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TASK 1
To study the different types of Network cables and network topologies.

Network Cables
1. Coaxial Cable

 Description: A single copper conductor surrounded by insulation, a braided shield,

and an outer jacket.
 Uses: Early networking applications, cable TV, and older Ethernet standards (like
10Base2, 10Base5).
 Advantages: Resistant to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Disadvantages: Bulky, harder to install, limited bandwidth.

2. Twisted Pair Cable

 Description: Consists of pairs of copper wires twisted together to reduce crosstalk.

 Types:
o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Commonly used for Ethernet networks.
o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has a shielding layer for better protection from
interference.

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 Categories:
o Cat 5: Supports speeds up to 100 Mbps.
o Cat 5e: Enhanced version of Cat 5, supports speeds up to 1 Gbps.
o Cat 6: Supports speeds up to 10 Gbps at 55 meters.
o Cat 6a: Enhanced version of Cat 6, supports speeds up to 10 Gbps at 100
meters.
 Uses: Local area networks (LAN), telephone networks.
 Advantages: Flexible, cost-effective, easy to install.
 Disadvantages: Shorter range compared to fiber optics, susceptible to EMI.

3. Fiber Optic Cable

 Description: Uses strands of glass fibers to transmit data as light signals.

 Types:
o Single-Mode Fiber (SMF): Used for long-distance transmission.
o Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF): Used for shorter distances.
 Uses: High-speed internet, long-distance communication, and backbone networks.
 Advantages: High bandwidth, long-distance transmission, immunity to EMI.
 Disadvantages: Expensive, more difficult to install.

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Network Topologies

Network topology refers to the arrangement of network devices and how they communicate.
1. Bus Topology

 Description: All devices share a common communication line (bus).

 Advantages: Simple, inexpensive, minimal cable required.
 Disadvantages: If the main cable fails, the entire network goes down. Performance
degrades as more devices are added.

2. Star Topology

 Description: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

 Advantages: Easy to manage, central device simplifies troubleshooting, failure of one
device doesn’t affect others.
 Disadvantages: If the central hub/switch fails, the entire network fails.

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3. Ring Topology

 Description: Devices are connected in a circular fashion where each device has two
neighbors.
 Advantages: Data travels in one direction, reducing collisions.
 Disadvantages: A single failure in the network ring can disrupt the entire network.

4. Mesh Topology

 Description: Every device is connected to every other device.

 Advantages: Provides high redundancy and fault tolerance.
 Disadvantages: Expensive due to the large number of connections required.

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TASK 2
Implement and test the cross-wired cable and straight through cable using clamping tool and
network lab cable tester.

Materials Required:
 Ethernet cable (Cat 5e, Cat 6).
 RJ45 connectors (8P8C modular connectors).
 Clamping tool (Crimping tool).
 Wire stripper.
 Network cable tester.
 Scissors (optional).

Steps to Make a Straight-Through Cable:

1. Prepare the Ethernet Cable:

 Cut the cable to the required length.
 Use a wire stripper to strip about 1 inch of the outer sheath (insulation) from both
ends of the cable.
 Unwind the twisted pairs of wires and straighten them.

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2. Arrange the Wires in T568B Standard:
 Follow this color code (T568B):
o Pin 1: Orange/White
o Pin 2: Orange
o Pin 3: Green/White
o Pin 4: Blue
o Pin 5: Blue/White
o Pin 6: Green
o Pin 7: Brown/White
o Pin 8: Brown
 Ensure the same wiring configuration is used on both ends of the cable.

3. Insert the Wires into the RJ45 Connectors:

 Hold the wires tightly, and trim them evenly so they fit into the RJ45 connector.
 Insert the wires carefully into the RJ45 connector, ensuring each wire goes into the
correct slot according to the T568B pinout.
4. Crimp the RJ45 Connectors:
 Place the RJ45 connector into the crimping tool.
 Squeeze the crimping tool to secure the connector onto the cable.
 Repeat the same process on both ends of the cable.
5. Test the Cable with a Cable Tester:
 Connect each end of the cable to the two ports of the cable tester.
 Turn on the tester and verify that all lights are in sequence (1 through 8), indicating a
properly crimped straight-through cable.

Steps to Make a Cross-Wired Cable:

1. Prepare the Ethernet Cable:

 Strip the outer sheath from both ends of the cable as before.
 Unwind the twisted pairs and straighten the wires.

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2. Use T568B on One End and T568A on the Other:
 Follow the T568B standard on one end (same as in the straight-through cable).
 Follow the T568A standard on the other end:
o Pin 1: Green/White
o Pin 2: Green
o Pin 3: Orange/White
o Pin 4: Blue
o Pin 5: Blue/White
o Pin 6: Orange
o Pin 7: Brown/White
o Pin 8: Brown
3. Insert the Wires into the RJ45 Connectors:
 Repeat the same steps for inserting the wires into the RJ45 connectors, ensuring the
correct arrangement for each end (T568A on one end, T568B on the other).
4. Crimp the RJ45 Connectors:
 Use the crimping tool to secure the connectors onto both ends of the cable.
5. Test the Cross-Wired Cable:
 Connect the cable to the network tester.
 The tester should show a crossed connection (e.g., Pin 1 connected to Pin 3, Pin 2
connected to Pin 6), indicating the cable is properly wired for crossover use.

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TASK 3
Study and familiarization with various network devices.

1. Router
 Function: Routers direct data packets between different networks, determining the
best path for data to travel from its source to its destination.
 Familiarization Tips:
o Study routing protocols like OSPF, BGP, and EIGRP.
o Learn how to configure a router (e.g., Cisco IOS commands).
o Explore NAT (Network Address Translation) and how routers handle IP
addressing.

