CVS 365:

ENGINEERING SURVEYING III (3 Units)

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
 PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT (EDM)
By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
 Introduction
An EDM uses electromagnetic (EM) energy to
determine the length of a line.
The energy originates at an instrument at one end of a
line and is transmitted to a "reflector" at the other
end from where it is returned to the originating
instrument.
The nature of the "reflector" is dependant on the type
of EM.
If electro-optical (infrared or laser) EM is used then the
"reflector" is typically a passive medium which
bounces the signal back.
 Introduction
If the EM is microwave, then the reflector is a second
instrument which captures the incoming energy and
re-transits it back to the originating instrument.

Fig 1 - Electro-optical System

 Introduction
In either case the measurement is the total distance from
the instrument to the reflector and back to the instrument

Fig 2 - Microwave System

 Introduction
In either case the measurement is the total distance from
the instrument to the reflector and back to the instrument

Comparing the two EM types

EM Type Advantages Disadvantages
Electro-
optical Less susceptible to Shorter range.
atmospheric conditions.
Less expensive: only a single
transmitter needed.

Microwave Can penetrate fog and rain. Atmospheric affects are

Longer range. greater.
Transmitter at both ends Susceptible to ground
allows voice communication. reflected signals.
More expensive: requires
two transmitters.
 Distance Determination

An EDM does not determine distance by measuring the

travel time of the EM signal.
Instead, an EDM uses the signal structure and
determines the phase shift.
The EM signal has a sinusoidal wave form

Fig 3 - Sine Curve

 Distance Determination

Fig 4 - Wavelength

The number of times in 1 second that a wave completes

a cycle is called the frequency (f), and is measured in
Hz.
The length of one cycle is called the wavelength (λ),
which can be determined as a function of the frequency
from
 Distance Determination

eqn 1

where v is the speed of propagation of the wave.

The speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is
called the speed of light, c, and is taken to be 299,792,458
m s-1
A relationship expressing the instantaneous amplitude
of a sinusoidal wave is
Eqn 2

where Amax is the maximum amplitude developed by

the source, A0 is the reference amplitude, and ɸ is the
phase angle which completes a cycle in 2Π radians or
360°.
 Distance Determination

The double path length (2D) between instrument and

reflector is the distance covered by the radiation from an
EDM measurement.
It can be represented in terms of the wavelength of the
measuring unit:
eqn 3

- where distance from instrument to reflector is D,

- λm is the wavelength of the measuring unit,
- n is the integer number of wavelengths traveled by the
wave, and Δλm is the fraction of the wavelength traveled
by the wave
 Distance Determination

An EDM instrument using continuous electromagnetic

waves can only determine Δλm by phase comparison
(Figure 5).
If the phase angle of the transmitted wave measured at
the instrument is ɸ1, and the phase angle measured on
receipt is ɸ2, then

Eqn 4
Distance Determination

Fig. 5a
Distance Determination

Fig. 5 b
 Distance Determination

Example
Assume the wavelength in Fig 5b is 20.00 ft. The
last partial wave is:

If N=10, then the total distance EDM-reflector-EDM

is:

The distance between the EDM and reflector is

half that: 204.584 ft / 2 = 102.292 ft.
 Distance Reduction

An EDM measures the line of sight distance between

the instrument and reflector.
This is a slope distance and not horizontal unless the
EDM and reflector are at the same elevation.
In order to determine a horizontal or vertical distance
additional information is needed.
Combining an EDM with a digital theodolite results in
a Total Station Instrument (TSI).
When distance measurement is made, the TSI measures
the slope distance and a zenith angle.
Distance Reduction

Fig 6 - Slope Distance

Distance Reduction

Fig 7 - Total Station Instrument

 Distance Reduction
From these two measurements, the Horizontal and Vertical
distances are computed by the instrument

Eqn 5

Eqn 6
 Reflector
Any surface capable of reflecting the electro-optical signal will
allow distance measurement.

However, the more efficient the reflector, the stronger the

returned signal and the longer distance which can be measured.

Efficiency includes amount of signal reflected along with the

direction of its return path.

For example, while a flat mirror reflects most of the signal, if it

is not perpendicular to the incoming path, the signal will be
reflected away from the TSI.
 Reflector

Mirror perpendicular to signal path Mirror not perpendicular to signal path

Fig 8 - Mirror Reflector

 Reflector

To overcome this problem, a corner cube prism is used

as a reflector for most TSIs.

A corner cube prism is based on a 45° right angle

prism.

This type of prism has the property that any signal

which intersects its long (hypotenuse) side will be
reflected parallel to the incoming path even if the prism
is not perpendicular to the signal path.
 Reflector

Prism perpendicular to signal path Prism not perpendicular to signal path

Fig 9 - Prism Reflector

 Reflector
A typical corner cube prism uses a glass cylinder having
three 45° facets at one end.

This creates three right angle prisms all sharing the

glass cylinder's flat front as their hypotenuse.

From the front the facets appear as six radial segments:

Fig 10 - Prism, front view

 Reflector
The result is a highly efficient reflector for both signal
strength and direction.

Efficiency can be increased by using multiple prisms -

this results in more signal being reflected increasing
distance range.

Using a triple prism can increase range by 50-60%

depending on atmospheric conditions.

