CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

2 GEOMETRY, DESIGNATION AND ELEMENTS OF CURVES

2.1 Introduction

I ɵ
γ

Fig 1
A

T1 B T2

R
ɵ R

L2
L1 C

Referring to figure 1.

i) A single curve of radius R connects two straight lines L1T1 and L2T2
ii) The two straight lines intersect at I – which is referred to as the “intersection point”. Angle  at I is the
angle of intersection or the deflection angle.
iii) The curve starts at tangent point T1 and end at tangent point T2.
iv) The angle of intersection between the two tangents is  =T1CT2. This angle is measured.
v) γ is called “apex angle” (T1ÎT2).
vi) From the geometry of the figure, the following arise:
 Angle BT1I = angle BT2I = /2
Tangent length T1I = tangent T2I = R tan θ
2
 Length of curve T1AT2 = R, where  is in radius
 Main chord = Distance T1T2
/
But sin/2 = =
Therefore T1T2 = 2 R sin θ
2

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
- Apex distance = IA
= IC – R
= Rsec/2 – R
= R(sec/2 – 1)

- The Rise = AB
= R – CB
= R - Rcos/2
= R (1 - cos/2)

2.2 Curve designation (Marking or Pointing Clearly)

100m

Fig 2

R
R

D0

Curve designation is accomplished either by the use of the radius (R) or the degree of curvatuve (D o).

i) Degree of Curvature
Is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of 100m. Which implies that:
=

D= =

Degree of curvature is an important factor in the design of curves and its selected on the basis of the
following:
i) Design speed
ii) Allowable superelevation
iii) Friction

After the degree of curvature is selected, the radius is calculated using the formula:
D =
ii) Through Chainage

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
Chainage is the horizontal distance from the beginning of a construction scheme to the point in question
and is used in road, railway, pipeline and tunnel construction as a means of referencing any point on the
centre line.
I
Fig 3

S2
S3
82.331
S S1 T1
121.684
100.764 92.420 S4
93.112 T2

Chainage at S1 = 100.764m
S2 = 100.764 + 121.684 = 222.448
S3 = 100.764 + 721.684 + 82.331 = 304.779
S4 = 100.764 + 721.684 + 82.331 + 92.420 =
T1 = 100.764 + 721.684 + 82.331 + 92.420 + 93.112 =
I = Chainage at T1 + T1I
T2 = Chainage at T1 + Curvelength T1T2

Note: If the curve is to be set out using 10m sub-chords and its desired that the chainage at the end of the
sub-chords be round figures, then the first chord would be set at 6.888m. Hence, the first peg from T 1 will
have a chainage of 93.112 + 6.888 = 100m from S 4.

Exercise
1) Calculate
i) The tangent length
ii) The length of curve
iii) The main chord
iv) Apex distance
v) the rise
a) For a curve having intersection angle of 85 o, 36’ 40” and R = 148.644m.
b) For a curve having apex angle of 58o 40’ 12” and R = 84.400.

2) For a curve having a deflection angle of 120o 18’ 30” and R = 64.780m, determine the chainage at the
starting tangent pt T1 and the ending tangent pt T2, given that the chainage at the intersection pt I is
1224.687m.

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
2.3 Setting Out

1. Setting Out Using Theodolite and Tape/EDM

I

T1 A B

R
𝛿 𝛿
C
2 2
O

As indicated in figure 4, the curve is established or set out by a series of chords, T 1, B, BC etc.

Fixing Peg 1 at B
 Sight I and set the theodolite to read zero (0O 00’ 00”).
𝛿
 Turn off angle and measure the chord length T 1B (using EDM or tape) along the turn off line.
2
 Fix peg 1 at the measured position of B.

Fixing Peg 2 at C
 Set the theodolite to read the second setting out angle. This will give the direction T 1C.
 Measure the chord length BC from B so as to intersect at C with the direction T 1C.
 Fix peg 2 at C.

Continue the procedure from peg 2 by setting out the angles from T1I and measuring the chords from the
previous station.

