7.21)
(&/0.29t)2 - - - - - - - -
0
0 .002 .004 .006 .008 .OlO .012
STRAIN - IN./IN. I For clamped ends C = 4, thus

Fig. (27.17 n”Et --- _

Fir = (p/0.58t)’ - - - - - -
For a rather complete study and comparison
of the various effective widths theories as To olot this equation, the tangent modulus
compared, see article by Gerard (Ref. 7). Et for the material must be known. However, we
Equation C7.15 is in general conservative for can use the various column curves in Chapter C2
higher b/t ratios. which show a plot of F, versus L’/p and In
equation C7.22 the term p/0..58t corresponds to
C’7. 14 Inter-Rivet Buckling Stress. L’/p.

The effective sheet area is considered to The fixity coefficient C = 4 can be used
act monolithlcally with the stiffener. How- for flat head rivets. For spot welds it should
ever, if the rlvets or Spot welds that fasten be decreased to 3.5. For the Brazier rivet type
the sheet to the stiffener are snaced too far use C = 3 and for counter-sunk or dimpled rivets
apart, the sheet will buckle between the rivets use C = 1.
 Figs. C7.18 and C7.19 show a plot of
equation C7.22 for aluminum alloy materials.

If the inter-rivet buckling stress cal-

culates to be more than the crippling stress
of the stiffener, then the effective sheet area
can be added to the stiffener area to obtain the
total effective area. This total effective Detail of
area tlmes the stiffener crippling stress will Fig. CT.20
give the crlppllng load for the total sheet-
stiffener unit.

When the sheet between rivets buckles

UT‘ web

before the crippling stress of the stiffener Is

reached, the sheet in the buckled state has the problem is to determine the crippling stress of
ability to approximately hold this stress as the stiffener, the effective skin area and the
the stiffener continues to take load until it total compressive load that the unit can carry
reaches the stiffener crlppllng stress. This at the failure point. Since the stiffener is
buckling sheet strength can be taken advantage braced laterally by the web and the skin, column
of by reducing the effective sheet area. Thus bending action Is prevented and thus the
effective sheet width equals, crippling strength is the true resultfng strength
of this corner member under longitudinal
wcorrected = W(Fir/Fcs) - - - - - - - (C7.23) compression. (Additional stresses are produced
on these corner members if web buckles under
The area of the corrected effective sheet shear stresses and web diagonal tension forces
is then added to the area of the stiffener. are acting . This subject Is treated in the
The crippling load then equals the crippling chapter on semi-tension field beams.)
stress of the stiffener times the total area.
Solution:
The use of sheet effective widths in
finding the moment of inertia of a wing or Area of stiffener = 0.84 sq. in.
fuselage cross-section is a widely used pro- For 7075-T6 extrusion, Fey = 70,000, EC =
cedure In the analysis for bending stresses in 10,500,000.
conventional wing and fuselage construction.
Reference should be made to article A19.13 of The Gerard method will be used In calculating
Chapter A19 and article A20.3 of Chapter A20 the crippling stress. Equation C7.4, or the
for practical illustrations in the use of design curve of Fig. C7.7, applies to this multi-
effective widths. corner shape. The lower scale parameter for
Fig. C7.7 is,
C’7.15 Illustrative Problem Involving
Effective Sheet.
0.63
Conventional alrplane wing construction
Is illustrated In Fig. C7.20. The wing is Using this value, we read from Fig. C7.7 that
covered with sheet, generally referred to as Fcs/Fcy = 0.82. Thus Fcs = .82 x 70,000 =
skln, and thls skin is stiffened by attaching 57,400 ps1. The g value of 6 was determined as
formed or extruded shapes referred to as skin shown in Fig. (a).
stiffeners or skin stringers. A typical wing
section involves one or several interior Effective Sheet Widths: f f
straight webs and to tie these webs to the f -cut
-
&in, a stringer often referred to as the web Equatlon C7.16 will be f
flange member, Is required to facllltate thls used to determlne the sheet -T
connection. Flg. C7.21 is a detail of the effective widths. f
flange member and the connection at point (1) Flanges (f) = 5
No. of cuts =L
in Fig. C7.20. For the skin t = .05. g=B
Material is 7075-T6 aluminum
The stiffener or flange member is an alloy. EC = 10,500,000. Fig. a
extrusion of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy. The skin
and web sheets are 7075-T6 aluminum alloy. The w= 1.x 6 = 1.9 x .05 $10,500,000/.57,400
skin is fastened to stiffener by two rows of
l/8 inch diameter rivets of the Brazier head = 1.28 in.
We, spaced 7/a inch apart. The web Is
attached to stiffener by one row of 3/16 Thus a piece of sheet 1.28/2 = .64 wide acts to
diameter rivets spaced 1 Inch apart. The each side of the rivet centerline. Observation
c7.1 -4
of the dimensions in Fig, C’7.21 shows the usually of the flush surface type, either
effective ,width with each skin rivet line would countersunk or dimpled a If we make the skin
overlap slightly thus !hie use only the width rivets of the countersunk type, the end fixity
between rivet line (see Fig. b). coef ficlent must be reduced to 1 to be safe.
Then the corrected p/t ratio to use with
For the web t = .064. Since the web has Fig. C7.18 would be (fi/ &)p/t = 2 x .875/.05
a free edge, the effective width calculation = 3.5. From Fig. C7.18 and curve 8, Fir = 29,000
will be in two steps. which is far below the cal:ulated cripPling
stress, thus the rivet spacing would have to be
w 1.9 reduced. Use 9,/16 Inch spacing corrected
-= - x .064 ~10,500,000/5’7,400 = 0.82 = 2 x .5625/.05 = 22. From Fig. C7.18,
2 2 p/t
F lr = 57,400 psi, which happens to be the
W, from equation C7.18 = .62t &xs = .62 x crippling stress and therefore satisfactory.
.064 ~~10,500,000/57,400 = 0.55 inch.
C7. 16 Failing Strength of Short Sheet-Stiffener Panels
in Compression.
Fig. (b) shows
the effective sheet
Gerard (Refs. 2, 3) from a comprehensive
width as calculated. study of test results on short sheet-stiffener
Total effective panels in compression, has shown that his
sheet area = 1.28 t
x -05 f .875 x .05 w, =.55 equation C7.4, or Fig. C7.7, can be used to
give the local monolithic crippling stress for
+ (0.55 + 0.82) #- sheet panels stiffened by Z, Y and H at shaped
,064 == -135.
area .195 + Total
0.24 ;= .82 stiffeners. The method of calculating the
I value of the g factor is illustrated In Fig.
= ,435. C7.22. Fig. C7.23 is a photograph showing the
The total crippliii~ tyPe of failure for a short panel
compressive load that entire: unit can carry Invol~Jing the Z shaae stiffener.
before failure is then equal to AF,, = .435 x
C7.17 Failure by Inter-Rivet Buckling.
57,400 = 25,000 lbs.
Howlxnd (Ref. 8) assumed that the sheet
This result assumes that no inter-rivet
acts as a wide column which is clamped at its
buckling occurs under the stress of 57,400 psi
ends and whose length is equal to the rivet
in the sheet between rivets. spacing. The inter-rivet buckling stress
The skin rivets are Brazler head type equation is then,
spaced 7/8 inch apart or p = 7/8.
Fir =&$$& ------- -
As discussed under Inter-rivet buckling,
the end coefficient c for this type of rivet The end fixity coefficient C is taken as
should be less than 4 or assumed as 3. 4 for flat head rivets and reduced for other
types as previously explained for equatlon
Fig. C7.18 gives the inter-rivet buckling c7.21.
stress versus the p/t ratio. This chart is
based on a clamped end condition or C = 4. T/ is the plasticity correction factor
Since C = 3 will be used for the Brazier type
rivet, we correct the p/t ratio by the ratio 77 is the clad correction factor
&/ &= 1.16. V, is Poisson’s rat10 (use 0.30)
t, = sheet thickness, inches.
The corrected p/t = 1.16 x .875/.05 = 20.3
P = rivet spacing or pitch in inches.
From Fig. C7.18 using curve (8) which is
our material, we read Fir = 60,000 psi, thus For non-clad materials the curves of Fig.
skin will not buckle between rivets as C7.24 can be used. This figure is the same as
crippling stress is 57,400 psi. Fig. C5.8 of Chapter C5. For the clad correction
see Table C5.1 of Chapter C5.
The web rivets are of the flat head type
and C = 4 can be used. Spacing is 1 Inch. C7.18 Failure of Short Panels by Sheet Wrinkling.
Hence p/t = l/.064 = 15.6 and from Fig. C7.18,
curve 8, we read Fir = 64,600, which is In a riveted sheet-stiffener panel, if the
considerably more than the unit crippling rivet sPacing is relatively large, the sheet will
stress. buckle between rivets, such as Illustrated in the
photograph of Fig. C7.25. This inter-rivet
In wing construction, the skin rivets are buckling stress was discussed in the previous
CT. 16 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES AND SHEET-STIFFENI::, Pk\NEZ,S IN COMPRESSION
C

c c Average g = 16. 83
5 cuts
12 Flanges (c) Hat-stitfeiicii ,~!l”i.
17 = g

2 cuts Average h = 7. 83
6 Flanges
(b) Z-St illiiied paiiC1.
8=g

C
Average g = 18.83
5 cuts (a) Y- srlffc~rii~2 )hW!
14 Flanges
19 = g
Fig. C7. 22 Method of cutting stiffened panels to ;let?~~:ii!!!i~ b.

Fig. C7. 23 A 24%T aluminum-alloy Y-stiffened panel (on the left) and its 75S-T counterpart after failure.
 c7.17

article. This sheet buckling does not deform approximate criterion Sor rivet strength from
the flange of the stiffener to .flhlch the sheet Ref. 2 is,
Is attached. Honever-, if the rivet or spot
weld spacing is such as to prevent inter-rivet S, z E0.7 --
bs p (Fw)2 - - - - - - _ _ _ (C7.27)
buckling of the sheet, then failure often occur: St. d d
by a larger wrinkling of the sheet as
illustrated in Fig. C7.26. The larger wrinkle The tensile strength of the rivet Sr is
shape subjects the flange of the stiffner to defined In terms of the shank area and it may
which the sheet is attac’hed to lateral forces be associated with either shank failure or
and thus the stiffener flnnge often deforms pulling of the countersunk head of the rivet
,wieh the sheet wrinkle shape. This deforming through the sheet.
of the stiffener flanqe produces stresses on
the stiffener web, thlue wrinkling failure is a For aluminum alloy 2117-T4 rivets whose
combination of sheet and stiffener failure. tensile strength is s = 57 ksl, the criteria
The action of the wrinkling sheet to deform are:-
the stiffener flange places tension loads on
the rivets, thus rivet design enters into the s = 57 ksi ., de/t,, 2 1.67
failing strength of sheet-stiffener panels
under compression. (C7.28)
190 160
S=d,/.t,,- (,Ae/tav) 2 9 de/tav B 1.67

where t,, is the average of sheet and stiffener

thickness’in inches. The effective diameter de
Is the diameter for a rivet made from 2117-T4
material.

The effective diameter of a rivet of

another material is,
Fig. C7. 25 Fig. C7.26
Inter-Rivet Buckling Wrinkling Failure de/d = (E&/S) ‘I’ - - - - - - - - - - - (C7.29)

Several persons have studied this wrinkling where S, is the tensile strength of a rivet
or forced crippling of riveted panel-s (Refs. 9 defined as maximum tensile load divided by
and 10). A rather recent study was carried out shank area in ksi units.
by Semonlan and Peterson (Ref. ll), which is
revie’wed and simplified somewhat by Gerard in C7. 21 Problem 1. Illustrating Calculation of
(Ref. 2). The results as given in (Refs. 11 Short Panel Failing Strength.
and 2) are used to calculate the wrinkling
stress. Fig. C7.29 shows a sheet-stiffener panel
C7.19 Equation for Wrinkling Failing Stress F,.
composed of formed Z stiffeners. The material
is aluminum alloy 2024-T3. F, - 40,000.
From Ref. 2 we obtain, F 0.7 = 39,000, n = 11.5, E, = ~05700,000. The
problem is to determine the compressive failing.
strength of a short length of this panel unit.
F, = 12(l-l/ez) (<I - - - - - - - - (C7.25)

kw, the wrinkling coefficient is obtained

from Fig- C7.27. This coefficient is a function
of the effective rivet offset f which is
obtained from Fig. C7.28. Having determined
k, from Fig. C7.27, equation C7.25 can be solved
by use of Fig. C7.24.

C7. 20 Rivet Criterion for Wrinkling Failure.

-W-
A criterion for the rivet pitch found from
test dats which results in a wrinkling mode Fig. C7. 29
failure is,
General Panel Data :
P/b, -z ~.27/i(,+ _ - - - - - - - - - (C7.26)
tw = .064 b, = 2.437 bA = 0.593
The lateral force required to make the b, = 0.343
stringer attachment flarge conform to the t, = .064 bf = 0.905
wrinkled sheet, loads the rivet in tension. An b, = 2.00
C7.18 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES AND SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION

F, as per
eq. C?. 25.

c n2 E ts 2 kwn2E ts 2
.
(P ) ( b, )
12 (1 - ue2)F’o.7 Or 12 (1 - &e)Fo.7

0 .t a I.0 I.8 L4 I.6 L8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

bv //y
bg 4

Fig. C7.27 Experimentally determined coefficients for failure in

wrinkling mode. (Ref. 2)
, 1 I I I I I I I 1

89ff
//
IO
/O

I
74
10
1
* 9
,I
t

6 7 8 9

Fig. C7.28 (Ref. 2) Experimentally determined values of effective

rivet offset.
 cl. 19

whence, bw/tw = 38, bFbw = 0.372 7,ir = 39,000 x 1.1 = 43,000. This value is far
above the stiffener or panel crippling stress
bA& = 9.27, bo/tw = 5.36 1s previously calculated so inter-rivet
suckling is not at all critical.
The rivets are 3/32 diameter Brazier head type
AN456, 2117-T3 material spaced at 0.75 inches. Failure by Sheet or Face Wrinkling. (Fw)

Area of Z stiffener = 0.252 in.’ The wrinkling failure stress by equation

Area of skin for bs = 2 inches = 2 x .064 27.25 is,
= 0.128
Total area of sheet and stiffener = 0.380 in.Z
Fw=-w(z)’
Crippling Stress of Stiffener Acting Alone.
To determIne value of kw, we use curves in
Fcs(ST)’ Figs. C7.28 and C7.27.
Since we have a Z type of stiffener,
equation C7.6 and Fig. C7.9 applies. The lower p/d = .?5/.0937 = 8, bo/tw = 5.36
scale parameter in Fig. C7.9 is,
From Fig. C7.28, we read f/t, = 6.5, whence
f = .064 x 6.5 = 0.416
f/b = .416/2.437 = .17
bJ~)hS/% = 38/(2.0/.064) = 1.21
From Fig. C7.9, Fc,/F = 0.6. Hence, F,, =
.6 x 40,000 = 24,000 ;‘& = Fcs(ST). From Fig. C7.27, we read kw = 4.4.

Crippling Stress of Panel Considered as a To solve equatlon for F, we use Fig. C7.24.
Monolithic Limit. F-- ,*<, . The lower scale parameter is,

Equation C7.4 or Fig. C7.7 applies for kw n* E (Fq” =

monolithic failure of sheet-stiffener panels. 12 (1 - Ue2)(Fo.,) bs

The lower scale parameter on Fig. C7.7 is,

40,000
0.380
7.83x .064' I( 10,700,OOO) 1/a For n = 11.5, we read from Fig. C7.24 that
= 0.73 Fw/Fr, ., = .9, whence Fw = .9 x 39,000 = 35,100
psi. Thus wrinkling failure Is not critical as
F, is larger than Fcs(M) and F,,(ST).
g = 7.83 (see Fig. C7.22b)
The results show that the crippling stress
From Fig. C7.7, we read F,,/F,y = .725, hence for the stiffener alone of 24,000 psi is the
Fcs = 40,000 x .725 = 29,000 psi = Fcs(M).
smallest value, or the stiffener is unstable as
Inter-Rivet Buckling Stress (Fir) it fails first. The entire panel unit will
not reach its failing strength when stiffener
stress is 24,000 because the skin wrinkling
The rivet type is Brazier head and the An approximation suggested
spacing p is 3/4 Inch. stress fw is higher.
in (Ref. 2) is to assume stiffeners carry the
same stress as the skin up to Fcs(ST) and beyond
Equation C7.24 applies and Fig. C7.24 is
this the stiffener carries no additional load.
used to solve the equation. The lower scale Thus the panel falling stress F(F) can be
parameter In Fig. C7.24 Is, calculated from the following equatlon.
C n2 E
12 (1 - Ve’) F,., Fwbsts + Fcs(ST) AST
FF =
u= .3. bsts + AST
For Brazier head rivet C q 3.
Substituting:- = 35,100x2x .064+24,000x0.252 = 27 8oo psi
2x.064+0.252 -A--.-
3na x 10,700,OOO (.064 2
-& =5.4-s The total load carried by each stiffener plus
12 (1 - .3z)(39,000)
its sheet is 27,800 x .380 = 10,600 lbs.
The shape parameter n for our material is
11.5. Reference to Fig. C7.24 for a value of The failing strength of the riveted panel
5.45 on bottom scale which is off the scale, cannot exceed the monolithic panel failing stress
we estimate the Fir/F, .7 as above 1.1. Thus Fcs(M)) which was 29,000 psi for our panel or
cl. 20 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES AND SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION
I
greater than the calculated failing stress of (5) p/D z a - - - - - - - - - - Face wrinkling
27,800 psi. (6) Tensile strength of rivet or spot weld
attachment per inch should be Z 0.05 F,yts
Check of Rivet Strength. in order to prevent failure in wrinkling.
From expression C7.26 (7) As a rough guide do not use bent up
stringers If b,/t, e 30 in order to prevent
p/b, < l.Z’/kw+ face wrinkling weakness.

0.75
-= C7.23 Y Stiffened Sheet Panels.
2.0 ..375 -= 1.27j(4.4)1’2 = .603(satisfactory)
A Y shape cannot be formed from sheet,
The criterion for required rivet strength thus it must be extruded. To make the Y shape
to make the stiffener flange follow the efficient, the various parts usually have a
wrinkled sheet is from C7.27 different thickness. Furthermore, the extruded
material has different mechanical properties
in the inelastlc stress range as compared to
;-;
%-> S + ; (Fw)’ rolled sheet that is used for the panel, thus
these effects must be considered In calculating
0.7 L) (0.75
-) (35,100) a the crippling stress of the stlffener and the
‘r 7 (10,700,000)(3/32 3/32 complete panel unit.

s, =- 13.7 psi. The effective thickness f, of the stiffener

is determined by the following equation (Ref. 3):
From expression C7.28
fw = Z blQ,‘Z bl - - - - - - - - - - - (C’7.29)
S = 57 KSI for de/t,,* ‘_ 1.67
where bi and ti refer to the length and thlck-
For given panel de/t,,- = 3/32/.064 = 1.46, ness, respectively, of the cross-sectlon
thus rivets have plenty of tensile strength to elements.
produce a wrinkling failure.
I When the yield stress Fey of stlffener and
C7.22 General Design Limitations to Prevent Secondary ~ sheet are different and effective Fey can be
Failure in Sheet-Stiffener Panels. estimated as follows (Ref. 3):

Sheet stiffener units can be designed as Fc~(SH) + Fcy(s~) [(&/t,) - l])/f,/t,

columns If the secondary forms of failure such __--_---_-- (C7.30)
as Inter-rivet buckling and face wrinkling are
avolded 0 The following design rules referring The monolithic crippling stress for the
to Fig. (A) will usually avoid these secondary sheet stiffener panel can be calculated from
weaknesses. equation C7.4 or by the curve in Fig. C7.7.
Equation C7.4 is

Fcs (M)lFcy = 0.56 [(gt 2/A) (E/Fey) =“I o-e6

The constant 0.56 in this equation applies

for Y and hat-stiffened panels when the ratio
t,/t, = 1.0. For other ratios the correctlon
of this constant which is referred to as pg
in Gerard’s basic equatlon can be obtained from
curve in Fig. C7.30.