Fig 11 - Triple prism

THANK YOU!!!
 CVS 365:
ENGINEERING SURVEYING III (3 Units)

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
 PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT (EDM)
By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 2
Problem 2
Problem 2
Problem 2
THANK YOU!!!
 CVS 365:
ENGINEERING SURVEYING III (3 Units)

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
CURVES IN HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
HORIZONTAL CURVES

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
 Content
Introduction: Curves in Highway Engineering
Horizontal Curves
Types of Horizontal curves
Simple
Compound
Reverse
Spiral

Elements of horizontal curves

Curve Formulas
 Introduction
The center line of a road consists of series of straight
lines
interconnected by curves that are used to change
the alignment, direction, or slope of the road.
Curves that change the alignment or direction are
known as horizontal curves, and those that change
the slope are vertical curves.
Introduction

Fig 1 – Horizontal curves

 Horizontal Curves
When a highway changes horizontal direction, making
the point where it changes direction a point of
intersection between two straight lines is not feasible.
The change in direction would be too abrupt for the
safety of modern, high-speed vehicles.
It is therefore necessary to interpose a curve between
the straight lines.
The straight lines of a road are called tangents
In practically all modern highways, curves, that is, curves
that form circular arcs are present
 Horizontal Curves
The principal consideration in the design of a curve is the
selection of the length of the radius or the degree of
curvature .
This selection is based on such considerations as the
design speed of the highway and the sight distance as
limited by head-lights or obstructions
 Horizontal Curves

Figure 1: Lines of sight.

 Horizontal Curves
Types of Horizontal Curves
There are four types of horizontal curves
1. Simple
❖ the simple curve is an arc of a circle
❖ The radius of the circle determines the sharpness or flatness
of the curve

2. Compound
❖ Frequently, the terrain will require the use of the compound
curve
❖This curve normally consists of two simple curves joined
together and curving in the same direction
 Horizontal Curves
Types of Horizontal Curves
3. Reverse.
❖ A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined
together, but curving in opposite direction.
❖ For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be avoided
when possible

4. Spiral.
❖The spiral is a curve that has a varying radius.
❖ It is used on railroads and most modern highways.
❖ Its purpose is to provide a transition from the tangent to a
simple curve or between simple curves in a compound curve
Horizontal Curves

Figure 2: Horizontal curves

 Elements of a Horizontal Curve

Figure 3: Elements of a horizontal curve.

 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
PI - Point of Intersection
The point of intersection is the point where the back
and for- ward tangents intersect.
Sometimes, the point of intersection is designated as
V (vertex).
I - Intersecting Angle.
The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the
PI.
Its value is either computed from the preliminary
traverse angles or measured in the field.
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
Δ - Central Angle
The central angle is the angle formed by two radii
drawn from the center of the circle (O) to the PC and
PT.
The value of the central angle is equal to the I angle.
Some authorities call both the intersecting angle and
central angle either I or Δ
R - Radius
The radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc,
or segment.
The radius is always perpendicular to back and
forward tangents.
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
PC - Point of Curvature
The point of curvature is the point on the back
tangent where the circular curve begins.
It is sometimes designated as BC (beginning of curve)
or TC (tangent to curve).
PT - Point of Tangency
The point of tangency is the point on the forward
tangent where the curve ends.
It is sometimes designated as EC (end of curve) or
CT (curve to tangent).
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
POC - Point of Curve
The point of curve is any point along the curve.
L - Length of Curve
The length of curve is the distance from the PC to the
PT, measured along the curve.
T - Tangent Distance
The tangent distance is the distance along the
tangents from the PI to the PC or the PT.
These distances are equal on a simple curve.
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
LC - Long Chord
The long chord is the straight-line distance from
the PC to the PT.
Other types of chords are designated as follows:
C - The full-chord distance between adjacent stations (full,
half, quarter, or one- tenth stations) along a curve
C1- The sub-chord distance between the PC and the first
station on the curve
C2- The subchord distance between the last station on the
curve and the PT
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
E - External Distance
The external distance (also called the external secant)
is the distance from the PI to the midpoint of the
curve.
The external distance bisects the interior angle at the
PI.
M- Middle Ordinate
The middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint
of the curve to the midpoint of the long chord.
The extension of the middle ordinate bisects the
central angle.
D - Degree of Curve - The degree of curve defines the
sharpness or flatness of the curve
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
D - Degree of Curvature
Curvature may be expressed by simply stating the
length of the radius of the curve.
Stating the radius is a common practice in land
surveying and in the design of urban roads.
For highway and railway work, however, curvature is
expressed by the degree of curve.
Two definitions are used for the degree of curve:
Degree of Curve (Arc Definition)
Degree of Curve (Chord Definition)
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
D - Degree of Curvature
1. Degree of Curve (Arc Definition)
The arc definition is most frequently used in high-
way design.
This definition, (figure 4), states that the degree of
curve is the central angle formed by two radii that
extend from the center of a circle to the ends of an arc
measuring 100 meters.
E.g, if you take a sharp curve, mark off a portion so
that the distance along the arc is exactly 100 m, and
determine that the central angle is 12°, then you have
a curve for which the degree of curvature is 12°; it is
referred to as a 12° curve.
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve

Figure 4: Degree of curve (arc definition).

 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
D - Degree of Curvature - (Arc Definition)
From fig. 4, the ratio between the degree of curvature
(D) and 360° is the same as the ratio between 100 m
of arc and the circumference (C) of a circle having the
same radius.
That may be expressed as follows:

Since the circumference of a circle equals above

expression can be written as:
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
D - Degree of Curvature – Arc Definition
Solving this expression for R:

and also D:

For a 1° curve, D = 1; therefore R = 5,729.58 m

In practice the design engineer usually selects
the degree of curvature on the basis of such
factors as the design speed and allowable
superelevation.
Then the radius is calculated
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
D - Degree of Curvature
2. Degree of Curve (Chord Definition)
The arc definition is most frequently used in high-
way design.
This definition, (figure 5), states that the degree of
curve is the central angle formed by two radii drawn
from the center of the circle to the ends of a chord 100
meters long.
If you take a flat curve, mark a 100-m chord, and
determine the central angle to be 0°30’, then you have
a 30-minute curve (chord definition).
 Elements of a Horizontal Curve

Figure 5: Degree of curve (chord definition).

