Steel and Cast Iron

5. (Systematic Rehabilitation)

5.1 Scope Section 5.9. Methods for calculating the forces in the
Rehabilitation measures for steel components and piles are described in Chapter 4 and in the
elements are described in this chapter. Information Commentary to Chapter 5.
needed for systematic rehabilitation of steel buildings,
as depicted in Step 4B of the Process Flow chart
shown in Figure 1-1, is presented herein. A brief
5.2 Historical Perspective
historical perspective is given in Section 5.2, with a The components of steel elements are columns, beams,
more expanded version given in the Commentary. braces, connections, link beams, and diaphragms. The
columns, beams, and braces may be built up with
Section 5.3 discusses material properties for new and plates, angles, and/or channels connected together with
existing construction, and describes material testing rivets, bolts, or welds. The material used in older
requirements for using the nonlinear procedures. A construction is likely to be mild steel with a specified
factor measuring the reliability of assumptions of in- yield strength between 30 ksi and 36 ksi. Cast iron was
place material properties is included in a kappa () often used for columns in much older construction
factor, used to account for accuracy of knowledge of (before 1900). Cast iron was gradually replaced by
the existing conditions. Evaluation methods for in- wrought iron and then steel. The connectors in older
place materials are also described. construction were usually mild steel rivets or bolts.
These were later replaced by high-strength bolts and
Sections 5.4 and 5.5 provide the attributes of steel welds. The seismic performance of these components
moment frames and braced frames. The stiffness and will depend heavily on the condition of the in-place
strength properties of each steel component required material. A more detailed historical perspective is
for the linear and nonlinear procedures described in given in Section C5.2 of the Commentary.
Chapter 3 are given. Stiffness and strength acceptance
criteria are also given and are discussed within the As indicated in Chapter 1, great care should be
context of Tables 2-1, 2-3, and 2-4, given in Chapter 2. exercised in selecting the appropriate rehabilitation
These sections also provide guidance on choosing an approaches and techniques for application to
appropriate rehabilitation strategy. historic buildings in order to preserve their unique
characteristics.
The appropriate procedures for evaluating systems
with old and new components are discussed. Steel
frames with concrete or masonry infills are briefly 5.3 Material Properties and
discussed, but the behavior of these systems and Condition Assessment
procedures for estimating the forces in the steel
components are given in Chapters 6 (concrete) and 7
5.3.1 General
(masonry). Steel frames with attached masonry walls
are discussed in this chapter and in Chapter 7. Quantification of in-place material properties and
verification of the existing system configuration and
Section 5.8 describes engineering properties for typical condition are necessary to analyze or evaluate a
diaphragms found in steel buildings. These include building. This section identifies properties requiring
bare metal deck, metal deck with composite concrete consideration and provides guidelines for their
topping, noncomposite steel deck with concrete acquisition. Condition assessment is an important
topping, horizontal steel bracing, and archaic aspect of planning and executing seismic rehabilitation
diaphragms. The properties and behavior of wood of an existing building. One of the most important
diaphragms in steel buildings are presented in Chapter steps in condition assessment is a visit to the building
8. for visual inspection.

Engineering properties, and stiffness and strength The extent of in-place materials testing and condition
acceptance criteria for steel piles are given in assessment that must be accomplished is related to
availability and accuracy of construction and as-built

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records, the quality of materials used and construction buckling resistance, and connection details.
performed, and the physical condition of the structure. Component properties of interest are:
Data such as the properties and grades of material used
in component and connection fabrication may be Original cross-sectional shape and
effectively used to reduce the amount of in-place physical dimensions
testing required. The design professional is encouraged
to research and acquire all available records from Size and thickness of additional connected materials,
original construction. The requirements given here are including cover plates, bracing, and stiffeners
supplemental to those given in Section 2.7.
Existing cross-sectional area, section moduli,
5.3.2 Properties of In-Place Materials and moments of inertia, and torsional properties
Components at critical sections
5.3.2.1 Material Properties As-built configuration of intermediate, splice,
Mechanical properties of component and connection and end connections
material dictate the structural behavior of the
component under load. Mechanical properties of Current physical condition of base metal
greatest interest include the expected yield (Fye) and and connector materials, including presence
of deformation.
tensile (Fte) strengths of base and connection material,
modulus of elasticity, ductility, toughness, elogational Each of these properties is needed to characterize
characteristics, and weldability. The term “expected building performance in the seismic analysis. The
strength” is used throughout this document in place of starting point for establishing component properties
“nominal strength” since expected yield and tensile should be construction documents. Preliminary review
stresses are used in place of nominal values specified of these documents shall be performed to identify
in AISC (1994a and b). primary vertical- and lateral-load-carrying elements
and systems, and their critical components and
The effort required to determine these properties is connections. In the absence of a complete set of
related to the availability of original and updated building drawings, the design professional must direct
construction documents, original quality of a testing agency to perform a thorough inspection of
construction, accessibility, and condition of materials. the building to identify these elements and components
as indicated in Section 5.3.3.
The determination of material properties is best
accomplished through removal of samples and In the absence of degradation, statistical analysis has
laboratory testing. Sampling may take place in regions shown that mean component cross-sectional
of reduced stress—such as flange tips at beam ends and dimensions are comparable to the nominal published
external plate edges—to minimize the effects of values by AISC, AISI, and other organizations.
reduced area. Types and sizes of specimens should be in Variance in these dimensions is also small.
accordance with ASTM standards. Mechanical and
metallurgical properties usually can be established from 5.3.2.3 Test Methods to Quantify Properties
laboratory testing on the same sample. If a connector
such as a bolt or rivet is removed for testing, a To obtain the desired in-place mechanical properties of
comparable bolt should be reinstalled at the time of materials and components, it is necessary to utilize
sampling. Destructive removal of a welded connection proven destructive and nondestructive testing methods.
sample must be accompanied by repair of the To achieve the desired accuracy, mechanical
connection. properties should be determined in the laboratory.
Particular laboratory test information that may be
5.3.2.2 Component Properties sought includes yield and tensile strength, elongation,
and charpy notch toughness. For each test, industry
Behavior of components, including beams, columns, and standards published by the ASTM exist and shall be
braces, is dictated by such properties as area, width-to- followed. The Commentary provides applicability
thickness and slenderness ratios, lateral torsional information and references for these particular tests.

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Of greatest interest to metal building system a minimum number of tests be conducted on

performance are the expected yield and tensile strength representative components. As stated previously, the
of the installed materials. Notch toughness of minimum number of tests is dictated by available data
structural steel and weld material is also important for from original construction, the type of structural system
connections that undergo cyclic loadings and employed, desired accuracy, and quality/condition of in-
deformations during earthquakes. Chemical and place materials. Access to the structural system will also
metallurgical properties can provide information on be a factor in defining the testing program. As an
properties such as compatibility of welds with parent alternative, the design professional may elect to utilize
metal and potential lamellar tearing due to through- the default strength properties contained in
thickness stresses. Virtually all steel component elastic Section 5.3.2.5 instead of the specified testing.
and inelastic limit states are related to yield and tensile However, in some cases these default values may
strengths. Past research and accumulation of data by only be used for a Linear Static Procedure (LSP).
industry groups have resulted in published material
mechanical properties for most primary metals and Material properties of structural steel vary much less than
their date of fabrication. Section 5.3.2.5 provides this those of other construction materials. In fact, the
strength data. This information may be used, together expected yield and tensile stresses are usually
with tests from recovered samples, to rapidly establish considerably higher than the nominal specified values.
expected strength properties for use in component As a result, testing for material properties may not be
strength and deformation analyses. required. The properties of wrought iron are more
variable than those of steel. The strength of cast iron
Review of other properties derived from laboratory tests components cannot be determined from small sample
—such as hardness, impact, fracture, and fatigue— is tests, since component behavior is usually governed by
generally not needed for steel component capacity inclusions and other imperfections. It is recommended
determination, but is required for archaic materials and that the lower-bound default value for compressive
connection evaluation. These properties may not be strength of cast iron given in Table 5-1 be used.
needed in the analysis phase if significant rehabilitative
measures are already known to be required. The guidelines for determining the expected yield
(Fye) and tensile (Fte) strengths are given below.
To quantify material properties and analyze the
performance of welded moment connections, more If original construction documents defining
extensive sampling and testing may be necessary. This properties—including material test records or
testing may include base and weld material chemical material test reports (MTR)—exist, material tests
and metallurgical evaluation, expected strength need not be carried out, at the discretion of the
determination, hardness, and charpy V-notch testing of design professional. Default values from Table 5-
the heat-affected zone and neighboring base metal, 2 may be used. Larger values may be used, at the
and other tests depending on connection configuration. discretion of the design professional, if available
historical data substantiates them. Larger values
If any rehabilitative measures are needed and welded should be used if the assumptions produce a larger
connection to existing components is required, the demand on associated connections.
carbon equivalent of the existing component(s) shall
be determined. Appropriate welding procedures are If original construction documents defining
dependent upon the chemistry of base metal and filler properties are limited or do not exist, but the date of
material (for example, the elements in the IIW Carbon construction is known and the single material used
Equivalent formula). Consult Section 8 and its is confirmed to be carbon steel, at least three
associated Commentary in the latest edition of strength coupons shall be randomly removed from
ANSI/AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code. each component type. Conservative material
Recommendations given in FEMA 267 (SAC, 1995) properties such as those given in Table 5-2 may be
may also be followed. used in lieu of testing, at the discretion of the
design professional.
5.3.2.4 Minimum Number of Tests
In order to quantify expected strength and other in-place If no knowledge exists of the structural system and
properties accurately, it will sometimes be required that materials used, at least two strength tensile coupons

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should be removed from each component type for For other material properties, the design professional
every four floors. If it is determined from testing shall determine the particular need for this type of
that more than one material grade exists, additional testing and establish an adequate protocol consistent
testing should be performed until the extent of use with that given above. In general, it is recommended
for each grade in component fabrication has been that a minimum of three tests be conducted.
established. If it is determined that all components
are made from steel, the requirements immediately If a higher degree of confidence in results is desired, the
preceding this may be followed. sample size shall be determined using ASTM Standard
E22 guidelines. Alternatively, the prior knowledge of
In the absence of construction records defining material grades from Section 5.3.2.5 may be used in
welding filler metals and processes used, at least one conjunction with Bayesian statistics to gain greater
weld metal sample for each construction type should confidence with the reduced sample sizes noted above.
be obtained for laboratory testing. The sample shall The design professional is encouraged to use the
consist of both local base and weld metal, such that procedures contained in the Commentary in this regard.
composite strength of the connection can be derived.
Steel and weld filler material properties discussed in 5.3.2.5 Default Properties
Section 5.3.2.3 should also be obtained. Because of
The default expected strength values for key metallic
the destructive nature and necessary repairs that material properties are contained in Tables 5-1 and 5-
follow, default strength properties may be substituted 2. These values are conservative, representing mean
if original records on welding exist, unless the design values from previous research less two standard
professional requires more accurate data. If ductility deviations. It is recommended that the results of any
and toughness are required at or near the weld, the material testing performed be compared to values in
design professional may conservatively assume that these tables for the particular era of building
no ductility is available, in lieu of testing. In this case construction. Additional testing is recommended if the
the joint would have to be modified. Special expected yield and tensile strengths determined from
requirements for welded moment frames are given in testing are lower than the default values.
FEMA 267 (SAC, 1995) and the latest edition of
ANSI/AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code. Default material strength properties may only be used
in conjunction with Linear Static and Dynamic
Procedures. For the nonlinear procedures, expected
Testing requirements for bolts and rivets are the strengths determined from the test program given
same as for other steel components as given above. above shall be used. Nonlinear procedures may be
In lieu of testing, default values from Table 5-2 used with the reduced testing requirements described
may be used. in Commentary Section C5.3.2.5.
For archaic materials, including wrought iron but
excluding cast iron, at least three strength coupons
5.3.3 Condition Assessment
shall be extracted for each component type for 5.3.3.1 General
every four floors of construction. Should significant
variability be observed, in the judgment of the A condition assessment of the existing building and site
design professional, additional tests shall be conditions shall be performed as part of the seismic
performed until an acceptable strength value is rehabilitation process. The goals of this assessment are:
obtained. If initial tests provide material properties
that are consistent with properties given in To examine the physical condition of primary
Table 5-1, tests are required only for every six and secondary components and the presence of
floors of construction. any degradation

For all laboratory test results, the mean yield and To verify or determine the presence and
tensile strengths may be interpreted as the expected configuration of components and their
strength for component strength calculations. connections, and the continuity of load paths
between components, elements, and systems

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1
Table 5-1 Default Material Properties

Early unit stresses used in tables of allowable loads as published in catalogs of the following mills

1
FOR CAST IRON
Expected Yield
Year Rolling Mill Strength, ksi
1873 Carnegie Kloman & Co. (“Factor of Safety 3”) 21
1874 New Jersey Steel & Iron Co. 18
1881–1884 Carnegie Brothers & Co., Ltd. 18
15
1884 The Passaic Rolling Mill Co. 18
15
1885 The Phoenix Iron Company 18
1885–1887 Pottsville Iron & Steel Co. 18
1889 Carnegie Phipps & Co., Ltd. 18
15
1
FOR STEEL
1887 Pottsville Iron & Steel Co. 23
1889–1893 Carnegie Phipps & Co., Ltd. 24
1893–1908 Jones & Laughlins Ltd. 24
Jones & Laughlins Steel Co. 18
1896 Carnegie Steel Co., Ltd. 24
1897–1903 The Passaic Rolling Mills Co. 24
18
1898–1919 Cambria Steel Co. 24
18
1900–1903 Carnegie Steel Company 24
1907–1911 Bethlehem Steel Co. 24
1915 Lackawanna Steel Co. 24
18

Modified from unit stress values in AISC “Iron and Steel Beams from 1873 to 1952.”

To review other conditions—such as overload, damage from past earthquakes, fatigue,

neighboring party walls and buildings, the fracture). The condition assessment shall also
presence of nonstructural components, and examine for configurational problems observed in
limitations for rehabilitation—that may recent earthquakes, including effects of discontinuous
influence building performance components, improper welding, and poor fit-up.