Fig. A

(1) q-,/t, 1 0.5 - - Promotes overall crippling

(2) 0.4 -= bf,/b, -= 0.5 -- Rolling versus local
buckling
(3) Make b, as small as possible -- Face
wrinkling
Fig. C7.30 fig correction for &/ts effect on Y- or hat-
(4) p/b, c 0.5 - - - - - - Inter-rivet buckling stiffened panels.
(X.24 Example Problem Y Stiffened Panel. unit. Ec will be taken as 10,600,OOO which is
the average E for stiffener and sheet. Substl-
The compressive monolithic failing stress tuting In the above parameter:-
of a Y stlffened panel, as Illustrated in Flg.
C7.22a, will be calculated by the Gerard method. ( .808 ) i 64,700 1l/a = ,686
Flg. C7.31 shows details of the panel unit. 18.83x .0763x -064 10,600,000
The stiffener Is extruded from 2014-T6 aluminum
alloy for which F,y = 53000 and Ec = 10,700,000. From Fig. C7.7 we read
The skln or panel sheet Is aluminum alloy
7075-T6 for which Fey = 67,000 and E, = F,,/Fcy = .76
10,500,000.
Thus the monolithic crippling a fa .iling
stress FcsM = by x .76 = 64,700 x .76 =
48,200 psi.

The curve as plotted in Fig. C7.7 is for a

E/t, ratio of 1.0. The ratio for our panel Is
.0763/.064 = 1.19. The correctlon factor from
Fig. C7.30 is 1.03. Therefore FcS(M) = 1.03 x
48200 = 49,600 psi.

Load carried by one stlffener-sheet unit

= 0.808 x 49600 = 40100 lb.
f
COLUMNSTRENGTH
Fig. C7. 31
C7.25 Column Curve for Members With
Unstable Cross-Sections.
Stlffener area = 0.538 ln.2
Sheet area = 4.21 x .064 = .270 ln.8 Chapter C2 dealt wlth the column strength
Total area (A) per stiffener unit = 0.808 In.’ of members with stable cross-sections. For
Radlus of gyration of stiffener alone =1.123in. example, If we took a round tube with relatlvely
heavy wall thickness and tested various lengths
Solution:- in compression to obtaln the failing stress and
then plotted these stress values F, against the
Since the elements of the Y stiffener have slenderness ratio L’/p of the member, the test
different thicknesses, the effective tw by results would closely follow the curves ABFC In
equatlon C7.29 is needed. Fig. C7.32. The type of failure would be
elastic overall bendlng instabllity at stresses
between polnts B-C and inelastic bending
instability at stresses for most of the range
BA. Euler’s equatlon as shown In Fig. C7.32
1.111x .136+1.432x .O68+3..2x .064+1.188x .06L can be used to determine the failing stress for
1.111 + 1.432 + 3.2 f 1.188 both elastic and Inelastic bendlng lnstabfllty
with the tangent modulus Et being used in the
or ?.,,, = .0763 inches inelastic stress range.

Since stiffener and sheet have different Now suppose we test varlous lengths of a
material properties, an effective Fey from member composed of the same material as used for
equatlon C7.30 ~111 be calculated. obtalning curve ABC, but use a member with an
open cross-sectlon, such as a channel, hat
647OC sectlon, etc., wlth relatively small material
Fey q 67,000 + 53000 -)-l]
( .064 1,s =
thickness. The test results for such members
would often follow a curve similar to DEFC in
The curve in Fig. C7.7 will be used to Fig. C7.32. Thus It is obvlous that Euler’s
solve the equatlon for Fcs(~). The lower scale equation cannot be used In the range DEF, as the
parameter for Fig. C7.7 modlfled by t, and Fey true failing stresses are far less than that
is, given by the Euler column equation. A short
length of the member with L ‘/p less than 20 will
fail at practically the same stress, thus the
failing stress for lengths up to L’/p = 20 will
be practically the same and this stress has been
The value of g from Fig. C7.22a is 18.83 given the name of crlppllng stress (Fcs) and the
as the average value for a 6 stiffener panel previous portion of thls chapter has been Con-
 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES P SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION

The equation gives a parabolic curve

starting from the crippling stress at L’/p = 0,
i
t and becomes tangent to the Euler curve at a
stress value equal to one half the crippling
\ stress. Fig. C7.33 shows a plot of equation
\ 27.31 for aluminum alloy material
values of the crippling
for various
stress which is the F,
stress at L ‘/p = 0.

This method is quite simple to use as the

only additional calculation required is the
‘rippling stress of the column section which is
obtained by methods previously explained in
this chapter. The other methods usually involve
the buckling stress as well as the crippling
stress. Since the crippling stress is normally
constant below L’/p = 2.0, the assumption that
Fcs is zero at L’/p = 0 is slightly conservative.

YZTHOD2.
C- Transition Region
The following method or slight variations
of it appears In the structural design manuals
of a number of aerospace companies. The method
or procedure for determining the column failing
stresses in the so-called transition range
involves the use of the basic column curve for
Fig. C7.32 stable cross-sections. The procedure can best
be explained by reference to Fig. C7.34.
cerned with methods of calculating this local
crippling or failing stress. At point (F) the
elastic buckling of some part of the cross-
section begins. Between stress points F to E
the actlon for the member involves both overall
elastic bending instabillty plus local buckling
which becomes more extensive as the stress Column Curve
increases. The portion EF of the column
strength curve is often referred to as the
transition range. At present no reliable
theoretical theory has been developed for F cs
determinlng the failing stresses in this
transition range, thus resort is made to semi-
empirical methods which have been checked
against test results and found to give reason- \
ably close results. 8 FPL
\
\ /
C7.26 Methods Used for Determining the Column
9
Failing Stress in the Transition Region.

METHOD1. JOHNSON-EULEREQUATION. F
+---
*gFcr
Poss.ibly the first method used in calcu-
lating the column failing stress F, in the
transition range EF In Fig. C7.32 was the well
know-n Johnson-Euler equation which involves the
The equation is, Ll//p
*crippling stress.
Fig. C7.34
F ’
FC = Fcs - $&- (L’/p)2 - - - - - - - (c7.31) The curve ABC is the Euler column curve for
a column with a stable cross-section and for a
where, Fc = col:rmn failing stress (psi) given material. It involves using the tangent
Fcs = crippling stress, assumed to occur modulus Et in the Inelastic stress range. The
at L’/p = 0, where L’ = L/c. following steps are taken to determine the
column curve for the so-called transltion range:-
 C'7.23

Johnson Curve Ftc = Fcs

MET HOL, 3 .

An~~,ther m~~ttiod th t, is widely used also

uses a pmabolic curve to represent the column
strength in the txmsi.ti.on ran:;e (see Ref. 12)
lw 1 I’, 2 li(wizl.)nt;il I ine starting 31; point
D. hint, D is at an F, value equal to tl le The pax-~ ‘ii ol i c apr~roximation has the follow-
( F P-I(-:
LA\! cripl;Iing stress for the column inq form: -
scxtlon being considered, Point (E) on
this line is determined by projecting F ‘;’
~-T-lFc L C’r
vert P-1 lly domward from point (0). = 1 - (1 - -$q(-*-) - - - - - - - (c7.32)
r r r k,-,
cs cs

F, is the column failing stress.

F,, is the crippling stress.
Fcr is bu.cklin;l: stress for the column
moss-section.
FE is the Euler column stress for the
parti~:ular column being considered as
found from equation FE = n”E/(L’,@ j2

The equation applies for Fc =+ Fcr. For

cases where F,, > FF~ where Fp~ is Me pro-
portional limit strkss for thb mater%1 use Fpi
instead of F,,. in equation C7.32.
CL 27 Example Problems InwAving the
of the Column Strength of Columns With
Unstable Cross-Sections.
Column Strength ___1_---.-
by Method -.---
2
PROBLEM1.
2. 0” This method requires a graph%cal
A rectangular tube construction which involves the column curve
21 inches long has the rt for the given material and for a stable cross-
b 1” section.
cross-section as shown
in Fig. (a). The
material is aluminum Fig. C7.35 shows the column curve for our
Fig. a material for a column with stable cross-section,
alloy sheet 7075-T6,
with F, = 67,000 and EC = 10,500,OOO. If the It is identical to Fig. C2,lO of Chapter (5%
member Kas a pinned end condition, what is the for the room temperature condition, except ‘the
column failing stress. curve in Fig. C7.35 has been drawn to a smaller
vertical scale.
Solution, The area of cross-section = .234 in.’
The least radius of gyration is 0.42 inches.
70
Before the column failing stress F, for
the 21 inch length can be found, the crippling
stress Fcs and the buckling stress Fcr must be 60
determined.
50
The crippling stress will be calculated
by the Gerard Method. The parameter for use
with Fig. C7.7 is,
A
gt8 ( FCY
EC >1/a= 12x0234 67,000
.04” ( 10,500,000 148 = 0.976
20
From Fig. C7.7, Fcs/Fcy = .57, hence Fcs =
.5'7 x 67,000 = 38,200 psi. 10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 '10 80
The initial buckling stress Fcr will be wp
determined by the theory of Chapter C6.
The graphIca construction t;o obtain the
b = 1 - .08 = .92, h = 2 - .08 = 1.96 column curve in the region between the crlpplfng
stress and the buckling stress is a~ follows:
b/h = .92/1.96 = .479, tb/th = 1,o
At a column stress F, = I?, = 67,000, draw
From Fig. C6.6 of Chapter C6, Kh = 5.2 a horizontal line to intersect’ t he b?sic column
curve at point (0). Draw a horizontal line
Khn”Ec b2 from point (D) which equals the crippling stress
Fcr = 12 (1 - Ve”) ( 1 of 38,200 psi. Locate point (E) by projecting
“ii-
vertically downward from point (0) e Locatx
5.m" x10,500,000 ( Ax >a = 21,500 psi. point (G) at an Fc stress equal to ,9 Fcr =
Fcr = 12 (l- .38) ix- -- .9 x 21,500 = 19,350 psi. Connect points (E)
and (G) by a straight 11ne, This line repre--
Column Strength by Method 1 (Johnson-Euler eq.) sents the column failing curve for the member
of our problem for L’/p values between points
L= 21 inches I, r = L/&-= 21/a= 21 (E) and (G). Taking L’/p = 50, we project up-
ward to EG line and then horizontally to scale
Up = 21/.42 = 50 at left to read Fc = 27,700 psi.

The Johnson-Euler equation is, Column Strength by Method 3

-4 FCS2
In this method equation C’7.32 1s USed.
E (L’/pY
FC = F,s - n”
, substituting,
F
C
-=l-((1- Fcr/‘Fcs) (Fcr/FE) ‘A_=- - - - - (A )
38,200' Fcs
FC = 38,200 -
4 n" 10,500,000 (5OY = 29,400 psi
Fcr = 21,500, F,, = 38,200
This value could be read directly from Fig.
 Cl.25

FE Is the Euler column stress for COlLmin Substituting in Johnson-Euler equation,

with a stable cross-section. To find FE, we
project upward from L’/p = 50 to the curve 30,600 ’ (45.8)‘=25,860 psi
F, = 30,600-
AOC in Fig. C7.35 and then horizontally to 4 n2 x 10,500,000
read F, = FE = 41,700 PSI.
Column Strength by Method 2
Substituting in eq. (A),
On Fig. C7.35 point E’ is located at
FC
~38,200 = 1 - (1 - 21,500/38,200)(21,500/41,700) FC =F cs = 30,600. Point G’ is located at
.9 x 20,900 = 18,800 psi. The line E’G’ is the
collumn curve. For L’/p = 45.5, we project up-
Fe = 38,200 (1 - 0.225) = 29,600 psi ward to line E’G ’ and then horizontally
scale to read F, = 25,000 psi.
to left

Example Problem 2.
Column Strength by Method 3
A formed Z section as
shown in Fig. (b) is used To find FE, use Fig. C7.35 with L’/p = 45.8
as a column. The length and basic Euler curve, gives a Value of FE =
L = 30”. The member is 47,000 psi.
braced In the x-x direction
thus column bending failure Substituting in equation (A):-
must occur about x-x axis.
Material is aluminum alloy, ~ Fc = 1 - (1 - 20,900/30,600)(20,900/47,000)
= 57,000, Ec = 10,500,000. 30,600
FCY Fig. b
Assume the end fixity co-
efficient c = 1.5. FC = 30,600 (1 - .141) = 26,300 psi

Find the column failing stress. C7.28 Column Strength of Stiffener

With Effective Sheet.
Solution:
Column members are often attached to thin
Area of Section = 0.117 in.’ sheet by rivets or spot welding. If the rivet
P, = .535 in. spacing Is such as to prevent inter-rivet
buckling, then the sheet will assist the stiffener
The initial buckling stress is needed in to carry a compressive load and to neglect the
finding the column strength. sheet would be too conservative.

4y = 1.5 - .04 = 1.46, bf = 0.75 - -02 q 0.73 If the attached sheet Is relatively thin,
that Is, less than the stlffener thickness, the
bF/b, = .73,‘1.46 = 0.5, tw/tF = 1.0 method of using the effective sheet width as a
part of the column area is widely used by
From Fig. C6.4 of Chapter C6, we read structural designers and will be used in this
K$..g= 2.9. example solution.

Example Problems.
Fcr = 2.9 n8 x 10,500,000
- (=).04 8 = 20,900 psi
12 (1 .3e)
For an example
The crippling stress will be calculated by problem, we will assume
the Gerard Method using Fig. C7.9, which applies that the Z stiffener in
for Z shapes. The lower scale parameter is, Problem 2 is one of
several stiffeners riveted
to a sheet of .025 thick-
ness and of the same f
material as the stiffener.
From Fig. C7.9, we read, Fig. c
FdFcy = .455, hence, Fcs = 67,000 x .455 = Solution.
30,600 psi.
The rivet or spot weld spacing is made
Column Strength by Method 1 such as to prevent Inter-rivet buckling. Thus
the column area will be as shown in Fig. c,
L’ = L/K= 30 m= 24.5 namely, the stlffener area plus the area of
the sheet for the effective width W. Since
L’/D = 24.5/.535 = 45.0 the effective sheet width w Is a fUnCtlOn Of
the stiffener stress and since the stlffener
Cl.26 CRIPPLING STRENGTH OF COMPOSITE SHAPES A i-D SHEET-STIFFENER PANELS IN COMPRESSION

stress is a function of the radius of gyration, where, p. = radius of gyraticn of stiffener

the design procedure is of the ‘trial and error alone.
category.
P = radius of gyration of sheet and stiffener.
First Trial.
S= distance from centerline of sheet to neutral
Assume the effective sheet width is based axis of stiffener.
on column strength of 2 stiffener acting alone.
The average column failing stress by the 3 t= sheet thickness. w = sheet effective width.
methods in the Problem 2 solution was (25,860 +
25,000 + 26,300)/3 = 25,700 psi. Equation C7.33 has been put in curve form
as shown in Fig. C7.36, which will now be used
The effective width equation to be used is, to compute the radius of gyration p. for the
stiffener plus effective sheet.
W = 1.9 t JE/FsT
S= .75 + .0125 = .7625
= 1.9x .025x1/l0,500,000/25,700 = ,965 in.
p. for stiffener alone = .535
Effective sheet area = 0.965x .025 = .0242
s/p0 = .7625/.535 = 1.425
Area of stiffener = A, = .117
W= .965
Total area = .1412
wt/A, = .965 x .025/.117 = .2063
Adding the effective sheet to the stiffener
will change the radius of gyration. Mr. R. J. From Fig. C7.36 for the above values of
White (Ref. 13) has developed equation C7.33 S/p, and wt/Ao, we obtain
which gives the variation in the radius of
gyration in terms of known variables for any (p/p,)” = 1.05, whence p2 = .5352 x 1.05, which
stiffener cross-section. Since the failing gives p = .548 in.
stress of a column is dI.rectly proportional to
the radius of gyration squared, equation C7.33 Then L’/p = 24.5/.548 = 44.8.
can be equated to the ratio of the column
stresse s.
P =
i PO i =
Fc
-=
FST 1+y
[o
l+l+- s 21-wt
PO1 Ao- - - - (c7.33)
/ I
Use Method

FC = 30,600 -
1 for column strength:-

30, 6002
4 n2 x 10,500,000
44.82 = 26,050 psi
\^O/
11 I
I I I I I I I i I I l III I I I I
I11I C7.I I361I (Ref.I 1I I13)1I I!
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I1

Fig. 1 I
t . , Curves for the -I&J~
Determination of

I I I I I I 1 1 , I
I Tkl I I I II iii] i i i i i i i i I

t MiXi i i i i WLi i iW imi . i 1

STIFFENER ALONE
Ao = Area of Stiff-
ener Alone
PO = Radius of Gy-
ration of 0
Stiffener Alone 0
 c7.27

The revised effective width based on this (4) Same as (2) but subjected to 300’F for
stiffener stress Is, l/2 hour duration.

w = 1.9 x .025 ~10,500,000/26,050 = .99 in.

This value is only .03 inch more than the

value of .96 previously, thus the effect on the
radius of gyration p will be negligible. The
column failing stress for the sheet stiffener
combination is therefore 26,050 psi, and the
compressive failing load would be 26,050 x (4) Find the crippling stress for sections of
.1412 = 3675 lhs. Figs. g and h when formed from 2024-T3
and 7075-T6 aluminum alloy material.
(3.29 Sheet-Stiffener Panels With Relatively Heavy
Sheet Thickness.

For Z, Y and hat shaped stiffener-sheet

panels as previously discussed relative to loca
failing stress, use entire sheet and stiffener
area In computing radius of gyration or, In
other iniords, due not use effective sheet widths
but use entire sheet as effective.

PROBLEMS (5) Find the crippling stress for the extruded

sections numbers 4, 8, 16, 22, 28 and 34
(1) Find the crippling stress for the angle as given in Table A3.16 of Chapter A3.
sectlons of Figs. (a) and (b) when formed Mater-la1 2014-T3 aluminum alloy.
from the following materials. Use both
Needham and Gerard Methods. (1) 2024-T3 (‘3) Fig. 1 shows a corner member, in a
aluminum alloy. (2) 707%T6 aluminum stiffened wing section. The skin is
alloy. (3) 17-7PH(TH1050) stainless steel fastened to the stiffener by one row of
(4) Same as (3) but subjected to an l/8 diameter rivets at 3/4 inch spacing.
elevated temperature of 700°F for l/2 hour The web is fastened to stiffener by 2
duration. staggered rows of rlvets, with rivet spac-
Ing in each of l-1/8 inch, and rivets are
of the flat head type. Material Is 2024-T3
-v Fig. b aluminum alloy.
material.
Also use 7075-T6 aluminum

Find crippling stress for stiffener.

Will inter-rivet buckling occur. Find
effective sheet widths and total falling
load unit will carry.
(2) Find the crippling stress for the two
channel shapes of Figs. c and d when
formed of following materials. (1) AISI
4130 steel, heat-treated to Ftu =
180,000. (2) Same as (1) but subjected to
an elevated temperature of 500°F for l/2
duration. (3) Tl-8Mn Titanium.
(4) 7075-T6 aluminum alloy.

-IiT Web

(7) Determlne the compressive failing strength

of a short Z stlffened sheet panel unit such
(3) Find the crippling stress of the as that illustrated In Fig. C7.29. The
rectangular tubes In Figs. e and f when varlous dimensions are as follows. Refer
formed from following materials. to Fig. C7.29 for meaning of symbols.
(1) 2024-T3 aluminum alloy. (2) HKBlA-0 t, = .072
(3) Tl-8Mn Titanslum. bP = 1.0 bS = 2.50
magnesium. t, = .072 bA = 0.625
h = 2.50 bo = 0.375
 Stiffener and sheet material Is 2024-T3 (5) Windenberg, D. F.:- Proc. 5th Inter-
aluminum alloy. Rivets are l/8 diameter national Congress for Applied Mechanics.
Brazier Head type 2117-T3 material and pp. 54-61, 1939.
spaced 7/d inch.
(6) Experimental Study of Deformation and
'8) Same as (7) but change material to 7075-T6 Effective Widths In Axially Loaded Sheet
aluminum alloy. Stringer Panels. NACA TN 684, 1939.

'9) Same as (7) but change material to Ti-8Mn (7) Gerard, F.:- Effective Width of
Titanium, Elastically Supported Flat Plates. Jour.
Aero. Sci., Vol. 13, Oct. 1946.
10) In the Example Problem on a Y stiffened
panel as given in Art. C7.25, change sheet (8) Howland, W.L.:- Effect of Rivet Spacing
thickness from -064 to -081 and calculate on Stiffened Thin Sheet in Compression.
the resulting panel strength. Jour. Aero. Sci., Vole 3, Oct. 1936.