 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
D - Degree of Curvature
2. Degree of Curve (Chord Definition)
From observation of figure 5, you can see the
following trigonometric relationship:

Then, solving for R:

For a 1° curve, D = 1; therefore R = 5,729.65 m

 Elements of a Horizontal Curve
D - Degree of Curvature
Notice that in both the arc definition and the chord
definition, the radius of curvature is inversely
proportional to the degree of curvature.
In other words, the larger the degree of curve, the
shorter the radius; for example, using the arc
definition, the radius of a 1° curve is 5,729.58 units,
and the radius of a 5° curve is 1,145.92 units.
Under the chord definition, the radius of a 1° curve is
5,729.65 units, and the radius of a 5° curve is 1,146.28
units.
 Curve formulas
The relationship between the elements of a curve is
expressed in a variety of formulas
Tangent Distance
From figure 6, it can be seen that the solution for the
tangent distance (T) is a simple right-triangle solution.
In the figure, both T and R are sides of a right triangle,
with T being opposite to angle ∆/2 Therefore, from
trigonometric functions:

and solving for T,

 Curve formulas

Figure 6: Tangent distance

 Curve formulas
Chord Distance

Figure 7.—Chord distance.

 Curve formulas
Chord Distance
from figure 7, the solution for the length of a chord C, is
also a simple right-triangle solution.
C/2 is one side of a right triangle and is opposite angle
∆/2.
The radius (R) is the hypotenuse of the same triangle.
Therefore,
Solving for C,
 Curve formulas
Length of Curve

Figure 8: Length of curve.

 Curve formulas
Length of Curve
In the arc definition of the degree of curvature, length is
measured along the arc, as shown in view A of figure
8,
In this figure the relationship between D, ∆, L, and a
100-metre arc length may be expressed as follows:

and solving for L,

 Curve formulas
Length of Curve
This expression is also applicable to the chord
definition.
However, L., in this case, is not the true arc length,
because under the chord definition, the length of curve
is the sum of the chord lengths (each of which is
usually 100 meters),
As an example, if, as shown in view B, figure 8, the
central angle is equal to three times the degree of curve
(D), then there are three 100-meter chords; and the
length of “curve” is 300 meters.
Curve formulas

Note: cos∆/2 = R/(R+E)

 Curve formulas
Middle Ordinate, M
From figure 3:
Note: cos∆/2 = Y/R
Y = Rcos∆/2
M = R – Y (fig.3)
M = R – Rcos∆/2
M = R(1 – cos∆/2)
 Curve formulas
External Distance, E
From figure 3:
Note: cos∆/2 = R/(R+E)
R+E = R/cos∆/2
E = R/cos∆/2 - R
E = R(1/cos∆/2 – 1)
THANK YOU!!!
 CVS 365:
ENGINEERING SURVEYING III (3 Units)

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
CURVES IN HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
 VERTICAL CURVES

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
 Content
Introduction
Vertical Curves
Grades
Computing Vertical Curves

Elements of Vertical Curves

Symmetrical Vertical Curves
Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves
 Vertical Curves
In addition to horizontal curves that go to the
right or left, roads also have vertical curves that
go up or down.
Vertical curves at a crest or the top of a hill are
called summit curves, or oververticals.
Vertical curves at the bottom of a hill or dip are
called sag curves, or underverticals.
 Vertical Curves
Grades
Vertical curves are used to connect stretches
of road that go up or down at a constant slope.
These lines of constant slope are called grade
tangents (fig. 1).
The rate of slope is called the gradient, or simply
the grade.
 Vertical Curves

Figure 1: A vertical curve.

 Vertical Curves
Grades
Grades that ascend in the direction of the
stationing are designated as plus;
those that descend in the direction of the
stationing are designated as minus.
Grades are measured in terms of percent; that
is, the number of meter of rise or fall in a 100-
meter horizontal stretch of the road.
 Vertical Curves
Grades
After the location of a road has been determined and
the necessary fieldwork has been obtained, the
engineer designs or fixes (sets) the grades.
A number of factors are considered, including the
intended use and importance of the road and the
existing topography.
If a road is too steep, the comfort and safety of the
users and fuel consumption of the vehicles will be
adversely affected;
Therefore, the design criteria will specify maximum
grades
 Vertical Curves
Grades
Typical maximum grades are a 4-percent desired
maximum and a 6-percent absolute maximum for a
primary road.
For a secondary road or a major street, the maximum
grades might be a 5-percent desired and an 8-percent
absolute maximum;
For a tertiary road or a secondary street, an 8-percent
desired and a 10-percent absolute maximum.
Conditions may sometimes demand that grades or
ramps, driveways, or short access streets go as high as
20 percent
 Vertical Curves
Grades
The engineer must also consider minimum grades.
A street with curb and gutter must have enough fall
so that the storm water will drain to the inlets;
0.5 percent is a typical minimum grade for curb and
gutter (that is, 1/2 meter minimum fall for each 100
meter ahead).
For roads with side ditches, the desired minimum grade
might be 1 percent; but since ditches may slope at a
grade different from the pavement, a road may be
designed with a zero-percent grade.
 Vertical Curves
Grades
Zero-percent grades are not unusual, particularly
through plains or tidewater areas.
Another factor considered in designing the finished
profile of a road is the earthwork balance;
that is, the grades should be set so that all the soil cut
off of the hills may be economically hauled to fill in the
low areas.
In the design of urban streets, the best use of the
building sites next to the street will generally be more
important than seeking an earthwork balance.
 Vertical Curves
Computing vertical curves
the horizontal curves used in highway work are
generally the arcs of circles.
But vertical curves are usually parabolic.
The parabola is used primarily because its shape
provides a transition
Designing a vertical curve consists principally of
deciding on the proper length of the curve.
As indicated in figure 1, the length of a vertical curve
is the horizontal distance from the beginning to the
end of the curve; and NOT the distance along the
parabola itself.
 Vertical Curves
Computing vertical curves
The longer a curve is, the more gradual the transition
will be from one grade to the next;
The shorter the curve, the more abrupt the change.
The change must be gradual enough to provide the
required sight distance (fig. 2).
The sight distance requirement will depend on the
speed for which the road is designed; whether passing
or nonpassing distance is required; and other
assumptions, such as one’s reaction time, braking time,
stopping distance, height of one’s eyes, and height of
objects.
 Vertical Curves
Computing vertical curves

