MICROPOCESSOR & ITS APPLICATIONS

Introduction to Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a central processing unit (CPU) that is contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) or chip. It serves as
the brain of a computer or any other digital system, handling tasks such as arithmetic, logic operations, and data
manipulation.

Here's a brief introduction to microprocessors:

1. Architecture: Microprocessors are designed based on a specific architecture, which dictates how instructions are
processed and data is manipulated. Common architectures include x86 (used in most PCs), ARM (common in
mobile devices), and RISC-V (an open-source architecture).

2. Components: A microprocessor typically consists of several components, including an arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
for performing mathematical and logical operations, a control unit for managing instruction execution, registers
for temporary data storage, and a clock for synchronization.

3. Instruction Set: Each microprocessor has its own instruction set, which is a predefined list of operations it can
perform. Instructions can include arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, etc.), logic operations (AND, OR,
etc.), data transfer operations (moving data between memory and registers), and control flow operations
(branching, jumping, etc.).

4. Clock Speed: Microprocessors operate at a certain clock speed, measured in Hertz (Hz), which determines how
quickly they can execute instructions. A higher clock speed generally results in faster processing, although other
factors such as architecture and instruction efficiency also play a significant role in overall performance.

5. Memory: Microprocessors interact with memory to store and retrieve data and instructions. This memory can be
in the form of RAM (random-access memory) for temporary storage or ROM (read-only memory) for storing
essential system instructions.

6. Interfaces: Microprocessors often include various interfaces to communicate with other components, such as
input/output (I/O) ports for connecting peripherals, serial and parallel interfaces for data transfer, and buses for
communication with memory and other devices.

7. Applications: Microprocessors are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including computers, smartphones,
tablets, embedded systems (such as in cars and household appliances), industrial automation systems, and more.
Their versatility and scalability make them indispensable in modern technology.

In summary, microprocessors are essential components in digital systems, providing the computational power necessary
for a wide array of applications across various industries.
Architecture of 8085
The 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1976. It became one of the most popular
microprocessors of its time due to its versatility and wide range of applications. Here's an overview of its architecture:

1. Registers:

• Accumulator (A): An 8-bit register used for arithmetic and logic operations. It holds one of the operands
or results during processing.

• General Purpose Registers: Six additional 8-bit registers (B, C, D, E, H, L) that can be used for various
purposes such as storing data, addresses, or intermediate results.

• Stack Pointer (SP): A 16-bit register used to keep track of the top of the stack in the memory.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

• The ALU performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction) and logical (AND, OR, XOR) operations on data stored
in the registers.

3. Control Unit:

• Decodes instructions fetched from memory and generates control signals to coordinate operations within
the microprocessor.

• It includes various control signals such as read, write, increment, decrement, etc., to manage data transfer
between registers and memory, as well as control flow within the processor.

4. Instruction Set:

• The 8085 instruction set consists of a variety of instructions to perform operations such as data transfer
between registers and memory, arithmetic and logical operations, branching, subroutine calls, and
input/output operations.

5. Memory:

• The 8085 microprocessor can access up to 64 KB of memory using a 16-bit address bus.

• It supports both RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read-Only Memory) for storing data and
instructions.

6. Interrupts:

• The 8085 microprocessor supports five interrupt signals: TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and INTR. These
interrupts can be enabled or disabled based on the program's requirements.

7. Serial I/O Ports:

• The 8085 microprocessor has two serial I/O ports, commonly known as Serial Input/Output (SIO) ports,
which can be used for serial communication with external devices.

8. Bus Structure:

• The 8085 microprocessor has an 8-bit data bus and a 16-bit address bus. The data bus is used for
transferring data between the microprocessor and memory or I/O devices, while the address bus is used
for specifying memory locations.

Overall, the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor is designed to provide efficient data processing and control
capabilities for a wide range of applications, making it a popular choice in the early days of computing.
Memory-stack organization
Memory-stack organization refers to a specific way of organizing memory in a computer system, where a portion of the
memory is reserved for use as a stack data structure. In this organization, the memory is divided into two distinct regions:
the stack and the heap.

1. Stack:

• The stack is a region of memory used for storing local variables, function parameters, return addresses,
and other data related to function calls and nested function invocations.

• It follows a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) structure, meaning that the last item pushed onto the stack is the first
one to be popped off.