'11) Ths hat stiffener in Fig. g of Problem (4) (9) Argyris, J. H. and Dunne, P.C.:-
Is one of several stiffeners riveted to Structural Principles and Data. Handbook
skin of thickness .032 and of the same of Aero., 4th Edition, 1952.
material as the stiffener. If the length
of the panel is 20 inches, what will be (10) Blzlasrd, P. D. and Johnston, G. S.:-
the column failing stress if end fixity Compresslon Buckling of Plates Due to
c = 1.5, Also for c q 2.0. Use method Forced Crippling of Stiffeners. Preprint
Involving effective sheet widths. No. 408. S.M.F. Fund Paper. Inst. of
Aero Sci. Jan. 1953.
112) Same as Problem 11 but use Z stiffener of
Fig. h of Problem 4. (11) Semonian, J. W. and Peterson, J. P.:-
An Analysis of the Stability and Ultimate
References Compressive Strength of Short Sheet-
Stringer Panels wlth Special Reference to
(1) Needham, R. A.:- The Ultimate Strength of the Influence of Rlveted Connection
Aluminum Alloy Formed Structural Shapes Between Sheet and Stringer. NACA TN 3431,
In Compression. Jour. Aero. Sci. Vol. 21 March, 1955.
April, 1954.
(12) Gerard, G.:- Handbook of Structural
(2) Gerard, G.:- Handbook of Structural Stability, Part V. Compressive Strength
Stability. Part IV. Failure of Plates of Flat Stiffened Panels. NACA TN 3785.
and Composite Elements. NACA TN 3784. Aug. 1957.
August, 1957,
(13) Thesls by R. J. White:- The Ultimate
(3 ) Gerard, G.:- The Crippling Strength of Compressive Strength of Thin Sheet Metal
Compression Elements. Jour. Aero. Sci., Panels. Appendix A. C.I.T. 1935.
Vol. 25, Jan. 1958.
(4) Coan, J. M.:- Large Deflection Theory for
Plates with Small Initial Curvature Loaded
In Compression. Jr. Applied Mech., Vol.
18, JJne 1951.
 CHAPTER CS
BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS
This chapter presents information on the buc;:lin,g strtirlu:til of circ~:i,ir cylinders
under compressive, bending and torsioni loads a?tinz separately and in com-
bination, without and with internal pressure. Sam-:, information on the bu,:kling
strength of conicul cylinders is presented.

C8. 1 Introduction. for the strength design of monocoque stru-tAres

indicated that the design curves given in
Before the advent of the high speed air- (Ref. 1) were widely used. It thus seems
craft and particularly the missile and space appropriate to give some design material from
vehicle, the use of the unstiffened cylinder or (Ref. 1).
monocoque type of structure was quite limited.
Hovvever, the arrival of the space age has Cylinders are usually civen four \:lrissi-
caused the thin walled cylinder to become im- fixations relative to length:-
portant in the design of missiles and space
structures. (1) Short Zylinders . Short cylinders tend to
behave as flat plate ,:olumns (cylinders
The classical small deflection theory ‘with infinite radius). They develop
which has proved adequate for determining the buckles in a slnusiodal wave form similar
b%;kling strength of flat sheet structures as to flat plate buckling. The end fixity
r:overed tn 5’haptnr 1118, has not proved adequate has considerable influen:e.
for determinin,~ the buckling strength of thin
walled cylinders or ctir-ved sheet panels sinl?e (2) Intermediate
___~ or -Transition Length of
the theory r;ivcs results much too high when Cylinders. Bu?kling involves a mixed
c’(p,qg:jI-,?id- <:ith t,!io exp~:rim~?ntal or test results. pritter:! combinini’: sinusiod,.tl :nd diamond
shanes, Th’? effe:t of end fixity and
c Ijj >]‘t‘ t.i:c:?nt l,!~,g:i: deflection theory has ~ylin~1er len$h are only of no.min31
s t1wm ‘,,>i‘,?, :,~r~~~rl~?Ilt IA :,ii th experimont’il importance.
res$Alts, liownver, the theory requires a urior
knowledp;e of cylintlcr- imper31ections. AS R (3 j Long Cylinders. Su:h -ylinders buckle in
result of the theoretical limitations to date, a diamond shriped pattern, and the length
the strength design of su.:h structures is based and ,end conditions sre not of mu:h fm-
primarily on best fit curves for experlmental portanze.
or test results, using thaoretical parameters
and curves when they appear applicable. (4) Very Lon7: Cylinders. Su-,h cylinders bu?kle
by over-all column instability or act as ‘1
A missile strul:ture in handling operations Euler type column.
an3 flight inrineuvers is subjected to tensile,
compressive, bending ,And torsional load Fig. C8.1 shows a Dhotograph of the b’Jckle
systems. The cylinders may be pressurized or failure of an intermediate length cylinder under
unpressurized. The structural design of such axial compression,
structures thus requires a knowledge of the
buckling strength under the various load The name of Donnell is prominent in the
systems ~ noting separately and in combination. development of a theory for the buckling strength
This ch:rpter will be confined to giving test of cylinders. From (Ref. Z), Donnell’s eight-
dat,L :tnd design curves for the buckling order differential equation can be used to
strength of cylinders un-ier the various types provide a small-deflection theoretical solution
0 f s t I‘.2s :: systems. to the behavior of cylinders in the short to
long length range. A solution of Don-iell’s
C8.2 Buckling of Monocoque Circular Cylinders equation by Batdorf (Ref. 3) gives the critical
Under Axial Compression. stress in terms of the buckling coefficient K:,
which for simply supported cylinder ends Is
The term monocoque ~ylinfler means a thin defined by the equation:-
walled cylinder without loli~:itudinnl skin
Stiffener:; or transverse intermediate frames Kc = [(m” +p2)‘/m2] + [12Z”m”/n’ (m” +p’)]
attached to cyllritler skin, - - - - - - ,‘,S*l

where,
Investlpation by the author of the pro-
m = nimber of half waves in longitudinal
CedurQL us,:d by :i nimber, of aerospxce companies direction
C:ti.
C8.2 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS
________

Fig. C8.1 Type of Failure Axial Compression and No Fig. C8. la Type of Failure Under Axial Load With Internal
Internal Pressure. (Ref. 1.) Pressure. (Ref. 1.)

Fig. C8. lc Type of BucMing Failure Under Pure Bending Fig. C8. ld Type of Buckling Failure Under Pure Bending
Load. No Internal Prcssnrc. (Ref. 9.) With High Internal Pressurr. (Ref. 9. ).
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES C8.3

p = L/A Observation shows that the theoretical results

are far above the test values. Fig. C8.7
x = half wave length of buckles in (from Ref. 1) is a set of design curves of Kc
circumferential direction. versus 2 for various r/t values and for 90
percent probability.
The compressive buckling stress is given
by, C8.3 Additional Convenient Design Charts for Determining
Compress ive Buckling Stress
KcnsEv2) ta
FcrQ = 12(1 - (L 1 --------- C8.2
Figs. C8.8a and C8.8b are more convenient
design charts as the buckling stress Fccr can
where, t = wall thickness, L is the cylinder
length and V is Poisson’s ratio. The term 77 is be read from the chart, thus avoiding the
the plasticity correction factor and equals 1.0 calculations involved in using curves in Fig.
C8.7. Fig. C8.8a Is for 99 percent probability
for elastic buckling.
and 95 percent confidence level and Fig. C8.8b
Minimization of Eq. C8.1 with respect to for 90 percent probability and 95 percent
confidence level. The curves are based on tests
the parameter (m” + p”) ‘/m2, gives the critical
buckling coefficient for long cylinders in the of steel and aluminum alloy cylinders only. The
following form:- accuracy of these curves when used for other
materials has not been substantiated by tests.
= (4J3jn")Z = 0.7022 - - - - - - - - C8.3 The 99 percent probability curves are recom-
KC mended as design allowables for structures who=
where Z = (L’/rt)/i? - - - - - - - - C8.4 failure would be highly critical. The 90 per-
cent curves can be used for less critical
structures.
Substitution of Eq. C8.3 into Eq. C8.2
reduces to the well known classical equation
C8.4 Plasticity Correction.
Fcr = CE(t/r) - - - - - - - - - - - - - C8.5
The plasticity correction for cylinders in
where, C= the long range (L2/rt = 100) is given by the
l&Jc-P) = 0.605 for V = .30 curves in Fig. C8.9 taken from (Ref. 4). In
general most practical cylinders in aerospace
The buckling coefficient for simply structures will fall in the long cylinder range.
supported end conditions in the transition
range can be determined by substituting the
limiting values ofp = 0 and m = 1 in Eq. C8.1.
A similar solution for cylinders with fixed
edges deviates from the solution for simply
supported cylinders only in the flat plate and
transition ranges.

Figs. C8.2 to C8.5 inclusive taken from Fccr

Reference 1, show the theoretical curve which F 0.7
shoivs the buckling coefficient as a function
of the geometrical parameter Z. Theoretically,
the short cylinder range would occur at 2 = 0.
The values of Kc of 1.12 and 4.12 for 2 = 1
correspond quite closely to the buckling
coefficients of simply supported and fixed
ended plate columns. The long cylinder behavior K,n2 E
is represented by a 45 degree sloping straight 12 (1 - Ue2) F,- ., (:)”
line portion of the curve. The curve con- Fig. C8.9 (Ref. 4) Nondimensional Buckling Chaht for Axially Compressed Long Circular
necting the short and long cylinder ranges is Cylinders. 77 = (Es/E) [(Et/E)(l - Ve’)/(l - V8)] “‘. Applicable
referred to as the transition range. When L’/rt 7 100.

Figs. C8.2 to C8.5 show the plot of C8.5 Buckling of Monocoque Circular Cylinders Under
extensive test data and a 90 per cent proba- Load and Internal Pressure.
bility curve derived by the author of (Ref. 1)
by a statistical approach. Fig. C8.6 from Experiments conducted many years ago
(Ref. 1) shows a plot of much test data on a definitely showed that the compressive buckling
logarithmic chart of r/t versus Kc for 2 = strength of monocoque cylinders was increased
10,000. A best fit curve and 90 and 99 per- if internal pressure was added to the closed
cent probability derived curves are alS0 seen cylinder. Since weight saving is very important
as well as the theoretical curve for C = .605. in missile design, the use of pressurized
C8.4 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS

OBALLEF?STEtT8- l DONNELL II LO, CRATE 8 SCHWARTZ

e DDNNELL aLO, CRATE 8 SCHWARTZ
o BALLERSTEDT B WAGNER
6 LUNDUJIST I BRIDGET o FUNG 8 SECHLER 0 LUNDOUWT
~ml0GE-r oFUNG B SECHLER
-BucHY WAA) C NAA A-
e8UCHY (NAAI LI NAA A-
l CLARKBMXT ~KANEMlTsu 8 NoJiMA 4WlLSON8NEWMARK
maARK 8 HOLT oKANEM!TSU 8 NOJIMA 4 WlLSON 8 NEWMARK

-it
6
6
4 41--

2
1THEORETICAL CURVE
KC
‘da %
6 6
4 SIGN CURVE (r/t 4

2
---CLAMPED EDGES

1.0;s 2 4 68 2 4
I.0 IO lo2 lo3 IO4 IO= 1.0 lo 102 IO3 104 lo5
2 2

Fig. C8. 2 r/t = 100 to 500. Fig. C8. 3 r/‘t = 500 to 1, 000.
o8ALLERSTEDT 6 WAGNER 0 DDNNELL hLQ CRATE B SCHWARTZ
68RlDGET o FWG 8 SECHLER 1 LUNDOUIBT o BALLERSTEDT B WAGNER A DONNELL *LQCRATE 8 BcHwRtz
A ROERT’SON l BRIDGET oFUNG8sECHLEFf 0 LUNDousT
a 8UCHY (NAA) HNAA
0eua-i~ (NAN HNAA AROBERTSON
m&ARK 8 HOLT *KANEMlTSlJ 8 NOJIMA 4 WILSON 6 NEWMARK
l CLARKBtUXT 0 KANEMlTBU 6 NOJIMA A WlLSN 8 NEWMARK

2 z= Qg- ‘-------’ 2
t
IOJS
‘o”a
6 6
4 4

KC
10; IO’8
6 6
4

---UAMED EDGES
a8
6
4

I 1 I I bI1111 I 1 I 111111
66 2 4 66 2 468 -2 466 _
I.0 2 4 68 2 4 66 2 4 68 2 468 2 4 68
ID - lo - I02 lo3 lo4 IO5

Fig. C8.4 r/t = 1, 000 to 2, 000. Fig. C8. 5 r/t over 2,000.
Fig. C8. 2-C8. 5 (Ref. 1) Compressive Buckling Coefficients for Unpressurized Circular Cylinders.

6
o BALLERS-EDT B WAGNER 6 DONNELL b LD, CRATE 8 SCHWARTZ
0FlJM B SECHLER Q LUNDOUIST 4
l amDGET
l BUWY (NAN 6NAA AMERTSW
l CLARKbt+OLT ~KANEMlTSJ a NOJIMA 4 WILSON B NEWMARK

’02s
6
4 -SlMPLY SUPPORTEDE

r/t

Fig. C8. 6 (Ref. 1) Compressive Buckling Coefficients as a I.0 I.0w-1 “1’11’

2 46Blo 2 4 66 ; ?
Function of r/t.

Fig. 68, 7 (Ref. 1) Compressive Buckling Stress Coefficients

for Unpressurized Circular Cylinders.
(90 Percent ProbabJJity)
 C8. 5

1x10 -4

-6
l%lO
.
I lxlO1 I lxlOC I lxloJ
r/t

Fig. C8. 8a
C8.6 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS

lxlcj

1X@

F
ccr
E

lxl0

.
F% 0 C8.8b
 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FI JGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES C8.7

cylinders in missile structures has become a have shown a best fit curve and a 90 percent
common type of missile structural design. The probability curve obtained by a statistical
famous Atlas missile was one of the first to approach and this 90 percent curve in Fig.
use a pressurized monocoque type of structure. C8.11 is recommended as a design curve for
taking into account the effect of internal
The maJor reason for the large discrepancy pressure.
between the actual test strength and the
theoretical strength by the linear small
deflection theory that is generally accepted
is that the discrepancy is due to geometrical
imperfections and the associated stress con-
centrations. Now large internal pressures I.U
0
should smooth out such imperfections and 6
approach a perfect cylinder and thus the re- =a? I
sulting buckling strength should approach that 7\ET
given by the linear small deflection theory.
However, much of the available test data for JO*
pressurized cylinders gives values be.low that 6
given by the linear small deflection theory.
(See Fig. C8.la for buckling action of
pressurized cylinder.) .Ol 1,‘ / I 1 ] jl
2 4 68 2 4 68 2 4 68 2 4 68 cL
One of the first experimental and .ol I.0 IO lee
theoretical investigations of the effect of P f2
internal pressure upon the buckling compressive ET ( )

stress of monocoque cylinders was by Lo, Crate Fig. C8.10 Compressive Buckling Stress for Pressurized
and Schwartz (Ref. 5). They analyzed the Circular Cylinders. (Ref. 1)
problem of long pressurized cylinders using an
extension of the large deflection theory of
V.on Karman and Tsien (Ref. 6). Plotting their I**
results in terms of the non-dimensional 6

parameters (p/E) (r/t) a and (F&E) (r/t), they 4

found that the buckling coefficient C increased

from the Tsien value (Ref. 7) of 0.375 at zero 1.0
internal pressure to the maximum classical 8
6
value of 0.605 at (p/E)(r/t12= 0.169. Fig, AF CCR I
C8.10 taken from (Ref. 1) shows the large VT
deflection theoretical curve. Also shown are
the experimental values obtained in (Ref. 5) .I0 *

as well as those obtained by the investigators 6

4
in (Ref. 1) and by other investigators in
(Ref. 8). From Fig. C8.10 it is apparent that
large discrepancies exist between the theo- .Ol
retical predicted values and the experimental A)I
2 4 68
.I0
2 4 66
1.0
2 4 68
lo
2 4 60
I2
I(
values. Lo, Crate and Schwartz suggested that --P ( r21
better correlation with test results could be E t
obtained if the increment in the buckling Fig. C8.11 Increase in Compressive Buckling Stress Due
stress parameter (AF&E)(r/t) were plotted as to Internal Pressure.
a function of the pressure parameter as shown
In Fig. C8.11. The increase in the critical
stress AFcr due to the internal pressure BUCKLING OF MONOCOQUE CIRCULAR
directly represents the beneficial effect of CYLINDERS UNOER PURE BENDING
the internal pressure. The total critical
stress is thus obtained by adding the critical
C8.6 Introduction.
stress for the unpressurized cylinder to the
Increase in the critical stress due to the Flight vehicles are subjected to forces in
internal pressure. In order to plot the test flight and in ground operations that cause bend’
points in Fig. C8.11, it was necessary to ing action on the structure, thus it is necessa rY
determine the unpressurized critical buckling to know the bending strength of cylinders. Two
stress for each test. The 90 percent proba- rather extremes have been used in past design
bility values from Fig. C8.7 were used. As practice. One design assumption takes the valu e
shown in Fig. C8.11, the general trend of the of the bending buckling stress as 1.3 times the
test data agrees fairly well with the theo- buckling stress under axial compres.sion. The
ret ical curve. The investigations in Ref. 1 other assumption is to assume the bending buck1 m
C8.8 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS
I
o DWELL o LUNDQUST QNAA

stress is equal to the axial compressive A IMPERIAL ahd@%hAN8 0 PETERSON

buckling stress. The first assumption is con- 1.0

f3
sldered by some designers as somewhat uncon- 6

servative while the second assumption is no 4

doubt somewhat conservative.

It is relatively recent (Ref. 10) that a

%=
small deflection approach has been completely Fbcn r IO
8
solved for a cylinder in bending, Tests of -E-i
6

cylinders in bending show that the theoretical 4

result is lower than the test results but
higher than the buckling stress in axial com-
pression. No large deflection analysis which
involves a consideration of initial imper-
fections of the cylinder has been formulated I
to date for the buckling strength in bending, t

Since the stress in bending varies from zero Fig. C8. 12 Unpressurized Bending Buckling Stress Co-
at the neutral axis to a maximum at the most efficients as a Function of r/t.
remote element, the lower probability of
imperfections occurring within the smaller
highest stressed region would lead one to I percent probability and confidence level of 95
conclude that higher buckling stresses in percent. These curves are from the structures
bending, as compared to the buckling stress in manual of the General Dynamics Carp, (Fort
axial compression, should be expected. Worth.) Their manual states that most of the
test data upon which the curves are based fall
C8.7 Available Design Curves for Bending Based within the range of cylinder dimensions .25 e
on Experimental Results. L/r == 5, and 300 c= r/t e 1500, and the curves
are based on tests of steel, aluminum and brass
The same investigators (Suer, Harris, cylinders only.
Skene and Benjamin) that carried out tests on
cylinder in axial compression (Ref. l), have C8. 8 Buckling Strength of Circular Cylinders in Bending
also carried on an extensive investigation of with Inte lrnal Pressure.
the buckling strength of monocoque cylindrical
cylinders in pure bending (see Ref. 9). The published information on the buckling
strength of circular cylinders in bending with
As originally developed by Flugge (Ref.11) internal pressure is very limited and the status
for long cylinders, the buckling stress in of theoretical studies to date leave much un-
bending is expressed as:- known regarding this subject.
= CbE(t/r) - - - - - - - - - - - - - c8.6 Reference 9 gives the results of a series
Fbcr of tests of circular cylinders in bending with
The theoretical vlue of the bending internal pressure, Fig. C8.14 is taken from
buckling coefficient as found by Flugge was that published report. In Fig, C8.14 the ex-
about 30 percent higher than the corresponding perimental data are plotted in terms of the
classical buckling coefficient of 0.605 in increment ACbp to the buckling coefficient Cb.
axial compression. The increase in the buckling stress coefficient
ACbp represents the beneficial effect of
Fig. C8.12 (from Ref. 9) gives a plot of internal pressure. The total value of the
considerable test data and a plot of Cb versus buckling coefficient is obtained by adding the
(r/t). A best fit curve, a 90 percent proba- buckling coefficient for unpressurized cylinders
bility curve and a 99 percent probability curve, to the increase in the buckling coefficient due
are shown. The dashed curve is a plot of the to the internal pressure. In order to plot the
90 percent probability curve as previously data, it was first necessary to determine the
given in Fig. C8.6 for buckling in axial com- unpressurized buckling coefficient for each
pression, thus giving a comparrson between specimen. The 90 percent probability design
bendIng and compressive buckling strengths. AS curve of Fig. C8.12 was used for this purpose.
indicated by the plotted test points, the test The direct benefit of lateral internal pressure
data above an r/t value of 1500 is quite to the stability of cylinders in bending is
limIted, thus the accuracy of the curves is indicated by those specimens with no net axial
somewhat unknown. stress (the balanced specimens) represented by
the circular symbols. At large values of the
Figs. C8.13 and C8.13a give convenient pressure parameter, the additional benefit of
design curves for finding the bending buckling the axial pretentlon 1s clearly demonstrated by
stress based on 99 percent probability and 90 the large increase in ACbp of the pretensioned
 C8.9

Fig. C0.13
UNPRESSURIZED, UNSTXFFENED, CIRCULAR CYLINDERS
IN BENDING

Based on test data for

cylinder sizes of
.25C L/r- 5 and
300 * r/t - 1500.