Calculation of Setting out angles

Assumption: A bisects the chord T1B at 90° hence

AT1O = 90 - but IT1O = 90°

Therefore IT1A =

Arclength T1B in radians = 2R (From R𝜃)

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

(in radians) = =

(in degrees) = x 180

2𝜋𝑅

(in Minutes) = x 180x60

2𝜋𝑅

Hence (Mins) =
𝜋𝑅

Example
When projected, the centre line of two straights meet at I with a deflection angle of 44 o 0’0”. The straights
are to be connected by a circular curve of radius 240m. Tabulate all the setting out data assuming 25m
chords on a thorough – chainage basis. The chainage at I = 1884.966m.

Solution
i) Draw appropriate diagram

ii) Tangent length = R tan

= 240 tan 22
= 96.966m

iii) Chainage at T1 = 1884.966 – 96.966

= 1788.000m

iv) 1st sub chord = 12.000m (Know from whole No. 1788+12)

v) Length of circular arc = Rδ

= 240 x 44
= 184.307m
Hence number of chords may be determined as
1st sub chord = 12m
Std. 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th = 25m each
Final sub chord = 22.307m
Total = 12 + 150 + 22.307 = 184.307m

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
vi) Chainage at T2 = 1788.000 + 184.307
= 1972.307m
vii) Deflection angles.

1st Sub chord = = 85.94 mins = 10 25’ 56.4”

240𝜋

Standard Chord = = 179.05 mins = 20 59’ 03”

240𝜋

.
Final sub chord = = 159.76 mins = 20 39’ 46”
240𝜋

Total as check = 22o 00’ 00”

Tabulated Data
Chord No. Chord Length Chainage Deflection Setting out Remarks
angle angle
1. 12 1800 1 25 56 1 25 56 Peg 1
2. 25 1825 2 59 03 4 25 00 Peg 2
3. 25 1850 2 59 03 7 24 03 Peg 3
4. 25 1875 2 59 03 10 23 06 Peg 4
5. 25 1900 2 59 03 13 22 09 Peg 5
6. 25 1985 2 59 03 16 21 12 Peg 6
7. 25 1950 2 59 03 19 20 15 Peg 7
8. 22.307 1972.307 2 39 46 22 00 01 Peg 8

Assignment/Exercise
When projected, the centre line of two straight meet at I with a deflection angle of 50 o 00’ 00”. The
straights are to be connected by a circular curve of radius R = 300m. Tabulate all the setting out data
assuming 20m chords on a through chainage basis. The chainage at I = 2139.892m.

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

2. Setting Out Using Two Theodolites

I 𝜭
Fig 5 δ = setting out angle
𝜭 = angle of intersection

Peg1 Peg2

δ2
δ1
T1 T2
δ2 δ1 𝜃
2

Method employed when chord taping is impossible

Procedure
i) Set out the curve using two theodolites, one at T 1 and the other at T2.
ii) The intersection of the lines of sight gives the position of the curve pegs as shown in figure 5.
iii) The setting out angles are set from T1I in the usual way, then from T2 the same angles are set from the
chord T1T2 and the corresponding pegs are fixed as indicated.
iv) When T1 is not intervisible from T2 then sight I (when at T2) and turn off the corresponding angles,…….

– δ1, – δ2, – δ3 etc,

3. Setting Out when Intersection point is inaccessible

I 𝜭 Obstruction e.g building

B
Fig 6
A

T1
T2
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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

R
R
L1 L2
O
Problem:
To fix T1 and T2 and obtain angle  when I is blocked (inaccessible).

Approach
i) Project the lines L1T1 and L2T2 forward as much as possible and establish A and B.
ii) Measure the length AB and angle BAL1 and L2BA,
Therefore; IAB = 180 – BAL and
IBA = 180 – L2BA
Hence angle AIB can be deduced and  obtained.
Obtained lengths IA and IB by solving triangle AIB then subtract the corresponding length from the
computed tangent length (Rtan ) so as to obtain lengths AT1 and BT2 which are used to fix T1 and T2
respectively.
iii) Set out the curve the usual way.

4. Setting out where there are obstacles on the curve

I

Fig 7 Peg1
Peg2
Peg3
T1 Obstacle

Peg4
R

Problem:
From the figure, an obstruction on the curve prevents the measuring or chainage of the chord from peg
3 to peg 4.

