University of Anbar

College of Engineering computer network

Dept. of Electrical Engineering adnan salih

SIGNAL ENCODING
8.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this chapter are: 1. Understand what is signal encoding 2. Different ways
of converting analog signal to digital 3. Different ways of converting digital signal to analog
4. Modulation

INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL ENCODING

Data can be analog or digital, so can be the signal that represents it.
Signal encoding is the conversion from analog/digital data to analog / digital signal.

Figure: Signal Encoding In the Figure above,

A) Demonstrates Digital Signaling where data from an analog/digital source is
encoded into Digital Signal

B) Demonstrates Analog signaling in which the analog/digital source modulates a

continuous carrier signal to produce an analog signal.
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The possible encodings are:
1. Digital data to Digital Signal
2. Digital data to Analog Signal
3. Analog data to Digital Signal
4. Analog data to Analog Signal

8.2 SYNCHRONIZATION
In order to receive the signals correctly, the receivers bit intervals must correspond
exactly to the senders bit intervals.

The clock frequency of the transmitter and receiver should be the same.

If the clock frequency at the receiver is slower or faster than the bit intervals are not
matched and the received signal is different than the transmitted one.

Figure : Synchronization
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In the above figure, the receiver clock frequency is twice that of the transmitter
frequency. Hence the received data is totally different than the transmitted one

To avoid this, receiver and transmitter clocks have to be synchronized.

To achieve this the transmitted digital signal should include timing information which
forces synchronization
University of Anbar
College of Engineering computer network
Dept. of Electrical Engineering adnan salih

8.3 Digital Data to Digital Signal Coding methods Coding methods are used to convert digital
data into digital signals. There are two types of coding methods:
1 Line Coding
2 Block Coding

Scrambling is also one of the ways to convert digital data to digital signals but is not used.
8.3.1 Line Encoding It is the process of converting Digital data into digital signal. In
other words, it is converting of binary data(i.e. A sequence of bits) into digital signal (i.e. a
sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses) Figure: Line Coding 8.3.2
Classification of Line Codes The following figure shows the classification of Line coding
schemes:
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Figure : Classification of line coding schemes 8.3.2.A Unipolar
All signal levels are either above or below the time axis.
NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this code. The signal
level does not return to zero during a symbol transmission.

8.3.2.B Polar
NRZ-voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages. E.g. +V for 1
and -V for 0.

There are two variations:

o NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and negative for
the other

o NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity

determines the value of a symbol. E.g. a ―1‖ symbol inverts the polarity a ―0‖
does not.

Polar – RZ
The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -.
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Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or
from low to zero

More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no error detection

capability

Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

Manchester coding is a combination of NRZ-L and RZ schemes.
Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low
to high.
It uses only two voltage levels.
University of Anbar
College of Engineering computer
network
Dept. of Electrical Engineering adnan salih

Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-I and RZ

schemes.
Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the
beginning of the symbol is determined by the symbol value. One symbol causes
a level change the other does not.
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.C Bipolar - AMI
This coding scheme uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the
symbols

Voltage level for one symbol is at ―0‖ and the other alternates between +

Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the ―0‖ symbol is represented

by zero voltage and the ―1‖ symbol alternates between +V and -V.

Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI

8.3.2.D Multilevel
Here the number of data bits is increased per symbol to increase the bit
rate.
2 types of data element a 1 or a 0 are available, it can be combined into a
pattern of n elements to create 2m symbols.
Using L signal levels we can have n signal elements to create Ln signal
elements. The following possibilities can occur:
With 2m symbols and Ln signals:
If 2m > Ln then we cannot represent the data elements, we don‘t have
enough signals.
If 2m = Ln then we have an exact mapping of one symbol on one signal.
If 2m < Ln then we have more signals than symbols and we can choose the
signals that are more distinct to represent the symbols and therefore have better
noise immunity and error detection as some signals are not valid
These types of codings are classified as mBnL schemes. In mBnL
schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal
elements in which 2m≤ Ln.
2B1Q (two binary, one quaternary)
Here m = 2; n = 1 ; Q = 4. It uses data patterns of size 2 and encodes the
2-bit patterns as one signal element belonging to a four-level signal.

8B6T(eight binary, six ternary)

Here a pattern of 8 bits is encoded a pattern of 6 signal elements, where
the signal has three levels
University of Anbar
College of Engineering computer
network
Dept. of Electrical Engineering adnan salih

Here m = 8; n = 6 ; T = 3
So we can have 28 =256 different data patterns and 36 =478 different
signal patterns.

4D-PAM5 (Four Dimensional Five-Level Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

4D -means that data is sent over four channels at the same time.
It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2.

8.3.2.E Multitransition
Because of synchronization requirements we force transitions. This can
result in very high bandwidth requirements -> more transitions than are bits (e.g.
mid bit transition with inversion).

Codes can be created that are differential at the bit level forcing transitions
at bit boundaries. This results in a bandwidth requirement that is equivalent to the
bit rate.

In some instances, the bandwidth requirement may even be lower, due to

repetitive patterns resulting in a periodic signal.

MLT-3
o Signal rate is same as NRZ-I
o Uses three levels (+v, 0, and - V) and three transition rules to move
between the levels.
If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.
If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0.
If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is the
opposite of the last nonzero level.