Figure 2: Sight distance.

 Vertical Curves
Computing vertical curves
A typical eye level used for designs is 4.5 feet or,
more recently, 3.75 feet; typical object heights are 4
inches to 1.5 feet.
For a sag curve, the sight distance will usually not be
significant during daylight; but the nighttime sight
distance must be considered when the reach of
headlights may be limited by the abruptness of the
curve.
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
Figure 3 shows the elements of a vertical curve.

Figure 3: Elements of a vertical curve

 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
PVC - Point of vertical curvature; the place where the
curve begins.
PVI - Point of vertical intersection; where the grade
tangents intersect
PVT - Point of vertical tangency; where the curve ends
POVC - Point on vertical curve; applies to any point
on the parabola
POVT - Point on vertical tangent; applies to any point
on either tangent.
g1 - Grade of the tangent on which the PVC is located;
measured in percent of slope.
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
g2 - Grade of the tangent on which the PVT is located;
measured in percent of slope.
G - The algebraic difference of the grades: G = g2 –g1
,wherein plus values are assigned to uphill grades and
minus values to downhill grades;
L - Length of the curve; the horizontal length measured
in 100-meter stations from the PVC to the PVT.
This length may be computed using the formula
L = G/r, where r is the rate of change (usually given in
the design criteria).
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
When the rate of change is not given, L (in stations) can
be computed as follows:
for a summit curve, L = 125 x G/4;
for a sag curve, L = 100 x G/4.

If L does not come out to a whole number of stations

using these formulas, then it is usually extended to the
nearest whole number.
You should note that these formulas for length are for
road design only, NOT railway .
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
l1 - Horizontal length of the portion of the PVC to the PVI
l2 - Horizontal length of the portion of the curve form the
PVI to the PVT;
e- Vertical (external) distance from the PVI to the curve.
This distance is computed using the formula:
e = LG/8,
where L is the total length in stations and G is the
algebraic difference of the grades in percent.
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves

x - Horizontal distance
from the PVC to any POVC or
POVT back of the PVI, or the distance from the PVT to
any POVC or POVT ahead of the PW, measured in feet.

y - Vertical distance (offset) from any POVT to the

corresponding POVC,

which is the fundamental relationship of the parabola

that permits convenient calculation of the vertical
offsets.
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
The vertical curve computation takes place after the
grades have been set and the curve designed.
Therefore, at the beginning of the detailed computations,
the following are known: g1, g2, l1, l2, L, and the elevation
of the PVI.
The general procedure is to compute the elevations of
certain POVTs and then to use the foregoing formulas
to compute G, then e, and then the Ys that correspond
to the selected POVTs.
When the y is added or subtracted from the elevation
of the POVT, the result is the elevation of the POVC.
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
The POVC is the finished elevation on the road, which is
the end result being sought.
In figure 3, the y is subtracted from the elevation of the
POVT to get the elevation of the curve;
but in the case of a sag curve, the y is added to the POVT
elevation to obtain the POVC elevation.
The computation of G requires careful attention to the
signs of g1 and g2.
Vertical curves are used at changes of grade other than
at the top or bottom of a hill; for example, an uphill
grade that intersects an even steeper uphill grade will be
eased by a vertical curve.
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
The six possible combinations of plus and minus
grades, together with sample computations of G, are
shown in figure 4.
Note that the algebraic sign for G indicates whether to
add or subtract y from a POVT.
The selection of the points at which to compute the y
and the elevations of the POVT and POVC is generally
based on the stationing.
The horizontal alignment of a road is often staked out
on 50-foot or 100-foot stations.
 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves

Figure 4: Algebraic differences of grades.

 Vertical Curves
Elements of vertical curves
Customarily, the elevations are computed at these same
points so that both horizontal and vertical information
for construction will be provided at the same point.
The PVC, PVI, and PVT are usually set at full stations or
half stations.
In urban work, elevations are sometimes computed and
staked every 25 feet on vertical curves.
The same, or even closer, intervals may be used on
complex ramps and interchanges.
The application of the foregoing fundamentals will be
presented in the next two sections under symmetrical
and unsymmetrical curves.
 Vertical Curves
Symmetrical Vertical Curves
A symmetrical vertical curve is one in which the
horizontal distance from the PVI to the PVC is equal to
the horizontal distance from the PVI to the PVT;
(i.e. l 1= l2)
Example
Compute the grade elevation of the curve to the
nearest hundredth of a foot at each 50-foot station
using the following data:
g = +9%
g = –7%
L = 400.00´, or 4 stations
The station of the PVI = 30 + 00
The elevation of the PVI = 239.12 feet
 Vertical Curves
Symmetrical Vertical Curves
Figure 17 shows the vertical curve to be solved.