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
Options:
i) Set out the curve from T1 to the obstruction.
ii) Set out the chord lengths T1 peg 4 where
T1peg4 = 2R sinδ4……. (Verify)

5. Setting out when theodolite is moved to an intermediate point along the curve.

I
A

Fig 8

1 2
δ5 3
δ4 4 δ4 T
T1 δ5
δ6
5
R R

6
O B

Problem:
Curve ranging may be continued from appoint on the curve due to an obstruction or difficulty in
communication and visibility when the curve is long.

Procedure:
From figure 8, assume the setting out angle to set peg 5 is obstructed. Then:
i) Move the theodolite to peg 4 and backsight T1 with the theodolite reading 180o (orientation).
ii) Transit the telescope to give the direction Peg 4-T (reading zero).
iii) Turn off the setting out angle for peg 5, (δ5) and measure the chord length from peg 4.
iv) The remainder of the curve is then set out the usual way.

Proof:
From constructed tangent AB through peg4, angle AT14 = A4T1 = δ4 = T4B
If peg 5 was fixed by turning off δ from this tangent, then the required angle from 4T would be δ 4 +δ = δ5.

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

6. Passing a curve through a given point

β φ
Fig 9

T1
R T2
R ε
R
𝜃
2
O

Problem
To find out the radius of a curve, which will pass through point P. The position of P is determined by the
distance IP and an angle Φ to the tangent.
From Δ ITO, β = 90- - φ
Using sine formula
Sinα = sin β

But IO = Rsec

Sinα = sin x Rsec = sinβsec

Then ε = 180 – α – β
But sin = sin

Therefore R = IPsin

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

2.4 Compound and Reverse Curves

T1 𝜭=𝜭1+ 𝜭2

Fig 10 – Compound curves

t1 𝜭1 t 𝜭2 t2
𝜃1
2
T1

T2
R1
𝜭1
R2

𝜭2

Fig 11 – Reverse Curves O2

I 𝜭1
𝜭2

T1 t
T2

𝜭1

O1 𝜭2

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

Although equations are available which solve compound and reverse curves, they are difficult to remember
and students are advised to treat the problem as two simple curves with a common tangent point t.

Compound Curves

i) Obtain the total tangent length T1I and T2I as follows:

T1t1 = t1t = R1 tan θ1
2

T2t2 = t2t = R2 tan θ2

2

But t1t2 = t1t + t1t2, then solve triangle t1I t2 for the lengths t1I and t2I, hence
T1 I = T 1 t 1 + t 1 I
T2 I = T 2 t 2 + t 2 I

ii) Set out the curve as follows:

a) For first curve, set out R1 in the usual way to point t. Then move the theodolite to t and
backsight T1 setting the horizontal circle reading to 180 - /2
b) Set the instrument to read 0o 00’ 00” and then it will be pointing to t2. Thus the instrument is
now oriented and reading zero prior to setting out the second curve of radius R 2.

Reverse Curves
Reverse curves are mostly used in railway work to connect parallel tracks. In this case, there is no
intersection point I and the tangent lines T1I1 and T2I2 are parallel hence 1 = 2 =  and t lies on the
straight line T1T2.

2.5 Transition Curves

A transition curve is a curve of constantly changing radius. When a transition curve is used to connect a
straight line to a curve of radius R, then the starting radius of the transition is that of a straight line which is
infinity and the final radius well be that of the curve (R).

2.5.1 Effect of Super Elevation

It is the raising of the outer edge of the railway or road surface above the inner once as shown in figure
when a vehicle moves on a curve there are two forces acting:
i) Weight of the vehicles W

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
ii) Centrifugal force P

ȼ W

P P
O
R

Fig 1

Inclined

O
𝜭

𝜭
R
P W

By referring to figure 1, consider a curve with a vehicle travelling at speed V along a straight line. The
forces acting vertically downwards on the vehicle will be its weight acting vertically downwards and an
equal and opposite force acting vertically upwards through the wheels.

By the time the vehicle enters the curve of radius R at tangent point T 1, an additional centrifugul force P,
acts on the vehicle as seen on figure (a). As P increases, the vehicle is forced to the outside of the curve
and may skid or overturn. The resultant of the two forces is shown in figure 1 (c). If the road is
superelevated, normal to this resultant force, there will be no tendence for the vehicle to skid or overturn.