99% PROBABILITY CURVES

Confidence Level = 95%

I ExlO1 I MO2 r/t I 1x103

Fig. C813
C8.10 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS
 C8.11

specimens, represented by the triangular The buckling compressive stress for this
symbols, over that for balanced specimens. The type of loading is given by the following
limiting value of the increase in the buckling equation (Ref. 12):-
stress coefficient for pretensioned pressurized
cylinders at very high values of the pressure kp n2 E t 8
-ve”) ( i > --------- C8.7
parameter is given by the line ocr = pr/X. ‘ccr = 12 (1

The analysis of the pressurized cylinder Values of the buckling coefficient kp are
data was achieved by selecting a best fit curve given in Fig. C8.15. Equation C8.7 is for
for those specimens in which the axial pre- buckling stresses below the proportional limit
tension was balanced. This curve (shown in stress of the material.
Fig. C8.14) was selected by the investigators
as best indicating the general trend of the C8.10 External Radial Pressure.
experimental data. At large values of the
pressure parameter, the curve is drawn to Under an inward acting radial pressure only
approach an asymptote agreement between the the circumferential compressive stress produced
best fit curve and experimental data is is fc = pr/t where p is the pressure.
apparent in Fig. C8.14. A statistical analysis
of the test data was performed for the speci- The buckling stress under this type of
mens with no axial pretension to establish the loading from (Ref. 12) is,
90 percent probability design curve shown in
Fig. C8.14. Because data were available only kyneE t 2
_ vee)(i) -0 - - - - - - - - C8.8
from the tests made by the investigators, they Fccr = 12 (1
indicate the sample may not be representative
and a lower probability curve should perhaps Values of the buckling coefficient ky are
be used for design purposes. The data was not given in Fig. C8.16. Equation C8.8 is for
considered sufficient to permit a statistical buckling stresses within the proportional limit
analysis of the pretensioned test data, and stress of the material.
therefore they suggest a lower bound curve be
used in the design of pretensioned cylinder. C8.11 Buckling of Monocoque Circular Cylinders Under
Additional tests are needed too for unpres- Pure Torsion.
surized cylinders with r-/t ratios greater than
1500 to verify the shape of the design curve. Fig. C8.17 (from Ref. 12) shows the results
of tests of thin walled circular cylinders under
IO
8 pure torsion. The theoretical curve in Fig.
6

4
C8.17 is due to the work of Batdorf, Stein and
Schildcrout (Ref. 15). Their theoretical in-
2 LWERKUNDCURVE. :,
vestigation utilized a modified form of the
single equilibrium form of Donnell (Ref. 2) and
by use of Galerkins Method obtained the curve
shown in Fig. C8.17. This theoretical curve
falls above the test results and thus for safety
a lowered curve should be used for design
purposes. Fig. C8.18 shows a design curve which
appears in the structural design manuals of a
number of aerospace companies.

.Ol The torsional buckling stress is given by

.Ol 2 40 2
4 68 4 68
1.0
2 4 68
IO
2 4 6
the equation:-
P r2
z--i-( 1 ktn@E t
- C8.9
Fig. C8. 14 Increase in Bending Buckling Stress Coefficients Fscr = 12 (1 - ,e.)(i;T;) --------
Due to Internal Pressure.
Fig. C8.18 gives the value of the torsion
buckling coefficient kt and applies for buckling
BUCKLING OF MONOCOQUECIRCULAR below the proportional limit stress.
CYLINDERS UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
To correct for plasticity effect when
C8.9 External Hydrostatic Pressure. buckling stress is above the proportional limit
stress, the non-dimensional chart of Fig. C8.19
Under this type of loading, the cylinder can be used. Figs. C8.20 and C8.21 give other
shell is placed in circumferential compressive convenient design curves involving buckling
stress equal to twice the longitudinal com- stresses for 90 and 99 percent probability.
pressive stress.
I
a.12 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYL1NDER.S

/
/
s

IO
rhzw?YoF
EATDDRF -,
_
--
08 0
0
TEST
WlNDENBtRG
TRILLING
DATA
AND
-

4 0
0 sruRM

t.
L
IO”

Fig. C8. 15 Buckling Under External Hydrostatic Pressure. Fccr

Fig. C8.16 Buckling Under External Radial Pressure. Fccr =

 C8.13

Fig. C8. I’? Comparison of Test Data and Theory for Simply Supported Circular Cylinders
in ‘I ‘0 rs ion e

k&E t
F Scr = 12 (1 _ pe2) (cl2 ; ‘L -Lz(l
- rt - 21e+.

10”

lo2

Fag,-. C8. 1.8 Duckling of Simply Supported Circular Cylinders in Torsion

or Transverse Shear
C8.14 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS

.6

.2 3 .6 .a 9

Fig. C8. 19 Nondimensional-Buckling-Stress Curves for Long Cylinders in Torsion.

77 = (Es/E) [(l - Ve”)/(l -V”)] 3’4.

C8.12 Buckling Under Transverse Shear.

Shear stresses are also produced under fit test data. The derived interaction equatlon
bending due to transverse loads. These shear was:-
stresses are maximum at the neutral axis and
zero at the most remote portion of the cylinder R,,’ + Rp q 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ _ - C8.10
wall, whereas the torsional shear stress Is
uniform over the entire cylinder wall. Limited where,
tests indicate a higher buckling shear stress
under a transverse shear loading as compared applied torsion shear stress
R,t = ratio of allowable torsion shear stress
to the torsional buckling stress. A generai
procedure in Industry Is to increase the shear
buckling stress under torsion by using 1.25 applied Internal pressure
Thus in Fig. C8.18 find kt for Rp=ratio of external hydrostatic buckling pressure
times kt.
buckling under torsion and then multiply it by
1.25 in using Equation C8.9 to find buckling Note that Rp has a negatlve sign. The
stress under transverse shear. value of the external hydrostatic buckling pres-
sure can be determined by use of Fig. C8.15.
C8.13 Buckling of Circular Cylinders Under Pure Torsion Fig. C8.22 shows a plot from Equation C8.10 and
With Internal Pressure. its comparison with test data.

Internal pressure places the cylinder C8.14 Buckling of Circular Cylinders Under Transverse
walls in tension, thus the torsional buckling Shear and Internal Pressure.
stress is Increased as torsional buckling Is
due to the compressive stresses that are For this load system, the derived inter-
produced under shear forces. action equation is slmllar to Eq. C8.10.

Hopkins and Brown (Ref. 13), using R, + Rp = 1 - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ - - C8.11

Donnell’s equation, calculated the effect of
internal pressure on the buckling stress of where,
circular cylinders in torsion and the results
were in fair agreement with test results. applied transverse shear stress
R, = allowable transverse shear stress
Crate, Batdorf and Baab (Ref. 14),
utlllzed an empirical interaction eqUatlOn to Rp is same as explained in Article C8.13.
 C8.15

UNPRESSURIZED, UNSTIFFENED, CIRCULAFI CYLINDERS

INTORSION

Curves bawd on test data

within range of cylinder
di.meneions:-

-6
I .xlo

I 1%101 I 1x10* r/t I lx103

Fig. C8.20
C8.16 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUEXYLINDERS

-2
lxl0

-3
lxl0

bt
E

I lItlO I 1x10* r/t I Lx103

Fig. C8.21
 Table C8. 1
Summary of Interaction Equations
for Buckling of Pressurized and
Unpressurized Gil cular Cylinders
I I 1
Combined Equation
Interacrion
Loading For Margin
Equation
Condition of Safety

Longitudinal
Compression and R, + Rb = 1 M.S. =1-1
Pure Bending Rc+Rb

6 Longitudinal 2
Rc+Rst2=1
Compression and (See Fig. C8. 23) M'S- =R,+,/m-'
Torsion
----. --______I. ',
Longitudinal I
ksi R& - (Rt) = 1
Tension and
I (See Note 1) I
Torsion ! I
I
Pure Bending Rb’ ‘+ Rst2 = 1
l I
and Torsion (See Fig. C8.20) I

Pure Bending Rb3+Rs3=l

and Transverse (See Fig. C8. 23)
Shear
Longitudinal
Compression, I
pure Bending Rc+Jm =l
and Transverse
0 / 2 S I 5 6 7 8 9 /c) Shear
I I
I I i
Longitudinal
P.int. - P ext . crit . 9 Psi. 2
Compression,
Rc+Rb+R& =1 -1
Pure Bending M’ ‘- = R, + Rb +,/(Rc + Rb) 2+ 4R&
Fig. C8. 22 Effect of Internal Pressure on Torsional-Buckling Stress and Torsion
of Long Cylinders. Test Results are from Ref. (14). 1
I
I
f

Longitudinal
Compression,
Pure Bending, R, + R;t +Tm= 1
Transverse
Shear and
C8.15 Buckling of Circular Cylinders Under Combined Torsion
Load Systems.
NOTE 1. Rt= applied tensile stress
compression buckling allowable
It is very seldom that a circular cylinder Rt c 0.8 I
used in an aerospace structure such as a
missile is subjected to a load system causing
only one internal stress system such as axial
stress, ‘bending stress, and shearing stress.
Therefore it is necessary to be able to safely
determine the buckling strength under the
practical cases of combined stress systems.
This problem is handled by the use of inter- 1.0
action equations.
.9
Table C8.1 summarizes the interaction
equations that appear in the structures design .8
manuals of several aerospace companies. These
equations no doubt have been proven reliable .7
by checking against test data. Fig. C8.23 RC

gives a plot of three interaction curves, .6

These curves are useful in quickly observing RS
whether cylinder is weak and to determine .5
margins of safety. Rst
.4

C8.16 Xllustrative Problems for Finding the Buckling

Strength of Circular Monocoque Cylinders. .3

.2
Problem 1. Axial Compressive Strength.
.l
A circular cylinder has a radius r = 50
inches, a length L = 75 inches, and a wall .l .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .6 .g 1.0
thickness t of .05 inches. The material is
Rst, Rb
aluminum alloy 2026T3, for which E,
10,700,000 psi. What compressive load will it
C8.18 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS
I
carry using design curves based on 90 percent The bending moment developed at this
probability. buckling stress is,

Solution: M = Fb cr I/r = Fb,, n r't

r/t = 50.1.05 = 1000, L/r = 75/50 = 1.5 = 1710 n x 50'~ .05 = 670,000 in. lb.

If we use Fig. C8.13a based on 90 percent

F (See Eq. C8.2) probability and 95 percent confidence, we read
for r/t = 1000 and L/r = 1.5 that Fbcr/E is
To find the buckling coefficient kc, we .000160. Thus Fb,, = 10,700,OOO x .000160 =
use Fig. C8.7.
1710 psi. Since it is difficult to read Fig.
C8.12, it is recommended that Fig. C8.13a be
used in design.
If we require 99 perceht probability, we
use Fig. C8.13 and obtain Fb,,/E = .000092,
which gives Fb,, = 10,700,OOO x .000092 = 985
From Fig. C8.7 using 2 = 2140 and r/t =
1000, we read kc = 280, then psi as agalnst 1710 for 90 percent probability.

280 n2 x 10,700,000 Problem 3. Torsional Strength.

F,, = ($y = 1210 psi
12 (1 - .32)
Same cylinder as in Problem 1. What
The buckling axial compressive load torsional moment will this cylinder develop.
P = 2nrt F,, = 2x x 50 x .05 x 1205 = 18950 lb.
Solution. Using design curve In Fig. C8.18
If we use the design curves of Fig. C8.8b
based on 90 percent probability and 95 percent
confidence, we read for r/t = 1000 and L/r =
1.5, that Fccr'E = .000121. Thus Fccr =
For this value of 2, we read the torsional
10,700,000 x .000121 = 1295 PSI. If we multiply buckling coefficient kt from Fig. C8.18 to be
this value by the .95 confidence value, we 170.
obtain 1230 psi which is practically the same
as obtained above using Fig. C8.7. kt ne E
Fst,, = 12 (1 - V (See Eq. C8.9)
e
pa = 12% x 2n x .05 x 50 = 20350 lbs.
17c$x11_0,7c$$000 (.0.&E = 735 psi
If we require 99 percent probability and kc, = . e
95 percent confidence, we use Fig. C8.8a. For
r/t = 1000 and L/r = 1.5, we read Fscr/E = The torsional moment developed by this
.000082 or F = 10,700,OOO x .000082 = 877 buckling stress is,
psi, which w%lid give an axial buckling load
of 13,700 lbs. Thus requiring a 99 percent T = Fst,, J/r. J/r = 2nr't/r = 2nr8t
probability decreases the buckling load
conslderably. whence,

Problem 2. Bending Strength T = Fstcr 2nrat

The same cylinder as used in Problem 1 will T = 735x2nx50ex.05 = 578000 In.lbs.
be used in this example problem. What bending
moment will buckle this cylinder under 90 The result will also be calculated using
percent probability. Figs. C8.20 and C8.21 based on 99 percent and
90 percent probability respectively and 95
solution. The curve In Fig. C8.12 will be percent confidence. Using Fig. C8.21:-
used. For r/t = 1000 and L/r = 1.5, we read
from Fig. C8.12 that the bendlng buckling For r/t = 1000 and L/r = 1.5, we read
coefficient Cb = .16. FSdE = 000082. Then Fst = .000082 x 10,700,OOO
= 876 psi. T = 876 x 2n x 50'~ .05
(See Eq. C8.5) 1 = 688000 in.lbs.
Fbcr = CbEt/r
= .16x10,700,000x .05/50 = 1710 psi Using Fig. C8.20 which is for 99 percent proba-
I
bllity, we read Fst/E = .000060 which gives 2
Fst = 642 psi which, in turn, gives allowable q .527+.421+~(.527+.421)2+4x.13-z - 1= .035
torque T = 504000 In. lbs.
Problem 6. Combined Compression, Bending,
Problem 4. Combined Compression and Bending. Torsion and Transverse Shear.

The cylinder of Problem 1 is subjected to The same cylinder as in Problem 1 is sub-

an axial compressive load P of 10,700 lbs. and jected to the following loads:-
a bending moment M of 282,000 in. lbs. What Is
the margin of safety under this combined load- P = 10700 lbs. compression, M = 282,000 in.lbs.,
ing for 90 percent probability and 95 percent T = 715000 in.lb., V = 1790 lb., (transverse
confidence. external shear). Will the cylinder carry this
combined loading under 90 percent probability.
Solution. The inter:lc:l.ion equation for this
type of combined loading from Table CR.1 Is, Solution:

R, + Rb = 1 From Table C8.1 the interaction equatlon

for this combined loading is,
RC = P/Pa- (Pa from Probl em 1 solution Is
20350 lb.) Rc t R&J t vRs3 t Rb3 = 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (B)

R, = 10700/20350 - .52'7 R, = 10700,'20350 = -52'7

Rh = M/Ma (From Problem 2 i-i:Slll 1.5; Z -- PI;,, z ttb = 282000/670000 = .421
670,000 ln.lbs.)
Rst - 71500/688000 = .104
Rb q 282,000/670,000 - .42-i
The equation for shear stress due to
Rc + Rb = .527 + .421 = -948. Since the result transverse shear load V is,
iS less than 1.0, we have a small margin of
safety.
fS

M.S. = ' -1=-&g- I= .055 I for cylinder section = ~'9t area= nrt
Rc + Rb
Problem 5. JydA = nrt x .6366r = 2 r8t _ P " F I.J33_66r
Combined Compression, Bending and
Torsion. f, = --&(2 rat) = &
Same cylinder as in Problem 1. The load-
Ing is the same as Problem 4 plus a torsional f, = 1790/nx50x .05 = 228 psi.
moment T of 89300 in. lb. Fing the M.S. under From Article C8.12 we use buckling co-
this combined loading for 90% probability. efficient for transverse shear to be 1.25 times
that for torslonal buckling.
Solution.
The lnteractlon equation for this com- From Problem 3 the torslonal buckling stress
bined load system from Table C8.1 is, calculated to be Fst = 876 psi. Therefore the
transferse shear buckling stress is 1.25 x 876
Rc+Rb+Rste=l -----------(A) = 1095 psi, = Fs

From Problem 4, R, = .527, Rb = .421, %i = f,/F, = 228/1095 = .208

Rst = T/'Ta. - (From Problem 3 results: T, is Substituting in Equation (B),
688,000 In. lb.)
.527 + .104* + 3d.2083 + .421= = .975. This
Rst q 89300/688,000 = .13 result Is less than 1.0 so a small margin of
safety exists.
Subt. in Eq. (A):-
Problem 7. Comblned Compresslon, Bending and
.527 f .421 + .132 = .965, (since this result Transverse Shear.
is less than 1.0, we have a small margln of
safety. From Table C8.1, Same cylinder and loads as In Problem 6,
but wIthout the torsional moment load.
____.2
M'S' = Rc+Rb+&Rc+Rb)' +4RstZ - 1 Solution: The Interaction equation Is,
C8.20 BUCKLING STRENGTH OI MONOCOQUE CY-J~.!$~-~-R~.....

Rc+vm ~1 --s-------(C) C8. 17 Problems Involviq: Iti:crnal Pressure with

External Loadings.
R, = .527, Rb = .421 and R, = .208 (from
Problem 6) The same ccy! !r,,:(A' '::c! m.it:erial as was used
in Problems 1 to !i wi !1 t;f~ r~sed in the following
Subt. in Equation (C), example eroblems, nh~~:r:l,y:, i' = 50, t = .05, L =
75, E = 10.7 x 10'.
.527 + =J.20sa + .4213 = .964 (less than 1.0
thus cylinder will not buckle.) Problem 10. Axial Comnre~slon with Internal
Pressure.
Problem 8. Combined Bending and Torslon.
The cylinder Is su~Jjec:tel io an axial com-
Using the sane cylinder as in previous pressive load of 50000 li>c:- arid an internal
problems, the combined loading is:- pressure of 5 lbs. per sq. in. What ls the
margln of safety under this combined load system
M = 478,000 in.lbs., T = 358,000 in. lb. with 90 percent probab!lity.

Wiill the cylinder buckle under this loading. Solution. From Problem i) the buckling com-
pressive stress Fccr with no internal pressure
Solution: To obtain the increase In the
was 1295 psi.
compressive buchrling due to the internal pres-
Rb = 470,000/670,000 = .701 sure, we use Flg. CR.11. The horlzontal scale
parameter Is,
Rst = 358,000/688,000 = .520
The Interaction equation from Table C8.1 Is,

f$-,- + Rst2 = 1 From Fig. C8.~.1, we road on vertical scale,

.7011.5 + .5208 q -58 less than 1.0, therefore
cylinder will not buckle.
The margin of safety can be determined
graphically by using Fig. C8.21 as follows:- AFCcr = (TX .19 x10,'iOO,OOOx .05)/50 = 2035fl psi
Find polnt (a) as Indicated on Fig. C8.21 Since the stress is below the proportional
LlSiilg Rb = .701 and R,t = .520. Draw line limit stress the plastlcil,y correctlon is zero
from orlgln o through point (a) and extend it or q = 1.0. Thus AFccr = 2035 psi.
to intersect Interaction curve at point (b).
Projecting downward and horizontally from Then the total buckling stress with the
point (b), we read Rb = .78 and R,t = .58. Internal pressure Is 1295 + 2035 = 3330 psl.
The factor of utilization U = .'70/.78 = Now the Internal pressure produces a longi-
.52/.58 = .595. Therefore Margin of Safety = tudlnal tensile stress In the cylinder wall.
(l/u) -l= (l/.895) - 1 = .12. Thls tensile stress Is,
Problem 9. Comblned Compresslon and Torslon. Ft = pr/2t = 5 x SO/2 x .05 = 2500 psi
Same cylinder as In previous problems. Thls tensile stress must be cancelled before
The loads are P = 12900 lbs. T = 358000 ln.lbs Walls can be subjected to a compressive stress
What is M.S. due to an external compressive axial load. The
allowable failing load Pa thus equals,
Solution: The Interaction equation from Table
C8.1 Is, R, + Rst 2= 1 pa = 2nrt (Fccr + A& + Ft)
RC = 12900/20350 = .634 = 2n x 50 x .OS (3330 + 2500) = 91500 lb.