Figure 17: Symmetrical vertical curve

 Vertical Curves
Symmetrical Vertical Curves

Figure 18: Table of computations of elevations on a symmetrical

vertical curve
 Vertical Curves
Symmetrical Vertical Curves
Finding the turning point on the vertical curve.
When the curve is on a crest, the turning point is the
highest point on the curve.
When the curve is in a dip, the turning point is the
lowest point on the curve.
The turning point will be directly above or below the
PVI only when both tangents have the same percent of
slope (ignoring the algebraic sign);
otherwise, the turning point will be on the same side
of the curve as the tangent with the least percent of
slope.
 Vertical Curves
Symmetrical Vertical Curves
Finding the turning point on the vertical curve.
The horizontal location of the turning point is either
measured from the PVC if the tangent with the lesser
slope begins there or from the PVT if the tangent with
the lesser slope ends there.
The horizontal location is found by the formula:

Where: xt= distance of turning point from PVC or PVT

g = lesser slope (ignoring signs)
L = length of curve in stations
G = algebraic difference of slopes.
 Vertical Curves
Symmetrical Vertical Curves
Finding the turning point on the vertical curve.
For the curve in example above, the computations
would be (7 x 4)/16 = 1.75 feet; therefore, the turning
point is 1.75 stations, or 175 feet, from the PVT (station
30 + 25).
The vertical offset yt for the turning point is found by
the formula:

For this curve, then, the computation is ( 1.75/2)2 x 8

=6.12 feet
The elevation of the POVT at 30 + 25 would be 237.37,
calculated as explained earlier.
The elevation on the curve would be 237.37-6.12 =
231.25.
 Vertical Curves
Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves
An unsymmetrical vertical curve is a curve in which the
horizontal distance from the PVI to the PVC is different
from the horizontal distance between the PVI and the
PVT (i.e. l1≠l2
Unsymmetrical curves are sometimes described as
having unequal tangents and are referred to as dog legs.
Figure 19 shows an unsymmetrical curve with a
horizontal distance of 400 feet on the left and a
horizontal distance of 200 feet on the right of the PVI.
The gradient of the tangent at the PVC is –4 percent;
the gradient of the tangent at the PVT is +6 percent.
Note that the curve is in a dip.
 Vertical Curves
Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves

Figure 19: Unsymmetrical vertical curve.

 Vertical Curves
Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves
For an unsymmetrical curve, the formula for the
calculation of the middle vertical offset at the PVI is

The horizontal location is found by the use of one of

two formulas as follows:
from the PVC

or from the PVT

 Vertical Curves
Unsymmetrical Vertical Curves
The procedure is to estimate on which side of the PVI
the turning point is located and then use the proper
formula to find its location.
If the formula indicates that the turning point is on the
opposite side of the PVI, you must use the other
formula to determine the correct location; for example,
you estimate that the turning point is between the PVC
and PVI for the curve in figure
THANK YOU!!!
 CVS 365:
ENGINEERING SURVEYING III (3 Units)

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Environmental health
ERRORS AND AJUSTMENT OF
SURVEY COMPUTATIONS

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Environmental health
 Theory of Errors
Science and engineering often involves measurements of
different types .
In surveying, geometrical quantities (such as angles,
distances, heights, etc.) are directly measured, producing
large amounts of data which need to be processed.
To some extent, a surveying project may be considered
as a data production process, from data collection, data
processing, to final presentation (graphically and/or
digitally)
Due to human limitations, imperfect instruments,
unfavourable physical environment and improper
measurement routines, which together define the
measurement condition, all measurement results most
likely contain errors
 Introduction
• In surveying, we often have geometric
constraints for our measurements
– Differential leveling loop closure = 0
– Sum of interior angles of a polygon = (n-2)180°
– Closed traverse: Σlats = Σdeps = 0
• Because of measurement errors, these
constraints are generally not met exactly, so
an adjustment should be performed
 Theory of Errors
One can discover the existence of measurement errors in
different ways.
If we repeat the same measurement several times, we
will normally get different results due to measurement
errors.
Another way to discover errors is to check whether the
obtained measurement results satisfy some geometrical
or physical relations which may exist (e.g. one may
check whether the sum of three measured angles of a
plane triangle is equal to the theoretical value, 180
degrees).
Normally, one may distinguish three types of errors:
systematic errors, gross errors and random errors
 Types of Errors
1. Systematic errors

Systematic errors are errors which follow certain

physical or mathematical rules and often affect
surveying results systematically.

The causes of this kind of errors can be the

i. instruments used,

ii. physical environment in which measurements are made,

iii. human factors and measurement routines.