In order that there is no lateral thrust the resultant force must be normal to the inclined surface. The
centrifugal force
P = WV2 ……………………………………………………………..eq 1
gR

hence tanθ = centrifugal force = WV 2 x 1

weight of vehicle gR W
2
= V
gR
Where V = Velocity

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
g = acceleration due to gravity
R = radius of the curve
if B = width of the road in m
G = gauge of the railway in m

Then tanθ = h for highways

B
= h for railways
B
Or h = Btanθ = BV2 on roads and BV2 on railways
gR gR

Hence superelevation will only cancel the effect of P at a constant design speed V. Consequently,
superelevation reduces the effect of P, because traffic speeds vary in practice.

Advice: Reduce your speed on curves or roundabouts in order to reduce P and hence avoid overturning.

2.5.2 Centrifugal ratio

The ratio of the centrifugal force and weight is called the centrifugal ratio.

Thus centrifugal ratio = P = WV2 = V2

W gRW gR
The max value of centrifugal ratio is ¼ for road and for railway it is 1/8 .

Thus for roads V2 = 1

gR 4 ,
For railways V2 = 1
gR 8

2.5.3 Principle of Transition (Roles)

Transition curves have two major roles:

1. To ensure a gradual change of direction from a straight line (radius = ) to the curve (Radius = R).
2. Permit the gradual application of superelevation to counteract centrifugal force.

Since it is not possible to eliminate P, its allowed for by permitting it to increase uniformly along the curve.
As P is inversely proportional to R (from eq 1) an ideal transition curve is supposed to have a radius which

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
decreases uniformly with the distance along it. This in turn permits the uniform application of
superelevation; hence

Fig 2
δφ

δl

t
t1
r
δφ r

O
T1 r≈∞
rƖ = c
or
Ɩ
= ……………….eq2
c = constant
Ɩ = distance

In figure 2, tt1 is an infinitely small portion of a transition 1 of radius r. Therefore;

Ɩ = rφ

= ………………………………………………….eq3
Ɩ

By substituting equation (2) one obtains

Ɩ
=
Ɩ

Which on integration becomes

Ɩ
φ =

Ɩ = (2cφ)⅟2
Let a = (2c)⅟2
then Ɩ = a(φ)⅟2
when c = RL, then a = (2RL)⅟2 and therefore
Ɩ = (2RLФ)⅟2 ……………………………………………………………eq4

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

Equation 1 – 4 give the expressions for the clothoid (euler spiral) curve which is mostly used in road
design.

2.5.4 Transition Curve Design

The requirements in the design of transition curves include:

i) The value of the minimum safe radius R.
ii) The length L of the curve.

Calculation of the Sate Radius R

From equation (1)

R = ……..…………………….……………………eq5

Where v = design speed in ms-1

g = acceleration due to gravity
R = minimum safe radius

When V is expressed in Km/h, equation 5 changes to

R = ……………………………….......................…..eq6

The commonly used values for the common ratio p/w are 0.21 to o.25 on roads and 0.125 on railways.

Example
Let p/w = 0.22 v = 641 km/h then
( )
R = = 146.6m ≈ 147m
.

Calculation of length of Curve

( )
L = ……………………………………………….eq7
( . )

Where q = centripetal (radial) acceleration, its values are 0.3, 0.45 and 0.6 ms -3.
The design speed is expressed in km/h while the rest of the units are in meters.

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
2.5.5 Setting out

I 𝜭

S
B
t1 t2 φ
φ D
A
φ-δ

δ
R R
T1 Transition
Transition curve T2
curve 𝜭 - 2Φ
Φ1 Φ2

 Fig indicates two straights projected forward to intersect at I with a transition curve commencing
from tangent point T1 and joining the circular arc at t1. The second equal transition commences at t2
and joins at T2. Therefore, the composite curve from T1 to T2 consists of a circular arc with
transitions at entry and exit.
 In order to fix T1 and T2, the tangent lines T1I and T2I need be obtained as..