Rst = 35f3000/688000 = .520 M.S. = (Pa/P)-1 = (91500/50000) - 1 = .83.

.634 + .520* = .904 (less than 1.0, there- Thls result shows the tremendous effect of
fore no buckling.) internal pressure In Increasing the compressive
strength of a thin walled unstiffened circular
cylinder. With no internal pressure, the
M.S. = .634 + (.634" : 4 x .520P)1/e - 1 = .08 failing compressive load as calculated In
 C8.21

Problem 1 was only 20350 lbs. as compared to Solution:

95000 lbs. with 5 psi internal pressure.
Interaction equation is, Rc + Rb q 1
Problem 11. Bending with Internal Pressure.
From Problem 10, the allowable load Pa for
If
th2 same cylinder as used in the pre- compression plus 5 psi, internal pressure Is
ceding example problems is subjected to a 95000 lbs.
bending moment of 3,000,OOO in. lbs. when
internal pressure is 5 psi, what is the M.S. Rc = P/Pa = 51000/95000 = .536
use 90 percent probability.
From Problem 11, the a.llowable bending
Salut ion. For bending without internal moment Ma with an internal pressure is 3,760,OOO
pressure, the bending buckling stress Fbcr was in. lbs.
found in Problem 2 to be 1710 psi. T‘ne in-
Rb = M/M, = 1475000/3760000 q .392
crease in this bending buckling stress due to
internal pressure is obtained from the curves
The horizontal scale parameter Rc + Rb = .536 + .332 = -928 (less than 1, thus
in Fig. CH.14. will not buckle)
15,
M.S. = (lj.928) - 1 = .08
+ (+) 2 = 5 p+ = 4.67
10,700,000 .05 Problem 13. Torsion with Internal Pressure
From Fig0 C8.1$, we read
If the same cylinder is subjected to an
internal pressure of 5 psi, what pure torsional
*Fbc, moment T, will it carry without buckling.
(+) = .51 for 90 percent probability.
E
Solution:
whence, AFocr = (.51x 10,700,000x .05)/50 =
With no internal pressure, the torsional
5350 psi. shearing buckling stress as calculated in
Problem 3 was 876 psi. for 90 percent proba-
As calculated in Problem 11, the internal
bility.
pressure of 5 psi produces a longitudinal
tensile stress in the cylinder wall equal to
The increase in shear buckling stress due
Ft = 2500 pS I . The allowable bending moment
that cylinder can develop is, to the internal pressure will be determined by
use of interaction curve in Fig. C8.22. To use
this curve, the external hydrostatic pressure
% = %(total) */r = Fbtotal x nr2t
(peat-)
--_-. to cause buckling of the cylinder must
be determined. This buckling stress Fccr IS
Fb(total) = Fbc + AFbc + Ft = determined by equation C8.7, which is,
kp ne e
= 1710 + 5350 + 2’500
1% = 9560 psi. bcr = 12 (1 - I/e “) (&”
Ma = 9560xnx50”x .05 = 3760000 in. lbs.
The buckling coefficient kp is found by
use of Fig. C8.1!?.
M.S. = (Ma/%) - 1 = (3760000,‘3000000) - 1 = .25

Again note the tremendous effect of z = 2 (1. - ,ez,z/, I 2140 (See Problem 1)
internal pressure on the bending strength.
With no internal pressure, the failing bending
moment was 670000 as compared to 3760000 with From Fig. C8.15, we read kp q 60
5 psi internal pressure. = 60~1’ x 10,700,OOO
F (+)’ = 258 psi
ccr 12 (1 - .32)
Probl,?m 12. Combined Comoression, Bending and
Internal Pressure. The external pressure to produce this
circumferential stress in the cylinder Wall
The same cylinder will be subjected to an would be
axial load P = 51000 lbs., a bending moment
M = 1475000 in. lbs . , and an internal pressure
Pext. = F-vcr t/r = 258 x .05/50 = .258 psi
of 5 psi. Use 90 percent probability. What
is the margin of safety under these load Fig. C8.22 is now used to find the increase
conditions . in the torsional shear buckling stress due to
C8.22 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS
I
the Internal pressure of 5 psi. The lower This Is less than 1.0, thus cylinder will
scale parameter is, not buckle under the given combined loading.

Pint - pext = 5 - .258 = 4.74 C8.17 Buckling Strength of Thin-Walled (Monocoque)

Conical Shells.
Uslng this value we read from C8.22 that
= 5280 psi. This buckling stress will In a multi-stage mlsslle, the upper stages
Fstcr normally have smaller diameters than the lower
develop a torsional moment of stages, thus a conical shell provides a type of
structure to permit changing the missile
T, = Fstcr (2n r”t) diameter between the various stages.
= 5280 (2n x 502 x .05 = 4,150,OOO in. lb. As for the case of the cylindrical
I
monocoque shell, the theoretical analysis for
Reference to the interaction curve in Fig. the buckling strength of conical shells by
C8.22 shows most of the test data falling either the small or large deflection theories
below the curve. A 90 or 99 percent probability gives results considerably above those given
would give a curve considerably below the by tests, thus design of conical shells at
curve shown. A correction factor of around .8 present is based prlmar1ly on results obtained
would seem to be In order or .8 x 5280 = by tests. The material presented in thLs
4220 psl. chapter ~111 thus be limited to presenting a
few design buckling curves.
The buckling stress can be calculated by
use of the lnteractlon equation:
C8.18 Allowable Compressive Buckling Stress for
Thin-Walled Conical Shells.
RstP+ RP = 1, Rst = fst/Fstpr 0
Fig. C8.24 shows deslgn curves for the
RP = 5.0/.258 = 19.4 (use minus sign)
compressive buckling stress of a conlcal shell
as derived from a statlstlcal study of test
fst2 data by Hausrath and Dittoe (Ref. 16). The
-876’ -- 1 + 19.4, or fst = 3940 psi.
expression for the buckling compressive stress
Thus to cause torslonal buckling with 5 along a generator at mid-height of cone is,
psi internal pressure requires a torslonal
shear stress of 3940 psi. rcr
Fccr = 2 n p t cosn cl
Then the torsional moment developed =
3940 (2n x 502 x .05) = 3,100,OOO In.lb. where, PC, is the buckling axial compressive
load on cone.
Problem 14. Combined Compression, Bending,
Torsion and Internal Pressure. c q radius of curvature of cone at mld-
height.
The same cylinder Is subjected to a
combined loading of P = 40750, M = 1,670,000, t = cone wall thickness.
T = 700,000 and internal pressure of 5 psi.
Will cylinder buckle. a = seml-vertex angle of cone.

From Problem 10, Pa = 95,000 Data from 170 tests by vdrlous Investl-
gators were statistically evaluated for expected
From Problem 11, Ma = 3,760,000 men, 90 percent and 99 percent probabllity
strength levels. Dispersion of data was found
From Problem 13, T, = 3,100,OOO to be slightly less than that of monocoque
cylinders. Non-linear effects of radius to
The stress ratios then are: - thickness rat10 or strength deterioration with
length to radius ratio were not discernible.
Rc = 40,750/95,000 = .431
The “A” level curve In Flg. C8.24 is that
Rb = 1,670,000/3,760,000 = .4’&4 level which would be exceeded by at least 99
percent of the entlre test population with 95
R,t = 700,000/3,100,000 = .226 percent confidence; that is, the confidence Is
95 percent that at least 99 percent of the
The interaction equation is R, + Rb + compressive strengths of all cones can be
Rst2= 1. expected to exceed the “A” level curve. The
“8” level curve is for 90 percent probability
.431 + ,444 + .226’ = ,926. and 95 percent confidence.
 C8.23

Buckling Under Combined Loading

From Boeing Report (D2-3617) the effects

of simultaneous compression, bending, shear and
overpressure can be considered using the inter-
action equatlon:-

(R, + Rb + Rv)ls2 + Rqla8 = 1

where, R, = f,/F,, Rb = fb/Fb, Rv = 1.4 fV F,t

Rq = q/qcr

C8.20 Example Problem.

P A conical shell with wall thickness t = . 05
T and other dimensions shown in Fig. (a) is
Fig. C8. 24 (Ref. 16)
fabricated from aluminum
alloy (E = 10,700,000).
Determine the following
The "A" and "B" curves are recommended for values:-
practical design. The "A" level curve Is
recommended for use for those structures where (1) Allowable compres-
a single failure would result in catastrophic slve load Pc.
loss or injury to personnel. The stress level
at the small end of the cone should be checked (2) Allowable bendlng -u-..LY\l
1 413.52 I-
to preclude the possiblllty of an early failure moment Mc,.
precipitated by inelastic stresses.
(3) Allowable torsional Fig. a
C8. 19 Additional Design Buckling Curves for Thin- moment T,,.
Walled Conical Shells.
(4) External buckling pressure qtr.
Figs. C8.25, gives curves for
26, 27
determining the allowable buckling stress for Solution:
thin-walled conical shells In compression,
bending and torsion respectively. These curves P = lO/cos loo = 10.16 in.
are reproduced by peI'dSSiOn of the Boeing p/t = 10.16/.05 = 203
Company from their report D2-3617. Fig. C8.28 L = 2O/cos
loo = 20.32 in.
gives a design curve for the allowable L/p = 20.32/10.16 = 2.0
external buckling pressure for thin-walled
conical shells, also from same Boeing Report. To find PC:-
These curves were used for minuteman interstage
and skirt design and the conical shells had From Fig. C8.25 with p/t = 203 and L/p =
ring stiffeners designed by method given In 2.0, we read Fc x 10*/E equals 1.20. Whence
(Ref. 17). Fc = 1.20x10,700,000/1000 = 12,820 psi. Then
PC = Fc 2 n rt
DEFINITION OF TERMS:- = 12820 x 2n x 10 x .05 = 40,300 lbs.

FC = allowable compressive buckling stress TO find Qr:-

(psi)
Fb = allowable bending buckling stress (psi) From Fig. C8.26 with p/t = 203 and L/p =
Fst = allowable torslonal buckling stress (psi 2.0, we read Fb x lO"/E = 1.48. Whence Fb =
fc = compressive stress 1.48 x 10,700,000/1000 = 15820 psi. Then
fb = bending stress MC, = Fb 7l ret
fV = transverse shear stress = 15820 n x lo2 x .05 = 248,500 In. lb.
L = slant height of conical shell
t = wall thickness To find Tc,:-
= one half cone apex angle
;e = Poisson's ratio From Fig. C8.27, with p/t = 203 and L/p =
P = minimum radius of curvature 2.0, we read Fst x 10=/E = .61. Whence, Fst =
Pavg = average radius of curvature .61 x 10,700,000/1000 = 6520 psi. Then
9 = external pressure (psi) T cr = Fst 2 n ret
in. lb.
9cr = allowable external pressure = 6520 x 2n x 10’ x .05 = 205,000
C8.24 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS
 8.25

2 3 4 6 6 7 e 010 2 3 4 6 67 e Q 100 2 3 4 6 8 7 eel

“1.0
C8.26 BUCKLING STRENGTH 0 MONOCOQUE CYLINDERS

To find external buckling pressure qcr:- (4) A conical shell has a small end diameter
of 30 inches, a length of 30 inches, a
Use is made of Fig. C8.28. semi-vertex angle of 8 degrees and a wall
thickness of .057. Material is aluminum
10 + 13.52 alloy with E = 10,500,OOO. Determine the
Pavg = 2 cos 10" = 11.92 in.
ultimate compressive load, the ultimate
bending moment, and the ultimate torsional
pavg/t = 11.92/.05 = 230 moment the cone will sustain when each
load is acting separately.
The lower scale parameter of Fig. C8.28 is,
Determine the external pressure that
z = LL. J-y-1 Ve” will buckle the cone.
PavEt
REFERENCE8

(1) Harris, Seurer, Skeene and Benjamin. The Stability of

Thin-Walled Unstiffened Circular Cylinders Under Axial
Compression. Jour. Aero. Sciences. Vol. 24, August,
From Fig. C8.28 for Z = 660, we read 1957.
KY = 27.5. The equation for buckling pressure (2) Donnell, L. H. Stability of Thin-Walled Tubes Under
from Fig. C8.28 is, Torsion. NACA Report 479.
(3) Batdorf, S. B. A Simplified Method of Elastic Stability
KY Et3n8 Analysis for Thin Cylindrical Shells. NACA Report 874
qcr = Pavg La 12 (1 - ve”) (1947).
(4) Weingarten, Morgan and Siede. Final Report of Design
Criteria for Elastic Stability of Thin Shell Structures.
27.5 x 10,700,OOO x .05a x n* Contract AFG4(647)619 Air Force Ballistic Missile
= 11.92 x 20.32 x 12 (1 - .3') = 5.37 "I Division). Space Tech. Labs. Dec., 1960.
(5) Lo, Crate and Schwartz. Buckling of Thin Walled
Cylinders Under Axial Compression and Internal Pres-
--PROBLEMS sure. NACA T. N. 2021, Jan. 1950.
(6) VonKarman and Tsien. The Buckling of Thin Cylindrical
(1) A monocoque circular cylinder is fabri- Shells Under Axial Compression. Jour. of Aero.
cated from aluminum alloy for which E is Sciences. Vol. 8, June 1941.
10,500,000. Wall thickness is .064. (7) Tsein. A Theory for Buckling of Thin Shells. Jour. of
Aero. Sciences. Vol. 9, August 1942.
Cylinder diameter is 80 inches. Length
(8) Fung and Sechler. Buckling of Thin Walled Circular
is 60 inches. Using a probability factor Cylinders Under Axial Compression and Internal Pres-
of 90 percent, determine the following sure. Jour. of Aero. Sciences. Vol. 24, May 1957.
values:- (9) Harris, Seurer, Skeene and Benjamin. The Bending
Stability of Thin Walled Unstiffened Circular Cylinders
(a) Buckling compressive load for Including Effects of Internal Pressure. Jour. of Aero.
Sciences, Vol. 25, May 1958.
cylinder. (10) Siede and Weingarten. On the Bending of Circular
(b) Buckling bending moment for cylinder, Cylindrical Shells Under Pure Bending. Jour. of
(c) Buckling torsional moment for Applied Mechanics. Vol. 28, March 1961.
cylinder. (11) Flugge. Die Slabititat der Kruszylinderschole.
Lngenieur Archiv. Vol. 3, 1932.
(2) The cylinder in Problem (1) is subjected (12) Gerard & Becker. Handbook of Structural Stability.
Part III. Buckling of Curved Plates and Shells. NACA
to the following design loads. Will the T. N. 3783, Aug. 1957.
cylinder fail under these various design (13) Hopkins and Brown, The Effect of Internal Pressure on
conditions:- the Initial Buckling of Thin. Walled Circular Cylinders
Under Torsion. R & M. No. 2423. British A. R. C. 1946.
Condition 1 (14) Crate, Batdorf and Baab. The Effect of Internal
P = 30000 lbs. compression Pressure on the Buckling Stress of Thin Walled Circular
Cylinders Under Torsion. NACA WRL-67, 1940.
M = 50000 in. lbs. (15) Batdorf, Stein and Schildcrout. Critical Stress of Thin
Walled Cylinders in Torsion. NACA T. N. 1344 (1947).
Condition 2 (16) Hausrath & Dittoe. Development of Design Strength
P = 25000 lbs. compression Levels for the Elastic Stability of Monocoque Cones
M= 45000 in. lbs. Under Axial Compression. NASA T. N. D-1510 (1962).
(17) Hess and Garber. Stability of Ring Stiffened Conical
T = 50000 in. lbs.
Shells Under Simultaneous Lateral Pressure and
Axial Compression. General Electric Report NO.
(3) If the cylinder in Problem 1 is R58SD226. April 1958.
pressurized to 6 psi, what ultimate
compressive load will It carry. What
ultimate bending moment will It carry.
What ultimate torsional moment will it
carry.
 CHAPTER C7

BUCKLING STRENGTH OF CURVED SHEET PANELS. ULTIMATE

STRENGTH OF STIFFENED CURVED SHEET STRUCTURES.
PART 1. BUCKLING STRENGTH OF CURVED SHEET PANELS

C9. 1 Introduction. Fig. C9.1 gives curves for determining tn?

buckling coefficient Kc. The theoretlnai
Curved sheet panels represent a common derived curve is shoNn along with the recom-
external part of flight vehicle structures. mended design curves which were dlctsted by
Examples are the skin of the fuselage and the test results. These curves apply for buckling
missile. If the curved sheet has no longi- stresses in the elastic range.
tudinal stiffeners, fatlure will occur when
buckling occurs. If the curved sheet has C9.4 Shear Buckling Stress of Curved Sheet Panels.
stiffening elements attached then the composite
unit will not fall on the development of sheet The equation for the buckling shear stress
bu’zkling, that Is, the composite unlt has an Is,
ultimate strength much greater than the load
which caused initial buckling of the curved KS n2 E t 2
sheet panels between the stiffening units FScr = 12 (1 _ V,“) CT) - - - - - - - c9.2
commonly referred to as sheet stiffeners. In
some flight vehicle designs it may be specified Figs. Cg.2 to C9.5 gives curves for flndlng
that under a certain percentage of the limit the buckling stress coefficient KS to use in
loads that no buckling of the curved sheet Equation C9.2. These curves apply when buckling
panels shall occur. Thus it is necessary to be stresses are in the elastic range.
able to determine what stresses will’cause
curved sheet panels to buckle and also to C9. 5 Buckling Strength of Curved Sheet Panels Under
determine what external loads will cause a Combined Axial Compression and Shear.
stiffened sheet panel to fail.
The studies by Schildcrout and Stein
C9. 2 State of the Theory. (Ref. 1) gave the following Interaction equation
for combined longitudinal compression and shear
In Chapter AlS, the small deflection on curved sheet panels:-
linear theory was used to determine the com-
pressive buckling stress of flat sheet panels. % ’ + RL = 1 - _ - - _ - _ - _ _ _ _ _ - C9.3
The theoretical results compare favorably with
experimental test results. However, when the where, Rs = - fS fc
same theory Is applied to unstiffened curved , RL=-
sheet panels or thin-walled cylinders, the Fscr Fccr
theoretical results are considerably above the
If the longitudinal stress is tension
test results on such units. A large deflection
theory gives closer comparison to test results, Instead of compression, then RL Is considered
but this theory involves a consideration of as a negative compressIon using the compression
allowable. The equation for margln of safety
initial iml?erfections In the sheet and thus 2n
is:-
unknown quantity. For the application of both
small and large deflection theories to the 2
buckling of curved sheet and cylinders, the - 1 - - - - - - C9.4
reader is referred to the references listed at M.S* = RL + JRL 2 + 4 Rs2
the end of Chapter CB, particularly those
reports which give the results of such ln- C9.6 Compressive Buckling Stress of Curved Panels
vestlgators as Donnell, Batdorf and Gerard. with Internal Pressure.

C9.3 Compressive Buckling Stress of Curved As for the case of monocoque cylinders,
Sheet Panels. internal outward pressure increases the axial
buckling compressive stress of the curved sheet
The expresslon for the buckling stress panel. Rafel and Sandlin (Ref. 3) and Rafel
under axial compression is of the same form as (Ref. 4) performed tests on curved panels under
for flat sheets, the value of the buckling axial compresslon and internal outward pressure.
coefficient Kc having a higher value. The results correlate with the interactlon
equstion:-
Kc n2 E
($)Z -----_- c9.1 RC2+Rp=1 ---__-_-_--_
Fccr = 12 (1 - Vez) - - c9.5
c9. 1
 3
10 8
8
7
6
6
4

K d29
8
7
e
6
4

10
9
8
7
6
6
4
c9.3
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF CURVED SHEET PANELS.
c9.4 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF STIFFENED CURVED SHEET STRUCTURES.
 Fig. C9.4 Shear Buckling Coefficient for Long
Simply Supported Curved Plates.

(From Ref. 2)
0
b

I 1 Lll,, L k’ ”
I , I ,l,lilrlJL
K)’ f0'
zb

I33
Fig. C9. 5 Shear Buckling Coefficient for Wide
Simply Supported Curved Plates.

-
zb =-$?(I - Ue2) 1/2
h$7
L
-

KS
: $0-

i !O-

! 0,

5-

2-

zb
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF CURVED SHEET PANELS.
C9.6 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF STIFF ENED CURVED SHEET STRUCTURES.

where Rc = f,/F, CI‘

Rp = ratio of
applied
external
internal pressure
inward pressure that
would buckle the cylinder of
1
which the curved panel is a
section. Found by use of
Fig. C8.16 in Chapter C8. !
In using Equation C9.5, the value of Rp
Y Y
is negative as inward pressure is opposite to
the inward acting outward pressure.