To formulate a basis for selecting a Component orientation, plumbness, and physical

knowledge factor (see Section 5.3.4). dimensions should be confirmed during an assessment.
Connections in steel components, elements, and systems
The physical condition of existing components and require special consideration and evaluation. The load
elements, and their connections, must be examined for path for the system must be determined, and each
presence of degradation. Degradation may include connection in the load path(s) must be evaluated. This
environmental effects (e.g., corrosion, fire damage, includes diaphragm-to-component and component-to-
chemical attack) or past/current loading effects (e.g., component connections. FEMA 267

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1
Table 5-2 Default Expected Material Strengths
History of ASTM and AISC Structural Steel Specification Stresses

ASTM Requirement
2, 3
Expected Tensile Expected Yield Strength
2
Date Specification Remarks Strength , F , ksi F , ksi
te ye

1900 ASTM, A9 Rivet Steel 50 30

Buildings Medium Steel 60 35
1901–1908 ASTM, A9 Rivet Steel 50 1/2 T.S.
Buildings Medium Steel 60 1/2 T.S.
1909–1923 ASTM, A9 Structural Steel 55 1/2 T.S.
Buildings Rivet Steel 48 1/2 T.S.
1924–1931 ASTM, A7 Structural Steel 55 1/2 T.S.
or not less than 30
Rivet Steel 46 1/2 T.S.
or not less than 25
ASTM, A9 Structural Steel 55 1/2 T.S.
or not less than 30
Rivet Steel 46 1/2 T.S.
or not less than 25
1932 ASTM, A140-32T issued
as a tentative revision to
ASTM, A9 (Buildings)

1933 ASTM, A140-32T

discontinued and ASTM,
A9 (Buildings) revised
Oct. 30, 1933
Plates, Shapes, Bars 60 1/2 T.S.
or not less than 33
Eyebar flats 67 1/2 T.S.
unannealed or not less than 36
Structural Steel 55 1/2 T.S.
or not less than 30
ASTM, A9 tentatively Structural Steel 60 1/2 T.S.
revised to ASTM, A9-33T or not less than 33
(Buildings)
ASTM, A141-32T adopted Rivet Steel 52 1/2 T.S.
as a standard or not less than 28
1934 on ASTM, A9 Structural Steel 60 1/2 T.S.
or not less than 33
ASTM, A141 Rivet Steel 52 1/2 T.S.
or not less than 28

Duplicated from AISC “Iron and Steel Beams 1873 to 1952.”

Values shown in this table are based on mean minus two standard deviations and duplicated from “Statistical Analysis of Tensi le Data for Wide-
Flange Structural Shapes.” The values have been reduced by 10%, since originals are from mill tests.
T.S. = Tensile strength

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1
Table 5-2 Default Expected Material Strengths (continued)
Additional default assumptions
2, 3
Expected Tensile Expected Yield Strength
2
Date Specification Remarks Strength , F , ksi F , ksi
te ye

1961 on ASTM, A36 Structural Steel

Group 1 54 37
Group 2 52 35
Group 3 52 32
Group 4 53 30
Group 5 61 35
ASTM, A572, Grade 50 Structural Steel
Group 1 56 41
Group 2 57 42
Group 3 60 44
Group 4 62 43
Group 5 71 44
Dual Grade Structural Steel
Group 1 59 43
Group 2 60 43
Group 3 64 46
Group 4 64 44

Duplicated from AISC “Iron and Steel Beams 1873 to 1952.”

Values shown in this table are based on mean minus two standard deviations and duplicated from “Statistical Anal ysis of Tensile Data for Wide-
Flange Structural Shapes.” The values have been reduced b y 10%, since originals are from mill tests.
T.S. = Tensile strength

(SAC, 1995) provides recommendations for assessment performed also affects the  factor that
inspection of welded steel moment frames. is used (see Section 5.3.4).

The condition assessment also affords an opportunity If coverings or other obstructions exist, indirect visual
to review other conditions that may influence steel inspection through use of drilled holes and a fiberscope
elements and systems and overall building may be utilized. If this method is not appropriate, then
performance. Of particular importance is the local removal of covering materials will be necessary.
identification of other elements and components that The following guidelines shall be used.
may contribute to or impair the performance of the
steel system in question, including infills, neighboring If detailed design drawings exist, exposure of at
buildings, and equipment attachments. Limitations least one different primary connection shall occur
posed by existing coverings, wall and ceiling space, for each connection type. If no deviations from the
infills, and other conditions shall also be defined such drawings exist, the sample may be considered
that prudent rehabilitation measures may be planned. representative. If deviations are noted, then
removal of additional coverings from primary
5.3.3.2 Scope and Procedures connections of that type must be done until the
design professional has adequate knowledge to
The scope of a condition assessment shall include all
continue with the evaluation and rehabilitation.
primary structural elements and components involved
in gravity and lateral load resistance. The degree of

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In the absence of construction drawings, the design 5.3.4 Knowledge () Factor
professional shall establish inspection protocol that
As described in Section 2.7 and Tables 2-16 and 2-17,
will provide adequate knowledge of the building
computation of component capacities and allowable
needed for reliable evaluation and rehabilitation. For
deformations shall involve the use of a knowledge ()
steel elements encased in concrete, it may be more
factor. For cases where a linear procedure will be
cost effective to provide an entirely new lateral-
used in the analysis, two categories of  exist. This
load-resisting system.
section further describes the requirements specific to
metallic structural elements that must be
Physical condition of components and connectors may accomplished in the selection of a  factor.
also dictate the use of certain destructive and
nondestructive test methods. If steel elements are A  factor of 1.0 can be utilized when a thorough
covered by well-bonded fireproofing materials or assessment is performed on the primary and secondary
encased in durable concrete, it is likely that their components and load path, and the requirements of
condition will be suitable. However, local removal of Section 2.7 are met. The additional requirement for a
these materials at connections shall be performed as  factor of 1.0 is that the condition assessment be done
part of the assessment. The scope of this removal in accordance with Section 5.3.3. In general, a  factor
effort is dictated by the component and element of 1.0 may be used if the construction documents are
design. For example, in a braced frame, exposure of available.
several key connections may suffice if the physical
condition is acceptable and configuration matches the If the configuration and condition of an as-built
design drawings. However, for moment frames it may component or connection are not adequately known (in
be necessary to expose more connection points the judgement of the design professional, because
because of varying designs and the critical nature of design documents are unavailable and it is deemed too
the connections. See FEMA 267 (SAC, 1995) for costly to do a thorough condition assessment in
inspection of welded moment frames. accordance with Section 5.3.3), the  factor used in the
final component evaluation shall be reduced to 0.75. A
5.3.3.3 Quantifying Results factor of 0.75 shall be used for all cast and wrought
The results of the condition assessment shall be used iron components and their connectors. For encased
in the preparation of building system models in the components where construction documents are limited
evaluation of seismic performance. To aid in this and knowledge of configuration and condition is
effort, the results shall be quantified and reduced, with incomplete, a factor of 0.75 shall be used. In addition,
the following specific topics addressed: for steel moment and braced frames, the use of a 
factor of 0.75 shall occur when knowledge of
connection details is incomplete. See also
Component section properties and dimensions
Section C2.7.2 in the Commentary.
Connection configuration and presence of
any eccentricities 5.4 Steel Moment Frames
Type and location of column splices 5.4.1 General
Interaction of nonstructural components and their Steel moment frames are those frames that develop their
involvement in lateral load resistance seismic resistance through bending of beams and columns
and shearing of panel zones. Moment-resisting
The acceptance criteria for existing components connections with calculable resistance are required
depends on the design professional’s knowledge of the between the members. The frames are categorized by the
condition of the structural system and material types of connection used and by the local and global
properties (as previously noted). All deviations noted stability of the members. Moment frames may act alone
between available construction records and as-built to resist seismic loads, or they may act in conjunction
conditions shall be accounted for and considered in with concrete or masonry shear walls or braced steel
the structural analysis. frames to form a dual system. Special rules for design

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of new dual systems are included in AISC (1994a) Requirements for general or seismic design of steel
and BSSC (1995). components given in AISC (1994a) or BSSC (1995)
are to be followed unless superseded by provisions in
Columns, beams, and connections are the components these Guidelines. In all cases, the expected strength
of moment frames. Beams and columns may be built- will be used in place of the nominal design strength by
up members from plates, angles, and channels, cast or replacing Fy with F ye.
wrought iron segments, hot-rolled members, or cold-
formed steel sections. Built-up members may be 5.4.2.2 Stiffness for Analysis
assembled by riveting, bolting, or welding.
Connections between the members may be fully A. Linear Static and Dynamic Procedures
restrained (FR), partially restrained (PR), or nominally
Axial area. This is the complete area of rolled or built-up
unrestrained (simple shear or pinned). The components
may be bare steel, steel with a nonstructural coating shapes. For built-up sections, the effective area should be
for fire protection, or steel with either concrete or reduced if adequate load transfer mechanisms are not
masonry encasement for fire protection. available. For elements fully encased in concrete, the
stiffness may be calculated assuming full composite
Two types of frames are categorized in this document. action if most of the concrete may be expected to remain
Fully restrained (FR) moment frames are those frames after the earthquake. Composite action may not be
for which no more than 5% of the lateral deflections assumed for strength unless adequate load transfer and
arise from connection deformation. Partially restrained ductility of the concrete can be assured.
(PR) moment frames are those frames for which more
than 5% of the lateral deflections result from
Shear area. This is based on standard engineering
connection deformation. In each case, the 5% value
procedures. The above comments, related to built-up
refers only to deflection due to beam-column
sections, concrete encased elements, and composite
deformation and not to frame deflections that result
action of floor beam and slab, apply.
from column panel zone deformation.
Moment of inertia. The calculation of rotational stiffness
5.4.2 Fully Restrained Moment Frames of steel beams and columns in bare steel frames shall
5.4.2.1 General follow standard engineering procedures. For components
encased in concrete, the stiffness shall include composite
Fully restrained (FR) moment frames are those moment action, but the width of the composite section shall be
frames with rigid connections. The connection shall be at taken as equal to the width of the flanges of the steel
least as strong as the weaker of the two members being member and shall not include parts of the adjoining floor
joined. Connection deformation may contribute no more slab, unless there is an adequate and identifiable shear
than 5% (not including panel zone deformation) to the transfer mechanism between the concrete and the steel.
total lateral deflection of the frame. If either of these
conditions is not satisfied, the frame shall be
characterized as partially restrained. The most common Joint Modeling. Panel zone stiffness may be considered
beam-to-column connection used in steel FR moment in a frame analysis by adding a panel zone element to the
frames since the late 1950s required the beam flange to program. The beam flexural stiffness may also be
be welded to the column flange using complete joint adjusted to account for panel zone stiffness or flexibility
penetration groove welds. Many of these connections and the stiffness of the concrete encasement. Use center
have fractured during recent earthquakes. The design line analysis for other cases. Strengthened members shall
professional is referred to the Commentary and to FEMA be modeled similarly to existing members. The
267 (SAC, 1995). approximate procedure suggested for calculation of
stiffness of PR moment frames given below may be used
Fully restrained moment frames encompass both Special to model panel zone effects, if available computer
Moment Frames and Ordinary Moment Frames, defined programs cannot explicitly model panel zones.
in the Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings in
Part 6 of AISC (1994a). These terms are not used in the Connections. The modeling of stiffness for connections
Guidelines, but most of the requirements for these for FR moment frames is not required since, by
systems are reflected in AISC (1994a). definition, the frame displacements are not significantly

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(<5%) affected by connection deformation. The

strength of the connection must be great enough to Q
carry the expected moment strength and resulting Q
CE
shear in the beam at a beam-to-column connection and
shall be calculated using standard engineering b
procedures. Three types of connections are currently a
acknowledged as potentially fully restrained: (1) full 1.0
penetration (full-pen) welds between the flanges of the B C
beam and column flanges with bolted or welded shear
connections between the column flange and beam D Ec
web; (2) flange plate connections; and (3) end plate A
connections. If flange plate or end plate connections  or 
are too flexible or weak to be considered fully (a) Deformation
restrained, they must be considered to be partially
restrained. Strength and stiffness properties for these
two connections as PR connections are discussed in Q
Section 5.4.3 and in the Commentary. Q
CE
e
B. Nonlinear Static Procedure
Use elastic component properties as outlined under d
Section 5.4.2.2A. 1.0
B C

Use appropriate nonlinear moment-curvature and

D Ec
interaction relationships for beams and beam- A
columns to represent plastification. These may be  or 
derived from experiment or analysis.
y y
Linear and nonlinear behavior of panel zones shall (b) Deformation ratio
be included. Figure 5-1 Definition of the a, b, c, d, and e
Parameters in Tables 5-4, 5-6, and 5-8,
In lieu of a more rational analysis, the details of all and the Generalized Load-
segments of the load-deformation curve, as defined in Deformation Behavior
Tables 5-4 and Figure 5-1 (an approximate,
generalized, load-deformation curve for components of
steel moment frames, braced frames, and plate walls), chord rotation for beams. The chord rotation may be
may be used. This curve may be modified by assuming estimated by adding the yield rotation, y, to the
a strain-hardening slope of 3% of the elastic slope. plastic rotation. Alternatively, the chord rotation may
Larger strain-hardening slopes may be used if verified be estimated to be equal to the story drift. Test results
by experiment. If panel zone yielding occurs, a strain- for steel components are often given in terms of chord
hardening slope of 6% or larger should be used for the rotation. The equations for y given in Equations 5-1
panel zone. It is recommended that strain hardening be and 5-2 are approximate, and are based on the
considered for all components. assumption of a point of contraflexure at mid-length of
the beam or column.
The parameters Q and QCE in Figure 5-1 are
generalized component load and generalized component ZF l
ye b
expected strength for the component. For beams and Beams: y = ---------------- (5-1)
columns,  is the plastic rotation of the beam or column,
6EIb
y is the rotation at yield,  is displacement, and y is ZF l
ye c P ö
yield displacement. For panel zones, y is the angular Columns:  = ---------------- 1–
æ
------- (5-2)
shear deformation in radians. Figure 5-2 defines y 6EI c è P ye ø

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lc = Column length, in.