2. Switch
 Function: Switches connect devices within the same network, enabling
communication between them. They operate mainly on Layer 2 (Data Link layer) of
the OSI model.
 Familiarization Tips:
o Understand VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks) and how to segment
network traffic.
o Learn about MAC address tables, switch forwarding, and STP (Spanning
Tree Protocol).
o Explore basic switch configuration and concepts like trunking and port
security.

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3. Access Point (AP)
 Function: Wireless access points allow wireless devices to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi.
 Familiarization Tips:
o Learn the basic configuration of access points (SSID, encryption settings).
o Explore wireless standards (e.g., 802.11 a/b/g/n/ac/ax).
o Understand frequency bands (2.4 GHz vs. 5 GHz) and concepts like MIMO
(Multiple Input, Multiple Output).

4. Modem
 Function: Modems modulate and demodulate signals for data transmission over
different types of physical media (e.g., phone lines, cable, fiber).
 Familiarization Tips:
o Learn the basic types of modems (DSL, Cable, Fiber).
o Study how modems convert digital data to analog signals and vice versa.
o Understand the role of modems in broadband internet access.

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5. Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Function: A NIC is a hardware component that allows a computer or other device to
connect to a network.
 Familiarization Tips:
o Explore the different types of NICs (Ethernet, wireless).
o Learn how to configure NIC settings (IP address, subnet mask, etc.).
o Study network speeds (e.g., 10/100/1000 Mbps, Gigabit Ethernet).

6. Hub
 Function: Hubs are basic networking devices that broadcast data to all devices
connected to them. They operate at Layer 1 (Physical layer).
 Familiarization Tips:
o Understand how hubs differ from switches in terms of traffic management.
o Learn why hubs are largely obsolete in modern networks, replaced by
switches.

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7. Bridge
 Function: Bridges connect two different LAN segments to form a single, larger LAN.
They filter traffic by examining MAC addresses.
 Familiarization Tips:
o Study how bridges operate on Layer 2 and how they handle network
segmentation.
o Learn about bridging protocols and how they prevent network loops.

8. Gateway
 Function: Gateways serve as entry/exit points between two networks that use
different communication protocols.
 Familiarization Tips:
o Learn how gateways convert data from one protocol to another.
o Study where gateways are used, such as VoIP, email servers, and web
applications.

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TASK 4
Familiarization with Packet Tracer Simulation tool/any other related tool.

How to Get Familiar with Packet Tracer

1. Install Packet Tracer:
o Download Packet Tracer from Cisco's website (you’ll need a free Cisco
Networking Academy account).
o It’s available for Windows, Linux, and macOS.

2. Start with Basic Topologies:

o Create simple networks by connecting a few devices like PCs, switches, and
routers.
o Practice basic configuration tasks like setting IP addresses and testing
connectivity using the ping command.

3. Explore Device Configuration:

o Experiment with the CLI to configure routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, or
EIGRP.
o Set up VLANs (Virtual LANs) and STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) on switches.

4. Use Simulation Mode:

o In simulation mode, watch how packets traverse the network. This can help
visualize networking concepts like routing, switching, DNS, DHCP, etc.

5. Save & Export Projects: You can save your network designs and configurations for
future use, making it easy to revisit and iterate on past work.

Other Related Tools

1. GNS3 (Graphical Network Simulator 3):
o Overview: A powerful open-source network simulator that emulates real
network devices. It supports both virtual and physical devices.

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o Use Case: Ideal for more advanced network setups, especially for those
looking to simulate larger or more complex environments using real device
firmware (Cisco, Juniper, etc.).
o Pros: More realistic and powerful than Packet Tracer; supports real Cisco IOS
images.
o Cons: Requires more system resources, steeper learning curve than Packet
Tracer.

2. EVE-NG (Emulated Virtual Environment – Next Generation):

o Overview: Another advanced network emulator similar to GNS3, supporting
multiple vendors and virtualized environments.
o Use Case: Great for simulating large-scale network environments with support
for various vendors (Cisco, Palo Alto, Fortinet, etc.).
o Pros: Multi-vendor support, user-friendly web interface.
o Cons: Requires a bit more setup compared to Packet Tracer.

3. Cisco VIRL (Virtual Internet Routing Lab):

o Overview: Cisco’s official network simulation tool, mainly used by
professionals. It uses real Cisco IOS images.
o Use Case: Focused on real-world network topologies, highly accurate
simulations.
o Pros: Official Cisco tool, uses real device firmware.
o Cons: Paid tool, more complex than Packet Tracer.

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Task 5
Study and Implementation of IP Addressing Schemes.

IP addressing supports five classes of IP addresses i.e, class A,B,C,D and E. Only different
classes A,B and address C are available for commercial use.
Class A addresses
1. Class A addresses are designed for large organizations with a large number of hosts or
routers.
2. In this the first octet of the address identifies the network and the next three octets are used
to identify the host.
3. The first bit of first octet is always 0 and the remaining 7 bits are used to identify the
network address.
4. The next three octets i.e. 24 bits are used to identify the host.
5. The class support addresses from 0.0.0.0 to 0.255.255.255.
6. The first block of network address starts with 1.0.0.0 and the last block of networks
address starts with 127.0.0.0.
7. As there are 7 bits in network address, 2^7 = 128 blocks of network address are possible.
Out of these two network blocks are reserved. Hence total 126 address blocks are used.
8. Each network blocks can have 224--- 2 hosts i.e. 16,777,214 host address. Two addresses
are less as one address is reserved for the broadcast address and one address is reserved for
the network.
9. A block in class A is too large for almost any organization. This means most of the
addresses in class A are wasted and are not used.