C9.7 Shear Buckling Stress of Curved Sheet

\ I
f
Panels with Internal Pressure.

As in the case of monocoque cylinders,

Internal pressure increases the shear buckling
stress of the curved sheet panel. Brown and
Hopkins (Ref. 5) solved the classical
equilibrium equations to determine the effect z
of radially outward pressure upon the shear
buckling stress of curved panels and obtained Fig. C9.6
fair agreement wlth test data by Rafel and
Sandlin (Ref. 3). The test data also The prob lem is to determine whether sk In
correlates with the interaction curve used panels (A) and (B) will buckle under the given
for the effect of internal pressure upon combined loading on the fuselage section.
cylinders in torsion (see Chapter C8). The
Interaction ‘equation is: Solution.
‘+Rp=l ____-____ ----C-.6 To find the bending stresses, the moment
RS
of inertia of the cross section about axis y-y
where Rs = fs/Fscr is necessary, which axis is also the neutral
axls since all material is effective. The
applied internal pressure moment of inertia will equal 4 times that due
Rp = ratio of to material in one quadrant.
external inward pressure that 1
would buckle the cylinder of
which the curved sheet panel Iy due to stringers is,
is a section. Found by use
of Fig. C8.16 of Chapter C8. J Iy = 4 [.075x20”+ .15 (19.302+17.34*+14.14*
+ 102+5.18”)] = 720 in.Q
In using Equation C9.6, Rp is given a
minus sign. Due to skin:-

C9.8 Example Problems. Iy = n r’t = nx20”x.04 = 1005 in.4.

PROBLEM1. Total Iy = 720+1005 = 1725 in.4.

Fig. C9.6 illustrates a circular fuselage Consider Skin Panel (A):
section with longitudinal stringers represented
by the small circles. The area of each r/t = 20/.04 = 500, a/b = 15.75/5.25 = 3.0
stringer is .15 sq. in. The skin thickness Is
.04 inches. All material is aluminum alloy To determine the compressive buckling
wlth E, = 10,700,000. The fuselage frame stress, use will be made of Fig. CS.l.to find
spacing (a) is 15.75 inches. The fuselage the buckling coefficient Kc.
section is subjected to the following load
system:- Z = g (1 - >,“)‘/”

My = 600,000 in.lb. (causing compression on

top half) = 205;2”;4 (1 - .3,),/, = 32.9
V, = 5175 lbs. (acting up)
T = Torsional moment = 210,000 in.lbs. (acting From Fig. C9.1, Kc = 14
counterclockwise)
 = 269 + 2090 = 2359 psi.
Fccr = Qqtota1)

Then shear stress ratio Rs = fs/Fs,r =

= 14 nex10,700,000 (&)a = -7850 psi 2359/11200 = .21.
12 (1 - .3") 5.25
The Interaction equation for combined
To find the shear buckling stress, we use compression and shear is,
Fig. C9.2. 2 is the same as calculated above
or 32.9. Thus from Fig. C9.2 we read for R, + RsB = 1
a/b = 3, that KS = 20.
.874 + .212 = .918. This Is less than 1.0 SO
20 nax10,700,000 .04 panel will not buckle.
Fscr = 12 (1 - .32) (---1"
5.25 = 11,200 psi
2
The bending stress at midpoint of Panel MoS' = ,874 + J.874' + 4 x .21' - ' = .09
(A) will be calculated:
Consider Skin Panel (B).
fC = Mz/Iy = (600,000x19.7)/1725 = 6850 psi
Arm Z to midpoint of panel = 15.88 in.
Thus stress ratlo R, = f&Fccr = 6850/7850
= ,874 fc = Mz/I = 600,000 x 15.88/1725 = 5520 psi

Shear stress on Panel (A) due to torsion Is, RC = 5520/7850 = .704

I
The torsional shear stress Is the same on
fs = T/2At, where A is inclosed area of all panels or f, = 2090 psi as previously cal-
fuselage cell. culated.
f S = 210,000/2 x ?I x 208 x .04 = 2090 psi. Shear flow q due to transverse shear load:
I
The panel is also subjected to shear
stress due to transverse shear of V, = 5175 lbs q=+A = 3 ZZA.

The shear flow equation is,

I Calculation of .%A at upper edge of panel:
q = - &7,A = - g$ZZA = - 3 ZZA. For stringers = .075 x 20 + .15 (19.3 + 17.34)
IY
= 7.0
The shear flow will be zero on Z axis.
The shear flow at top edge of Panel (A) will For skin: Area = 2 x 5.25 x .04= .4-i?.
be due to effect of one-half the area of
stringer (1). Vertical distance ?! to centrold of skin portion
= r sin a/a. a = 300. The result is E = 19.1
4 1-2 = - 3 x .075 x 20 = - 4.5 lb./In. In. The ??A = 19.1 x .42 = 8.03. Total ZZA =
8.03 + 7.0 = 15.03. Then q = 3 ZZA = 3 x 15.03
Area of skln between stringers (1) and (2) = 45.09 lb./in.
Is 5.25 x .04 = .21 = Ti.
A similar calculation for shear flow at
Distance from centrold of Panel (A) from lower edge of Panel (B) would give q equal 55.0.
neutral axis is Z = r sin a/a. a = 15O. which Thus average shear flow on panel is (55 +
gives '2 = 19.8 In. 45.09)/2 = 50.04. Then f, = q/t = 50.14/.84 =
1251 psi. The total shear stress f, on panel
Thus q,-,= - 4.5-3x.21x19.8=-17lb.!in then equals 1251 + 2090 = 3341 psi.

Then average shear flow on panel Is RS = fSiFScr = 3341,'11200 = .299

(17 + 4.5)/2 = 10.75.
Substituting in Interaction equation Ro +
Then shear stress = q/t = 10.75/.04 = RS ' = .704 + .299' = .793. The result is less
269 psi. than 1.0, thus panel will not buckle.
This shear stress has the same sense or The student should check other panels for
direction as the torslonal shear stress so we buckling and compare their margins of safety.
add the two to obtsln the true shear or:
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF CURVED SHEET PANELS.
C9.8 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF STIFF ‘ED CURVED SHEET STRUCTURES.

General Comment:- fC2

Rp = 1
2 -
Fccr
In general the compressive stress is the
dominant factor in causing the panel buckling. fc2
Thus to Increase the buckling stress of the ___ - 2.06 = 1, or f, = 13750 psi
7850 ’
panels and also to give a more effective
stringer arrangement to carry the bending Thus the internal outward pressure of 5
moment, the stringers should be spaced closer psi increases the axial compressive buckling
In the top and bottom regions of the cross- stress from 7850 to 13750 psi.
section and with increased spacing as the
neutral axis Is approached. Shear Buckling Stress Under 5 DSI Internal
Radial Pressure.
PROBLEM2.
From Art. C9.7, the interaction equation
The fuselage section in Problem 1 Is sub-
jected to an internal outward pressure of 5 13,
psi. What would be the compressive buckling “+R =1
stress of a panel and also the shear buckling RS P
stress with this internal pressure existing.
From Problem 1, Fscr or our panel was
Solution. 11200 psi. The value of Rp is determlned as
above or Rp = 2.06. Subt. in interaction
From Art. C9.6, the interaction equation equation:
IS, 2
fs
- - 2.06 = 1
fc FScr2
he +Rp=l, R, =-
F%-
f S2 = 11200* (3.06), or f, = 195OC psi.
From Problem 1, the compressive buckling
stress Fccr = 7850 psi. The internal pressure of 5 psi thus in-
creases the shear buckling stress from 11200 to
To evaluate Rp, the external inward radial 19500 psi.
acting pressure that would cause buckling of a
circular cylinder having a radius equal to that
of the curved sheet panel must be determined.
Use Is made of Fig. C8.16 of Chapter C8 to PART ULTIMATE
2. STRENGTH
determine the backing stress under such a OF STIFFENED
loading. The lower scale parameter for Fig.
(X.16 is, CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURES.

ZL =gJCQ
C9. 9 Introduction.

A cylindrical structure composed of a thin

skin coverlng and stiffened by longitudinal
stringers and transverse frames or rings Is a
From Fig. C8.16, we read KY = 19 common type of structure for alrplane fuselages,
missiles and various types of space vehicles,
and such structures are often referred to as
the semi-monocoque type of structure, The
deslgn of a seml-monocoque structure involves
= 19 ne x 10,700,000 (-04 .e= 1215 psi the solution of two major problems, namely, the
12 (1 - .3%) 15.75) stress distribution in the structure under
various external loadings and the check of the
The external radial pressure to produce structure to see If these stresses can be safely
this buckling stress Is, and efficiently carried by indlvldual components
of the structure as well as the structure acting
P = Fccrt/r = 1215 x .04/20 = 2.43 psi as a whole.

C9.10 Types of Instability Failure of Semi-Monocoque

2.06 Structures.

Subt. in interaction equation with a mlnu: (1) Skln Instability.

sign for Rp,
 c9.9

In general, thln curved sheet panels buck panels transfer further shear forces by semi-
under relatively low compressive stress and diagonal tension field action which produces
thus if design requirements speclfled no additional axial loads In stringers and also
buckling of the sheet under limit or design bending which must be considered in arrivlng
loads, the sheet would have to be relatively at the panel failing strength. This subject
thick or the stringers placed very close to- is treated In detail in Part 2 of Chapter Cll.
gether and the fuselage or body structure
would be unsatisfactory from a strength weight (3) General Instability.
standpolnt. In missile structures, internal
pressurization increases the buckling stress In general instability, failure is not
greatly, thus the buckling weakness of thin confined to the region between two adjacent
sheet is improved, but keeping a structure frames or rlngs but may extend over a distance
pressurized under all operating condltlons has of several frame spacings as illustrated In
Its difficulties. Fig. C9.7b for a stiffened cylindrical shell
In bending. In panel instabllity, the trans-
In a semi-monocoque body, the longitudina verse stiffeners provided by the frames on
strlngers provide efficient resistance to rings is sufficient to enforce nodes In the
compressive stresses and buckled sheet panels stringers at the frame support polnts as
can transfer shear loads by diagonal tension illustrated in Fig. C9.7a. Any additional
field action, thus the buckling of the sheet stlffeners in excess of this amount does not
panels Is not an important factor in limiting contribute to additional buckling strength.
the ultimate strength of the over-all General lnstablllty may thus occur when the
structural unit. ‘When buckling of the skin stiffeners of the supporting frames is less
panels takes place, a stress redistribution than this mlnimum value.
over the entire structure takes place, thus It
Is Important to know when skin buckling beglns C9. 11 The Determination of the Stresses in a
Furthermore, deslgn requirements may often Stiffened Cylindrical Structure Under
specify that no skin buckling should take External Loads.
place under a certain percent of the limit or
design loads. The equations and design curves The stresses In a stiffened cylindrical
In Part 1 of this chapter can be used to structure such as used in typical fuselage or
determine the buckling stress of curved sheet missile deslgn can be fairly accurately
panels under various stress systems. determlned by the modified beam theory as pre-
sented in Chapter A20. A more rigorous approach
(2) Panel Instability. is given in Chapter A8 involving matrix formu-
lation but this approach requires the use of a
The internal rings or frames in a seml- large electronic computer to handle the required
monocoque structure such as a fuselage divide calculat Ions. For details of applylng the
the longitudinal stringers and thelr attached modified beam theory, the reader should refer
skin Into lengths called panels. If these to Articles A20.3 and A20.4 of Chapter A20.
frames are sufficiently rigid, a semi-monocoqu In the example problem solution as given in
structure if subjected to bending will fail on Article A20.4, the effective area to use for
the compresslon side as illustrated in Flg. the curved sheet was based on the ratlo of the
C9.7a. The strlngers act as columns with an buckling stress of the curved panel to the
effective length equal to the panel length bending compressive stress on the panel due to
which is the rlng spacing. Initial failure th bending of the entire effective cross-sectlon
occurs in a single panel and thus 1s referred of the fuselage under the deslgn loads. In the
to as a panel Instability failure. In general example problem as given in Table A20.2, a
this type of failure occurs in most practical conservative buckling compressive stress equal
alrcraft and aerospace semi-monocoque to .3 Et/r was used for the curved panel and no
structures because the rlngs are sufficiently consideration of the effect of shear stress on
stiff to promote this type of failure. Since the compressive buckling stress was consldered.
the inside of a fuselage carries various loads
such as passengers, cargo, etc., the rings mus A more accurate procedure would be to cal-
act as structural units to transfer such loads culate the effective area of the curved panels
to the shell skln, thus requiring rings of taking into account the influence of combined
considerable strength and stiffness. Even compression and shear on the buckling strength
lightly loaded frames must be several inches of the panel. Thus in Table A20.2 on page A20.5
deep to provide conduits required in Vai-iOUS of Chapter A20, the shear stress on each curved
Installations to pass through the web of the panel should also be calculated and then the
rlng cross-section, thus provldlng a relative] buckling Stress of the panel under the conblned
stiff ring for supporting the stiffeners In compresslon and shear calculated.
their column action, When the skin buckles
under shear and compressive stresses, the skir The buckllna stress under pure compression
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF CURVED SHEET PANELS.
c9.10 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF STIFFENED CURVED SHEET STRUCTURES.

(a) Panel InstabilIty.

(b) General Instability.

Fig. CS. 7 Mode Shapes for Panel and General Instability of Stiffened
Cylinders in Bending. (From Ref. 7. )
 c9.11

and shear should be calculated uslng Equations C9.13 Calculation of General Instability.
C9.1 and C9.2. The buckling stress under
combined compression and shear Is given by the A great deal of theoretical and experi-
interaction equation:- mental work has been done on the subject Of
general Instability of stiffened shells. The
R, + Rs2 = 1, where R, = fc/Fccr, Rs = fs/Fscr. general goal in the design of such structures
is to insure the frames have sufficient
The expression for margin of safety is, stiffness so as to prevent the type of failure
illustrated In Fig. C9.7b or, in other words,
2 to insure the type of failure illustrated in
M-S. = R, + d R, 2 -1
+ 4Rse Fig. C9.7a which is panel instability.

Let 7, be the compressive stress that will Shanley (Ref. 6) has derived an expression
buckle the curved sheet panel when subjected to for the required frame stiffness to Prevent
combined compression and shear when the ratio general instability failure of a stiffened shell
of the applied compressive and shear stresses in pure bending.
in a constant. Then,
(EI)f = Cf MD*/L
2
PC = f, (Rc + \/ Rc ’ + 4R, .) - - - - - - - C9.6 In a study of available test data, Cf was
found to be l/16000. Thus,
These Tc values should then replace the
values In column 5 of Table A20.2. (EI)f = MDa/16000L - - - - - - - - - - - C9.7

The author has noted that one aerospace where, E = modulus of elasticity
company in their missile design uses only 90
percent of the theoretical buckling stress in I = moment of inertia of frame section
computing the effective area of the buckled
D = diameter of stiffened shell
curved panels. This correction assumes that
the curved sheet fails to hold the buckling L- frame spacing
stress as the fuselage section as a whole is
M = bending moment on shell
further loaded and the curved sheet suffers
more buckling distortion.
Becker (Ref. 7) in a comprehensive study
of most published theoretical and experimental
C9.12 Panel Instability Strength. material relative to the general instability of
Panel instability means failure of the stiffened shells, summarizes the results of his
studies as given in Table C9.1.
stringer and its effective skin between two
adjacent frames. The bendlng of the stiffened
shell as a whole produces a compressive load Bending.
or stress on the stringer. The semi-tension
field actlon of the skin after buckling For the case of bending, the constant of
produces an additional compressive load on the 4.80 In the equation given in Table C9.1 is for
stringer and also a bending moment. the condition where the frames are attached to
the skin between the stringers. For frames not
The compressive stress due to bending of attached to the skin between stringers, the
constant should be 3.25.
the stiffened shell as a whole is found by the
methods discussed in Article C9.11. The
additional stringer loads due to semi-tension The effective sheet width for use with the
field action are determlned by the theory and strlngers may be found from the equation,
procedure glven in Part 2 of Chapter Cll.
-we = 0.5 (Fccr/~,)‘/P - - - - - - - - - - c9.8
These calculated stringer loads are then b
compared to the stringer strength to detennlne
where, We = effective width of skin per side of
whether a posltive margin of safety exists.
stringer (in.)
The local crippling and column strength of a
stringer plus its effective skin can be found b = stringer spacing (In.)
by the theory and analysis methods given in = compressive buckling stress for
Chapter C?. The bending strength of the Fccr curved skin panel
stringer cross-section can be found by the
theory and analysis method given in Chapter C3. PC = compressive stress at bending
The strength of the stringer In combined general Instability (psi)
compression and bending is found by use of the
proper interaction equation.
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF CURVED SHEET PANELS.
c9.12 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF STIFFENED CURVED SHEET STRUCTURES.

Table C9.1
(Ref. 7)

THEORETICAL GENERAL INSTABILITY STRESSES OF ORTHOTROPIC CIRCULAR CYLINDERS

(Results are based on the assumption that spacings of longitudinal stiffeners

and circumferential frames are uniform and small enough to permit
assumption that cylinder acts as orthotropic shell)

Loading Moderate-length cylinders Long cylinders

F, = gE (Ift) +/Rts
Bending
g = 4. 80 [(b/d)(p,/pf)(ts/tf) 2(P,/b) “] 1’4

External radial
or hydrostatic Fy = 5.51E @Ii4 ($)‘+(;)
pressure

Torsion
I F sT = 3.46 (;)‘/’ ($-)‘/+)I/’ I F ST = 1. 754 ts ./4(&/’
(T-,

Fc = Compressive stress at bending general instability (psi)

FY = Circumferential normal stress under external pressure at general instability (psi)

FsT = Shearing stress at torsional general instability (psi)

b = Stringer spacing (in. )

d = Frame spacing (in.)

R = Cylinder radius (in. )

t = Skin thickness (in. )

As = Stringer area (in. “)

Af = Frame section area (in. “)

ts = Distributed stringer area = As/b

tf = Distributed frame area = Af/d

if = Bending moment of inertia of frame section (in. ‘)

If = Distributed bending moment of inertia of frame = if/d

PS = Stringer section radius of gyration (in. )

Pf = Frame section radius of gyration (in. )

L = Length of cylinder (in. )

E = Modulus of Elasticity.
 For the frames the effective skin width where M = applied moment
should be taken as the total frame spacing (d). MO = moment causing bending general in-
For inelastic stresses, the use of the secant stability acting alone
modules appears to be applicable on the basis
of limited test data. T = applied torsional moment
TO = torsional moment causing torsional
External Radial or Hydrostatic Pressure. general instability acting alone
The effective skln width to be used In General Instability in Combined Transverse
computing the stringer and frame section Shear and Bending.
properties may be determlned from the following
equatlon.
(Ref. 7) concludes there is no interaction
for this combination of transverse shear and
w% --awef bendlng loads. General lnstabillty occurs only
0.5 (F,~JF~)~/Q - - - - - - - c9.9 for either type of loading acting alone and thus
b d
both loadlngs may be examined separately.
The subscript s refers to stringer and f
refers to frame. The term d Is the frame CS. 14 Buckling of Spherical Plates Under Uniform
spacing. External Pressure.

Torsion. Classlcal Theory using 0.3 for Poisson’s

ratio gives the following buckling stress for
The effective skin to be used can be a perfect spherical shell subjected to a
determined from the following equation:- uniform external pressure:-

w% wef Fcr = 0.606 Et/r - - - - - - - - - - - - C9.13

-C-I 0.5 (Fscr/Fst)‘/” - - - - - C9.10
b d
Available test data on practical shells
where F scr is the shear buckling stress show this theoretical buckling stress to be
much too high. Thus to satisfy experimental
for the curved skin panel. F,t, the torsional results, reduced values must be used. The
shear stress at torsional general Instability buckling equation which is similar to that for
(PSI). curved plates, under external pressure (from
Ref. 2) Is,
The equations for torsion as given in
Table C9.1 would not apply to shells In which Kp ns E
there Is a strong tension field that could Fcr = 12 (1 _ ve a)(+’ - - - - - - - - - c9.14
Introduce appreciable secondary stresses In
the frame. The reader should refer to Part 2 Fig. C9.8 shows curves for determining the
of Chapter Cl1 for a treatment of this subject buckling coefficient Kp and shows how test data
involving the effect of semi-tension field falls considerably below the theoretical buckling
action in the skin panels. curve. Equation C9.14 Is for buckling stresses
below proportlonal llmlt stress of material.
Transverse Shear General Instabllltu.
Report AS-D-568 of the Astronautics Divlslon
From Ref. 7, it is stated that a con- of General Dynamics Corp. from a statlstlcal
servative shear general instablllty shearlng study of test data gives the following equations
Stress may be made by utilizing the relation. for the buckling stress of spherical shells under
uniform external pressure for use in preliminary
FS
= 0.85 Fst - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ c9.11 design.

where F, is the transverse shear stress under For Mean expected value:-
transverse shear general instablllty.
0.1561 Et
General Instability in Combined Torsion and Fcr = r(sln a)1,3 - - - - - - - - - - - c9.15
Bending.
For probability = 90 percent and .95
From (Ref. 7) the following interaction confidence factor:
relation may be used to compute the permissible
combinations of applied torsion and bending 0.1138 Et
moments to a stiffened cylinder. Fcr = r(sin =)1/a - - - - - - - - - - - C9.16

M/MO+ (T/To)*=1 ---------- C9.12 For 99 percent probability and .95 con-
fldence factor:
 BUCKLING STRENGTH OF CURVED SHEET PANELS.
cs. 14 ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF STIFFEN1 ED CURVED SHEET STRUCTURES.