T1I = T2I = (R+S) tan + C…………………………………….eq8 (See ROY)

Shift = S = + ……………

C = + ……………..
Hence using the chainage at I and the arc length, the points T 1 and T2 may be fixed.
 For setting out the transitions:
i) Set the theodolite at T1 and orient to I within the horizontal circle reading zero.
ii) Peg out the transition using deflection angles and chords in the same way as for simple curves.
iii) calculate the length of the transition by using formula given in eq (7).
iv) Partition the transition length into appropriate arc lengths; then the equivalent chord lengths
become

A- + ………………………………………………………………………………..eq 9

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

where A is the arc length.

v) Calculate the setting out angles as follows:
From equation 4 (basic formula to clothoid)
Ɩ = (2RLФ)⅟2
Ɩ
Ф = = when Ɩ = L

where Ɩ = L = 200m (say). Ɩ is any distance, along the transition curve other than the total length L.

But δ = - - …………………………………………..eq10

Then = Ɩ1 2
φ1
Ф L
Therefore = Ф Ɩ12
φ1 where Ɩ1 = chord length say = 30m
L2
But we know that δ1 = φ1
3
Similarly φ2 = Ф Ɩ2 2 where Ɩ2 = 60m say
L2
and δ2 = φ2 ……………………..and so on
3
vi) Note that the values for l1, l2, l3, etc are accumulative and therefore the values obtained from δ1, δ2,
δ3 etc are the final setting out angles which MUST not be summed as in the case of simple curves.
Setting out Circular Arc t1t2
i) Establish the direction of the tangent t1B by setting the theodolite at t1 and backsighting to T1 with the
horizontal circle reading at 180o – ( -) for orientation purposes. Then set the instrument to read zero
by transiting the telescope in order to orient in the direction t 1B i.e. the circle reading should be zero
before setting out the simple circular arc. The angle ( -) is called back angle to the origin.
ii) As each transition absorbs an angle , the angle subtending the circular curve becomes (θ - 2) and
consequently, the length of the circular arc changes to R (θ - 2) which is then partitioned into required
chord lengths (c).
iii) The deflection angle/setting out angle  (min) becomes
5400C
πR
the angles are then set out from tangent t1B in the usual way. Then, the second transition t 2T2 is set out.

Example

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 CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
Part of a motorway scheme, involves the design and setting out curve with cubic spiral transitions at each
end. The transitions are to be designed such that the centrifugal ratio is 0.197 while the rate of change of
centripetal acceleration is 0.45ms-3 at a design speed of 100km/h. If the chainage at the intersection of the
straights is 2154.22m and the angle of deflections is 50 o 00’ 00”. Calculate:
(i) The length of transition.
(ii) The chainage at the beginning and at the end of the total composite curve.
(iii) The setting out angles for the first three 10m chords on a through chainage basis i.e l 1 = 10,
l2 = 20, l3 = 30 (Let the first sub chord be 3 m, l2 = 13, l3 = 23).

Solution
i) Length of transition
( )
L = q = 0.45ms-3
( . )

R= = 0.197

R= = = 399.696m
.
( )
L = = 119.165m
( . ) . .

ii) Chainage at I = 2154.22m

Tangent Length T1I = (R+S) tan +C

S = = 1.480m

C = = 59.582m
T1I = T2I = 401.176 tan 25 + 59.582 = 246.653m

Chainage at T1 = 2154.22 – 246.653 = 1907.567m

Length of transition L = 119.165
Length of curve = R (𝜭 - 2Ф)

Ф= = 0.490695rads
Therefore Length R(0.57452255 ) = 229.636m
Length of composite curve = 229.636 + 2(119.165) = 467.966
Chainage at T2 = 1907.567 + 467.966 = 2375.533m

iii) Chainage at T1 = 1907.567m then

1st subchord = 2.433m

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

Ф= = 0.490695rads = 8o 32’ 27.7”

( . )
φ1 = Ф Ɩ12 = 8o 32’ 27.7” x = 00 0’ 19.5”
( . )
L2
δ1 = φ1 = 0o 0’ 6.5”
3
( . )
δ2 = φ2 = 8o 32’ 27.7” x = 00 2’ 1.9”
( . )
3
( . )
δ2 = φ2 = 8o 32’ 27.7” x = 00 2’ 1.9”
( . )
3
( . )
δ2 = φ2 = 8o 32’ 27.7” x = 00 6’ 22”
( . )
3

2.6 Vertical Curves

2.6.1 Introduction

 For highways and railways whenever there is a change of grade in the vertical plane, a vertical curve is
required to smoothen the change. It is usually parabolic as parabolic curves provide a constant rate of
change of grade.