Class B address
1. The class B addresses are designed for medium sized organizations with the tens of
thousands of attached hosts or routers.
2. In this, the first two octets of the address identify the network and the next two octets
identify the host within the network.
3. The first two bits (high order bits) of first octet are always 1, 0. Thus the remaining 14 bits
identify the network.
4. The third and fourth octet i.e. 6 bits are used to identify the hosts.
5. The first network block of this class covers the addresses from 128.0.0.0 to 128.0.255.255
(net id 128.0). The last network block of this class covers addresses from 191.255.255.255.
6. The maximum number of network blocks in class B is 2^14 = 16384.

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7. Each network block in class B can have 2^16--- 2 = 65,534 hosts.
8. A block in class B is also very large and most of the address in class B is also wasted.

Class C address
1. The class C addresses is designed for small organizations with a small number of attached
hosts or routers.
2. In class C, the first three octets of address are used for network and the last octet is used to
identify the host.
3. The first three bits of first octet are always set to 1, 1,0.
4. The remaining 24 – 3 = 21 bits are used for network identification and only 8 bits are used
for host.
5. In class C, 2^21 = 2,097,152 network blocks are possible.
6. Thus, each block in class C address can have 2^8– 2 = 254 hosts.
7. The first block of network covers addresses from 192.0.0.0 to 192.0.0.255.
8. The class C addresses are too less for many organizations as it supports only 254 hosts in a
network

Class D address
1. Class D addresses are used for multicast groups (multicasting)
2. The concept of division of octets into network id and host id does not apply to class D.
3. The first four bits of first octet in class D are always set to 1,1,1,0.
4. The address range is 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

Class E address
1. The Class E address is reserved for future use and is experimental.
2. The concept of network id and host id does not apply on class E also.
3. The first four bits of first octet are always set to 1,1,1,1.
4. The address range for class E is 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

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Task 6
Creation of Simple Networking topologies using hubs and switches.

Principle:
1. Repeater: A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a
higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal
can cover longer distances.
2. Hub: An Ethernet hub, active hub, network hub, repeater hub, hub or concentrator is a
device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and
making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the
OSI model.
3. Switch: A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects
network segments.
4. Bridge: A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (Layer
2 of the OSI model. In Ethernet networks, the term bridge formally means a device that
behaves according to the IEEE 802.1D standard. A bridge and switch are very much alike; a
switch being a bridge with numerous ports. Switch or Layer 2 switch is often used
interchangeably with bridge.Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to determine if the
bridge is able to send the given packet to another segment of the network.
5. Router: A router is an electronic device that interconnects two or more computer
networks, and lectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet contains
address information that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the
same network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one network to another.
6. Gate Way: In a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing with
another network that uses different protocols.

Steps
Step 1: Connect the switch to the LAN. a. Using the proper cable, connect the
FastEthernet0/0 on Customer Router to the FastEthernet0/1 on Customer Switch. b. Using the
proper cable, connect the Customer PC to the Customer Switch on port FastEthernet0/2. c.
Using the proper cable, connect the Local Server to the Customer Switch on port
FastEthernet0/3.
Step 2: Verify the switch configuration. a. From the Customer PC, use the terminal emulation
software to connect to the console of the customer Cisco Catalyst 2960 switch. b. Use the
console connection and terminal utility on the Customer PC to verify the configurations. Use
cisco as the console password. c. Enter privileged EXEC mode and use the show running-
config command to verify the following configurations.
The password is cisco123.

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a. VLAN1 IP address = 192.168.1.5
b. Subnet mask = 255.255.255.0
c. Password required for console access
d. Password required for vty access
e. Password enabled for privileged EXEC mode
f. Secret enabled for privileged EXEC mode f. Verify IP connectivity between the Cisco
Catalyst 2960 switch and the Cisco 1841 router by initiating a ping to 192.168.1.1 from the
switch CLI.
g. Click the Check Results button at the bottom of this instruction window to check your
work.

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Task 7
Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer.

DESCRIPTION:
Part 1: Examine HTTP Web Traffic In Part 1 of this activity, you will use Packet Tracer (PT)
Simulation mode to generate web traffic and examine HTTP. Switch from Realtime to
Simulation mode. In the lower right corner of the Packet Tracer interface are tabs to toggle
between Realtime and Simulation mode. PT always starts in Realtime mode, in which
networking protocols operate with realistic timings. However, a powerful feature of Packet
Tracer allows the user to “stop time” by switching to Simulation mode. In Simulation mode,
packets are displayed as animated envelopes, time is event driven, and the user can step
through networking events.
a. Click the Simulation mode icon to switch from Realtime mode to Simulation mode.
b. Select HTTP from the Event List Filters.
1) HTTP may already be the only visible event. Click Edit Filters to display the available
visible events. Toggle the Show All/None check box and notice how the check boxes switch
from unchecked to checked or checked to unchecked, depending on the current state.
2) Click the Show All/None check box until all boxes are cleared and then select HTTP. Click
anywhere outside of the Edit Filters box to hide it. The Visible Events should now only
display HTTP. Generate web (HTTP) traffic. Currently the Simulation Panel is empty. There
are six columns listed across the top of the Event List within the Simulation Panel. As traffic
is generated and stepped through, events appear in the list. The Info column is used to inspect
the contents of a particular event. Note: The Web Server and Web Client are displayed in the
left pane. The panels can be adjusted in size by hovering next to the scroll bar and dragging
left or right when the double-headed arrow appears.
a. Click Web Client in the far left pane.
b. Click the Desktop tab and click the Web Browser icon to open it.
c. In the URL field, enter www.osi.local and click Go. Because time in Simulation mode is
event-driven, you must use the Capture/Forward button to display network events.
d. Click Capture/Forward four times. There should be four events in the Event List. Look at
the Web Client web browser page. Did anything change?