PROBLEXS

(1) The fuselage cross-section as glven in Fig.

C9.6 of example problem 1 is changed by
increasing the skin thickness to .05 Inches.
The design loads are increased to the
following values:

MY = 700,000 In. lb., V, = 6040 lbs.

T = 245,000 In. lb.

Will any of the skin panels buckle under

thls combined loading.

(2) The fuselage sectlon as given in problem 1

above Is subjected to an internal outward
pressure of 6 psi. What would be the com-
presslve and shear buckling stress for the
skin panels under this Internal pressure.

REFERENCES

(1) Schildcrout & Stein. Critical Combinations

of Shear and Direct Axial Stress for Curved
Rectangular Panels, NACA T.N. 1928.
Fig. C9. 8 (Ref. 2) Test Data for Spherical Plates under External
Pressure Compared with Empirical Theory.
(2) Gerard & Becker. Handbook of Structural
Stabil!ty. Part III. Buckling of Curved
Plates and Shells. NACA T.N. 3883.
0.0908 Et _--m-s Rafel & Sandlin. Effect of Normal Pressure
Fcr = r(sin a)‘ia - - - -
c9.17 (3)
on the Critical Compression and Shear Stress
of Curved Sheet. NACA WRL-57.
For explanation of
angle a see Fig. A. Rafel. Effect of Normal Pressure on the
(4)
Crltical Compressive Stress of Curved Sheet.
When a = 90 or a NACA WRL-258.
hemisphere (sin a)l/’ Fig. A
Is one. (5) Brown & Hopklns. The Initial Buckling of
a Long and Slightly Curved Panel under
The test range covered was
Combined Shear and Normal Pressure. R&M
No. 2766, BRITISH ARC (1949).
70 C a 1 900
175 2 r/t 2 2000 (6) Shanley F.R. Simplified Analysis of
General InstabilIty of StIffened Shells in
The equations are for buckling stresses Pure Bendlng. Jour. of Aero. Sciences,
below the proportional limit stress of the Vol. 16, Oct. 1949.
material.
(7) Becker H. Handbook of Structural Stability.
Part VI. Strength of StIffened Curved
Plates and Shells. NACA T.N. 3786.
 CHAPTER Cl0

DESIGN OF METAL BEAMS. WEB SHEAR RESISTANT

(NON-BUCKLING) TYPE.
PART 1. FLAT SHEET WEB WITH VERTICAL STIFFENERS.
ClO. 1 Introduction. gyration of the beam sectlon as large as possible,
and at the same time maintain a flange section
The analysls and design of a metal beam which will have a high local crippling or crush-
composed of flange members riveted or spot- lng stress. Furthermore, the flange sections
welded to web members Is a frequent problem in for large cantilever beams which are frequently
alrplane structural deslgn. In this chapter, used in wing deslgn should be of such shape as
the general theory for beams with non-buckling to permit efficient tapering or reducing of the
webs 1s considered. In Chapter Cll, the more section as the beam extends outboard. This
common case where the beam web wrinkles and tapering of section should also be considered
goes over into a semi-tension field condition from a fabrication or machining standpoint. The
Is considered. The advantages and disadvantage: most efflclent flange from a strength/weight
of the non-buckling and the buckling or seml- standpoint might be very costly or entirely
tenslon field web are discussed In Chapter Cll. Impractical from a fabrication and assembly
The general beam theory as given In this chapter standpoint.
Is basic to that glven In Chapter Cll, thus the
student should study this chapter before Cll.

Stiffener Web
kiffener-
-/Web

04
Fig. ClO. 2

Fig. f Wing beam

Fig. C10.1 (From AC1 Circular No. 622) of Boeing “Clip-
per” flying boat.
Basic flange
section is square
tube.

Fig. e Truss type of beam with channel section

flange member. Fig. C10.1 shows a few typical metal beam
sections for externally braced wings. Such
ClO. 2 Flange Design. beams must carry large axial compressive loads
For strength/weight efflclency, the beam as well as bendlng loads. Fig. C10.2 sharJs
flange should be designed to make the radius of typical beam flange sections for cantilever
Cl 1
ClO. 2 DESIGN OF METAL BEAMS. WEB SHEA LR RESISTANT (NON-BUCKLING) TYPE.
r
metal covered wing construction. Sections (a), beam. For the approximate design of beam
(b), (c) and (d) are typical beam flange flanges, the method given in this chapter can
sections for wide box beams where additional be used.
stringers or skin stiffeners are also used to
provide bending resistance. These flange The beam flange sections (a), (b), (c) and
sections are generally of the extruded type (d) of Fig. C10.2 are stabilized by the sheet
although such sections as (b) and (c) are covering and also by the beam web; thus compres-
frequently made from sheet stock. These flange sive tests of short lengths to obtain crippling
sectlons are almost always used with a beam web stress, and a test of a length equal to the wing
composed of flat sheet, which is stiffened by rib spacing should give sufficient information
vertical stiffeners rlveted or spot-welded to on which to base design allowables. Several
the web or stiffened by beads or flanged lengths of the flange section for the truss type
lightening holes. of beam should be tested in compression to
obtain the column curve since the distance
Figs. (e) and (f) illustrate two types of between panel points of the truss will vary.
flange sections used in truss beams which land
themselves readily to connection with truss web Before designing any test beams, the
members. Beam flange sections (g) and (h) are structural designer would like to know approxl-
typical sections for wing construction in which mately what his proposed beam flange sectlons
no additlonal spanwise stringers are used. In will carry from a stress standpoint, since it
section (g) tapering of sectional area is pro- Is desirable to make test specimens closely
vided by first omitting the reinforcing plates, approximate to the sections to be finally used
and then gradually decreasing the extruded in the completed structure. For most of the
shape by machining until only a small angle sectlons of Fig. C10.2, the ultimate stresses
remains. In section (h) a gradual decrease in can be calculated approximately by the methods
section area is produced by milling out the of Chapter C7. For heavy sections similar to
center portion to form an H section and then (g) and (h) of Fig. C10.2, where the ultimate
cutting this section down finally to a simple stresses fall far above the yield strength of
angle. the material, and where some parts of the
section buckle before other parts, and also
CIO. 3 Allowable Flange Design Stresses where two different kinds of material are used
in the same flange section, a logical procedure
The calculating of the stresses in the beam in trying to calculate ultimate strength of the
flanges is in general not a difficult procedure section would be to make use of the stress-
If the usual assumptions are made in the flexure strain diagrams of the materials.
theory. The question as to what flange stresses
~111 cause failure is the difficult one from a ClO. 4 Use of Stress-Strain Diagrams in Computing Beam
theoretical standpolnt. The only sure way to Flange Bending Allowable Design Stresses.
determine the design allowable is to make
sufficient static tests of specially designed In the beam type of wing construction,
test beams. where the flange material is concentrated over
the web members instead of distributed over the
For beam sections as illustrated in Fig. surface In the form of stringers, the allowable
C10.1, the following tests are usually necessary ultimate compressive stress which can be
for formlng the basls of deslgn allowable developed is considerably above the yield
stresses. strength of the material since the flange Is
composed of a section with thick elements which
(I) A test subjecting the beam to pure promotes a high crippling stress and since the
bending. beam flange is stabilized in both vertical and
horizontal directlons by the web and skin cover-
(2) A test of a short length of beam in ing respectively, the influence of column action
bending so that failure will occur in web is negligible. Fig. (a) illustrates thls type
instead of flange. of beam. The general flexure formula assumes
that stress is proportional to strain which is
(3) A test of a short length of beam in correct for stresses below the proportional
pure compression to obtain local crippling limit of the beam material, but the ultimate
strength. resisting stresses for the flange of a beam such
as In Fig. (a) is far above the proportional
(4) Several tests of beams in combined limit, thus the actual stress distribution is
bending and compresslon, using different ratios more like the dashed line in Fig. (b) instead
of bending to compressive loads. of the triangular distribution as assumed In the
common beam theory. Thus to obtain beam fiber
Enough data from the above tests can stresses above the proportlonal limit, it is
usually be obtained to give rather complete necessary to consider strain and the stress
allowable stress curves for the design of the which accompanies such a straln, which relation-
 ClO. 3
I
Skin
usually fail at a strain between .008 to .Ol
inch per Inch if column failure is prevented.
In Fig. C10.5a, the compressive unit Strain at
the upper beam fiber has been taken as .008”/“.
The neutral axis of the section has been
assumed at 1.25” above center line of beam.
Taking zero strain at this point the beam
section strain diagram is as shown in Fig.
C10.5a.
ship can be obtained from the stress-straln
dlagram of the material. A straight line For equilibrium the total compressive bend-
distribution for strain, that is, plane sections ing stresses above the neutral axis must equal
remains plane after bending is a reasonable one, the total tensile bending stresses below the
and verified by tests. neutral axis.

In a beam in bending, one side is In Tables C10.1 and C10.2 give the detail
tension and the other in compression. The calculations for calculating the resisting
tensile and compressive stress-strain diagrams moment. The bendlng unit stress in column (5)
for materials like aluminum ailoy are different Is obtained from Fig. C10.4 using the unit
above the proportional limit, and the same unit strain in column (4). If the summation of
strain ~111 cause different stresses on the two column (6) in each Table 1 s the same, the
sldes of the beam. In frequent cases of large assumed location of the neutral axis is correct.
beam deslgn, the beam flange may be composed of The total ultimate resisting moment for this
two kinds of material and certain portions for se&Ion equals 1032000 + 1360110 = 2393000 in.
attaching to skin or web may buckle before the lb. Using the ordinary beam formula with
ultimate strength of the section as a whole is propertles about the geometric neutral axis as
obtalned. The solution for the ultimate given in Fig. C10.3 and taking extreme fiber
internal resisting moment for such a beam re- stresses of 46000 and 52000 psi which corres-
quires that consideration be given to the pond to stresses as per strain diagram of Fig.
stress-strain diagram of the various materials C10.5a, the internal resisting moment would
and units making up the beam section. This equal, M = f I/c = 46000 x 436/969 = 2070000
general method of approach In studying the in. lb. as compared to 2392000 in. lb. by the
ultimate internal resisting moment of a beam more logical solution, which is a difference of
section can best be explained by an example 16 percent. The discrepancy would still be
problem. larger If the outstanding leg (a) did not
buckle, since the more exact solution only
EWmple Problem allowed 35000 psl on this element whereas the
I general beam formula stresses It to 46000 psi.
Fig. C10.3 shows the cross-section of a
beam in a metal covered wing. The main flange Trial and Error Approach
members are composed of heavy 24ST extruded
shapes. The extrusions are reinforced by 24SRT The location of the neutral axis is un-
sheet strips. The beam web Is made from 2&T known, thus the calculations in Tables C10.1 and
alclad material. The problem is to calculate 2 are for the final assumption which is the true
the ultlmate Internal resisting moment for this location of the neutral
beam sectlon. axis. The general pro-
cedure would be as
Fig. C10.4 shows the stress-strain diagram follows : Assume neutral 2nd Trial N. A.
for these various materials. The l/8 inch thick axis as center line axis Above s
outstanding legs of the extrusions act as a of beam, and find total
plate stiffened on three sides and free on the axial load on each side
fourth. These legs will buckle at a stress of of axis. The results will +
35,000 psi In compresslon as determined by the Usually show excess load
methods given in Chapter C7. The stress-strain on one flange. For the
diagram of the two outstanding legs will be next trial move neutral
horlzontal at 35,000 psi as shown In Fig. C10.4. axis so as to give excess
Although the legs buckle, they will tend to load on other flange. 1st Trial N. A.
hold the buckling stress under farther flange Plot the results as indi-
strain. In Fig. C10.5, each beam section has cated in Fig. C10.5b to
been broken down Into narrow horizontal Strip3 obtaln true location of
designated from (a) to (w). Only that portion neutral axis and then make
f lnal calculations as Fig. ClO. 5b
of the web In way of flange has been considered
in this example. Fig. C10.5a shows the Strain illustrated in Tables
distribution assumed for the trial SOlUtlOn. A C10.1 and 2.
heavy aluminum alloy section In compression Will
 ClO. 4 DESIGNOFMETL~ BEAMS. WEBS~RE~I~TANT(NON-BUCILLDNG)TYPE.
I 4-l/8 x l-3/4 Plates ‘, t

24S-T
Sheet
N. A. at time UPPER FLANG
(o&Failure Fig. C10.5

N. A. at Stresses
below Pron. I/ I
Limit. -
(I = 436 irx4) n
LOWER FLANGE)
.008”/”

3-l/8 x1-3/4 Plates

24 S-RT Fig. C 10.3 Fig. ClO. 5a

Table ClO. 1 Table ClO. 2

r Resisting Moment Of camp.
+
Bending Streseee about
l-
Neutral Axis Besisting Moment of Tens
- &Y& Bend. Stresses about Neutral AXIS 1
y I are, L nhlit strain fc,unil :I Ion. abou nit strain
0 strip E. .00876Y stress 1 N.A. :. .OOOS76
ram N.A fc A Y
9.0625 .00795 -35000' 10940 99200 .31250 11.5625 .01014 52050
8.875 .0077s 45800 5725 56800 .09375 11.375 .00997 52000 4870
8.625 .00756 -45400 5660 48900 .09375 11.125 .00976
.00734 -45150 5640 47200 51950 4865
8.375 .09375 10.875 .00954 51900 4860
8.125 .00712 -45000 5620 45700 .09375 10.625
7.875 ,006Sl -44700 27900 220000 .00931 51800 4855
2770 .59375 10.375 .00910 51750 30700
7.625 .00668 -44300 21150 .0469
7.375 .00646 -44000 2750 20300 10.125 .00887 51700
7.125 .00625 -43300 2710 19300 .0469 9.875 .00866 51600
6.875 .00603 -43100 2695 18610 .0469 9.625 .00&4 51500
6.625 .00581 -42700 2670 17700 .0469 9.375 .ooa22 51400
6.375 .00559 -42000 2625 16720 .0469 9.125 .ooaoo 51300
7.375 .00646 -40700 519 3830 .0469 8.875 .0077a 51200
7.125 .00625 -40100 511 3640 .01275 9.875 .00866 49600
6.875 .00603 -39700 506 3480 .01275 9.625 .00844 49400
6.625 .00581 -99000 497 3290 .01275
.01275
9.375 .00822 49300
6.375 .oo559 -38600 492 3130 9.125 .00800 49200
8.3125 .0072S -55500 12230 101800 .01275 8.875 .00778 49100
8.1875 .007x3 -55200 12080 98700 .21875 10.8125 .00948 67500
8.0625 .OO706 -55100 12050 97100 .21875 10.6875 .00936 67300
7.6875 .00674 -54400 11900 91450 L-21875 10.5625
-- .00926 67100
1r!zimm 1032000

ClO. 5 Flange Strength (Crippling). of the flange in the web dlrectlon, thus the
flange fails by local crippling action and the
In many cases of beam deslgn, the flange crlppllng Stress is determined by the methods of
is braced laterally because it is part of a eel Chapter C7. In many cases the beam loads are
construction and the sheet covering which is relatively small and thus the area required for
fastened to the beam flange provides a contln- the flange may be relatively small, which means
uous lateral bracing to the flange or prevents a flange shape with elements of small thickness,
lateral bending-column action for the beam thus the falling local strength may be In the
flange. The beam web prevents column bendlng elastic stress range or relatively low.
 ClO. 5

In ma.ny cases, such as a frame in a Equation C5.7 of Chapter C5 gives the

fuselage, the inner flange of the frame cross- bending buckling stress. It is,
section Is free from a lateral brace, thus
provislons must be taken to brace the flange qb”‘kbE t a
laterally or the flange must be designed for Fb,, q 12(1- U a) (;) - - - - - - - (C10.2)
e
lateral column action. This subject is dls-
cussed further in Chapter D3. In solving this equation, Figs. C5.15 and
C5.8 of Chapter C5 are used.
ClO. 6 Web Strength. Stable Webs.
Buckling of Web Panels Under
A stable web beam is one that carries its Combined Shear and Bending
design load without buckling of the web, or in
other words it remains in its initially flat From Art. C5.11 of Chapter C5, the inter-
condition. The design shear stress is not action equation for a flat sheet panel under
greater than the buckling shear stress for the combined bending and shear is,
lndlvidual web pgnels and the web stiffeners
have sufficient stiffness to keep the web from Rbg + R,= = 1 - _ - - _ _ - _ _ - _ _ (ClO.3)
buckling as a whole.
The expression for margin of safety is,
In general, a thin web beam with web
stiffeners designed for non-buckling Is not 1
M.S. = J -1 ------- (C10.4)
used widely in flight vehicle structures as RbB + Rse
Its strength/weight ratio is relatively poor.
In built-in or integral fuel tanks, it is often CIO. 7 Web Bending and Shear Stresses.
desirable to have the beam webs and the skin
undergo no buckling or wrinkling under the Since the web is designed not to buckle
design loads in order to give better insurance under the deslgn loads, the web will be effective
against leaking along riveted web panel in taking bending stresses and the following well
boundarl es. known equation applies.

The student should realize that the fb = My/Ix - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (ClO.5)

buckling web stress is not a falling stress as
the web will take more before collapse of the where Ix is the moment of lnertla of the beam
web takes place, thus In general the web is not section and the web Is Included.
loaded to its full capacity for taking load
and the web stiffeners are only designed for In Art. A14.3 of Chapter A14, the well
sufficient stiffness to prevent web buckling known flexural shear stress equation was derived,
and not for the full failing strength of the namely,
web.
fs - ^ - - - - - - - - - - (C10.5)
Equation for Web Buckling Shear Stress

Equation C5.5 of Chapter C5 gives the Since the term / ydA Is maximum for a
buckling stress of a flat sheet panel under section at the neutral axis, the shearing stress
shear loads. The equation is in a beam will be maximum at the neutral axis.
In general, the webs of aircraft beams are
17~ ng k~ E relatively thln; thus the term / ydA for the
=12(1-- ($ - - - - - - - - (C10.1)
F%X- web is quite small so that the shearing StreSS
intensity over the web is approximately uniform.
The curves of Fig. IX.13 and CS.11 of Thus a simple formula f, = V/hb has been widely
Chapter C5 are used to solve this equation and used for calculating the maxlmutn web shearing
the reader should refer to Art. C5.8 of Chapter stress. In this equation h is a distance which
C5 for a review of sheet buckling under shear will make the shear stress f, check the maximum
loads. value of the shear stress as given by equation
c10.5.
Eouation for Web Buckling Bending Stress
A simple consideration of the internal
If the web does not buckle it ~111 be stresses on a small element cut from a beam In
subjected to longitudinal bending stresses of bending and shear will indicate what value of
compression and tension wlth zero stress at the h to use in the simplified shear equatlon f, =
beam neutral axis. Thus in general, the beam V/hb .
is subjected to a combined shear and bending
stress system. Fig. C10.6a shows a beam element of length
dx cut from a beam which is subjected to a
ClO. 6 DESIGN OF METAL BEAMS. WEB SHEAR RESISTANT (NON-BUCKLING) TYPE.
I
the bending stress centroids. For a rectangular
section the effective arm is obviously equal to
2/3 the beam height, but for the common beam
sections as Illustrated in Figs. C10.11 or C10.12,
the distance between bending stress centroids
is not so obvious particularly if the web is
considered effective in bending. A close
approximation of the effective arm (h) and a
procedure which is common practice is to assume
(h) equal to the distance between the centrolds
of the web-flange rivets. The student should
take several example beam sections and check
this assumption for (h) uslng Eq. (C10.6)
against the exact values by Eq. (C10.5).