 A vertical curve is therefore used to connect two straight lines (gradients) in the vertical plane. A
vertical curve should be so designed that.
i) It gives smooth riding qualities which will occur if there is a constant change of gradient and a
uniform rate of increase of centrifugal force.
ii) Adequate sighting distance is available before the vehicle reaches the summit.

There are four types of vertical curves:

a) Sag curve
b) Crest of summit curve
c) Rising curve
d) Falling curve
In a sag curve, a downgrade is followed by an upgrade,
In a summit curve an upgrade is followed by a downgrade,
In a rising curve an upgrade is followed by another upgrade.

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
In a falling curve a downgrade is followed by another downgrade

Sag Curve Q
P Crest Curve
R +m% -n%
-m% +n% P R
Q

A = (-m) – (+n) A = (+m)-(-n)

A = +ve A = +ve

R A = (-m) - (-n)
+n%
Q P A = -ve
+m% A = (+m) – (+n) -m%
A = +ve
P C -n%
R
Rising Curve
Falling Curve
 Gradients are usually expressed as percentages, for example 1 in 50 = 2%, 1 in 25 = 4%.
 In the design calculations, gradients rising in the direction of increasing chainage are considered to
be positive and those falling are considered to be negative.
 In the above examples, chainage has been assumed to increase from left to right, hence the algebraic
difference A is obtained as
A = (entry gradient %) – (exit gradient %)

2.6.2 Assumptions made in vertical curve calculation

R
+n%

Q
S
S = Mid-point of curve
-m% W
U W = Mid-point of chord

P
Q’ Horizontal through P

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
Figure shows a parabolic vertical curve having equal tangent lengths joining two intersecting gradients PQ
and QR. The assumptions here are:
 Chord PWR = arc PSR = PQ + QR
 Length along the tangents = horizontal length, that is PQ = PQ’
 QU = QW, that is there is no difference in dimensions measured either in the vertical plane or
perpendicular to the entry tangent length.

1. Equation of the Vertical Curve

The equation of the parabola is used as x = cy2, y being measured along the tangent length and x being set
off at right angles to it. x can also be set off in a vertical direction without any appreciable error.
Consider figure below

Q
𝑛L
-n% R
𝐿 200
𝑚L 2
200 S
+m%

y W

P Datum
Q’
x in either direction
x

Let QS = e and let the total length of curve = L. Using the assumptions.

Level of Q above P = ( )( ) = …………………………………eq i

Level of R below Q = ( )( ) = …………………………………eq ii

( )
Hence level of R above P = - =

But PW = WR, therefore

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

( )
Level of W above P = and from the properties of parabola

QS = = SW
Since QW = level Q above P – Level of W above P

𝑚L (𝑚−𝑛)L ( )
then QS =
200
− 400
=

But A = (+m) – (-n) = (m + n), hence QS = = e

Now the basic equation of parabola is x = cy2, therefore at point Q when Y = and x = e, then

e = C 2L 2
OR C=

Substituting in x = cy2 we have

x = and substituting e =

We get x = ………………………………………………………eq1

This is the general equation of parabolic vertical curves used in calculation of reduced levels along the
curve centre line.

2. Calculating reduced levels along the centre line of the curve

-n%
+m%

R
y z
ΔH 𝑚y
P 100

The figure shows a curve having equal tangent lengths PQ and QR. Through chainage increases from
tangent point P to R with entry gradient +m% and exit gradient as –n%. If P is taken as the datum level
then the level of any point Z on the curve w.r.t P is given by angle H, where

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
𝑚y A𝑦2
H = − ……………………………………………….eq2
100 200𝐿

Note:
 H can be positive or negative depending on the signs of m and A.
 All H values are related to the RL of tangent point P and should be added to or subtracted from this
to obtain the reduced levels of points on the curve.

3. Highest Point of a crest and Lowest point of a sag

In order that drainage gullies can be positioned effectively, it is necessary to know the through chainage
and reduced level of the highest or lowest point on the vertical curve. The highest point occurs when H
in figure 4 is a maximum. For a maximum or minimum value of H,
d. H/dy = 0.