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Task 8
Study and implementation of various router configuration commands.

❖ DESCRIPTION:
Step 1: Configure the router host name.
a) On Customer PC, use the terminal emulation software to connect to the console of the
customer Cisco 1841 ISR. Set the host name on the router to Customer Router by using these
commands.
Router>enable
Router #configure terminal
Router(config)#hostname Customer Router

Step 2: Configure the privileged mode and secret passwords.

a) In global configuration mode, set the password to cisco.
b) Customer Router(config)#enable password cisco
c) Set an encrypted privileged password to cisco123 using the secret command. Customer
Router(config)#enable secret cisco123

Step 3: Configure the console password.

a) In global configuration mode, switch to line configuration mode to specify the console
line. Customer Router(config)#line console 0 ,Set the password to cisco123, require that the
password be entered at login, and then exit line configuration mode.
b) Customer Router(config-line) #password cisco123
c) Customer Router(config-line) #login
d) CustomerRouter(config-line) #exit
e) Customer Router(config)#

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Step 4:
a) Configure the vty password to allow Telnet access to the router. In global configuration
mode,switch to line configuration mode to specify the vty lines. Customer
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
b) Set the password to cisco123, require that the password be entered at login, exit line
configuration mode, and then exit the configuration session.
c) Customer Router(config-line)#password cisco123
d) Customer Router(config-line)#login
e) Customer Router(config-line)#exit
f) Customer Router(config)#

Step 5:
a) Configure password encryption, a MOTD banner, and turn off domain server lookup.
b) Currently, the line passwords and the enable password are shown in clear text when you
show the running configuration. Verify this now by entering the show running config
command. To avoid the security risk of someone looking over your shoulder and reading the
passwords, encrypt all clear text passwords.
c) Customer Router(config)#service password-encryption
d) Use the show running-config command again to verify that the passwords are encrypted.
e) To provide a warning when someone attempts to log in to the router, configure a MOTD
banner.
f) Customer Router(config)# $Authorized Access Only!$ Test the banner and passwords. Log
out of the router by typing the exit command twice. The banner displays before the prompt
for a password. Enter the password to log back into the router.
g) You may have noticed that when you enter a command incorrectly at the user or privileged
EXEC prompt, the router pauses while trying to locate an IP address for the mistyped word
you entered. For example, this output shows what happens when the enable command is
mistyped.
h) Customer Router>enable Translating "enable"...domain server (255.255.255.255)
i) To prevent this from happening, use the following command to stop all DNS lookups from
the router CLI.
j) CustomerRouter(config)#no ip domain-lookup
k) Save the running configuration to the startup configuration.
l) CustomerRouter(config)#end m) CustomerRouter#copy run start

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Step 6: Verify the configuration.

a. Log out of your terminal session with the Cisco 1841 customer router.
b. Log in to the Cisco 1841 Customer Router. Enter the console password when prompted.
c. Navigate to privileged EXEC mode. Enter the privileged EXEC password when prompted.
d. Click the Check Results button at the bottom of this instruction window to check your
work.

Task 9
Creation of Networks using routers.

At any rate, you can set up a tightly managed, secure home network. All you have to do is
follow these five steps.
1. Connect your router
The router is the gateway between the Internet and your home network. It is also the means
by which all the devices on your network communicate with one another. If you haven’t
already purchased one, our guide to buying the best wireless router can give you the lowdown
on how to choose the right router for your home's particular needs. You can go with either an
802.11n router, or one of the newer 802.11ac models. For a discussion of whether 802.11ac
will be the right choice for you, see:
You will also want to ensure that any device that will connect to the router also has an
appropriate network adapter. These devices are your network "clients." New laptops will have
802.11n adapters (some will desktops you can purchase compatible support 802.11ac, even).
For older laptops or adapters. Once you have to set it up, and the first step is to physically
you've got the right router, connect your router to a modem provided by your ISP with an
Ethernet cable.
• First, unplug or turn off the cable or DSL modem.
• Power up your wireless router and connect the network cable that most likely comes with it
into the port on the router that is labelled "Internet" or "WAN."
• Connect the other end to the cable or DSL modem and power up the modem.
• Don't attempt to connect any devices such as laptops or tablets until you have a good strong
signal indicating a WAN connection on both the router and modem.
2. Access the router's interface and lock it down
The next step involves getting into the router's interface (some companies call this the
management console). This is done by connecting a laptop to the router and then accessing
the interface via a browser. How do you go about this? Routers ship with a default IP address,

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administrator account and password. For example, most Cisco/Linksys routers have the
default IP address of 192.168.1.1, and the default administrator account is "admin," and the
password is also "admin." What you want to do is change your laptop's IP settings to match
those of the router's to connect to it for configuration. This allows the laptop to communicate
with the router, so you can access your router's software for setup via the laptop.
Connect an Ethernet cable to one of the LAN ports on the router and the other end to the
Ethernet port of your laptop. On a Windows 7 machine that's connected to the router by
Ethernet, for example, you would go into the Control Panel and click to open "Network and
Internet" and then "Network and Sharing Centre."
• From the left-hand window, click "Change adapter settings."
• Right click on "Local Area Connection" (not the Wireless Network Connection) and select
"Properties."
• Highlight “Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IP v4)” and once again, click "Properties." in
the image above.
• Set the first radio button to "Use the following IP address:" and enter the information as
shown
• Once you've applied the changes, open up a browser and go the web address of (in our
example) the Cisco/Linksys interface by typing http://192.168.1.1 and using the account
name "admin" and password "admin." Then you are all set to configure security and other
settings.
Most router companies use the same default IP address, admin account, and passwords on all
their routers. Your router's documentation will tell you the specific IP address and account
login information.