L M
CE = Expected moment strength
P = Axial force in the member, kips
P
 y ye = Expected axial yield force of the member =
Chord  AgFye , kips
  y y Q = Generalized component load
L L Q
CE = Generalized component expected strength
(a) Cantilever example t
p = Total panel zone thickness including doubler
plates, in.
 = Chord rotation
Chord Rotation y = Yield rotation
  V
L CE = Expected shear strength, kips
3
 Z = Plastic section modulus, in.
C. Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure

 The complete hysteretic behavior of each component

must be properly modeled. This behavior must be
verified by experiment. This procedure is not
(b) Frame example recommended in most cases.
Figure 5-2 Definition of Chord Rotation
5.4.2.3 Strength and Deformation
Acceptance Criteria
Q and QCE are the generalized component load and A. Linear Static and Dynamic Procedures
generalized component expected strength, The strength and deformation acceptance criteria for
respectively. For beams and columns, these refer to the these methods require that the load and resistance
plastic moment capacity, which is for: relationships given in Equations 3-18 and 3-19 in
Chapter 3 be satisfied. The design strength of
Beams: QCE = MCE = Z Fye (5-3) components in existing FR moment frames shall be
determined using the appropriate equations for
Columns: design strength given in Section 5.4.2.2 or in Part 6
of AISC (1994a), except that  shall be taken as 1.0.
Design restrictions given in AISC (1994a) shall be
Q = M =1.18ZF æ P ö £ ZF (5-4) followed unless specifically superseded by
CE CE yeè ye
1 – -------
P ø
ye provisions in these Guidelines.

Q Evaluation of component acceptability requires

Panel Zones: CE = VCE = 0.55Fyedctp (5-5) knowledge of the component expected strength, QCE ,
for Equation 3-18 and the component lower-bound
where
strength, QCL , for Equation 3-19, and the component
d c= Column depth, in. demand modifier, m, as given in Table 5-3 for
= Modulus of elasticity, ksi Equation 3-18. Values for QCE and QCL for FR
moment frame components are given in this section.
Fye = Expected yield strength of the material, ksi
QCE and QCL are used for deformation- and force-
4 controlled components, respectively. Values for m are
= Moment of inertia, in.
given in Table 5-3 for the Immediate Occupancy, Life
lb = Beam length, in. Safety, and Collapse Prevention Performance Levels.

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 Chapter 5: Steel and Cast Iron
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Beams. The design strength of beams and other flexural

members is the lowest value obtained according to the where
limit state of yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, local
flange buckling, or shear yielding of the web. For fully Lb = Distance between points braced against lateral
concrete-encased beams where the concrete is expected displacement of the compression flange, or
to remain in place, because of confining reinforcement,
between points braced to prevent twist of the
during the earthquake, assume bf = 0 and Lp = 0 for the cross section (see AISC, 1994a)
purpose of determining m. For bare beams bent about
their major axes and symmetric about both axes, Lp = Limiting unbraced length between points of
bf 52 lateral restraint for the full plastic moment
with -----  ------------ (compact section) and lb < Lp, the capacity to be effective (see AISC, 1994a)
F ye2tf
Lr = Limiting unbraced length between points of
values for m are given in Table 5-3, and: lateral support beyond which elastic lateral
torsional buckling of the beam is the failure
Q =M =M = ZF mode (see AISC, 1994a)
CE CE pCE ye (5-6)
= Value of m given in Table 5-3
where
me = Effective m from Equation 5-7
b
f = Width of the compression flange, in. Cb = Coefficient to account for effect of nonuniform
t
f = Thickness of the compression flange, in. moment (see AISC, 1994a)
lb = Length of beam, in.
Lp = Limiting lateral unbraced length for full If the beam strength is governed by shear strength of the
plastic bending capacity for uniform h 418
---- ---------
bending from AISC (1994a), in. unstiffened web and tw 
F , then:
M y
CE = Expected flexural strength, kip-in.
M
pCE = Expected plastic moment capacity, kip-in. QCE = VCE = 0.6FyeAw (5-8)
F
ye = Expected mean yield strength determined by
the tests or given in Tables 5-1 or 5-2 where
V
bf 52 CE = Expected shear strength, kips
If -----  --------- and lb  Lp , values for m are given in
2
Fy
2tf Aw = Nominal area of the web = dbtw , in.
Table 5-3. For cases where the moment diagram is tw = Web thickness, in.
nonuniform and Lp < Lb < Lr , but the nominal bending = Distance from inside of compression flange to
strength is still MpCE, the value of m is obtained from inside of tension flange, in.
Table 5-3. If MCE < MpCE due to lateral torsional
buckling, then the value of m shall be me, where For this case, use tabulated values for beams, row a, in
h  418
Table 5-3. If ---- --------- , the value of VCE should be
C  Lb – Lp t
me = b m–  m – 1---------------------- 8 (5-7) w Fy
Lr – Lp calculated from provisions in Part 6 of AISC (1994a)
and the value of m should be chosen using engineering
judgment, but should be less than 8.

The limit state of local flange and lateral torsional

buckling are not applicable to components either
subjected to bending about their minor axes or fully
encased in concrete, with confining reinforcement.

For built-up shapes, the strength may be governed by

the strength of the lacing plates that carry component
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M
shear. For this case, the lacing plates are not as ductile as P Mx y
the component and should be designed for 0.5 times the --------------------

m value in Table 5-3, unless larger values can be justified -------------------- +

by tests or analysis. For built-up laced beams and 2------------PCL + m xMCEx my MCEy £ 1.0 (5-11)
columns fully encased in concrete, local buckling of the where
lacing is not a problem if most of the encasement can be
expected to be in place after the earthquake. = Axial force in the column, kips
PCL = Expected compression strength of the
Columns. The lower-bound strength, QCL, of steel column, kips
columns under compression only is the lowest value
obtained by the limit stress of buckling, local flange Mx = Bending moment in the member for the x-
buckling, or local web buckling. The effective design axis, kip-in
strength should be calculated in accordance with MCEx = Expected bending strength of the column for
provisions in Part 6 of AISC (1994a), but  = 1.0 and Fye the x-axis, kip-in
shall be used for existing components. Acceptance shall MCEy = Expected bending strength of the column for
be governed by Equation 3-19 of these Guidelines, since the y-axis
this is a force-controlled member.
My = Bending moment in the member for the y-
The lower-bound strength of cast iron columns shall axis, kip-in
be calculated as: mx = Value of m for the column bending about the
x-axis
A F
PCL = g cr (5-9) my = Value of m for the column bending about the
y-axis
where

F For columns under combined compression and

cr = 12 ksi for lc/r £ 108 bending, lateral bracing to prevent torsional buckling
F 5 shall be provided as required by AISC (1994a).
1.40 ´ 10
cr = ------------------------ ksi for lc /r > 108
2 Panel Zone. The strength of the panel zone shall be
( lc /r) calculated as given in Equation 5-5.
Cast iron columns can only carry axial compression. Connections. By definition, the strength of FR
connections shall be at least equal to, or preferably
For steel columns under combined axial and bending greater than, the strength of the members being joined.
stress, the column shall be considered to be Some special considerations should be given to FR
deformation-controlled and the lower-bound strength connections.
shall be calculated by Equation 5-10 or 5-11.
Full Penetration Welded Connections (Full-Pen). Full-
P pen connections (see Figure 5-3) have the beam flanges
---------
welded to the column flanges with complete penetration
P groove welds. A bolted or welded shear tab is also
For CL ³ 0.2
included to connect the beam web to the column. The
Mx My strength and ductility of full-pen connections are not
P 8 + £ 1.0 (5-10)
--------- + -- fully understood at this time. They are functions of the
PCL 9 m--------------------xMCEx m--------------------yMCEy
quality of construction, the lb /db ratio of the beam

P (where lb = beam length and db = beam depth), the weld

--------- material, the thickness of the beam and column flanges,
P the stiffness and strength of the panel zones, joint
For CL < 0.2 confinement, triaxial stresses, and other factors (see
SAC, 1995). In lieu of further study, the value of m for
Life Safety for beams with full-pen connections shall be
not larger than

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 Chapter 5: Steel and Cast Iron
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Table 5-3 Acceptance Criteria for Linear Procedures—Fully Restrained (FR) Moment Frames
8
m Values for Linear Procedures
Primary Secondary
IO LS CP LS CP
Component/Action m m m m m
Moment Frames
Beams:
b 52
a. -----  ------------ 2 6 8 10 12
2tf F ye
b 95
b. -----  ------------ 1 2 3 3 4
2tf F ye
52 b 95
c. For ------------  -----  ------------ use linear interpolation
F ye 2tf F ye
Columns:
For P/Pye < 0.20
b 52
a. -----  ------------ 2 6 8 10 12
2tf F ye
b 95
b. -----  ------------ 1 1 2 2 3
2tf F ye
52 b 95
c. For --- ---------   ------------
----- use linear interpolation
F ye 2tf F ye
9
For 0.2 ð P/Pye ð 0.50
b 52 2 3 4
a. -----  ------------ 1 —1 — — —
2tf F ye
b 95
b. -----  ----------- 1 1 1.5 2 2
2tf F ye
52 b 95
c. For --- --------   ------------
----- use linear interpolation
F ye 2tf F ye
Panel Zones 1.5 8 11 NA NA
7
Fully Restrained Moment Connections
For full penetration flange welds and bolted or welded web connection: beam
deformation limits
5 6
a. No panel zone yield 1 — — 3 4
b. Panel zone yield 0.8 2 2.5 2 2.5

m = 9 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
m = 12 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
m = 15 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
m = 18 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
m = 6 – 0.125 db
m = 7 – 0.125 db
If construction documents verify that notch-tough rated weldment was used, these values may be multiplied by two.
For built-up numbers where strength is governed by the facing plates, use one-half these m values.
If P/Pye > 0.5, assume column to be force-controlled.

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m = 6.0 – 0.125 db (5-12) analysis or the provisions in AISC (1994b). The

values for m may be chosen from similar partially
restrained end plate actions given in Table 5-5.
In addition, if the strength of the panel zone is less than
0.9 times the maximum shear force that can be delivered B. Nonlinear Static Procedure
by the beams, then the m for the beam shall be
The NSP requires modeling of the complete load-
deformation relationship to failure for each component.
m = 2 (5-13) This may be based on experiment, or on a rational
analysis, preferably verified by experiment. In lieu of
these, the conservative approximate behavior depicted by
Figure 5-1 may be used. The values for QCE and y
shown in Figure 5-1 are the same as those used in the
LSP and given in Section 5.4.2.2. Deformation control
Stiffeners or
points and acceptance criteria for the Nonlinear Static
continuity plates and Dynamic Procedures are given in Table 5-4.
as required
C. Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure
The complete hysteretic behavior of each component
must be modeled for this procedure. Guidelines for
Doubler plate this are given in the Commentary. Deformation limits
as required are given in Table 5-4.

5.4.2.4 Rehabilitation Measures for FR

Moment Frames
Several options are available for rehabilitation of FR
moment frames. In all cases, the compatibility of new
and existing components and/or elements must be
checked at displacements consistent with the
Performance Level chosen. The rehabilitation
Figure 5-3 Full-Pen Connection in FR Connection measures are as follows:
with Variable Behavior
Add steel braces to one or more bays of each story to
form concentric or eccentric braced frames.
Flange Plate and End Plate Connections. The strength (Attributes and design criteria for braced frames are
of these connections should be in accordance with given in Section 5.5.) Braces significantly increase
standard practice as given in AISC (1994a and 1994b). the stiffness of steel frames. Care should be taken
Additional information for these connections is given when designing the connections between the new
below in Section 5.4.3.3. braces and the existing frame. The connection should
be designed to carry the maximum probable brace
Column Base Plates to Concrete Pile Caps or force, which may be approximated as 1.2 times the
Footings. The strength of connections between column
expected strength of the brace.
base plates and concrete pile caps or footings usually
exceeds the strength of the columns. The strength of the
base plate and its connection may be governed by the Add ductile concrete or masonry shear walls or
welds or bolts, the dimensions of the plate, or the infill walls to one or more bays of each story.
Attributes and design requirements of concrete and
expected yield strength, Fye, of the base plate. The masonry infills are given in Sections 6.7 and 7.5,
connection between the base plate and the concrete may respectively. This greatly increases the stiffness and
be governed by shear or tension yield of the anchor bolts, strength of the structure. Do not introduce torsional
loss of bond between the anchor bolts and the concrete, stress into the system.
or failure of the concrete. Expected strengths for each
failure type shall be calculated by rational

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 Chapter 5: Steel and Cast Iron
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Table 5-4 Modeling Parameters and Acceptance Criteria for Nonlinear Procedures—Fully
Restrained (FR) Moment Frames
 Residual Plastic Rotation, Deformation Limits
-----
Strength

y Ratio Primary Secondary
Component/Action d e c IO LS CP LS CP
1
Beams :
b 52 10 12 0.6 2 7 9 10 12
a. -----  ------------

2tf Fye
b 95 5 7 0.2 1 3 4 4 5
b. -----  ------------

2tf Fye
52 b 95
c. For ------------  -----  ------------
F ye 2tf Fye
use linear interpolation
2
Columns :
For P/Pye < 0.20
b 52 10 12 0.6 2 7 9 10 12
----- ------------

a. 2tf  F ye
b 95 0.2 1 3 4 4 5
----- ------------

b. 2tf  F ye
52 b 95
c. For --- ---------  -----  -----------
Fy 2tf F
e ye
use linear interpolation

Add y from Equations 5-1 or 5-2 to plastic end rotation to estimate chord rotation.
Columns in moment or braced frames need only be designed for the maximum force that can be delivered.
Deformation = 0.072 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
Deformation = 0.100 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
Deformation = 0.042 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
Deformation = 0.060 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
0.043 – 0.0009 db
0.035 – 0.0008 db
If P/Pye > 0.5, assume column to be force-controlled.

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Table 5-4 Modeling Parameters and Acceptance Criteria for Nonlinear Procedures—Fully
Restrained (FR) Moment Frames (continued)
 Residual Plastic Rotation, Deformation Limits
-----
Strength

y Ratio Primary Secondary
Component/Action d e c IO LS CP LS CP
9
For 0.2  P/Pye  0.50
4 5 6
b 52 —3 — 0.2 0.04 — — 0.019 0.031
----- ------------
a. 2tf  F ye
b 95 2 2.5 0.2 1 1.5 1.8 1.8 2
----- -----------

b. 2tf  F ye
52 b 95
c. For --- ---------  -----  -----------
F ye 2tf F ye
use linear interpolation

Plastic
Rotation

a b
Panel Zones 0.052 0.081 0.800 0.004 0.025 0.043 0.055 0.067
Connections
For full penetration flange weld, bolted or
welded web: beam deformation limits
7 7 8 8
a. No panel zone yield — — 0.200 0.008 — — 0.017 0.025
b. Panel zone yield 0.009 0.017 0.400 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.013

Add y from Equations 5-1 or 5-2 to plastic end rotation to estimate chord rotation.
Columns in moment or braced frames need only be designed for the maximum force that can be delivered.
Deformation = 0.072 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
Deformation = 0.100 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
Deformation = 0.042 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
Deformation = 0.060 (1 – 1.7 P/Pye)
0.043 – 0.0009 db
0.035 – 0.0008 db
If P/Pye > 0.5, assume column to be force-controlled.