 Types of Errors
1. Systematic errors
To avoid or reduce systematic errors, one may
(a) calibrate carefully instruments before field work
starts;
(b) design and use suitable measurement routines and
procedures which can reduce or eliminate possible
systematic errors;
(c) if possible, correct measurement results afterwards.
One example of systematic errors is the constant error of
5cm for a tape
This constant error will cause a systematic error to all
distance measurements by this tape
 Types of Errors
2. Gross errors
Are errors due to human mistakes, malfunctioning
instruments or wrong measurement methods.
Gross errors do not follow certain rules and normally
cannot be treated by statistical methods.
In principle, gross errors are not permitted and should be
avoided by surveyors’ carefulness and control routines
For example, it can happen that a surveyor might write
50032’50.9” in his field observation protocol when the
actual reading on the theodolite is 50032’5.9”
If the surveyor is highly concentrated during the
measurement, he or she may be able to avoid this kind of
blunders
Gross errors are also called blunders or outliers
 Types of Errors
3. Random errors or stochastic errors
Are errors which behave randomly and affect the
measurements in a non-systematic way.
Random errors can be caused by human factors,
instrument errors, physical environment and
measurement routines.
They can be reduced if the total measurement condition
has been improved.
The primary study object of theory of errors is just
random errors.
Probability theory and mathematical statistics is the
science which specializes in studies of random (or
stochastic) events, variables and functions.
 Types of Errors
3. Random errors or stochastic errors
Based on analysis of large amounts of available
observation data (e.g. thousands of triangular
misclosures in geodetic triangulation networks), it has
been found that random errors, though non-systematic,
show certain statistical characteristics.
If a set of errors έ1 , έ2……έn have occurred under
(roughly) the same measurement condition, then the
following statistical characteristics have been
discovered:
i. The arithmetic mean of έi approaches zero when the
number n of observations approaches infinity:
ii. Positive errors and negative errors with same
magnitude occur roughly at equal frequency;
 Types of Errors
3. Random errors or stochastic errors
iii. Errors of smaller magnitude occur more often than
errors of larger magnitude;
iv. Under specific measurement condition, the absolute
magnitude of errors is within some limit
As errors are impossible to avoid completely, it is natural
to do redundant measurements, both to discover the
existence of errors and to increase accuracy and
reliability of the final results.
When measurement errors are present and redundant
measurements are made, there will exist inconsistency or
Contradiction among measurements, also called
misclosure
 Types of Errors
3. Random errors or stochastic errors
Traditionally, the work or process to eliminate
misclosures (using some estimation criteria, such as the
least squares principle) among measurements and obtain
the best results out of available measurement data is
called adjustment
Standard Errors and Weights
Standard Errors and Weights
 Principles of least squares
The method of least squares is a standard approach in
regression analysis to the approximate solution of
overdetermined systems
i.e., sets of equations in which there are more equations
than unknowns
"Least squares" means that the overall solution
minimizes the sum of the squares of the errors made in
the results of every single equation.
The most important application is in data fitting.
The best fit in the least-squares sense minimizes the sum
of squared residuals,
a residual is the difference between an observed value
and the fitted value provided by a model.
Principles of least squares

regression analysis
 Principles of least squares
The resulting fitted model can be used to:
i. summarize the data,
ii. to predict unobserved values from the same
system,
iii. and to understand the mechanisms that may i.e.,
sets of equations in which there are more
equations than unknowns
 Principles of least squares
Example – linear model
A plot of the data points (in red), the least squares line
of best fit (in blue), and the residuals (in green).
 Principles of least squares
Example – linear model
As a result of an experiment, four (x,y) data points were
obtained, (1,6), (2,5), (3,7) and (4,10) (shown in red in
the picture (slide 17).
We hope to find a line y = β1+ β2 x that best fits these
four points.
In other words, we would like to find the numbers β1 and
β2 that approximately solve the overdetermined linear
system:
β1+ 1β2 =6
β1+ 2β2 =5
β1+ 3β2 =7
β1+ 4β2 =10
of four equations in two unknowns in some "best" sense
 Principles of least squares
Example – linear model
The "error", at each point, between the curve fit and the
data is the difference between the right- and left-hand
sides of the equations above.
The least squares approach to solving this problem is to
try to make as small as possible the sum of the squares
of these errors; that is, to find the minimum of the
function:
 Principles of least squares
Example – linear model
The minimum is determined by calculating the partial
derivatives of S(β1,β2) with respect to β1 and β2
and setting them to zero:

This results in a system of two equations in two

unknowns, called the normal equations, which give, when
solved

and the equation y = 3.5+1.4 x of the line of best fit.

 Principles of least squares
Example –Linear model
The residuals, that is, the discrepancies between the
y values from the experiment and the y values calculated
using the line of best fit are then found to be 1.1, -1.3, -
0.7, and 0.9
The minimum value of the sum of squares of the
residuals is
S(3.5,1.4) = 1.12+(-1.3)2+(-0.7)2+(0.9)2=4.2
More generally, one can have n regressors xj , and a
linear model
 Principles of least squares
Example – quadratic model
The result of fitting a
quadratic function
y=β1+ β2+ β3x2
(in blue) through a set
of data points (xi,yi) (in
red). In linear least
squares the function need
not be linear in the x,
argument but only in the
parameters βj that are
determined to give the
best fit.
 Principles of least squares
Example – quadratic model

In the above example, we could have chosen the

restricted quadratic model y= β1x2
This model is still linear in the β1 parameter, so we can
still perform the same analysis, constructing a system of
equations from the data points:
6= β1(1)2
5= β1(2)2
7= β1(3)2
10= β1(4)2
 Principles of least squares
Example – quadratic model
The partial derivatives with respect to the parameters
(this time there is only one) are again computed and set
to 0:

and solved, β1= 0.703

y= 0.703x2
 Principles of least squares
Derivation of the normal equations
Consider an overdetermined system

of m linear
equations in n unknown coefficients, β1,β2,…,βn,
with m > n.
This can be written in matrix form as
Xβ=y
 Principles of least squares
Derivation of the normal equations
Where
 Principles of least squares
Derivation of the normal equations
Define the ith residual to be

Then S can be rewritten

 Principles of least squares
Derivation of the normal equations
The elements of the gradient vector are the partial
derivatives of S with respect to the parameters:

The derivatives are

Substitution of the expressions for the residuals and the

derivatives into the gradient equations gives
 Principles of least squares
Derivation of the normal equations
Thus if β minimizes S, we have

Upon rearrangement, we obtain the normal equations:

The normal equations are written in matrix notation as:

(where XT is the matrix transpose of X).

The solution of the normal equations yields the vector β
of the optimal parameter values.
Example - Parabola
Fitting a Parabola to a Set of Points

Equation: Ax2 + Bx + C = y

This is still a linear problem in terms of the unknowns

A, B, and C.