3. Configure security and IP addressing

After you've accessed the router, the next order of business is getting the security, SSID and
IP addressing settings right. Getting security right is a must, unless you want a neighbour
stealing your bandwidth and possibly your data. IP addressing is important because these
addresses are used for devices on your network to communicate with the router. You make all
of these changes within the router's management interface. These settings are typically under
the "Basic" settings of the interface. They may also be under "Security" or "Wireless
Settings." Router interfaces vary, so if you can't find the settings to configure within the
router’s interface pages when following the below steps, check with the router Okay, on with
the steps: manufacturer.
• Change the default administrator password. Some networking equipment forces you to do
so once you've accessed the web-based interface, but many consumer routers don't. The
settings for the admin password are usually under the "System" tab or page of the interface.
• Assign security. Newer routers may be set by default to automatically configure security by
using WPS (Wi-Fi Protected Setup). Since the goal here is to have full control of your
network, switch from "WPS" to "Manual." Once in manual mode, go into the router's

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wireless security page. There is no excuse, except in very limited circumstances when dealing
with legacy technology, to not use WPA/WPA2. WPA security requires clients connecting to
it to use a key or passphrase, which you create within the router's interface on the same page
you set up security.
• Set up IP addressing. For most networks, the router can be kept at its default DHCP setting.
This means the router will dole out IP addresses to clients that connect to the network,
leaving you without any IP addressing management to do. For extra security, it's not a bad
idea to change the router's default IP, making it more resistant to snooping. Remember,
hackers know what the default IP addresses of the most common routers are (even though it's
really tough for them to get to, due to the fact that your IP addresses on your network are
private). For instance, I would change my Cisco/Linksys router's network from 192.168.1.1
to something like 192.168.1.3.
• Disconnect the laptop and reboot it. When the laptop comes back from reboot you should
see the SSID name of your wireless network and be able to connect to it with the passphrase
you created. Congratulations – you're connected wirelessly. But you're not done with your
setup yet!

Advanced steps: DHCP reservation

For those who anticipate connecting servers, NAS device or any device that you may access
fromoutside your network, best practice is to configure DHCP Reservation. That may be a
scary sounding term for newbies, but all it means is that you are telling the router that a
specific device always uses a specific IP address, which is set aside or "reserved" for it.
For example, my router IP is 192.168.1.1. I can give my email server an IP address of
192.168.1.2. I cangive a third device, say my NAS server for instance, an IP address of
192.168.1.3, and so on. You don't want to change the first three sets of numbers though, for
most basic home networks. IP addressing has specific rules about formatting, so you want to
retain the first three sets of numbers, called "octets."
You’ll also want to put in the device's MAC address that you are reserving. The MAC address
is usually printed on a sticker affixed to a device. Again, reserving the IP addresses means
those addresses will never be distributed to clients via DHCP and are "held" for the devices
you specify. Reserving IP addresses is good practice for devices you want to access remotely,
because otherwise when the IP address leases expire you won't be able to perform remote
access.

4. Set up sharing and control

Now that you have a network set up, you can set up a way for everyone to access data on the
network. With Windows 7 clients, this is achieved by creating a HomeGroup, a user-friendly
way to create a workgroup.
• When a Windows 7 laptop first connects to the network, the user will be prompted to set the
current network location. Ensure that the location is set to "Home network" (you can check it

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in Network and Sharing Centre) because HomeGroup only works on networks set to the
Home location.
• Open up "HomeGroup" in the Control Panel, and then click "Create a HomeGroup." For
every Windows 7 client that you want to give access to the HomeGroup, open HomeGroup in
the Control Panel of those machines and then click "Join now" (those machines have to
physically or wirelessly connected to the network).
• During the process of setting up or joining a HomeGroup, you can choose the libraries,
printers , or files and folders you want to share (see the next step for details).
• For Windows 8, you create a HomeGroup by moving the mouse to the top right corner of
screen, then click Settings, then Change PC Settings. Click on HomeGroup, then you can
click on Create. As above, you can then select the libraries and devices you want to share
with the HomeGroup.
• If you have a network with an older version of Windows running, then you are going to
create a standard Workgroup. Click Start, right click My Computer, and then click Properties.
In

5. Set up user accounts

In most business networks, users access the network by logging in with their user account and
password. Corporate IT networks set up user accounts to keep tabs on who is accessing the
network and when they are accessing it. User accounts provide a way to establish user access
control. Perhaps there's some data on the network some users should have access to and some
shouldn't. Maybe some users should only be able to read certain files, while others should be
able to change files.
You can establish this same kind of access in your home network, should you wish, especially
once you have a HomeGroup or Workgroup defined. It's not something most home network
users will really need to do, but we’ll cover it briefly, as it is quite easy to set up user
accounts in Windows:
• In Windows 7's Control Panel, select the User Accounts icon. User accounts will let you
configure your account and its settings.
• To add and configure other users, from User Accounts, click on "Manage User Accounts,"
and then click on the "Advanced" tab.
• Under "Advanced User Management" click "Advanced" to open up Local Users and
Groups.
• Right click on either "Users" or "Groups" to add either to your network.