• The stack pointer (SP) keeps track of the current top of the stack, indicating the next available location for
pushing data onto the stack or retrieving data from the stack.

• Stack operations, such as push (to add data to the stack) and pop (to remove data from the stack), are
typically supported by dedicated CPU instructions or by manipulating the stack pointer directly.

2. Heap:

• The heap is a region of memory used for dynamic memory allocation, where memory blocks can be
allocated and deallocated at runtime.

• Unlike the stack, memory allocation and deallocation in the heap are not automatically managed by the
system. Instead, the programmer is responsible for explicitly requesting memory allocation and releasing
it when it is no longer needed.

• The heap is typically managed using functions like malloc() and free() in languages like C and C++.

3. Usage:

• The stack is commonly used for managing function calls, local variables, and other temporary data within
a program.

• The heap is used for dynamic memory allocation when the size of memory required cannot be determined
at compile time or when memory needs to be allocated and deallocated dynamically during program
execution.

4. Benefits:

• Memory-stack organization simplifies memory management by providing a structured approach for

• It allows for efficient memory allocation and deallocation without the overhead of managing memory
fragmentation that may occur in the heap.

5. Considerations:

• Stack memory is limited and fixed in size, typically smaller than heap memory, so it can lead to stack
overflow errors if the stack size is exceeded.

• Heap memory management requires careful attention to avoid memory leaks (unreleased memory) and
memory fragmentation (unused memory scattered throughout the heap).

In summary, memory-stack organization provides a structured approach for managing memory in computer systems, with
distinct regions for stack-based function calls and heap-based dynamic memory allocation.
Internal registers & flag register in microprocessor

In a microprocessor, internal registers play a crucial role in performing various operations and managing data during the
execution of instructions. Additionally, there is a special register known as the flag register that holds status flags indicating
the outcome of arithmetic and logical operations. Here's an overview of both internal registers and the flag register in a
typical microprocessor:

1. Internal Registers:

a. Accumulator (A): - The accumulator is a general-purpose register used for arithmetic and logical operations. It holds
one of the operands or results during processing.

b. General Purpose Registers: - These registers are used for storing temporary data, addresses, or intermediate results
during computation. The number and size of general-purpose registers may vary depending on the microprocessor
architecture.

c. Index Registers: - Some microprocessors include index registers that are used for indexing operations in memory
addressing modes.

d. Stack Pointer (SP): - The stack pointer is used to keep track of the top of the stack in the memory. It is used during
subroutine calls and managing the stack.

e. Program Counter (PC): - The program counter is a special register that holds the memory address of the next instruction
to be executed. It is automatically incremented after fetching each instruction.

f. Instruction Register (IR): - The instruction register holds the currently executing instruction fetched from memory. It is
used by the control unit to decode and execute the instruction.

g. Memory Address Register (MAR) and Memory Data Register (MDR)**: - These registers are used for interfacing with
external memory. MAR holds the memory address being accessed, while MDR holds the data to be written to or read from
memory.

2. Flag Register:

a. Status Flags: - The flag register, also known as the status register, contains several individual bits or flags that indicate
the outcome of arithmetic and logical operations.

b. Common Flags: - Common flags include: - Zero (Z) flag: Set if the result of an operation is zero. - Sign (S) flag: Set if the
result of an operation is negative. - Carry (C) flag: Set if there is a carry-out from the most significant bit during arithmetic
operations. - Parity (P) flag: Set if the result has an even number of set bits. - Auxiliary Carry (AC) flag: Set if there is a carry-
out from bit 3 to bit 4 during arithmetic operations. - Overflow (V or OV) flag: Set if the result of a signed operation is too
large to be represented.

c. Usage: - These flags are used by the control unit to make decisions based on the outcome of operations, such as
branching in conditional statements.

In summary, internal registers in a microprocessor store data and manage various aspects of instruction execution, while
the flag register holds status flags indicating the outcome of arithmetic and logical operations. These registers are essential
components of a microprocessor architecture, enabling efficient computation and control flow within the processor.
Generation of Control Signals in microprocessor architecture

In microprocessor architecture, control signals are generated to coordinate and control the various operations performed
by the processor during the execution of instructions. These control signals are responsible for tasks such as fetching
instructions from memory, decoding them, executing them, and managing data flow within the processor. The generation
of control signals involves several stages:

1. Instruction Fetch (IF) Stage:

• During this stage, the microprocessor fetches the next instruction from memory.