Need more than 3 points for a redundant solution.

Example - Parabola
Parabola Fit Solution - 1

Set up matrices for observation equations

0 2 0 1 103.84
 2  105.43
1 1 1  
2 2 2 1 104.77 
L=
A= 2  102.21
3 3 1  
4 2 4 1  98.43 
 2   
5 5 1  93 . 41 
Parabola Fit Solution - 1

02 0 0 0 0 0
12 1 1 1 1 1
22 2 1 = 4 2 1
𝐴= 2
3 3 1 9 3 1
42 4 1 16 4 1
52 5 1 25 5 1

0 1 4 9 16 25
𝐴𝑇 = 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
 Parabola Fit Solution - 2
Solve by unweighted least squares solution
−1
979 225 55 5354.53  − 0.813 
x = ( AT A) −1 AT L = 225 55 15  1482.37  =  1.902 
     
 55 15 6   608.09  104.046

 0.206 
 − 0.295
Compute  
− 0.172
residuals V = AX − L = 
0.225 
 
 0.216 
 
 − 0 . 180 
THANK YOU!!!
Assignment 1- Parabola
Equation: Ax2 + Bx + C = y

Determine
(a) A, B, and C.
(b) The residuals (deviations), v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6
(c) the corrected elevations
 CVS 365:
ENGINEERING SURVEYING III (3 Units)

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
TRIANGULATION, TRILATERATION
INTERSECTION AND RESECTION

By

Dr. S. Mburu
Department of Civil & Structural
Engineering
 1.0 Introduction
The horizontal positions of points is a network
developed to provide accurate control for topographic
mapping, charting lakes, rivers and ocean coast lines,
and for the surveys required for the design and
construction of public and private works of large extent.
The horizontal positions of the points can be obtained in
a number of different ways in addition to traversing.
These methods are triangulation, trilateration,
intersection, resection, and satellite positioning.
The method of surveying called triangulation is based on
the trigonometric proposition that if one side and three
angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can
be computed.
 1.0 Introduction
Furthermore, if the direction of one side is known, the
directions of the remaining sides can be determined.
A triangulation system consists of a series of joined or
overlapping triangles in which an occasional side is
measured and remaining sides are calculated from angles
measured at the vertices of the triangles.
The vertices of the triangles are known as triangulation
stations.
The side of the triangle whose length is predetermined,
is called the base line.
The lines of triangulation system form a network that
ties together all the triangulation stations (Fig. 1)
1.0 Introduction

Fig. 1 Triangulation network

 1.0 Introduction
For trilateration the lengths of all the sides of the triangle
are measured and few directions or angles are measured
to establish azimuth (relative bearing).
Trilateration has become feasible with the development
of electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment
which has made possible the measurement of all lengths
with high order of accuracy under almost all field
conditions.
NB: The azimuth is the angle formed between a
reference direction (North) and a line from the observer
to a point of interest projected on the same plane as the
reference direction orthogonal to the zenith
 1.0 Introduction
Intersection is a method of locating a control point
without occupying it.
On construction sites, predominate marks around the
site, such as tall buildings and other clearly defined
features may be used as control points during
construction.
It is obviously not possible to set up an instrument at
these but it is possible to obtain their coordinates by
using intersection.
 1.0 Introduction
Intersection
 1.0 Introduction
Intersection
A and B are points in a control network with known
coordinates (EA , NA) and (EB , NB).
To coordinate unknown point P which lies at the
intersection of the lines from A and B, a total station or
theodolite is set up at A and B and the horizontal angles
a and p are observed.
The coordinates of P can be calculated by a number of
different methods.
 1.0 Introduction
Resection is a method of locating a new control point by
taking observations from it to other known control points
on a network.
Two types of resection can be carried out, angular
resection where horizontal angles are measured and
distance resection in which horizontal distances are
measured.
Both types are useful for coordinating temporary control
points on site which are called free station points.
 2.0 Principle of Triangulation
Figure 2 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and
BCD.

A C
Fig. 2: Principle of triangulation
 2.0 Principle of Triangulation
All the angles in both the triangles, and the length L of
the side AB, have been measured.
Also the azimuth θ (bearing) of AB has been measured
at the triangulation station A, whose coordinates (XA,
YA), are known.
The objective is to determine the coordinates of the
triangulation stations B, C, and D by the method of
triangulation.
Let us first calculate the lengths of all the lines.
By sine rule in ABC, we have
2.0 Principle of Triangulation
 2.0 Principle of Triangulation
Or

And
 2.0 Principle of Triangulation
Let us now calculate the azimuths of all the lines.
Azimuth of AB = θ = θAB
Azimuth of AC = θ+1 = θAC
Azimuth of BC = θ+180°-2 = θBC
Azimuth of BD = θ+180°- (2 + 4) = θBD
Azimuth of CD = θ +180o-2 + 5 = θCD
 2.0 Triangulation and trilateration
From the known lengths of the sides and the azimuths,
the consecutive coordinates can be computed as below.
 2.0 Principle of Triangulation
The desired coordinates of the triangulation stations B,
C, and D are as follows