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Task 10
Configuring networks using the concept of subnetting.

Subnetworking becomes an important feature as your organization's networking needs grow.

Subnetworking lets you divide up your pool of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) addresses
so you can split those addresses across several physical networks within your organization. or
administrative or technical reasons, many organizations choose to divide one network into
several subnets. Subnetworking enables several local networks to appear as a single Internet
network to off-site hosts. It divides the addresses for a single network to accommodate the
fact that the network consists of several physical networks. You should consider using
subnets in the following instances:
• When you want to hide the local network topology from the outside world. Using subnets
requires only a single route to external gateways.
• When you want the ability to administer IP addresses locally. For example, a company may
have an engineering subnet, a product marketing subnet, and a sales subnet, each
administered by a different administrator who has control of IP addresses in a given range.
• When network bandwidth is limited due to cabling constraints. Setting up subnets, each
separated by a gateway host, limits local subnet packets to those that are either destined for or
sent from a local host. In this way, the overall network traffic seen by each host on the subnet
is reduced.
Setting up a subnet requires you to:
• determine the appropriate IP addresses for your subnets
• configure subnet hosts with the correct IP addresses and network masks
• configure gateway hosts between subnets Subnets allow you more flexibility when
assigning network addresses. For details on network address assignment and network classes,
see ``Network address''.
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Network masks
A network mask, or ``netmask'', is used to divide an IP address into a network address and a
host address. When you set up a network, the network mask must be common to all network
interfaces on that network. The default network masks are 255.0.0.0 for class A, 255.255.0.0
for class B, and 255.255.255.0 for class C networks, as illustrated here:

Subnets are created by extending the network ID portion of an address by taking some bits
from the host portion to create a subnet portion. The remaining bits can be used for host
addresses within the subnet. The number of subnets that can be created from an m-bits long
subnet address is 2^m. The number of host addresses per subnet that are available from an n-
bits long host address is (2^n)-2. Unlike the subnet portion of the network address, the host
portion cannot consist of all 0's or 1's. See RFC 1812 and RFC 1878 for more information.
Subnetting a class B network' illustrates the effect on a class B address of extending a
network mask from 255.255.0.0 to 255.255.255.0:

Subnetting a class B network

This scheme creates 256 (2^8) possible subnet addresses (0 through 255) with 254 (2^8-2)
host addresses (1 through 254) per subnet. In this way, you can create subnets for class A and
B networks by converting the second and third octets, respectively, from host addresses to
subnet addresses. Notice how the netmask changes accorThe class A network 16 can now
have up to 256 subnets (16.0 through 16.255). The class network 172.16 can also have up to
256 subnets (172.16.0 through 172.16.255). While the netmask masks the network portion of
the address, the broadcast address exposes the network address and hides the host portion.
For example, the broadcast address for the subnet 172.16.246, with a netmask of

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255.255.255.0, is 172.16.246.255.For more information on setting netmask and broadcast
addresses using the Network Configuration Manager, see ``Basic TCP/IP configuration
parameters''For example, if an organization has a class B network, you could assign each
physical network in that network a subnet number within that network. The sixteen bits for
the host ID could be allocated as eight for subnet and eight for host, or nine for subnet and
seven for host, and so on. Your decision would be transparent to everyone outside that
organization.
A common example of subnetworking is to apply a class C type subnet mask (255.255.255.0)
to a class B network. Applying this mask to a class B network provides you with 256 possible
subnets, each one of which can accommodate 254 possible hosts (the host addresses 0 and
255 are not acceptable). If you know that none of your subnets will ever have more than 126
hosts but you need more than 256 but less than 513 subnets, you could decide to use nine bits
for the subnet number, and seven bits for the host addresses. The appropriate mask for this
would be 255.255.255.128.

Given this scheme and a network address of, for example, 131.60, the addresses of the first
and last hosts on the first subnet (131.60.0.0) would be 131.60.0.1 and 131.60.0.126. The
broadcast address on this subnet would be 131.60.0.127.
Partitioning a class C address is a similar process as you must take a portion of the fourth
octet as the subnet address. For example, you might partition the first three (high order) bits
of the fourth octet to represent the subnet, with the last five bits representing the host:

This scheme allows for up to 8 subnets of 30 hosts each, for a total of 240 hosts. The netmask
for the hosts on these subnets is 255.255.255.224. The number 224 is a decimal
representation of the binary octet 11100000, which masks the subnet portion of the IP
address.
After you determine the new addresses for your hosts, you must use the Network
Configuration Manager to configure them. In addition, you must configure routers between
your subnets: these are hosts with multiple networking interfaces and specialized routing
hardware that can serve more than one network.

Subnetting and Classless Interdomain Routing

The number of class A and B addresses that are available for allocation to new networks has
been steadily diminishing over time and is now virtually exhausted. In the late 1980s nearly

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all of the new networks assigned were class B, and in 1990 it became apparent that class B
networks would run out by 1994 if the trend continued. Class C addresses (with a maximum
of 254 hosts) were hardly being used because they were too small to be useful for most
organizations, while class B networks were too large to be densely populated by any but the
largest organizations.
The network number allocation policies of the InterNIC were changed in 1990, to avert the
class B address exhaustion. If you apply for a network number, you are likely to be assigned a
set of than a single class B address. Which of these you receive will depend on the number of
hosts that will exist on your network(s).
Where an organization has a range of class C network numbers, the range provided is
assigned as a bit-wise contiguous range of network numbers, and the number of networks in
the range is a power of 2. All IP addresses in the range have a common prefix, and every
address with that prefix is within the range. For example, an organization requiring about
1000 IP addresses would be assigned four class C network numbers. A range of addresses
satisfying these rules would be 195.34.136 through 195.34.139, in which case the range
would consist of all the IP addresses with the 22-bit prefix 195.34.136. This is represented by
the notation 195.34.136/22 (with the trailing zeros removed). ``Subnetting with CIDR''
illustrates this scheme.