• Attach new steel frames to the exterior of the The advantage is that the rehabilitation may take
building. This scheme has been used in the past and place without disrupting the use of the building.
has been shown to be very effective under certain
conditions. Since this will change the distribution of • Reinforce the moment-resisting connections to force
stiffness in the building, the seismic load path must plastic hinge locations in the beam material away
be carefully checked. The connections between the from the joint region. The idea behind this concept is
new and existing frames are particularly vulnerable. that the stresses in the welded connection will be
This approach may be structurally efficient, but it significantly reduced, thereby reducing the
changes the architectural appearance of the building. possibility of brittle fractures. This may not be

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 Chapter 5: Steel and Cast Iron
(Systematic Rehabilitation)

effective if weld material with very low toughness be determined as given in Section 5.4.2.2 for FR
was used in the full-pen connection. Strain frames.
hardening at the new hinge location may produce
Connections. The rotational stiffness K of each PR
larger stresses at the weld than expected. Also,
many fractures during past earthquakes are connection shall be determined by experiment or by
believed to have occurred at stresses lower than rational analysis based on experimental results. The
yield. Various methods, such as horizontal cover deformation of the connection shall be included when
plates, vertical stiffeners, or haunches, can be calculating frame displacements. Further discussion of
employed. Other schemes that result in the removal this is given in the Commentary. In the absence of more
of beam material may achieve the same purpose. rational analysis, the stiffness may be estimated by the
Modification of all moment-resisting connections following approximate procedures:
could significantly increase (or decrease, in the
The rotational spring stiffness, K, may be estimated by
case of material removal) the structure’s stiffness;
therefore, recalculation of the seismic demands M
may be required. Modification of selected joints CE
K (5-14)
should be done in a rational manner that is justified = ------------

by analysis. Guidance on the design of these 0.005

modifications is discussed in SAC (1995).
where
Adding damping devices may be a viable
MCE = Expected moment strength, kip-in.
rehabilitation measure for FR frames. See Chapter
9 of these Guidelines.
for:
5.4.3 Partially Restrained Moment Frames
PR connections that are encased in concrete for fire
5.4.3.1 General protection, and where the nominal resistance, MCE ,
Partially restrained (PR) moment frames are those determined for the connection includes
frames for which deformation of the beam-to-column the composite action provided by the
connections contributes greater than 5% of the story concrete encasement
drift. A moment frame shall also be considered to be
PR if the strength of the connections is less than the PR connections that are encased in masonry,
strength of the weaker of the two members being where composite action cannot be developed in
joined. A PR connection usually has two or more the connection resistance
failure modes. The weakest failure mechanism shall be
considered to govern the behavior of the joint. The Bare steel PR c onnections
beam and/or column need only resist the maximum
force (or moment) that can be delivered by the For all other PR connections, the rotational spring
connection. General design provisions for PR frames stiffness may be estimated by
given in AISC (1994a) or BSSC (1995) shall apply M
unless superseded by these Guidelines. Equations for K CE
calculating nominal design strength shall be used for  = ------------ (5-15)
determining the expected strength, except  = 1, and 0.003
Fye shall be used in place of Fy . The connection strength, MCE , is discussed
in Section 5.4.3.3.
5.4.3.2 Stiffness for Analysis
A. Linear Static and Dynamic Procedures As a simplified alternative analysis method to an exact
PR frame analysis, where connection stiffness is
Beams, columns, and panel zones. Axial area, shear modeled explicitly, the beam stiffness, EIb, may be
area, moment of inertia, and panel zone stiffness shall adjusted by

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5.4.3.3 Strength and Deformation

E Ib a dj us ted = --------------------------1 (5-16)
6h 1 Acceptance Criteria
---------- + -------
2 A. Linear Static and Dynamic Procedures
l K E Ib
b  The strength and deformation acceptance criteria for
these methods require that the load and resistance
where
relationships given in Equations 3-18 and 3-19 in
K Chapter 3 be satisfied. The expected strength and
= Equivalent rotational spring stiffness,
other restrictions for a beam or column shall be
kip-in./rad
determined in accordance with the provisions given
MCE = Expected moment strength, kip-in. above in Section 5.4.2.3 for FR frames.
4
Ib = Moment of inertia of the beam, in. Evaluation of component acceptability requires
= Average story height of the columns, in. knowledge of the lower-bound component capacity,
lb = Centerline span of the beam, in. QCL for Equation 3-19 and QCE for Equation 3-18, and
the ductility factor, m, as given in Table 5-5 for use in
Equation 3-18. Values for QCE and QCL for beams and
This adjusted beam stiffness may be used in
standard rigid-connection frame finite element columns in PR frames are the same as those given in
analysis. The joint rotation of the column shall be Section 5.4.2.3 and Table 5-3 for FR frames. Values for
used as the joint rotation of the beam at the joint QCE for PR connections are given in this section.
with this simplified analysis procedure. Control points and acceptance criteria for Figure 5-1 for
PR frames are given in Table 5-6. Values for m are
B. Nonlinear Static Procedure given in Table 5-5 for the Immediate Occupancy, Life
Safety, and Collapse Prevention Performance Levels.
Use elastic component properties as given
in Section 5.4.3.2A. B. Nonlinear Static Procedure
Use appropriate nonlinear moment-curvature or The NSP requires modeling of the complete load-
load-deformation behavior for beams, beam- deformation relationship to failure for each
columns, and panel zones as given in Section component. This may be based on experiment, or a
5.4.2 for FR frames. rational analysis, preferably verified by experiment. In
lieu of these, the conservative and approximate
Use appropriate nonlinear moment-rotation behavior behavior depicted by Figure 5-1 may be used. The
for PR connections as determined by experiment. In
lieu of experiment, or more rational analytical values for QCE and y are the same as those used in
procedure based on experiment, the moment-rotation the LSP in Sections 5.4.2.2 and 5.4.3.2. The
relationship given in Figure 5-1 and Table 5-6 may be deformation limits and nonlinear control points, c, d,
and e, shown in Figure 5-1 are given in Table 5-6.
used. The parameters  and y are rotation and yield
rotation. The value for y may be assumed to be The expected strength, QCE, for PR connections shall
0.003 or 0.005 in accordance with the provisions in be based on experiment or accepted methods of
Section 5.4.3.2A. analysis as given in AISC (1994a and b) or in the
Commentary. In lieu of these, approximate
Q and QCE are the component moment and expected conservative expressions for QCE for common types
yield moment, respectively. Approximate values of of PR connections are given below.
MCE for common types of PR connections are given in
Section 5.4.3.3B. Riveted or Bolted Clip Angle Connection. This is a
beam-to-column connection as defined in Figure 5-4. The
C. Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure
expected moment strength of the connection, MCE, may
The complete hysteretic behavior of each component be conservatively determined by using the smallest value
must be properly modeled based on experiment.
of MCE computed using Equations 5-17 through 5-22.

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 Chapter 5: Steel and Cast Iron
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Table 5-5 Acceptance Criteria for Linear Procedures—Partially Restrained (PR) Moment Frames

m Values for Linear Methods

Primary Secondary

Component/Action IO LS CP LS CP
Partially restrained moment connection
1
For top and bottom clip angles
2
a. Rivet or bolt shear failure 1.5 4 6 6 8
b. Angle flexure failure 2 5 7 7 14
2
c. Bolt tension failure 1 1.5 2.5 4 4
1
For top and bottom T-stub
2
a. Bolt shear failure 1.5 4 6 6 8
b. T-stub flexure failure 2 5 7 7 14
2
c. Bolt tension failure 1 1.5 2.5 4 4
1
For composite top and clip angle bottom
a. Yield and fracture of deck reinforcement 1 2 3 4 6
b. Local yield and web crippling of column flange 1.5 4 6 5 7
c. Yield of bottom flange angle 1.5 4 6 6 7
d. Tensile yield of column connectors or OSL of angle 1 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5
e. Shear yield of beam flange connections 1 2.5 3.5 3.5 4.5
1
For flange plates welded to column bolted or welded to beam
2
a. Failure in net section of flange plate or shear failure of bolts or rivets 1.5 4 5 4 5
b. Weld failure or tension failure on gross section of plate 0.5 1.5 2 1.5 2
For end plate welded to beam bolted to column
a. Yielding of end plate 2 5.5 7 7 7
b. Yield of bolts 1.5 2 3 4 4
c. Failure of weld 0.5 1.5 2 3 3

Assumed to have web plate or stiffened seat to carry shear. Without shear connection, this may not be downgraded to a secondary member. If db >
18 inches, multiply m values by 18/db.
For high-strength bolts, divide these values by two.

If the shear connectors between the beam flange and the Fve = Unfactored nominal shear strength of the bolts
flange angle control the resistance of the connection: or rivets given in AISC (1994a), ksi
Nb = Least number of bolts or rivets connecting the
QCE = MC E = db FveAbNb  (5-17) top or bottom flange to the angle
If the tensile capacity of the horizontal outstanding leg
where (OSL) of the connection controls the capacity, then
2
PCE is the smaller of
Ab = Gross area of rivet or bolt, in.
db = Overall beam depth, in.
 P F A
CE ye g (5-18)

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Table 5-6 Modeling Parameters and Acceptance Criteria for Nonlinear Procedures—Partially
Restrained (PR) Moment Frames

Residual Joint Rotation

Plastic Force
1
Rotation Ratio Primary Secondary
a b c IO LS CP LS CP
1
Top and Bottom Clip Angles
2
a. Rivet or bolt shear 0.036 0.048 0.200 0.008 0.020 0.030 0.030 0.040
b. Angle flexure 0.042 0.084 0.200 0.010 0.025 0.035 0.035 0.070
c. Bolt tension 0.016 0.025 1.000 0.005 0.008 0.013 0.020 0.020
1
Top and Bottom T-Stub
2
a. Rivet or bolt shear 0.036 0.048 0.200 0.008 0.020 0.030 0.030 0.040
b. T-stub flexure 0.042 0.084 0.200 0.010 0.025 0.035 0.035 0.070
c. Rivet or bolt tension 0.016 0.024 0.800 0.005 0.008 0.013 0.020 0.020
1
Composite Top Angle Bottom
a. Deck reinforcement 0.018 0.035 0.800 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.030
b. Local yield column flange 0.036 0.042 0.400 0.008 0.020 0.030 0.025 0.035
c. Bottom angle yield 0.036 0.042 0.200 0.008 0.020 0.030 0.025 0.035
d. Connectors in tension 0.015 0.022 0.800 0.005 0.008 0.013 0.013 0.018
2
e. Connections in shear 0.022 0.027 0.200 0.005 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.023
2
Flange Plates Welded to Column Bolted or Welded to Beam
a. Flange plate net section or 0.030 0.030 0.800 0.008 0.020 0.025 0.020 0.025
shear in connectors
b. Weld or connector tension 0.012 0.018 0.800 0.003 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.015
End Plate Bolted to Column Welded to Beam
a. End plate yield 0.042 0.042 0.800 0.010 0.028 0.035 0.035 0.035
b. Yield of bolts 0.018 0.024 0.800 0.008 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.020
c. Fracture of weld 0.012 0.018 0.800 0.003 0.008 0.010 0.015 0.015

If db > 18, multiply deformations by 18/db. Assumed to have web plate to carry shear. Without shear connection, this may not be downgraded to a
secondary member.
For high-strength bolts, divide rotations by 2.

and
PCE  Ft eAe (5-19)

QCE = MCE  PCE  db + ta  (5-20)

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where

ba = Dimension shown in Figure 5-4, in.

= Length of the flange angle, in.
ba
Fye = Expected yield strength

Riveted or Bolted T-Stub Connection. A riveted or

bolted T-stub connection is a beam-to-column connection
as depicted in Figure 5-5. The expected moment strength,
MCE , may be determined by using the smallest value of
MCE computed using Equations 5-23 through 5-25.

Figure 5-4 Clip Angle Connection

where bt
2
Ae = Effective net area of the OSL, in.
2
Ag = Gross area of the OSL, in.
= Force in the OSL, kips
ta = Thickness of angle, in.

If the tensile capacity of the rivets or bolts attaching

the OSL to the column flange control the capacity of
the connection:

QCE = MC E =  db + ba  Ft eAcNb  (5-21) Figure 5-5 T-Stub Connection may be FR or PR

Connection
where
2 If the shear connectors between the beam flange and
Ac = Rivet or bolt area, in.
the T-stub web control the resistance of the
ba = Dimension in Figure 5-4, in. connection, use Equation 5-17.
F
te = Expected tensile strength of the bolts or rivets,
ksi If the tension capacity of the bolts or rivets connecting
Nb = Least number of bolts or rivets connecting top the T-stub flange to the column flange control the
or bottom angle to column flange resistance of the connection:

Flexural yielding of the flange angles controls Q

CE = MCE =  db + 2bt + ts Ft eAb Nb(5-23)
the expected strength if:
where
2 N
wta Fye  b
------------------------
(5-22)
=Number of fasteners in tension connecting the
t
QCE = MCE = a db + ba  flanges of one T-stub to the column flange
4 b – ---
a 2 t
s =Thickness of T-stub stem

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If tension in the stem of the T-stub controls the

resistance, use Equations 5-18 and 5-19 with Ag and Ae
being the gross and net areas of the T-stub stem.

If flexural yielding of the flanges of the T-stub

controls the resistance of the connection:


2 Stiffener as
Q =M db + ts wtf Fye Required
CE CE = ------------------------------------- (5-24)
2 bt – k1 

where

k1 = Distance from the center of the T-stub stem to

the edge of the T-stub flange fillet, in.
bt = Distance between one row of fasteners in the
T-stub flange and the centerline of the stem
(Figure 5-5; different from ba in Figure 5-4)
= Length of T-stub, in.
Figure 5-6 Flange Plate Connection may be FR or
tf = Thickness of T-stub flange, in.
Flange Plate Connections. Flange plate connections PR Connection
are sometimes used as shown in Figure 5-6. This
connection may be considered to be fully restrained if
the strength is sufficient to develop the strength of the end plate. The design strength QCE = MCE shall be
beam. The expected strength of the connection may be computed in accordance with AISC (1994b) or by
calculated as any other rational procedure supported by
experimental results.
QCE = MCE = PC E db + tp  (5-25)
Composite Partially Restrained Connections. These
may be used as shown in Figure 5-8. The equivalent
where
rotational spring constant, K, shall be that given by
Equation 5-14. The behavior of these connections is
PCE = Expected strength of the flange plate complex, with several possible failure mechanisms.
connection as governed by the net section of Strength calculations are discussed in the Commentary.
the flange plate or the shear capacity of the
bolts or welds, kips C. Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure
tp = Thickness of flange plate, in. See Section 5.4.2.3.