A
2.0 Principle of Triangulation
3.0 Objectives of Triangulation/Trilateration
The main objective of triangulation or trilateration
surveys is to provide a number of stations whose relative
and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical, are
accurately established.
More detailed location or engineering survey are then
carried out from these stations.
The triangulation surveys are carried out
(i) to establish accurate control for plane and geodetic
surveys of large areas, by terrestrial methods,
(ii)to establish accurate control for photogrammetric
surveys of large areas,
 3.0 Objectives of Triangulation
The triangulation surveys are carried out (Cont’d)
(iii) to assist in the determination of the size and
shape of the earth by making observations for latitude,
longitude and gravity, and
(iv) to determine accurate locations of points in
engineering works such as:
(a) Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over
large rivers.
(b) Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long
tunnels.
(c) Transferring the control points across wide sea
channels, large water bodies, etc.
(d) Detection of crustal movements, etc.
(e) Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.
 4.0 Classification of Triangulation
system
Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and
consequently on the degree of accuracy desired,
triangulation surveys are classified as
i. first-order or primary,
ii. second-order or secondary, and
iii. third-order or tertiary.
First-order triangulation is used to determine the
shape and size of the earth or to cover a vast area like
a whole country with control points to which a
second-order triangulation system can be connected.
4.0 Classification of Triangulation
system
A second-order triangulation system consists of a
network within a first-order triangulation.
It is used to cover areas of the order of a region,
small country, or province.
A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed
within and connected to a second-order triangulation
system.
It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate
control for detailed engineering and location surveys.
 4.0 Classification of Triangulation system
The general specifications for the three types of triangulation
systems are presented in Table 1
 5.0 Triangulation and layout
The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the
triangle, braced or geodetic quadrilateral, and the polygon
with a central station (Fig. 3).

polygon with a central station

Fig. 3. Basic triangulation figures

5.0 Triangulation and layout

The triangles in a triangulation system can

be arranged in a number of ways.
Some of the commonly used arrangements,
also called layouts, are as follows:
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
 5.0 Triangulation and layout
5.1 Single chain of triangles
When the control points are required to be established in
a narrow strip of terrain such as a valley between ridges,
a layout consisting of single chain of triangles is
generally used as shown in Fig. 4.
This system is rapid and economical due to its
simplicity of sighting only four other stations, and does
not involve observations of long diagonals.
On the other hand, simple triangles of a triangulation
system provide only one route through which distances
can be computed, and hence, this system does not
provide any check on the accuracy of observations.
Check base lines and astronomical observations for
azimuths have to be provided at frequent intervals
 5.0 Triangulation and layout
5.1 Single chain of triangles

Fig. 4: Single chain of triangles

 5.0 Triangulation and layout
5.2 Double chain of triangles
A layout of double chain of triangles is shown in Fig. 5.
This arrangement is used for covering the larger width
of a belt.
This system also has disadvantages of single chain of
triangles system.
 5.0 Triangulation and layout
5.2 Double chain of triangles

Fig 5: Double chain of triangles

 5.0 Triangulation and layout
5.3 Braced quadrilaterals
A triangulation system consisting of figures containing
four corner stations and observed diagonals shown in
Fig. 6, is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals.
In fact, braced quadrilateral consists of overlapping
triangles.
This system is treated to be the strongest and the best
arrangement of triangles, and it provides a means of
computing the lengths of the sides using different
combinations of sides and angles.
Most of the triangulation systems use this arrangement.
 5.0 Triangulation and layout
5.3 Braced quadrilaterals

Fig 6: Braced quadrilaterals

 5.0 Triangulation and layout
5.4 Centered triangles and polygons
A triangulation system which consists of figures
containing interior stations in triangle and polygon as
shown in Fig. 7, is known as centered triangles and
polygons.
This layout in a triangulation system is generally used
when vast area in all directions is required to be
covered.
The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals,
pentagons, or hexagons with central stations.
Though this system provides checks on the accuracy of
the work, generally it is not as strong as the braced
quadrilateral arrangement.
Moreover, the progress of work is quite slow due to the
fact that more settings of the instrument are required.
 5.0 Triangulation and layout
5.4 Centered triangles and polygons

NB: Sometimes
a combination
of above
systems may be
used which may
be according to
the shape of the
area and the
accuracy
requirements
Fig. 7: Centered triangles and
polygons
6.0 Layout of primary triangulation for
large countries
The following two types of frameworks of primary
triangulation are provided for a large country to cover
the entire area.
1. Grid icon system
2. Central system
6.0 Layout of primary triangulation for
large countries
6.1. Grid icon system
In this system, the primary triangulation is laid in series
of chains of triangles, which usually runs roughly along
meridians (north- south) and along perpendiculars to the
meridians (east-west), throughout the country (Fig. 8).
The distance between two such chains may vary from
150 to 250 km.
The area between the parallel and perpendicular series
of primary triangulation, are filled by the secondary and
tertiary triangulation systems.
Grid iron system has been adopted in India and other
countries like Austria, Spain, France, etc.
6.0 Layout of primary triangulation for
large countries
6.1. Grid icon system

Fig 8: Grid icon

system
6.0 Layout of primary triangulation for
large countries
6.2 Central system
In this system, the whole area is covered by a network
of primary triangulation extending in all directions from
the initial triangulation figure ABC, which is generally
laid at the centre of the country (Fig. 9).
This system is generally used for the survey of an area
of moderate extent.
It has been adopted in United Kingdom and various
other countries.
6.0 Layout of primary triangulation for
large countries
6.2 Central system

Fig. 9: The Central

system of triangulation
7.0 Criteria for selection of the layout of
triangles
The under mentioned points should be considered while
deciding and selecting a suitable layout of triangles.
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably
approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the
computations can be done through two or more
independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one
route, and preferably two routes form well- conditioned
triangles.
7.0 Criteria for selection of the layout of
triangles
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should
be small, whichever end of the series is used for
computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than
45°, and in the case of quadrilaterals, no angle should be
less than 30°. In the case of centered polygons, no angle
should be less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable
lengths. Very long lines and very short lines should be
avoided.
7.0 Criteria for selection of the layout of
triangles
10.As far as possible, complex figures should not
involve more than 12 conditions.
It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle
does not fall opposite the known side it does not affect
the accuracy of triangulation.
THANK YOU!!!