Therefore d( ) = ( )–( ) =0

Rearranging ( ) =( )
And for a maximum or minimum value of H
y=

This gives the point along the curve from tangent point P at which the maximum or minimum level occurs.
To find reduced level at this point, substitute equation into equation (2).
𝐿𝑀
Hmax/min = ( ) (
100
) -( )( )

Hmax/min = ……………………………………………eq 3

4. Length of Vertical Curve

Sight Distances
The length of vertical curve to be used in any given situation depends on the sight distance.
 Stopping sight distance (SSD). The required sight distance by a driver in order to stop safely and
comfortably when faced with an expected hazard.
 Full overtaking sight distance (FOSD) – length of visibility required by drivers of vehicles to enable
them overtake vehicles on the road ahead in safety and comfort.

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
In the past it was necessary to use the appropriate sight distance for the road type and design speed in
question to calculate the minimum length of vertical curve required. Nowadays constants known as K
values specified in the Department of Transport Highway Design Standards are used.

The minimum length of curve is given by

L = KA Metres
Where L = min length of curve
K = k value constant
A = Algrebraic diff of gradients (use absolute value)……..(Photocopy table 13.1 pg 637)

Crest K Values
If a full overtaking facility is to included in the design of single carriageways then the FOSD overtaking
crest K value is used. If overtaking is not to be considered in the design then there are two possible K
values available for crests, the desirable minimum crest K value and the one step below desirable minimum
K value.

Example 1: Given Dual carriageway, design speed 85 kph, crest

From table 13.1
FOSD overtaking crest K value = 285m
Desirable minimum crest K value = 55m
one step below desirable minimum crest K value = 30m

Since a dual carriageway is being designed, overtaking is not critical hence the FOSD overtaking crest K
value does not apply. Therefore the desirable minimum crest K value should be used hence,
L > 55A metres.

If this is not possible then depending on the site conditions, the designer may use the one step below
desirable minimum crest K value and use
L > 30A Metres

Example 2: Given Single carriageway, design speed 60kph, crest

FOSD overtaking crest K value = 142m
Desirable minimum crest K value = 17m
one step below desirable minimum crest K value = 10m
Since a single carriageway is being designed, a decision is made as to whether or not full overtaking is to
be allowed for in the design.

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CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III
If full overtaking then,
MinimumL = 142 A metres

However, on single carriageway crests, overtaking should either be easily achieved or not possible at all.
Hence if possible use, L> 142 A metres
Otherwise use L> 10 A metres

Sag K Values
Only one category of K values is given for sag curves since overtaking visibility is usually unrestricted.
This is the set of minimum sag K values in the table.

Example: Given Single carriageway, design speed 100 kph, sag

Absolute min sag K value = 26m
L = 26 A metres

Worked Examples
Question 1: (Curve with equal target lengths)
The reduced level at the intersection of a rising gradient of 1.5% and a falling gradient of 1.0% on a
proposed road is 93.60m. Given that the K value for this particular road is 55, the through chainage of the
intersection point is 671.34m and the vertical curve is to have equal tangent lengths, calculate:
i) The through chainages of the tangent points of the vertical curve if the minimum required length is to
be used.
ii) The reduced levels of the tangent points and the reduced levels at exact 20m multiples of through
chainage along the curve.
iii) The position and reduced level of the highest point on the curve.

Solution???

Question 2. (Designing curve with unequal tangent length)

A parabolic vertical curve is to connect a – 2.5% gradient to a 3.5% gradient on a highway designed for a
speed of 100kph. The K value for the highway is 26 and the minimum required length is to be used. The
reduced level and through chainage of the intersection point of the gradients are 59.34m and 617.49m
respectful and in order to meet particular site conditions, the through chainage of the entry tangent point is
to be 553.17m. Calculate:
i) The reduced levels of the tangent points
ii) The reduced levels at exact 20m multiples of through chainage a long the curve.

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 CVS 365 Engineering Surveying III

Solution???

Example 3
A parabolic vertical curve having equal tangent length is to connect a – 3.5% gradient to a +2.3% gradient
on a road designed for a speed of 100kph. The absolute minimum sag K – value of 26 is to be used to
obtain the length of the curve. The reduced level and the through chainage of the intersection point of the
two gradients are 123.47m AOD and 717.46m, respectively. Calculate
i) The through chainage of the tangent points
ii) The reduced levels of the tangent points and the reduced levels along the curve at exact 20m multiples
of through chainage.
iii) The through chainage and the reduced level of its lowest point.

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