Subnetting with CIDR

However, the problem with this situation is that each network has to be routed separately as
standard IP routing only understands class A, B and C network addresses. The result of using
a range of class C addresses is a routing table explosion problem: a class B network of 3000
hosts requires one routing table entry, whereas the same network if it was addressed as a
range of class C networks would require 16 entries.
To overcome the routing table explosion problem, a scheme known as Classless Interdomain
Routing (CIDR or ``supernetting'') is used to implement address assignment. CIDR does not
route according to the class of the network number, but instead routes according to the high
order bits of the IP address (the ``IP prefix''). The process of combining multiple networks
into a single entry is called supernetting because routing is based on network masks that are
shorter than the natural network mask of an IP address.
The details of CIDR may be found in RFC 1518 and RFC 1519. As the main purpose of
CIDR is to reduce the size of the routing tables for the Internet, these documents will not
usually be of interest to you unless you are a service provider or you maintain Internet routing
tables on your system.

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Variable length subnetting

There are two types of subnetting: static length and variable length. Static subnetting, in
which all the subnets in the subnetted network use the same subnet mask, has already been
described in ``Subnetting and Classless Interdomain Routing''. Native IP and RIP version 1
routing only support static subnetting. Variable length subnetting allows the subnets that
make up the network to use different subnet masks. A small subnet with only a few hosts
needs a subnet mask that accommodates only these hosts. A subnet with many hosts may
need a different subnet mask to accommodate the hosts. Variable length subnetting allows
you to divide the network so that it is possible to define adequate hosts for each subnet by
changing the subnet mask for each network. RIP version 2 supports variable length
subnetting as well as static subnetting. RIP version 1 only supports standard class lengths.
For example, a company with the address 195.34.136.0 needs to split the address range into
five separate networks, as shown in ``Variable length subnetting''. There need to be 254 hosts
on 3 of the subnets and 126 hosts on 2 of the subnets. This cannot be achieved using static
subnetting as it can only divide the network into four subnets with 254 hosts each or eight
subnets with 126 hosts each. To divide the address into five subnets, you should use multiple
netmasks. The first four subnets use the mask 255.255.255.0 and have 254 hosts each. The
first subnet can then be divided into two subnets with 126 hosts each and a subnet mask of
255.255.255.128. There would be three subnets with 254 hosts each and two subnets with
126 hosts each.

Creating subnet entries

Once you have defined a top-level address entry, you can add subnets to it, or you can further
divide a subnet into other subnets (known as variable length subnetting). See ``Variable
length subnetting'' for more details.
To add a subnet:
1. Select the top-level address or subnet.
2. Select Edit Add Subnets.
3. Choose a subnet mask length (in bits) from those listed in the Length column.
4. Select subnet ranges from those listed in the Subnet column.

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The Subnet column displays the mask length of the subnet and also displays the number of
hosts and host ranges.
For a particular subnet mask length, you can select all the subnet ranges in the list by clicking
on Select All.
5. Click on Yes to automatically assign hosts to subnets.
You can also add hosts after you have assigned all the subnets. See ``Creating host entries''.
6. Click on OK.

Task 11
Practical implementation of basic network command and Network configuration commands
like ping, ipconfig, netstat, tracert etc. for troubleshooting network related problems.

All commands related to Network configuration which includes how to switch to privilege
mode and normal mode and how to configure router interface and how to save this
configuration to flash memory or permanent memory.
This commands includes
✓ Configuring the Router commands
✓ General Commands to configure network
✓ Privileged Mode commands of a router
✓ Router Processes & Statistics
✓ IP Commands
✓ Other IP Commands e.g. show ip route etc.

1. ping: ping(8) sends an ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packet to the specified host. If the host
responds, you get an ICMP packet back. Sound strange? Well, you can “ping” an IP address
to see if a machine is alive. If there is no response, you know something is wrong.
2. Ipconfig: Displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings.

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3. Netstat: The netstat command generates displays that show network status and protocol
statistics . You can display the status of TCP and UDP endpoints in table format, routing table
information, and interface information. Netstat displays various types of network data
depending on the command line option selected. These displays are the most useful for
system administration.
4. The most frequently used options for determining network status are: s, r, and i. See the
netstat(1M) man page for a description of the options.
5. Traceroute: Tracert is a command which can show you the path a packet of information
takes from and is discarded. In addition to this, it will tell you how long each 'hop' from
router to router takes.
6. nslookup: Displays information from Domain Name System (DNS) name servers.
7. pathping: A better version of tracert that gives you statics about packet lost and latency.
8. In this activity, you will use the Cisco IOS CLI to apply an initial configuration to a router,
including host name, passwords, a message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner, and other basic
settings.

Task 12
Configuration of networks using static and default routes.