Fig. ClO. 6 Some structural designers make assumptions

as to the proportion of the total vertical beam
shear which is carried by the beam web. For
example, it Is sometimes assumed that the web
(4 takes the entire beam shear, or it may take only
90 percent. The percentage of the shear load
carried by the web depends of course upon the
bendlng moment which produces compression on slze of the flange sections and the form of the
the upper portion. The bending moment on web section. For example, in Fig. C10.7, the
sectlon (AB) is M and on section (CD) M + AM, same flange is connected by a web which is
thus the vectors representing the stress on attached to the flanges in two ways as illus-
face (CD) are drawn longer than on face (AB). trated in Figs. (a) and (b). In Fig. (a), the
The beam element is also subjected to a total shear flow on portions (AB) and (CD) help reslst
shear force V on each face. Co and CL the external shear,, whereas the shear flow on
represent the resultant of the total compressive these portions in Fig. (b) act in the same
forces on each face and T, and T, the resultant direction as the external shear load; thus
of the tenslle stresses. Fig. (b) shows the causing the shear load on the web to be greater
same free body but with the tensile and than the external shear load. (See Chapter Al4
compressive stresses on each face replaced by and Al5 for general discussion of shear flow in
a simple force C and T which tends to move the open and closed sections).
block with the same results as the system of
Fig. (a). In Fig. (c) the beam element of Fig. 4v 4v
(b) has been cut along the neutral axis, and a
force applied to the cut faces equal to f, bdx,
where fs equals the horizontal shear stress
intensity.
b
Writing the equilibrium equation, that the
sum of the horizontal forces on the upper
portion must equal zero, we obtain (b)

c- f, bdx = 0, hence C = fs bdx

and likewise for the lower - T + f, bdx = 0,

hence T = fs bdx.

Fig. (d) shows the free body of Fig. (b), ClO. 8 Shear Resistance Provided by Sloping Flanges.
but with C and T replaced by their above
equivalent values. A large majority of the beams in airplane
wing and tail surfaces have sloping flanges be-
Taking moments about point (0) cause of the taper of the structure In both
planform and thickness. Thls Sloping of the
MO = fs bdx . h - Vdx = 0, hence beam flanges relieves the beam web of con-
sidering shear load and should not be neglected.
=- V ------__-- -a--- (C10.6) Fig. C10.8 shows a beam (abed) carrying a load
f, bh The top flange Is sloping
system P,, P,, etc.
Thus to obtain a value f, equal to the as shown. If both flanges were extended, they
maximum value given by equation (a) use an would intersect at point (0).
effective arm (h) equal to the distance between Let M = bending moment at section (ac)
 ClO. 7

ClO. 9a Flange Discontinuities.

Fig. ClO. 8
From a weight saving standpoint, it is
necessary to taper flange sections in order to
---- approach a beam of constant strength relative
to the applied loads.

Fig. a Illustrates how such tapering of

the flange section may produce local eccentric
Then C = Th = M/h (h = distance between flange flange loads. Between sections (1) and (2) the
stress centroids) upper flange tapers in side view as shown which

The vertical component TV of the load T in

the upper flange equals Th h/LO, but Th = M/h,
hence
Mh
TV=----=- M
h LO Lo
Let VF = shear load carried by beam flanges
Fia. b
Then VF = M/LO - - - - - - - - - - - - (C10.7) Fig. a

Thus the shear component carried by the displaces the flange neutral axis as shown.
axial loads in the sloping flange members equals Assuming there is no change in bending moment
the bending moment at the section being con- over the beam portion as shown, the force F
sidered divided by the distance from the section must be greater than F since resisting arm d
to the point of intersection (0) of the flanges. Is less than d. For equilibrium this moment
due to Fr and F not being colinear must be
The above.derlvatlon was based on the balanced in some manner. If the flanges are
assumption that the entlre resisting moment M rigidly connected to web and stiffeners, this
was developed by the flanges. With the web moment can be balanced by an additional shear
effective in bending, the moment developed by stress on the web panel between points (1, 2,
the web should be subtracted from the total 3 and 4) as illustrated In Fig. b. Thus In
bending moment M. cases of rather abrupt changes in flange
sections which produce the eccentricity as
Let I = IFl. + IWeb illustrated the web and stiffeners should be
checked for the additional shear flow load on
The moment developed by web = M IIWeb , the web. If such displacements In the flange
where neutral axis occur in the plan New, the skin
covering should be investigated for the
M= total bending moment on section addltional shearing stresses.

In airplane construction the centilever ClO. 10 Stiffener Size to Use with Non-Buckling
Web.
beam with sloping flange members is the common
case, and the shear resistance by the flange
axial loads is an important factor which should A web stiffener is used to decrease the
not be neglected if an efficient structure is size of web panel; thus when buckling of the
desired from a strength-welght standpoint. web starts, the stiffener tends to keep buckles
from extendlng across the stiffener or causes
ClO. 9 Effect of Variable Moment of Inertia on the sheet to buckle In two panels Instead of
Flexural Shear Stress Distribution. one. Mr. H. Wagner In a paper presented before
a meeting of the A.S.M.E. in 1930 offered the
The fundamental shear stress equation C10.5 following expression as the required moment of
as derived In Chapter Al4 applles strictly to lnertla of a stiffener to be used with a shear
beams of constant moment of inertia. For air- res lstant web.
plane beams the common case Is one with variable v hyy3
moment of inertia; thus the stresses obtained by _ 2.294
Iv t 33E -------- - (C10.8)
equation C10.5 are incorrect, although the
discrepancy in most cases is not large. The
student should realize this fact in studying where
the shear flow picture In tapered wing IV = moment of inertia of stlffener
structures. See Art. A15.15 of Chapter A15. d = center line distance between stiffeners
hw = depth of web plate
ClO. 8 DESIGN OF METAL BEAMS. WEB SHEAR RESISTANT (NON-BUCKLING) TYPE.

V = vertical shear at section consists of separate web and flange members,

fastened together by rivets, bolts, spot welding
t = web thickness In the design of such
or continuous welding.
E = modulus of elasticity beams it is thus necessary to know what loads
the rivets, bolts, etc,, are subjected to in
A more recent criteria for stiffener order to provide the proper connective strength.
stiffness (Iv) for both flat and curved webs It is quite easy to substitute in simple formulas
is given by the curve in Fig0 (210.9. When the to find the loads on beam flange rivets, how-
stiffener is used purely as such and not as a ever, the student should be sure that he under-
means to transfer a concentrated external load stands the fundamental beam action behind these
to the beam web, the question arises as to what formulas.
is the minimum number of fasteners required in
attaching the stiffener to the web. For non- Fig. C10.10 illustrates a beam portion
buckling webs, two criteria are suggested:- equal in length to the flange rivet pitch p
The beam section at (AA’) is subjected to a
(1) The stiffener should be attached to the bending moment M and M -t AM at section (CC,’ l

flange at each end. The bending stress distribution on the beam

faces is indicated by the stress triangles. In
(2) The rivet pitch (spacing) should according this example section it will be assumed that the
to (Ref. 1) be at the most equal to l/4 web takes no bending stresses.
times the stiffener spacing, or l/4 the
web height if this is smaller, in order Let PF equal the total pull on the flange
to justify the assumption of simple support angles due to bending stresses at section AB due
at the edges of the web panel. Normal to bending moment M. Then total pull on flange
practice uses more rivets. angles at section CD due to a moment M + AM on
beam section CC’ equals PF + APF.
ClO. 11 Notes on Beam Rivet Design.
Under the action of these two forces the
Except for very small beam sections which flange angles would move to the left, but this
may be extruded as one piece, the usual beam movement 1s prevented by the rivet which ties
 ClO. 9

equation (C10.9) would be wrong because the

moment of the bending stresses on the web about
our moment center is not included. Thus to
make the simplified equation (ClO.ll), check the
exact result as given by equation (C10.12), the
distance (h) would have to be greater than the
distance between the flange stress centrolds.
In fact, taking (h) equal to beam depth would
- “II
not be far off from the results of equation
(C10.12).

ClO. 12 Loads on Rivets Attaching Reinforcing Plates to

Flange Member.

c’ A’ The beam flange is commonly composed of a

main Unit plus several reinforcing plates or
Fig. ClO. 10 parts which are held to the main Unit by rivets
or spot welds. Fig. C10.11 illustrates typical
;; lie flange angles to the web. Thus load on beam flanges . The basic section of the upper
rivet equals APF. The same reasoning applies flange is reinforced by the plates (a) and (b),
to the rivet holding the bottom flange angles and the lower flange by the plates (c) and (d).
tc the web. The purpose of the rivets Is to keep the rein-
forcing plates from Sliding along the flange tee
The beam portion of Fig. C10.10 as a whole section due to the bending of the beam; thus
Is in equilibrium Under the bending stresses making the plates effective in bending. This
and the shear load V on each face. horizontal force tending to slide relnforclng
plates and which Is prevented by the rivets in
Taking moments about the intersection of shear Is given by the fundamental shear flow
the lower flange bending load and the beam face equation (C10.12), namely
cc ,
q = + / ydA, which
I
PF - (PF + APF)
1 h’ + Vp = 0 - - - - (C10.9)
equals the horizontal
hence, shear per inch along the b
beam. To find the load
ApF =vph - - _ _ _ .c _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ (C10.10 or rivet section l-1 of
the upper flange of Fig.
Equation C10.10 says that the change in C10.11, the term / ydA
flange axial load In a distance p equals the equals the area of the
vertical shear on beam times rivet pitch p plate (a) times the
dlvlded by the distance between flange bending distance from Its
stress centrolds. APF Is also the horizontal centrold to the neutral
shear flow produced by flange angles over a axis. For shear load
length of p. The horizontal shear (q) per inch on rivet at section (2-2),
due to flange would be the term / ydA equals the
area of plate (b) times
q = V/h’ -----------me- (C10.11) distance to neutral axis.
On the lower flange rivet Fig. ClO. 11
The general expresslon for shear flow (see section (3-3) Is crItica
chapter A14) is, since both reinforcing plates are on same side,
and the entire shear flow produced by plates
4 = f / yu - - - - - - - - - - (C10.12) (c) and (d) must be resisted by rivet section
(3-3) * The term / ydA would thus equal area of
Eq. (C10.11) is easier to use since the both plates times the distance to the neutral
terms I and / ydA of Eq. (C10.12) are not re- axls of the beam.
qulred, and the distance h can be estimated
closely without calculation, and will be greater A slmpllfled method which yields good re-
than the distance between the centroids of the sults is based on the relative areas of the
flange areas. units of the total flange. To design connection
of flange to beam web, the total horizontal
Equation (C10.11) was derived on the shear q produced by entire flange Is always
assumption that the beam web took no bending necessary and involves the use of the entire
stresses. In general this is not true or only flange area in the shear flow calCUlatlOn
partially true. With the web taking bending,
9 =f/ YdA.
c10.10 DESIGNOFMETALBEAMS. WEBSHEd RE~I~TANT(N~N-Bu~~~G) TYPE.

The shear flow produced by a reinforcing

plate is then taken as proportional to the area
of the plate over the total flange area times
the total flange shear flow. Using simplified vhere
equation (ClO.ll), we can write
v= net web shear
v aP
9 =--h’ AF -__m_ ---_----- (c10.13)
n = number of rivets in splice. If butt
where splice, n, equals the number of rivets
on one side of splice.
aP = area of plates under consideration
In bending the splice rivets must transfer
AF = total area of flange
the bending moment due to the bending moment M
4 = load per inch on rivet developed by the web. The largest rivet load
on a rivet due to bendlng will be on the most
V and h’ same as explained before
remote rivet, e.g., rivet (a) at distance r,
from center of rotation of the rivet group.
For rivet loads in beams with sloping Then load on this rivet due to web moment equals
flanges the shear V is the net shear as
explained before in discussing web shear Qra
RmazZrB _-e-s_ -----___
stresses. (c10.15)

Nhere
ClO. 13 Web Splices.
Zr’ = moment of rivet group which equals
Usually in designing a sheet girder beam,
the sum of the squares of the distances of the
lt is necessary from a weight saving standpoint rivets from the center of rotation of bolt
to use several web sheet thicknesses, which
means web splices. Fig. C10.12 illustrates group.
typical web splices. Fig. (a) is typical for a
The resultant load on the critical rivet
will equal the vector sum of the values of
=
3- equations (C10.14) and (15).
:

Since in most cases only two rows of rivets

are used In a web splice, a close approximation
for the moment load on critical rivet can be
written by using the vertical distances (y) to
the rivets instead of the radial distances (r),
the resulting force acting in the horizontal
direction. Hence

pm, mzy8-
GYa - - - - - - - -- - - - - (ClO. 16)

The resultant combined load on critical

rivet is
(a) (b)
R = d RVa* + Rma’ - - - - - - - - - - (C10.17)
Fig. ClO. 12

comparatively heavy web which prevents joggling The student should review Chapter Dl for
more detailed Information on rivet loads due to
of web as in the case of Fig. (b). In the case
moment loads on riveted connections.
of Fig. (b), the lap Is usually made under a
web stiffener which provides a support for the
When the web of one beam is joined to that
web in driving the rivets through the thin web
sheets. of another beam using shear “clips,” a special
problem may sometlmes arlse regarding the
Loads on Web Splice Rivets adequacy of the clips. This design problem is
discussed in Chapter D3.
The web is subjected to shear loads and POI
ClO. 14 Example Rivet Problem.
stable webs, the web undergoes bendlng stresses.
Fig. C10.13 shows the cross-sectlon of a
For rivet design It is usually assumed thal riveted beam. If the design vertical shear on
the web shear stress Is constant over the depth the section is 3000 lb., check the strength of
Thus the vertical component of load on each web the riveted connection.
splice rivet is the same or
 ClO. 11

/ ydA = first moment of flange area about

N.A.
Detail of
Flange nAngles
= angles = 2 x .089 x 2.731 = .486

Reinforcing plate = 1.75 x .0625 x

2.961 = .324
All Rivets
Total = .910
Area = .089
IN-A. = .004 Substituting in equation (A)

q = 1.125 x%x .810 = 443 lb.

.
Tension Flange
Fig. ClO. 13 Shear flow by simplified equation q =j$

Solution
h’ = beam depth = 7.062” (see Art. C10.10)
The loads on the rivets will be calculated
hence
by the “exact” and also by the simplified
approximate equations.
q = 1.125 x$$&=
. Y
470 lb. which Is con-
The exact shear flow equation is servative compared to 443 by exact expression.

9 +ydA The web Is attached to angles by 1/8

diameter 2117-T3 aluminum alloy rivets and are
The first step will be the calculation of acting in double shear.
the moment of inertia of the beam section about
the neutral axls. The bending loads are such From Chapter Dl:
as to put the upper flange in compression.
Double shear strength of l/8 - 2117-T3 rivet
The moment of inertia will be calculated = 2 x 388 x 0870 = 675 lb.
about the centerline axis of the beam sectlon
and then transferred to the neutral axis. Table Bearing strength on 2024-T3 - .051 web
plate = 655 x 1.24 =I 813 lb., thus shear Is
C10.3 gives the detailed calculations.
critical and
Table ClO. 3 Margin of safety = $$$ - 1 = .52 and with
Part Area Y AY AY2 IO* I I Ay2+ I, the approximate method the margin of safety
(A)
6 I / would equal (675/478) - .l = .41.
upper angles .1780 3.301 .588 1.94 .008 1.948
upper reinsorc- Check of Cover Plate Rivets:-
in8 plate .I093 3.531 .386 1.38 neg1. 1.380

l/12 x 051 Rivet spacing = 1.5” with two rows of

Xeb .3510 0 0 0 x 6.8753
1.38
= 1.380 rlvets.
Lower angles .1780 -3.301 -.588 1.94 .008 1.948
I / I / I I I
r- ~~
I By exact equation, load on two rivets
Rivet hole
lover i1mge -.022 -3.062 .067 - .206 - -0.206

Sum I .7943 .453 6.43 9 = 1.5 f / ydA

= 1.5 x s . X -1093 x 2.961 = 236 lb.

INmA. . 6.43 - .7943 I .572 m 6.17 b4 Load per unit = 236/2 = 118 lb.
* I0 . moment of inertia about its own centroidal axis.
By simplified formula:

Rivet load on upper flange rivets which q --L (x aplate

h’ a ) 1.5 = (gg. x M, 1.5
attach angles to web: flange
Rivet pitch = l-1/8 inch = 243 lb. = 122 lb./rivet.

Horizontal shear load per l-1/8 inch The rivets are in single shear which is
distance equals crltical and equals 380 lb. as given above.

q=~.~+-y&+--- -_--e ---(A)

Hence margin of safety =g - 1 = 2.28
c10.12 DESIGNOFMETAL BEAMS. WEBSHEARRESIST~~NT(N~N-BUCKUNG) TYPE.
Flange Rivets
l/8 Dia. At. 1” Spacing Web Stiffeners 1/2x 1/2x. 04 Angles.

-7
8”

Fig. ClO. 14. Sketch of Beam (See Fig. ClO. 15 for Cross-section of Beam)

ClO. 15 Example Problem. Strength Check of Beam.

Fig. (X0.14 shows a built up (I) SeCtiOn

beam, simply supported and carrying its three
concentrated loads as shown as the design load
for the beam.
Upper Flange Angle
Check on Bending Strength of Beam Area = .132
1N.A. = .006
Since the beam cross-section is constant, Material 2014-T6
the critical section is at the midpoint of the Extrustion
beam where the bending moment is : Lower Flange Angle

Mmax = 3750 x 50 - 2400 x 25 = 127500 1n.U

As indicated In Fig. C10.14, the beam is
riveted to the sheet covering. On the upper
flange which is In compression under the given
loading, a certain effective sheet width will
act wlth the beam flange. This effective
sheet width depends upon the beam flange stress Fig. ClO. 15
which Is unknown as yet, As a preliminary
value, the assumption that a wldth of skin
sheet equal to 30 t as acting with each rivet Table CIO. 4
line is a reasonable one. On the tension or
bottom side, the entire skin sheet is effective Part lAya 1 Y 1 Aye / AY 1 b lb+Ay’I
or 2 inches to each side of the beam which is
the distance half way to the first skin Upper angles .264 3.786 1.000 3.786 .012 3.798
stiffener on each side.
Upper skin .0375 4.012 0.1504 0.604 - 0.604
Fig. C10.15 shows the details of the
Web .4490 0 0 l/12 x 2.310
effective cross-section at midspan of the beam.
Three rivet holes are assumed in the tension
flange . Table C10.4 shows the calculations for
I I I I
the section properties, first about centerline
reference axls, then transferred to the neutral
axIS.

Bending stress at midpolnt of horizontal

leg of upper angles:- IN-A. = 10.44.

fb = MY/I = 127500 x 3.614/10.44 = 44200 psi

The assumption of 30t = 0.76 inch as the

skin effective width H will be checked. From
Chapter C7,
 c10.13

FST = flange compressive stress which Check of Web Buckling Stress

44200 psl. Then,
The maximum shearing stress occurs at the
w = 1.90 x .025 d 10,700,000/44200 = support point and equals 3750 lbs. The web
thickness at this point is .057 and the web
.74 in stiffener spacing is 3.57 inches. The maximum
shearing stress on the web by the slmpllfled
Since 30t or 0.75 inches was assumed for
w, the error is quite small and no revision is equation is,
necessary.
f S = V/hi2 = 3750/7.125 x .057 = 9230 psi
Calculation of Allowable Failing Compresslve
Stress for Flange. By the more exact equatlon,

Since the flange is braced in two fs =&f y&4 = g.8~x50057

.
(.264 x 3.446 +
directions at rlght angles to each other by the
skin and the web, column action is prevented .0375 x 3.673 + .057 x 3.6 x 1.8) = 9450 psi
and the allowable stress will be the crippling
stress of the flange unit. Since the bending moment in the first web
panel adjacent to beam end support is practically
Chapter C7 gives methods of calculating zero, the web can be considered as s?lbjected to
the crippling stress. In this example problem shear stress only.
the Needham method will be used and the
Crippling stress for a single angle will be The buckling stress is given by equation
calculated. c10.1.
?s n* ks E p, a
b' FsCr = 12 (l- e8) b
- t = (.75 - 3/64)/3/32 = 7.55
b = 3.57 inches
From Fig. C7.5 of Chapter C7, we obtain
a = distance between rivet lines = 7.125
FM/~?& = .om a/b = 7.125/3.57 = 2.0. Assuming simply
supported edge conditions, we obtaln k, = 6.4
For 2014-T6 Ext., Fey = 57000, EC = from Fig. C5.11 of Chapter C5.
10,700,000.
nSx6.4x10,700,000 .057
Whence Fc, = .068 x ~57000