5.4.3.4 Rehabilitation Measures for PR

The strength of the welds must also be checked. The
Moment Frames
flange plates may also be bolted to the beam; in this
case, the strength of the bolts and the net section of The rehabilitation measures for FR moment frames
the flange plates must also be checked. will often work for PR moment frames as well (see
Section 5.4.2.4). PR moment frames are often too
End Plate Connections. As shown in Figure 5-7, these flexible to provide adequate seismic performance.
may sometimes be considered to be FR if the strength is Adding concentric or eccentric bracing, or reinforced
great enough to develop the expected strength of the concrete or masonry infills, may be a cost-effective
beam. The strength may be governed by the bolts that are rehabilitation measure.
under combined shear and tension or bending in the

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be rehabilitated by replacing rivets with high-strength

bolts, adding weldment to supplement rivets or bolts,
welding stiffeners to connection pieces or
combinations of these measures.

5.5 Steel Braced Frames

5.5.1 General
The seismic resistance of steel braced frames is
primarily derived from the axial force capacity of their
components. Steel braced frames act as vertical trusses
where the columns are the chords and the beams and
braces are the web members. Braced frames may act
alone or in conjunction with concrete or masonry
walls, or steel moment frames, to form a dual system.

Steel braced frames may be divided into two types:

Figure 5-7 End Plate Connection may be FR or concentric braced frames (CBF) and eccentric
PR Connection braced frames (EBF). Columns, beams, braces, and
connections are the components of CBF and EBF. A
link beam is also a component of an EBF. The
components are usually hot-rolled shapes. The
Reinforcement components may be bare steel, steel with a
or wire mesh nonstructural coating for fire protection, steel with
concrete encasement for fire protection, or steel with
masonry encasement for fire protection.

5.5.2 Concentric Braced Frames (CBF)

5.5.2.1 General
Concentric braced frames are braced systems whose
worklines essentially intersect at points. Minor
eccentricities, where the worklines intersect within the
width of the bracing member are acceptable if
Reinforcement accounted for in the design.
or wire mesh
5.5.2.2 Stiffness for Analysis
A. Linear Static and Dynamic Procedures

Beams and Columns. Axial area, shear area, and

moment of inertia shall be calculated as given in
Section 5.4.2.2.

Connections. FR connections shall be modeled as

given in Section 5.4.2.2. PR connections shall be
Figure 5-8 Two Configurations of PR modeled as given in Section 5.4.3.2.
Composite Connections
Braces. Braces shall be modeled the same as columns
for linear procedures.
Connections in PR moment frames are usually the weak,
flexible, or both, components. Connections may

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B. Nonlinear Static Procedure accepted engineering practice. Guidelines for this

Use elastic component properties as given are given in the Commentary.
in Section 5.4.2.2A.
5.5.2.3 Strength and Deformation
Use appropriate nonlinear moment curvature or Acceptance Criteria
load-deformation behavior for beams, columns, A. Linear Static and Dynamic Procedures
braces, and connections to represent yielding and The strength and deformation acceptance criteria for
buckling. Guidelines are given in Section 5.4.2.2 these methods require that the load and resistance
for beams and columns and Section 5.4.3.2 for PR relationships given in Equations 3-18 and 3-19 in
connections. Chapter 3 be satisfied. The design strength and other
restrictions for a beam and column shall be
Braces. Use nonlinear load-deformation behavior for
determined in accordance with the provisions given in
braces as determined by experiment or analysis
Section 5.4.2.3.
supported by experiment. In lieu of these, the load
versus axial deformation relationship given in
Figure 5-1 and Table 5-8 may be used. The parameters Evaluation of component acceptability requires
knowledge of the component lower-bound capacity,
and y are axial deformation and axial deformation at
QCL, for Equation 3-19 and QCE for Equation 3-18, and
brace buckling. The reduction in strength of a brace
the ductility factor, m, as given in Table 5-7 for use in
after buckling must be included in the model. Elasto-
Equation 3-10. Columns shall be considered to be
plastic brace behavior may be assumed for the
compression brace if the yield force is taken as the force-controlled members. Values for QCE and QCL for
residual strength after buckling, as indicated by the beams and columns are the same as those given in
parameter c in Figure 5-1 and Table 5-8. Implications Section 5.4.2.3 for FR frames. QCE and QCL for PR
of forces higher than this lower-bound force must be connections are given in Section 5.4.3.3B. Braces are
considered. deformation-controlled components where the expected
strength for the brace in compression is computed in the
C. Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure same manner as for columns given in Section 5.4.2.3.
The complete hysteretic behavior of each component
must be properly based on experiment or generally

Table 5-7 Acceptance Criteria for Linear Procedures—Braced Frames and

Steel Shear Walls

m Values for Linear Procedures

Primary Secondary
Component/Action IO LS CP LS CP
Concentric Braced Frames
1
Columns:
1
a. Columns in compression Force-controlled member, use Equation 3-15 or 3-16.
1
b. Columns in tension 1 3 5 6 7
2
Braces in Compression
a. Double angles buckling in plane 0.8 6 8 7 9
b. Double angles buckling out of plane 0.8 5 7 6 8
c. W or I shape 0.8 6 8 6 8
d. Double channel buckling in plane 0.8 6 8 7 9
e. Double channel buckling out of plane 0.8 5 7 6 8
f. Rectangular concrete-filled cold-formed tubes 0.8 5 7 5 7

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Table 5-7 Acceptance Criteria for Linear Procedures—Braced Frames and

Steel Shear Walls (continued)

m Values for Linear Procedures

Primary Secondary

Component/Action IO LS CP LS CP
g. Rectangular cold-formed tubes
d 90 0.8 5 7 5 7
1. -- £ ---------
t F
y
d 190 0.8 2 3 2 3
2. -- ³ ---------
t
Fy
90 d 190 Use linear interpolation
3. --------- £ -- £ ---------
t
Fy Fy
h. Circular hollow tubes
d
1500 0.8 5 7 5 7
1. £ -----------
--

t Fy
d 6000 0.8 2 3 2 3
2. -- ³ -----------
F
t y
1500 d 6000 Use linear interpolation
3. ----------- £ -- £ -----------
Fy t Fy
3
Braces in Tension 1 6 8 8 10
Eccentric Braced Frames
a. Beams Governed by link
b. Braces Force-controlled, use Equation 3-19
c. Columns in compression Force-controlled, use Equation 3-19
d. Columns in tension 1 3 5 6 7
4
Link beam
2 M CE 1.5 9 13 13 15
5
--------------

a. eVCE < 1.6 d: 16, e: 18, c: 1.00

2M
CE Same as for beam in FR moment frame; see Table 5-3
b. -------------- < 2.6
eVCE
2MCE Use linear interpolation
--------------
c. 1.6 £
eVCE < 2.6

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Table 5-7 Acceptance Criteria for Linear Procedures—Braced Frames and

Steel Shear Walls (continued)

m Values for Linear Procedures

Primary Secondary

Component/Action IO LS CP LS CP
6
Steel Shear Walls 1.5 8 12 12 14
Columns in moment or braced frames need only be designed for the maximum force that can be delivered.
Connections in braced frames should be able to carry 1.25 times the brace strength in compression, or the expected strength of the member in tension.
Otherwise maximum value of m = 2.
For tension-only bracing systems, divide these m values by 2.
Assumes ductile detailing for flexural links.
Link beams with three or more web stiffeners. If no stiffeners, use half of these values. For one or two stiffeners, interpolate.
Applicable if stiffeners are provided to prevent shear buckling.

For common cross bracing configurations where both compressed members must be able to resist 0.5 times
braces are attached to a common gusset plate where the maximum brace force where buckling of the brace
they cross at their midpoints, the effective length of will cause shear forces in the stitches. If not, stitch
each brace may be taken as 0.5 times the total length plates shall be added, or the m values in Table 5-7 and
of the brace including gusset plates for both axes of deformation limits in Table 5-8 shall be reduced by
buckling. For other bracing configurations (chevron, 50%. Values of m need not be less than 1.0.
V, single brace), if the braces are back-to-back shapes
attached to common gusset plates, the length shall be B. Nonlinear Static Procedure
taken as the total length of the brace including gusset The NSP requires modeling of the complete nonlinear
plates, and K, the effective length factor, (AISC, force-deformation relationship to failure for each
1994a) may be assumed to be 0.8 for in-plane buckling component. This may be based on experiment, or
and 1.0 for out-of-plane buckling. analysis verified by experiment. Guidelines are given in
the Commentary. In lieu of these, the conservative
Restrictions on bracing members, gusset plates, brace approximate behavior depicted in Figure 5-1 may be
configuration, and lateral bracing of link beams are used. The values for QCE and  y are the same as those
given in the seismic provisions of AISC (1994a). If used for the LSP. Deformation parameters c, d, and e for
the special requirements of Section 22.11.9.2 of AISI Figure 5-1 and deformation limits are given in
(1986) are met, then 1.0 may be added to the brace m Table 5-8. The force-deformation relationship for the
values given in Table 5-7. compression brace should be modeled as accurately as
possible (see the Commentary). In lieu of this, the
The strength of brace connections shall be the larger brace may be assumed to be elasto-plastic, with the
of the maximum force deliverable by the tension brace yield force equal to the residual force that corresponds
or 1.25 times the maximum force deliverable by the to the parameter c in Figure 5-1 and Table 5-8. This
compression brace. If not, the connection shall be assumption is an estimate of the lower-bound brace
strengthened, or the m values and deformation limits force. Implications of forces higher than this must be
shall be reduced to comparable values given for considered.
connectors with similar limit states (see Table 5-5).
C. Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure
Stitch plates for built-up members shall be spaced such
that the largest slenderness ratio of the components of the The complete hysteretic behavior of each component
brace is at most 0.4 times the governing slenderness ratio must be modeled for this procedure. Guidelines for
of the brace as a whole. The stitches for this are given in the Commentary.

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Table 5-8 Modeling Parameters and Acceptance Criteria for Nonlinear Procedures—Braced Frames
and Steel Shear Walls

 Residual Deformation
----- Force
y Ratio Primary Secondary
Component/Action d e c IO LS CP LS CP
Concentric Braced Frames
1
a. Columns in compression Force-controlled, use Equation 3-19
1
b. Columns in tension 6 8 1.000 1 4 6 7 8
2,3
Braces in Compression
a. Two angles buckle in plane 1 10 0.2 0.8 6 8 8 9
b. Two angles buckle out of plane 1 9 0.2 0.8 5 7 7 8
c. W or I shape 1 9 0.2 0.8 6 8 8 9
d. Two channels buckle in plane 1 10 0.2 0.8 6 8 8 9
e. Two channels buckle out of plane 1 9 0.2 0.8 5 7 7 8
f. Concrete-filled tubes 1 8 0.2 0.8 5 7 7 8
g. Rectangular cold-formed tubes
d 90 1 8 0.4 0.8 5 7 7 8
1. -- £---------
t F
y
d 190 1 4 0.2 0.8 2 3 3 4
2. -- ³---------
t F
y
90 d 190 Use linear interpolation
3. --------- £ -- £ ---------
t
Fy Fy
h. Circular hollow tubes
d 1500 1 10 0.4 0.8 5 7 6 9
1. -- £-----------
F
t y
d 6000 1 4 0.2 0.8 2 3 3 4
2. -- ³-----------
t Fy
1500 d 6000 Use linear interpolation
----------- -- -----------

3. Fy £ t£ Fy
Braces in Tension 12 15 0.800 1 8 10 12 14
Eccentric Braced Frames
a. Beams Governed by link
b. Braces Force-controlled, use Equation 3-19
c. Columns in compression Force-controlled, use Equation 3-19
d. Columns in tension 6 8 1.000 1 4 6 7 8

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Table 5-8 Modeling Parameters and Acceptance Criteria for Nonlinear Procedures—Braced Frames
and Steel Shear Walls (continued)

 Residual Deformation
----- Force
y Ratio Primary Secondary
Component/Action d e c IO LS CP LS CP
3
Link Beam
2M 16 18 0.80 1.5 12 15 15 17
CE
4 --------------

a. eVCE £ 1.6
2MC E Same as for beam in FR moment frame (see Table 5-4)
b. -------------- ³ 2.6
eVCE
2MCE Use linear interpolation
--------------
1.6 £
c. eVCE £ 2.6
5
Steel Shear Walls 15 17 .07 1.5 11 14 14 16

Columns in moment or braced frames need only be designed for the maximum force that can be delivered.
c is the axial deformation at expected buckling load.
Deformation is rotation angle between link and beam outside link or column. Assume y is 0.01 radians for short links.
Link beams with three or more web stiffeners. If no stiffeners, use half of these values. For one or two stiffeners, interpolate.
Applicable if stiffeners are provided to prevent shear buckling.

5.5.2.4 Rehabilitation Measures for 5.5.3.2 Stiffness for Analysis

Concentric Braced Frames
A. Linear Static and Dynamic Procedures
Provisions for moment frames may be applicable to The elastic stiffness of beams, columns, braces, and
braced frames. Braces that are insufficient in strength connections are the same as those used for FR and PR
and/or ductility may be replaced or modified. moment frames and CBF. The load-deformation
Insufficient connections may also be modified. model for a link beam must include shear deformation
Columns may be encased in concrete to improve their and flexural deformation.
performance. For further guidance, see Section 5.4.2.4
and the Commentary. The elastic stiffness of the link beam, Ke, is
5.5.3 Eccentric Braced Frames (EBF) K sK b
Ke = ------------------ (5-26)
5.5.3.1 General
Ks + Kb
For an EBF, the action lines of the braces do not
intersect at the action line of the beam. The distance where
between the brace action lines where they intersect the
beam action line is the eccentricity, e. The beam GAw
segment between these points is the link beam. The Ks = ----------- (5-27)
strength of the frame is governed by the strength of e
the link beam.