Step 1: Test connectivity between the PCs and the default gateway.
To determine if there is connectivity from each PC to its configured gateway, first use a
simple ping test.
a) Click BOpc and go to Desktop > Command Prompt.
b) From the command prompt, type the ip config command. Note the IP address for BOpc
and the default gateway address. The default gateway address is the IP address for the Fast
Ethernet interface on Branch

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c) Ping 192.168.1.1, the default gateway address for the Branch Office LAN, from the
command prompt on BOpc. This ping should be successful.
d) Click PNpc and go to Desktop > Command Prompt
e) From the command prompt, type the ipconfig command. Note the IP address for PNpc and
the default gateway address. The default gateway address is the IP address for the Fast
Ethernet interface on Partner.
f) Ping 192.168.3.1, the default gateway address for the PartnerNet LAN, from the command
prompt on thiping should be successful
g) Repeat steps a, b, and c for MOpc and its respective default gateway, the Fast Ethernet
interface on Main Office. Each of these ping tests should be successful.

Step 2: Ping between routers to test connectivity.

a) Use a console cable and terminal emulation software on BOpc to connect to BranchOffice.
b) Test connectivity with MainOffice by pinging 10.10.10.1, the IP address of the directly
connected serial 3/0 interface. This ping should succeed.
c) Test connectivity with MainOffice by pinging 10.10.10.5, the IP address of the serial 2/0
interface. This ping should fail.
d) Issue the show ip route command from the terminal window of BOpc. Note that only
directly connected routes are shown in the BranchOffice routing table. The ping to 10.10.10.5
failed because the BranchOffice router has no routing table entry for 10.10.10.5.
e) Repeat steps a through d on the other two PCs. The pings to directly connected networks
will succeed. However, pings to remote networks will fail.
f) What steps must be taken to reach all the networks from any PC in the activity?

Step 3: Viewing the routing tables.

You can view routing tables in Packet Tracer using the Inspect tool. The Inspect tool is in the
Common Tools bar to the right of the topology. The Inspect tool is the icon that appears as a
magnifying glass.
a) In the Common Tools bar, click on the Inspect tool.
b) Click the Main Office router and choose Routing Table.
c) Click the BranchOffice router and choose Routing Table.
d) Click the PartnerNet router and choose Routing Table.
e) Move the routing table windows around so that you can see all three at once.
f) What networks do each of the routers already know about?

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g) Does each router know how to route to all networks in the topology? After comparing the
routing tables, close the window for each routing table by clicking the x in the upper right
corner of each window.

Step 4: Configure default routes on the BranchOffice and PartnerNet routers.

To configure static routes for each router, first determine which routes need to be added for
each device. For the BranchOffice and the PartnerNet routers, a single default route allows
these devices to route traffic for all networks not directly connected. To configure a default
route, you must identify the IP address of the next hop router, which in this case is the
MainOffice router.
a) From the Common toolbar, click the Select tool.
b) Move the cursor over the red serial link between the BranchOffice router and the
MainOffice router. Notice that the interface of the next hop is S3/0.
c) Move the cursor over the MainOffice router and note that the IP address for Serial 3/0 is
10.10.10.1.
d) Move the cursor over the red serial link between the PartnerNet router and the MainOffice
router. Notice that the interface of the next hop is S2/0.
e) Move the cursor over the MainOffice router and note that the IP address for Serial 2/0 is
10.10.10.5.
f) Configure the static routes on both the BranchOffice and PartnerNet routers using the CLI.
Click the BranchOffice router, and click the CLI tab.
g) At the BranchOffice> prompt, type enable to enter privileged EXEC mode.
h) At the BranchOffice# prompt, type configure terminal.
j) The syntax for a default route is ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 next_hop_ip_address. Type ip
route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 10.10.10.1. Type end to get back to the BranchOffice# prompt.
k) Type copy run start to save the configuration change.
l) Repeat steps f through k on the PartnerNet router, using 10.10.10.5 as the next hop IP
address.

Step 5: Configure static routes at Main Office.

a) The configuration of static routes at the Main Office is a bit more complex because the
MainOffice router is responsible for routing traffic to and from the Branch Office and
PartnerNet LAN segments. The MainOffice router knows only about routes to the
10.10.10.0/30, 10.10.10.4/30, and 192.168.2.0/24 networks because they are directly
connected. Static routes to the 192.168.1.0/24 and 192.168.3.0/24 networks need to be added
so that the MainOffice router can route traffic between the networks behind the BranchOffice
and PartnerNet routers. a. Click the MainOffice router, and then click the CLI tab.

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b) At the MainOffice> prompt, type enable to enter privileged EXEC mode.
c) At the MainOffice# prompt, type configure terminal.
d) The syntax for a static route is ip route network subnet_mask next_hop_ip_address: ip
route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 10.10.10.2 ip route 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 10.10.10.6
e) Type end to return to the MainOffice# prompt.
f) Type copy run start to save the configuration change.
g) Repeat steps a through e from Step 3. View the routing tables and notice the difference in
the routing tables. The routing table for each router should have an “S” for each static route.

Step 6: Test connectivity.

a) Now that each router in the topology has static routes configured, all hosts should have
connectivity to all other hosts. Use ping to verify connectivity.
b) Click BOpc and click the Desktop tab.

c) Choose the Command prompt option.

d) Type ping 192.168.3.2. The ping should be successful, verifying that the static routes are
configured properly.
e) Type ping 192.168.2.2. Notice that the result is successful even though you did not
specifically add the 192.168.2.0 network as a static route into any of the routers. Because a
default route was used on the BranchOffice and PartnerNet routers, a route for the
192.168.2.0 network was not needed. The default route sends all traffic destined off network
to the MainOffice router. The 192.168.2.0 network is directly connected to the MainOffice
router; therefore, no additional routes needed to be added to the routing table
f) Click the Check Results button at the bottom of this instruction window to check your
work

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