• Control signals are generated to enable the memory address to be placed on the address bus, initiate a
read operation from memory, and latch the instruction into the instruction register.

2. Instruction Decode (ID) Stage:

• In this stage, the fetched instruction is decoded to determine the operation to be performed.

• Control signals are generated to decode the instruction, determine the type of operation (e.g., arithmetic,
logic, data transfer), and activate the appropriate functional units within the processor.

3. Execution Stage:

• Once the instruction is decoded, the microprocessor executes the operation specified by the instruction.

• Control signals are generated to control the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) to perform the required arithmetic
or logical operation, manipulate data in registers, and handle control flow instructions (e.g., branching,
jumping).

4. Memory Access (MA) Stage:

• If the instruction involves accessing memory (e.g., load, store), the microprocessor performs memory read
or write operations during this stage.

• Control signals are generated to enable the memory address to be placed on the address bus, initiate read
or write operations, and manage data transfer between the memory and registers.

5. Write Back (WB) Stage:

• In this stage, the results of the execution are written back to the appropriate registers.

• Control signals are generated to enable the data to be transferred from the ALU or memory data register
to the destination register (e.g., accumulator, general-purpose register).

6. Control Unit:

• The control unit is responsible for generating and coordinating the timing of control signals throughout
the execution of instructions.

• It uses the opcode of the instruction to determine the sequence of control signals required for executing
the instruction.

Overall, the generation of control signals in microprocessor architecture is a complex process involving multiple stages and
coordination between different functional units within the processor. These control signals ensure that instructions are
executed correctly and efficiently according to the program's logic.
demultiplexing of address / data bus in microprocessor
In a microprocessor architecture, the address bus and the data bus are crucial components responsible for communication
between the processor and external memory or input/output devices. Demultiplexing of the address/data bus refers to
the process of separating the combined address/data bus into distinct address and data buses for external communication.
This separation allows the microprocessor to independently transmit address and data information to external devices.
Here's how demultiplexing of the address/data bus typically works:

1. Combined Address/Data Bus:

• In many microprocessor architectures, especially those with limited pin counts, the address and data
buses are multiplexed onto the same physical lines.

• During the address phase of a bus cycle, the microprocessor places the memory address or I/O address
on the combined address/data bus. During the data phase, it places data on the same lines.

2. Demultiplexing:

• To interface with external memory or devices that require separate address and data buses, the combined
address/data bus is demultiplexed into separate address and data buses.

• This is typically achieved using a demultiplexer (also known as a demux), which receives the combined
address/data bus as input and separates it into distinct address and data buses as outputs.

3. Address Demultiplexing:

• The demultiplexer takes the combined address/data bus as input during the address phase of the bus
cycle.

• It separates the address portion of the bus and routes it to the external memory or devices as the address
bus. This address is used to specify the memory location or I/O address being accessed.

4. Data Demultiplexing:

• During the data phase of the bus cycle, the demultiplexer separates the data portion of the combined
address/data bus.

• It routes this data to the microprocessor's internal data bus or the external memory or devices, depending
on whether the operation involves a read or write operation.

5. Timing and Control:

• Timing and control signals from the microprocessor's control unit govern the demultiplexing process.

• These signals coordinate the switching between address and data phases of the bus cycle and control the
operation of the demultiplexer to ensure accurate and synchronized communication with external
devices.

6. Performance Considerations:

• Demultiplexing adds complexity to the microprocessor design and may affect performance due to the
additional circuitry and timing considerations.

• However, demultiplexing allows the microprocessor to interface with a wider range of external memory
and devices that require separate address and data buses.

In summary, demultiplexing of the address/data bus in a microprocessor architecture involves separating the combined
address/data bus into distinct address and data buses using a demultiplexer. This process enables the microprocessor to
communicate effectively with external memory and devices that require separate address and data lines.
Machine cycle in microprocessor
In microprocessor architecture, a machine cycle refers to the basic unit of time required to execute one instruction. It
encompasses the series of actions and operations that the microprocessor performs to fetch, decode, execute, and store
the results of an instruction. There are typically multiple phases within a machine cycle, each serving a specific purpose.
The exact number and duration of phases may vary depending on the microprocessor architecture. However, the following
phases are commonly observed in a machine cycle:

1. Fetch Phase:

• During this phase, the microprocessor fetches the next instruction from memory.