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and B. Nonlinear Static Procedure

The NSP requires modeling of the complete nonlinear
12EIb load-deformation relation to failure for each
Kb = -------------- (5-28)
3
e component. This may be based on experiment, or
rational analysis verified by experiment. In lieu of
these, the load versus deformation relationship given in
where
Figure 5-1 and Table 5-8 may be used. QCE and y are

2 calculated in accordance with provisions given in

Aw = (db – 2 tf) tw , in. AISC (1994a) or by rational analysis.
= Length of link beam, in.
2 The nonlinear models used for beams, columns, and
= Shear modulus, k/in. connections for FR and PR moment frames, and for
K
e = Stiffness of the link beam, k/in. the braces for a CBF, may be used.
Kb = Flexural stiffness, kip/in.
C. Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure
Ks = Shear stiffness, kip/in.
The strength and deformation criteria require that the
load and resistance relationships given in
The strength of the link beam may be governed Equations 3-18 and 3-19 in Chapter 3 be satisfied. The
by shear, flexure, or the combination of these. complete hysteretic behavior of each component must
be modeled for this procedure. Guidelines for this are
e 1.6M given in the Commentary.
CE
If  ------------------
V 5.5.3.3 Strength and Deformation
CE
Acceptance Criteria
QCE = VCE = 0.6 Fye tw Aw (5-29) A. Linear Static and Dynamic Procedures
The modeling assumptions given for a CBF are the same
where
as those for an EBF. Values for QCE and y are given in
M Section 5.5.3.2 and m values are given in Table 5-7. The
CE = Expected moment, kip/in. strength and deformation capacities of the link beam may
be governed by shear strength, flexural strength, or their
2.6MCE interaction. The values of QCE and y are the same as
If e  ------------------
V those used in the LSP as given in Section 5.5.3.2A. Links
CE and beams are deformation-controlled components and
M must satisfy Equation 3-18. Columns and braces are to be
Q = V
CE
(5-30) considered force-controlled members and must satisfy
= 2 -----------
Equation 3-19.
CE CE e
The requirements for link stiffeners, link-to-column
1.6 MCE 2.6 MCE
connections, lateral supports of the link, the diagonal
------------------
V  e ------------------
V brace and beam outside the link, and beam-to-column
If CE  CE , use linear interpolation
between Equations 5-29 and 5-30. connections given in AISC (1994a) must be met. The
brace should be able to carry 1.25 times the link strength
The yield deformation is the link rotation as given by to ensure link yielding without brace or column buckling.
If this is not satisfied for existing buildings, the design
Q
 CE professional shall make extra efforts to verify that the
y = ---------- (5-31) expected link strength will be reached before brace or
column buckling. This may require additional inspection
Ke e
and material testing. Where the link beam is attached to
the column flange with full-pen welds, the provisions for
these connections is the same as for FR frame full-pen

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connections. The columns of an EBF are force-controlled 5.6.2 Stiffness for Analysis
members. The maximum force deliverable to a column
should be calculated from the maximum brace forces 5.6.2.1 Linear Static and Dynamic
equal to 1.25 times the calculated strength of the brace. Procedures
The most appropriate way to analyze a steel plate
B. Nonlinear Static Procedure wall is to use a plane stress finite element model with
The NSP requirements for an EBF are the same as those the beams and columns as boundary elements. The
for a CBF. Modeling of the nonlinear load deformation global stiffness of the wall can be calculated. The
of the link beam should be based on experiment, or modeling can be similar to that used for a reinforced
rational analysis verified by experiment. In lieu of these, concrete shear wall. A simple approximate stiffness
the conservative approximate behavior depicted in Figure Kw for the wall is
5-1 may be used. Values for QCE and y are the same as
those used for the LSP. Deformation limits are given in Ga tw
Table 5-8.
Kw = -------------- (5-32)
h
C. Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure
where
The complete hysteretic behavior of each
component must be properly modeled. This = Shear modulus of steel, ksi
behavior must be verified by experiment. This
= Clear width of wall between columns, in.
procedure is not recommended in most cases.
= Clear height of wall between beams, in.
5.5.3.4 Rehabilitation Measures for tw = Thickness of plate wall, in.
Eccentric Braced Frames
Many of the beams, columns, and braces may be Other approximations of the wall stiffness based
rehabilitated using procedures given for moment on principles of mechanics are acceptable.
frames and CBFs. Cover plates and/or stiffeners may
be used for these components. The strength of the link 5.6.2.2 Nonlinear Static Procedure
beam may be increased by adding cover plates to the
beam flange(s), adding doubler plates or stiffeners to The elastic part of the load-deformation relationship
the web, or changing the brace configuration. for the wall is given in Section 5.6.2.1. The yield load,
QCE , is given in the next section. The complete
nonlinear load-deformation relationship should be
5.6 Steel Plate Walls based on experiment or rational analysis. In lieu of
this, the approximate simplified behavior may be
5.6.1 General modeled using Figure 5-1 and Table 5-8.
A steel plate wall develops its seismic resistance 5.6.2.3 Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure
through shear stress in the plate wall. In essence, it is a
steel shear wall. A solid steel plate, with or preferably The complete hysteretic behavior of each
without perforations, fills an entire bay between component must be properly modeled. This
columns and beams. The steel plate is welded to the behavior must be verified by experiment. This
columns on each side and to the beams above and procedure is not recommended in most cases.
below. Although these are not common, they have
been used to rehabilitate a few essential structures 5.6.3 Strength and Deformation Acceptance
where immediate occupancy and operation of a facility Criteria
is mandatory after a large earthquake. These walls
work in conjunction with other existing elements to 5.6.3.1 Linear Static and Dynamic
resist seismic load. However, due to their stiffness, Procedures
they attract much of the seismic shear. It is essential The strength and deformation acceptance criteria for
that the new load paths be carefully established. these methods require that the load and resistance
relationships given in Equations 3-18 and 3-19 in
Chapter 3 be satisfied. The design strength of the steel

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wall shall be determined using the appropriate The engineering properties and acceptance criteria for the
equations in Part 6 of AISC (1994a). The wall can be infill walls are presented in Chapter 6 for concrete and
assumed to be like the web of a plate girder. Design Chapter 7 for masonry. The walls may be considered to
restrictions for plate girder webs given in AISC carry all of the seismic shear in these elements until
(1994a), particularly those related to stiffener spacing, complete failure of the walls has occurred. After that, the
must be followed. Stiffeners should be spaced such steel frames will resist the seismic forces. Before the loss
that buckling of the wall does not occur. In this case of the wall, the steel frame adds confining pressure to the
wall and enhances its resistance. However, the actual
QCE = VCE = 0.6Fyea tw (5-33) effective forces on the steel frame components are
probably minimal. As the frame components begin to
In lieu of stiffeners, the steel wall may be encased develop force they will deform; however, the concrete or
in concrete. If buckling is not prevented, equations masonry on the other side is stiffer so it picks up the load.
for VCE given in AISC (1994a) for plate girders
may be used. The m values for steel walls are given The analysis of the component should be done in
in Table 5-7. A steel shear wall is a deformation- stages and carried through each performance goal. At
controlled component. the point where the infill has been deemed to fail—as
given in Chapter 6 or Chapter 7—the wall should be
5.6.3.2 Nonlinear Static Procedure removed from the analytical model and the analysis
The NSP requires modeling of the complete load- resumed with only the bare steel frame in place. At this
deformation behavior to failure. This may be based on point, the engineering properties and acceptance
experiment or rational analysis. In lieu of these, the criteria for the moment frame given above in Section
conservative approximate behavior depicted in 5.4 are applicable.
Figure 5-1 may be used, along with parameters given in
Table 5-8. The equation for QCE is Equation 5-33. The 5.8 Diaphragms
yield deformation is
Q 5.8.1 Bare Metal Deck Diaphragms
CE
y = ---------- (5-34)
5.8.1.1 General
Kw
Bare metal deck diaphragms are usually used for roofs
5.6.3.3 Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure of buildings where there are very light gravity loads
other than support of roofing materials. The metal deck
The complete hysteretic behavior of each units are often composed of gage thickness steel
component must be properly modeled. This sheets, from 22 gage down to 14 gage, two to three
behavior must be verified by experiment. This feet wide, and formed in a repeating pattern with
procedure is not recommended in most cases. ridges and valleys. Rib depths vary from 1-1/2 to 3
inches in most cases. Decking units are attached to
5.6.4 Rehabilitation Measures each other and to the structural steel supports by welds
This is not an issue because steel walls in or, in some more recent applications, by mechanical
existing construction are rare. fasteners. In large roof structures, these roofs may have
supplementary diagonal bracing. (See the description
of horizontal steel bracing in Section 5.8.4.)
5.7 Steel Frames with Infills
Chord and collector elements in these diaphragms are
It is common for older existing steel frame buildings to considered to be composed of the steel frame elements
have complete or partial infill walls of reinforced attached to the diaphragm. Load transfer to frame
concrete or masonry. Due to the high wall stiffness elements that act as chords or collectors in modern
relative to the frame stiffness, the infill walls will attract frames is through shear connectors, puddle welds,
most of the seismic shear. In many cases, because these screws, or shot pins.
walls are unreinforced or lightly reinforced, their strength
and ductility may be inadequate.

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5.8.1.2 Stiffness for Analysis these may be multiplied by 2.0 in lieu of information
A. Linear Static Procedure
provided by the manufacturer or other knowledgeable
sources. If bare deck capacity is controlled by
The distribution of forces for existing diaphragms is connections to frame members or panel buckling, then
based on flexible diaphragm assumption, with inelastic action and ductility are limited. Therefore,
diaphragms acting as simply supported between the the deck should be considered to be a force-controlled
stiff vertical lateral-force-resisting elements. member.
Flexibility factors for various types of metal decks are
available from manufacturers’ catalogs. In systems for In many cases, diaphragm failure would not be a life
which values are not available, values can be safety consideration unless it led to a loss of bearing
established by interpolating between the most support or anchorage. Goals for higher performance
representative systems for which values are available. would limit the amount of damage to the connections
Flexibility can also be calculated using the Steel Deck to insure that the load transfer mechanism was still
Institute Diaphragm Design Manual (Section 3). The intact. Deformations should be limited to below the
analysis should verify that the diaphragm strength is threshold of deflections that cause damage to other
not exceeded for the elastic assumption to hold. elements (either structural or nonstructural) at
specified Performance Levels.
All criteria for existing diaphragms mentioned above
apply to stiffened or strengthened diaphragms. The m value for shear yielding, or panel or plate
Interaction of new and existing elements of buckling is 1, 2, or 3 for the IO, LS, or CP
strengthened diaphragms must be considered to ensure Performance Levels, respectively. Weld and connector
stiffness compatibility. Load transfer mechanisms failure is force-controlled.
between new and existing diaphragm elements must be
considered. The SDI calculations procedure should be used for
strengths, or ICBO values with a multiplier may be
Analyses should verify that diaphragm strength is not used to bring allowable values to expected strength
exceeded, so that elastic assumptions are still valid. levels. Specific references are given in Section 5.12
and in the Commentary, Section C5.12.
B. Nonlinear Static Procedure
Inelastic properties of diaphragms are usually Connections between metal decks and steel framing
not included in inelastic seismic analyses. commonly use puddle welds. Connection capacity
must be checked for the ability to transfer the total
More flexible diaphragms, such as bare metal deck or diaphragm reaction into the steel framing. Connection
deck-formed slabs with long spans between lateral- capacities are provided in ICBO reports,
force-resisting elements, could be subject to inelastic manufacturers’ data, the SDI Manual, or the Welding
action. Procedures for developing models for inelastic Code for Sheet Steel, AWS D1.3. Other attachment
response of wood diaphragms in unreinforced systems, such as clips, are sometimes used.
masonry (URM) buildings could be used as the basis
for an inelastic model of a bare metal deck diaphragm 5.8.1.4 Rehabilitation Measures
condition. A strain-hardening modulus of 3% could be See the Commentary.
used in the post-elastic region. If the weak link of the
diaphragm is connection failure, then the element
5.8.2 Metal Deck Diaphragms with
nonlinearity cannot be incorporated into the model.
Structural Concrete Topping
5.8.1.3 Strength and Deformation 5.8.2.1 General
Acceptance Criteria
Metal deck diaphragms with structural concrete
Member capacities of steel deck diaphragms are given topping are frequently used on floors and roofs of
in International Conference of Building Officials buildings where there are typical floor gravity loads.
(ICBO) reports, in manufacturers’ literature, or in the The metal deck may be either a composite deck, which
publications of the Steel Deck Institute (SDI). (See has indentations, or a noncomposite form deck. In both
the references in Section 5.12 and Commentary types of deck, the slab and deck act together to resist
Section C5.12.) Where allowable stresses are given,

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 Chapter 5: Steel and Cast Iron
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diaphragm loads. The concrete fill may be either (stiffness compatibility) must be considered. Load
normal or lightweight concrete, with reinforcing transfer mechanisms between new and existing
composed of wire mesh or small-diameter reinforcing diaphragm components may need to be considered
steel. Additional slab reinforcing may be added at in determining the flexibility of the diaphragm.
areas of high stress. The metal deck units are
composed of gage thickness steel sheets, two to three All procedures for existing diaphragms noted above
feet wide, and are formed in a repeating pattern with apply to new diaphragms. Interaction of new
ridges and valleys. Decking units are attached to each diaphragms with the existing frames must be
other and to structural steel supports by welds or, in considered. Load transfer mechanisms between new
some more recent applications, by mechanical diaphragm components and existing frames may
fasteners. Concrete diaphragms in which the slab was need to be considered in determining the flexibility
formed and the beams are encased in concrete for fire of the diaphragm.
protection may be considered to be similar to topped
metal deck diaphragms. For all diaphragms, the analyses must verify that the
diaphragm strength is not exceeded, so that elastic
Concrete has structural properties that significantly assumptions are still valid.
add to diaphragm stiffness and strength. Concrete
reinforcing ranges from light mesh reinforcement to a B. Nonlinear Static Procedure
regular grid of small reinforcing bars (#3 or #4). Metal Inelastic properties of diaphragms are usually not
decking is typically composed of corrugated sheet included in inelastic seismic analyses, but could be if the
steel from 22 ga. down to 14 ga. Rib depths vary from connections are adequate. More flexible diaphragms—
1-1/2 to 3 inches in most cases. Attachment of the such as bare metal deck or deck-formed slabs with long
metal deck to the steel frame is usually accomplished spans between lateral-force-resisting elements—could be
using puddle welds at one to two feet on center. For subject to inelastic action. Procedures for developing
composite behavior, shear studs are welded to the models for inelastic response of wood diaphragms in
frame before the concrete is cast. URM buildings could be used as the basis for an inelastic
model of a bare metal deck or long span composite
Chord and collector elements in these diaphragms are diaphragm condition. If the weak link of the diaphragm is
considered to be composed of the steel frame elements connection failure, the element nonlinearity cannot be
attached to the diaphragm. Load transfer to frame incorporated into the model.
elements that act as chords or collectors in modern
frames is usually through puddle welds or headed 5.8.2.3 Strength and Deformation
studs. In older construction where the frame is encased Acceptance Criteria
for fire protection, load transfer is made through bond.
Member capacities of steel deck diaphragms with
5.8.2.2 Stiffness for Analysis structural concrete are given in manufacturers’
catalogs, ICBO reports, or the SDI Manual. If
A. Linear Static Procedure composite deck capacity is controlled by shear
For existing diaphragms, the distribution of forces may connectors, inelastic action and ductility are limited. It
be based on a rigid diaphragm assumption if the would be expected that there would be little or no
diaphragm span-to-depth ratio is not greater than five to inelastic action in steel deck/concrete diaphragms,
one. For greater ratios, justify with analysis. Diaphragm except in long span conditions; however, perimeter
flexibility should be included in cases with larger spans transfer mechanisms and collector forces must be
and/or plan irregularities by three-dimensional analysis considered to be sure that this is the case.
procedures and shell finite elements for the diaphragms.
Diaphragm stiffness can be calculated using the SDI In many cases, diaphragm failure would not be a life
Design Manual, manufacturers’ catalogs, or with a safety consideration unless it led to a loss of bearing
representative concrete thickness. support or anchorage. Goals for higher performance
would limit the amount of damage to the connections
All procedures for existing diaphragms noted above or cracking in concrete-filled slabs in order to ensure
apply to strengthened diaphragms as well. Interaction of that the load transfer mechanism was still intact.
new and existing elements of strengthened diaphragms Deformations should be limited below the threshold of

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deflections that cause damage to other elements not have usable structural properties. If the concrete is
(either structural or nonstructural) at specified reinforced, reinforcing consists of wire mesh or small-
Performance Levels. diameter reinforcing steel. Typically, the metal deck is a
form deck or roof decks, so the only attachment between
Connection failure is force-limited, so Equation 3-19 the concrete and metal deck is through bond and friction.
must be used. Shear failure of the deck requires The concrete fill is not designed to act compositely with
cracking of the concrete and/or tearing of the metal the metal deck and has no positive structural attachment.
deck, so the m values for IO, LS, and CP Performance The metal deck units are typically composed of gage
Levels are 1, 2, and 3, respectively. See Section thickness steel sheets, two to three feet wide, and formed
5.8.6.3 for acceptance criteria for collectors. in a repeating pattern with ridges and valleys. Decking
units are attached to each other and structural steel
SDI calculation procedures should be used for supports by welds or, in some more recent applications,
strengths, or ICBO values with a multiplier of 2.0 by mechanical fasteners.
should be used to bring allowable values to a
strength level. The deck will be considered elastic in Consideration of any composite action must be done
most analyses. with caution, after extensive investigation of field
conditions. Material properties, force transfer
Connector capacity must be checked for the ability to mechanisms, and other similar factors must be verified
transfer the total diaphragm reaction into the supporting in order to include such composite action. Typically,
steel framing. This load transfer can be achieved by the decks are composed of corrugated sheet steel from
puddle welds and/or headed studs. For the connection of 22 gage down to 14 gage, and the rib depths vary from
the metal deck to steel framing, puddle welds to beams 9/ 16 to 3 inches in most cases. Attachment to the steel
are most common. Connector capacities are provided in frame is usually through puddle welds, typically
ICBO reports, manufacturers’ data, the SDI Manual, or spaced at one to two feet on center. Chord and
the Welding Code for Sheet Steel, AWS collector elements in these diaphragms are composed
D1.3. Shear studs replace puddle welds to beams of the steel frame elements attached to the diaphragm.
where they are required for composite action with
supporting steel beams. 5.8.3.2 Stiffness for Analysis
A. Linear Static Procedure
Headed studs are most commonly used for connection
of the concrete slab to steel framing. Connector The potential for composite action and modification of
capacities can be found using the AISC Manual of load distribution must be considered. Flexibility of the
Steel Construction, UBC, or manufacturers’ catalogs. diaphragm will depend on the strength and thickness of
When steel beams are designed to act compositely with the topping. It may be necessary to bound the solution in
the slab, shear connectors must have the capacity to some cases, using both rigid and flexible diaphragm
transfer both diaphragm shears and composite beam assumptions. Interaction of new and existing elements of
shears. In older structures where the beams are encased strengthened diaphragms (stiffness compatibility) must
in concrete, load transfer may be provided through be considered, and the load transfer mechanisms between
bond between the steel and concrete. the new and existing diaphragm elements may need to be
considered in determining the flexibility of the
5.8.2.4 Rehabilitation Measures diaphragm. Similarly, the interaction of new diaphragms
with existing frames must be carefully considered, as
See the Commentary.
well as the load transfer mechanisms between them.
Finally, the analyses must verify that diaphragm strength
5.8.3 Metal Deck Diaphragms with is not exceeded, so elastic assumptions are still valid.
Nonstructural Concrete Topping
5.8.3.1 General
B. Nonlinear Static Procedure
Metal deck diaphragms with nonstructural concrete fill Inelastic properties of diaphragms are usually not
are typically used on roofs of buildings where there are included in inelastic seismic analyses. When
very small gravity loads. The concrete fill, such as very nonstructural topping is present its capacity must be
lightweight insulating concrete (e.g., vermiculite), does verified. More flexible diaphragms, such as bare metal

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deck or decks with inadequate nonstructural topping, 5.8.4 Horizontal Steel Bracing (Steel Truss
could be subject to inelastic action. Procedures for Diaphragms)
developing models for inelastic response of wood
diaphragms in URM buildings could be used as the 5.8.4.1 General
basis for an inelastic model of a bare metal deck Horizontal steel bracing (steel truss diaphragms) may be
diaphragm condition. If a weak link of the diaphragm used in conjunction with bare metal deck roofs and in
is connection failure, then the element nonlinearity conditions where diaphragm stiffness and/or strength is
cannot be incorporated into the model. inadequate to transfer shear forces. Steel truss diaphragm
elements are typically found in conjunction with vertical
5.8.3.3 Strength and Deformation framing systems that are of structural steel framing. Steel
Acceptance Criteria trusses are more common in long span situations, such as
A. Linear Static Procedure special roof structures for arenas, exposition halls,
Capacities of steel deck diaphragms with nonstructural auditoriums, and industrial buildings. Diaphragms with a
topping are provided by ICBO reports, by large span-to-depth ratio may often be stiffened by the
manufacturers, or in general by the SDI Manual. When addition of steel trusses. The addition of steel trusses for
the connection failure governs, or topping lacks diaphragms identified to be deficient may provide a
adequate strength, inelastic action and ductility are proper method of enhancement.
limited. As a limiting case, the diaphragm shear may
be computed using only the bare deck (see Section Horizontal steel bracing (steel truss diaphragms) may
5.8.1 for bare decks). Generally, there should be little be made up of any of the various structural shapes.
or no inelastic action in the diaphragms, provided the Often, the truss chord elements consist of wide flange
connections to the framing members are adequate. shapes that also function as floor beams to support the
gravity loads of the floor. For lightly loaded
In many cases, diaphragm failure would not be a life conditions, such as industrial metal deck roofs without
safety consideration unless it led to a loss of bearing concrete fill, the diagonal members may consist of
support or anchorage. Goals for higher Performance threaded rod elements, which are assumed to act only
Levels would limit the amount of damage to the in tension. For steel truss diaphragms with large loads,
connections or cracking in concrete filled slabs, to diagonal elements may consist of wide flange
ensure that the load transfer mechanism was still members, tubes, or other structural elements that will
intact. Deformations should be limited below the act in both tension and compression. Truss element
threshold of deflections that cause damage to other connections are generally concentric, to provide the
elements (either structural or nonstructural) at maximum lateral stiffness and ensure that the truss
specified performance levels. members act under pure axial load. These connections
are generally similar to those of gravity-load-resisting
Connection failure is force-limited, so Equation 3-19 trusses. Where concrete fill is provided over the metal
must be used. Shear failure of the deck requires concrete decking, consideration of relative rigidities between
cracking and/or tearing of the metal deck, so m values for the truss and concrete systems may be necessary.
IO, LS, and CP are 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Panel
buckling or plate buckling have m values of 1, 2, and 3 5.8.4.2 Stiffness for Analysis
for IO, LS, and CP. SDI calculation procedures should be A. Linear Static Procedure
used for strengths, or ICBO values with a multiplier to Existing truss diaphragm systems are modeled as
bring allowable values to strength levels. horizontal truss elements (similar to braced steel
frames) where axial stiffness controls the deflections.
5.8.3.4 Rehabilitation Measures Joints are often taken as pinned. Where joints provide
See the Commentary. the ability for moment resistance or where
eccentricities are introduced at the connections, joint
rigidities should be considered. A combination of
stiffness with that of concrete fill over metal decking
may be necessary in some instances. Flexibility of
truss diaphragms should be considered in distribution
of lateral loads to vertical elements.

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The procedures for existing diaphragms provided above In many cases, diaphragm distress would not be a life
apply to strengthened truss diaphragms. Interaction of safety consideration unless it led to a loss of bearing
new and existing elements of strengthened diaphragm support or anchorage. Goals for higher Performance
systems (stiffness compatibility) must be considered in Levels would limit the amount of damage to the
cases where steel trusses are added as part of a seismic connections or bracing elements, to insure that the load
upgrade. Load transfer mechanisms between new and transfer mechanism was still complete. Deformations
existing diaphragm elements must be considered in should be limited below the threshold of deflections
determining the flexibility of the strengthened that cause damage to other elements (either structural
diaphragm. or nonstructural) at specified Performance Levels.
These values must be established in conjunction with
The procedures for existing truss diaphragms those of braced steel frames.
mentioned above also apply to new diaphragms.
Interaction of new truss diaphragms with existing The m values to be used are half of those for
frames must be considered. Load transfer mechanisms components of a CBF as given in Table 5-7.
between new diaphragm elements and existing frames
may need to be considered in determining the A. Nonlinear Static Procedure
flexibility of the diaphragm/frame system. Procedures similar to those used for a CBF should be
used, but deformation limits shall be half of those
For modeling assumptions and limitations, see the given for CBFs in Table 5-8.
preceding comments related to truss joint modeling,
force transfer, and interaction between diaphragm 5.8.4.4 Rehabilitation Measures
elements. Analyses are also needed to verify that
elastic diaphragm response assumptions are still valid. See the Commentary.

Acceptance criteria for the components of a truss 5.8.5 Archaic Diaphragms

diaphragm are the same as for a CBF.
5.8.5.1 General
B. Nonlinear Static Procedure Archaic diaphragms in steel buildings generally
Inelastic properties of truss diaphragms are usually not consist of shallow brick arches that span between steel
included in inelastic seismic analyses. In the case of floor beams, with the arches packed tightly between
truss diaphragms, inelastic models similar to those of the beams to provide the necessary resistance to thrust
braced steel frames may be appropriate. Inelastic forces. Archaic steel diaphragm elements are almost
deformation limits of truss diaphragms may be always found in older steel buildings in conjunction
different from those prescribed for braced steel frames with vertical systems that are of structural steel
(e.g., more consistent with that of a concrete-topped framing. The brick arches were typically covered with
diaphragm). a very low-strength concrete fill, usually unreinforced.
In many instances, various archaic diaphragm systems
5.8.4.3 Strength and Deformation were patented by contractors.
Acceptance Criteria
5.8.5.2 Stiffness for Analysis
Member capacities of truss diaphragm members may
A. Linear Static Procedure
be calculated in a manner similar to those for braced
steel frame members. It may be necessary to include Existing archaic diaphragm systems are modeled as a
gravity force effects in the calculations for some horizontal diaphragm with equivalent thickness of
members of these trusses. Lateral support conditions arches and concrete fill. Development of truss
provided by metal deck, with or without concrete fill, elements between steel beams and compression
must be properly considered. Force transfer elements of arches could also be considered.
mechanisms between various members of the truss at Flexibility of archaic diaphragms should be considered
the connections, and between trusses and frame in the distribution of lateral loads to vertical elements,
elements, must be considered to verify the completion especially if spans are large.
of the load path.

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All preceding comments for existing diaphragms apply 5.8.6 Chord and Collector Elements
for archaic diaphragms. Interaction of new and existing
elements of strengthened elements (stiffness 5.8.6.1 General
compatibility) must be considered in cases where steel Chords and collectors for all the previously described
trusses are added as part of a seismic upgrade. Load diaphragms typically consist of the steel framing that
transfer mechanisms between new and existing supports the diaphragm. When structural concrete is
diaphragm elements must be considered in determining present, additional slab reinforcing may act as the
the flexibility of the strengthened diaphragm. chord or collector for tensile loads, while the slab
carries chord or collector compression. When the steel
For modeling assumptions and limitations, see the framing acts as a chord or collector, it is typically
preceding comments related to force transfer, and attached to the deck with spot welds or by mechanical
interaction between diaphragm elements. Analyses fasteners. When reinforcing acts as the chord or
are required to verify that elastic diaphragm response collector, load transfer occurs through bond between
assumptions are valid. the reinforcing bars and the concrete.
B. Nonlinear Static Procedure 5.8.6.2 Stiffness for Analysis
Inelastic properties of archaic diaphragms should be Modeling assumptions similar to those for equivalent
chosen with caution for seismic analyses. For the case of frame members should be used.
archaic diaphragms, inelastic models similar to those of
archaic timber diaphragms in unreinforced masonry 5.8.6.3 Strength and Deformation
buildings may be appropriate. Inelastic deformation Acceptance Criteria
limits of archaic diaphragms should be lower than those
prescribed for a concrete-filled diaphragm. Capacities of chords and collectors are provided by the
AISC LRFD Specifications (1994a) and ACI-318 (ACI,
5.8.5.3 Strength and Deformation 1995; see Chapter 6 for the citation) design guides.
Acceptance Criteria Inelastic action may occur, depending on the
configuration of the diaphragm. It is desirable to design
Member capacities of archaic diaphragm components chord and collector components for a force that will
can be calculated assuming little or no tension develop yielding or ductile failure in either the diaphragm
capacity except for the steel beam members. Gravity or vertical lateral-force-resisting system, so that the
force effects must be included in the calculations for chords and collectors are not the weak link in the load
all components of these diaphragms. Force transfer path. In some cases, failure of chord and collector
mechanisms between various members and between components may result in a life safety consideration
frame elements must be considered to verify the when beams act as the chords or collectors and vertical
completion of the load path. support is compromised. Goals for higher performance
would limit stresses and damage in chords and collectors,
In many cases, diaphragm distress could result in life keeping the load path intact.
safety considerations, due to possible loss of bearing
support for the elements of the arches. Goals for In buildings where the steel framing members that
higher performance would limit the amount of support the diaphragm act as collectors, the steel
diagonal tension stresses, to insure that the load components may be alternately in tension and
transfer mechanism was still complete. Deformations compression. If all connections to the diaphragm are
should be limited below the threshold of deflections sufficient, the diaphragm will prevent buckling of the
that cause damage to other elements (either structural chord member so values of m equal to 1, 6, and 8 may be
or nonstructural) at specified Performance Levels. used for IO, LS, and CP, respectively. If the diaphragm
These values must be established in conjunction with provides only limited support against buckling of the
those for steel frames. Archaic diaphragm components chord or collector, values of m equal to 1, 2, and 3
should be considered as force-limited, so Equation 3- should be used. Where chords or collectors carry gravity
19 must be used. loads along with seismic loads, they should be checked
as members with combined loading using Equations 5-
5.8.5.4 Rehabilitation Measures 10 and 5-11. Welds and connectors
See the Commentary.