• The program counter (PC) holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched.

• The address is placed on the address bus, and a read operation is initiated to fetch the instruction from
memory.

• The fetched instruction is then loaded into the instruction register (IR) within the microprocessor.

2. Decode Phase:

• In this phase, the microprocessor decodes the instruction fetched during the fetch phase.

• The instruction decoder interprets the opcode and operands of the instruction to determine the operation
to be performed.

• Based on the opcode, the microprocessor activates the appropriate functional units and generates control
signals to execute the instruction.

3. Execute Phase:

• During this phase, the microprocessor performs the actual computation or data manipulation specified by
the decoded instruction.

• Arithmetic and logic operations are carried out by the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), using data from registers
or memory as operands.

• Data transfer operations involve moving data between registers, memory, or input/output devices as
instructed by the decoded instruction.

4. Store Phase:

• In the final phase of the machine cycle, the microprocessor stores the results of the executed instruction.

• The results may be stored in registers, memory locations, or output buffers, depending on the nature of
the instruction and its operands.

• If the instruction involves updating the program counter (e.g., branch or jump instructions), the new
address is computed and loaded into the program counter to prepare for the next instruction fetch.

These phases collectively constitute a complete machine cycle in a microprocessor, representing the sequence of actions
required to execute one instruction. The duration of a machine cycle depends on factors such as the clock speed of the
microprocessor and the complexity of the instruction being executed. Efficient execution of machine cycles is essential for
achieving optimal performance in microprocessor-based systems.
Status and Control Signals.
In microprocessor architecture, status and control signals play crucial roles in coordinating the various operations of the
processor during instruction execution. These signals are generated by the control unit and are used to manage the flow
of data, control the timing of operations, and indicate the status of the processor and its components. Here's an overview
of status and control signals commonly found in microprocessors:

1. Status Signals:

a. Zero Flag (Z): - Indicates whether the result of an arithmetic or logical operation is zero. - Set if the result is zero;
otherwise, it is cleared.

b. Sign Flag (S): - Indicates the sign of the result of an arithmetic operation. - Set if the result is negative (i.e., the most
significant bit is 1); otherwise, it is cleared.

c. Carry Flag (C): - Indicates whether there was a carry-out or borrow during arithmetic operations. - Set if a carry-out
occurred or if borrowing is needed; otherwise, it is cleared.

d. Overflow Flag (V or OV): - Indicates whether the result of a signed arithmetic operation exceeds the range that can be
represented. - Set if the result cannot be represented with the available number of bits; otherwise, it is cleared.

e. Parity Flag (P): - Indicates whether the number of set bits in the result is even or odd. - Set if the number of set bits is
even; otherwise, it is cleared.

f. Auxiliary Carry Flag (AC): - Indicates whether a carry-out occurred from the low nibble (4 bits) to the high nibble during
arithmetic operations. - Set if a carry-out occurred; otherwise, it is cleared.

2. Control Signals:

a. Read (RD) and Write (WR): - Used to control data transfer between the microprocessor and external memory or
input/output devices. - RD signal indicates a read operation, while WR signal indicates a write operation.

b. Memory/IO (M/IO): - Selects whether the address on the address bus corresponds to memory or an I/O device. - M/IO
= 0 indicates memory access, while M/IO = 1 indicates I/O access.

c. Interrupt Request (INTR) and Interrupt Acknowledge (INTA): - INTR signal is used by external devices to request an
interrupt. - INTA signal is generated by the microprocessor to acknowledge the interrupt request and start the interrupt
handling process.

d. Clock (CLK): - Provides the timing signal to synchronize the operations of the microprocessor. - Each clock pulse initiates
a new machine cycle or instruction execution step.

e. Control Signals for Memory and I/O Operations: - Various control signals are generated to enable memory or I/O
read/write operations, control address and data multiplexing, and manage timing requirements.

These status and control signals are essential for the proper functioning of a microprocessor, enabling it to execute
instructions accurately, manage data transfer with external devices, and handle interrupts effectively. They are generated
and coordinated by the control unit based on the current instruction being executed and the microprocessor's internal
state.