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joining the diaphragms to the collectors should program that is available at no cost. Details are given
be considered to be force-controlled. in the Commentary, Section C5.9.2.

5.8.6.4 Rehabilitation Measures Once the axial force and maximum bending moments
are known, the pile strength acceptance criteria are the
See the Commentary.
same as for a steel column, as given in Equation 5-10.
The expected axial and flexural strengths in Equation
5.9 Steel Pile Foundations 5-10 are computed for an unbraced length equal to
zero. Note that Equation 5-11 does not apply to steel
5.9.1 General piles. Exceptions to these criteria, where liquefaction
is a concern, are discussed in the Commentary, Section
Steel piles are one of the most common components C5.9.2.
for building foundations. Wide flange shapes (H piles)
or structural tubes, with and without concrete infills, 5.9.4 Rehabilitation Measures for Steel Pile
are the most commonly used shapes. Piles are usually Foundations
driven in groups. A reinforced concrete pile cap is then
cast over each group, and a steel column with a base Rehabilitation of the pile cap is covered in Chapter 6.
plate is attached to the pile cap with anchor bolts. Chapter 4 covers general criteria for the rehabilitation
of the foundation element. In most cases, it is not
The piles provide strength and stiffness to the possible to rehabilitate the existing piles. Increased
foundation in one of two ways. Where very strong soil stiffness and strength may be gained by driving
or rock lies at not too great a distance below the additional piles near existing groups and then adding
building site, the pile forces are transferred directly to a new pile cap. Monolithic behavior can be gained by
the soil or rock at the bearing surface. Where this connecting the new and old pile caps with epoxied
condition is not met, the piles are designed to transfer dowels, or other means.
their load to the soil through friction. The design of
the entire foundation is covered in Chapter 4 of these 5.10 Definitions
Guidelines. The design of the steel piles is covered in
the following subsections. Beam: A structural member whose primary function is to
carry loads transverse to its longitudinal axis; usually a
5.9.2 Stiffness for Analysis horizontal member in a seismic frame system.
If the pile cap is below grade, the foundation attains
Braced frame: An essentially vertical truss system of
much of its stiffness from the pile cap bearing against
concentric or eccentric type that resists lateral forces.
the soil. Equivalent soil springs may be derived as
discussed in Chapter 4. The piles may also provide
Concentric braced frame (CBF): A braced frame in
significant stiffness through bending and bearing
which the members are subjected primarily to axial
against the soil. The effective pile contribution to
forces.
stiffness is decreased if the piles are closely spaced;
this group effect must be taken into account when
Connection: A link between components or elements
calculating foundation and strength. For a more
that transmits actions from one component or element
detailed description, see the Commentary, Section
C5.9.2, and Chapter 4 of these Guidelines. to another component or element. Categorized by type
of action (moment, shear, or axial), connection links
are frequently nonductile.
5.9.3 Strength and Deformation
Acceptance Criteria Continuity plates: Column stiffeners at the top and
Buckling of steel piles is not a concern, since the soil bottom of the panel zone.
provides lateral support. The moments in the piles may
be calculated in one of two ways. The first is an elastic Diagonal bracing: Inclined structural members
method that requires finding the effective point of fixity; carrying primarily axial load, employed to enable
the pile is then designed as a cantilever column. The a structural frame to act as a truss to resist
second, a nonlinear method, requires a computer horizontal loads.

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Dual system: A structural system included in Moment frame: A building frame system in which
buildings with the following features: seismic shear forces are resisted by shear and flexure
in members and joints of the frame.
An essentially complete space frame provides
support for gravity loads. Nominal strength: The capacity of a structure or
component to resist the effects of loads, as
Resistance to lateral load is provided by concrete or determined by (1) computations using specified
steel shear walls, steel eccentrically braced frames material strengths and dimensions, and formulas
(EBF), or concentrically braced frames (CBF) along derived from accepted principles of structural
with moment-resisting frames (Special Moment mechanics, or (2) field tests or laboratory tests of
Frames, or Ordinary Moment Frames) that are scaled models, allowing for modeling effects, and
capable of resisting at least 25% of the lateral loads. differences between laboratory and field conditions.

Each system is also designed to resist the total Ordinary Moment Frame (OMF): A moment frame
lateral load in proportion to its relative rigidity. system that meets the requirements for Ordinary
Moment Frames as defined in seismic provisions for
Eccentric braced frame (EBF): A diagonal braced new construction in AISC (1994a), Chapter 5.
frame in which at least one end of each diagonal bracing
member connects to a beam a short distance from either a P- effect: The secondary effect of column axial
beam-to-column connection or another brace end. loads and lateral deflection on the shears and moments
in various components of a structure.
Joint: An area where two or more ends, surfaces, or
edges are attached. Categorized by the type of fastener Panel zone: The area of a column at the beam-to-
or weld used and the method of force transfer. column connection delineated by beam and column
flanges.
Lateral support member: A member designed to
inhibit lateral buckling or lateral-torsional buckling of Required strength: The load effect (force, moment,
a component. stress, as appropriate) acting on a component or
connection, determined by structural analysis from the
Link: In an EBF, the segment of a beam that extends factored loads (using the most appropriate critical load
from column to brace, located between the end of a combinations).
diagonal brace and a column, or between the ends of
two diagonal braces of the EBF. The length of the link Resistance factor: A reduction factor applied to
is defined as the clear distance between the diagonal member resistance that accounts for unavoidable
brace and the column face, or between the ends of two deviations of the actual strength from the nominal
diagonal braces. value, and the manner and consequences of failure.

Link intermediate web stiffeners: Vertical web Slip-critical joint: A bolted joint in which slip
stiffeners placed within the link. resistance of the connection is required.

Link rotation angle: The angle of plastic rotation Special Moment Frame (SMF): A moment frame
between the link and the beam outside of the link system that meets the special requirements for frames
derived using the specified base shear, V. as defined in seismic provisions for new construction.

LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design): A Structural system: An assemblage of load-carrying
method of proportioning structural components components that are joined together to provide
(members, connectors, connecting elements, and regular interaction or interdependence.
assemblages) using load and resistance factors such
that no applicable limit state is exceeded when the V-braced frame: A concentric braced frame (CBF) in
structure is subjected to all design load combinations. which a pair of diagonal braces located either above or
below a beam is connected to a single point within the
clear beam span. Where the diagonal braces are

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below the beam, the system also is referred to as an Kw Stiffness of wall, kip/in.
“inverted V-brace frame,” or “chevron bracing.”
K Rotational stiffness of a partially restrained
connection, kip-in./rad
X-braced frame: A concentric braced frame (CBF) in
which a pair of diagonal braces crosses near the mid- Length of bracing member, in.
length of the braces. Lp The limiting unbraced length between points of
lateral restraint for the full plastic moment
Y-braced frame: An eccentric braced frame (EBF) capacity to be effective (see AISC, 1994a)
in which the stem of the Y is the link of the EBF
system. Lr The limiting unbraced length between points of
lateral support beyond which elastic lateral
torsional buckling of the beam is the
5.11 Symbols failure mode (see AISC, 1994a)
This list may not contain symbols defined at their MCE Expected flexural strength of a member or
first use if not used thereafter. joint, kip-in.
MCEx Expected bending strength of a member about
2 the x-axis, kip-in.
Ab Gross area of bolt or rivet, in.
A 2 MCEy Expected bending strength of a member about
c Rivet area, in.
A 2 y-axis, kip-in.
e Effective net area, in.
A 2 Mp Plastic bending moment, kip-in.
f Flange area of member, in.
A 2 Mx Bending moment in a member for the x-axis,
g Gross area, in. kip-in.
A 2
st Area of link stiffener, in. My Bending moment in a member for the y-axis,
A 2 kip-in.
w Effective area of weld, in.
C
b Coefficient to account for effect of nonuniform Nb Number of bolts or rivets
moment; given in AISC (1994a) Axial force in a member, kips
Young’s modulus of elasticity, 29,000 ksi PR Partially restrained
FEXX Classification strength of weld metal, ksi Pcr Critical compression strength of bracing, kips
Fte Expected tensile strength, ksi PCL Lower-bound axial strength of column, kips
Fv Design shear strength of bolts or rivets, ksi Pu Required axial strength of a column or a link,
Fy Specified minimum yield stress for the type of kips
steel being used, ksi Pye Expected yield axial strength of a member =
Fyb Fy of a beam, ksi Fye Ag , kips
Fyc Fy of a column, ksi QCE Expected strength of a component or element at
the deformation level under consideration in a
Fye Expected yield strength, ksi deformation-controlled action
Fyf Fy of a flange, ksi QCL Lower-bound estimate of the strength of a
Shear modulus of steel, 11,200 ksi component or element at the deformation level
I 4 under consideration for a force-controlled
b Moment of inertia of a beam, in. action
Ic Moment of inertia of a column VCE Expected shear strength of a member, kips
Length factor for brace (see AISC, 1994a) VCE Shear strength of a link beam, kips
Ke Stiffness of a link beam, kip/in.
Vya Nominal shear strength of a member modified
Ks Rotational stiffness of a connection, by the axial load magnitude, kips
kip-in./rad 3
Plastic section modulus, in.

Clear width of wall between columns

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Width of compression element, in. tw Thickness of web, in.

ba Connection dimension tw Thickness of plate wall
bcf Column flange width, in. tz Thickness of panel zone (doubler plates not
necessarily included), in.
bf Flange width, in.
Length of flange angle
bt Connection dimension
wz Width of panel zone between column flanges,
Overall depth of member, in. in.
db Overall beam depth, in.
Generalized deformation, unitless
dc Overall column depth, in.
i Inter-story displacement (drift) of story i
dv Bolt or rivet diameter, in. divided by the story height
dz Overall panel zone depth between continuity y Generalized yield deformation, unitless
plates, in.
Generalized deformation, radians
EBF link length, in.
Average story height above and below a beam- i Inter-story drift ratio, radians
column joint y Generalized yield deformation, radians
Clear height of wall between beams A reliability coefficient used to reduce
Distance from inside of compression flange to component strength values for existing
inside of tension flange, in. components based on the quality of
hc Assumed web depth for stability, in. knowledge about the components’ properties
(see Section 2.7.2)
hv Height of story v Slenderness parameter
kv Shear buckling coefficient p Limiting slenderness parameter for compact
element
lb Length of beam
r Limiting slenderness parameter for
lc Length of column noncompact element
A modification factor used in the acceptance Ratio of required axial force (Pu) to nominal
criteria of deformation-controlled components shear strength (Vy) of a link
or elements, indicating the available ductility
of a component action lp Yield deformation of a link beam
me Effective m Resistance factor = 1.0

mx Value of m for bending about x-axis of a

member 5.12 References
my Value of m for bending about y-axis of a ACI, 1995, Building Code Requirements for
member Reinforced Concrete: ACI 318-95, American Concrete
Governing radius of gyration, in. Institute, Detroit, Michigan.
ry Radius of gyration about y axis, in.
AISC, 1994a, Manual of Steel Construction, Load and
Thickness of link stiffener, in. Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural
ta Thickness of angle, in. Steel Buildings (LRFD), Volume I, Structural
Members, Specifications and Codes, American
tbf Thickness of beam flange, in. Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, Illinois.
tcf Thickness of column flange, in.
AISC, 1994b, Manual of Steel Construction, Load
tf Thickness of flange, in. and Resistance Factor Design, Volume II,
Connections,
tp Thickness of panel zone including doubler
plates, in.
tp Thickness of flange plate, in.
5-42 Seismic Rehabilitation Guidelines FEMA 273
 Chapter 5: Steel and Cast Iron
(Systematic Rehabilitation)

American Institute of Steel Construction, BSSC, 1995, NEHRP Recommended Provisions for
Chicago, Illinois. Seismic Regulations for New Buildings, 1994 Edition,
Part 1: Provisions and Part 2: Commentary, prepared
AISI, 1973, The Criteria for Structural Applications by the Building Seismic Safety Council for the
for Steel Cables for Building, 1973 Edition, American Federal Emergency Management Agency (Reports
Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C. No. FEMA 222A and 223A), Washington, D.C.

AISI, 1986, Specification for the Design of Cold- SAC, 1995, Interim Guidelines: Evaluation, Repair,
Formed Steel Structural Members, August 10, 1986 Modification and Design of Welded Steel Moment
edition with December 11, 1989 Addendum, Frame Structures, Report No. FEMA 267,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Chicago, Illinois. developed by the SEAOC, ATC, and CUREE Joint
Venture (Report No. SAC-95-02) for the Federal
ASCE, 1990, Specification for the Design of Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
Cold-Formed Steel Stainless Steel Structural
Members, Report No. ASCE-8, American Society SDI, latest edition, SDI Design Manual for
of Civil Engineers, New York, New York. Composite Decks, Form Decks and Roof Decks, Steel
Diaphragm Institute.
BSSC, 1992, NEHRP Handbook for the Seismic
Evaluation of Existing Buildings, developed by the SJI, 1990, Standard Specification, Load Tables and
Building Seismic Safety Council for the Federal Weight Tables for Steel Joists and Joist Girders,
Emergency Management Agency (Report No. Steel Joist Institute, 1990 Edition.
FEMA 178), Washington, D.C.
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