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Fundamentos Review
In curriculum design, several components must be considered to
create an effective language learning program. The syllabus design focuses on determining the content to be taught, while the methodology centers around the classroom techniques and procedures used to engage students. Additionally, evaluation focuses on assessing the learning outcomes to ensure that students are meeting the desired goals.To develop a robust curriculum, we must address several defining questions. Firstly, we need to ask, “What content should we teach, and in what order?” This involves considering the justification for the content sequence and its relevance to learners. Secondly, we must decide on the exercises, tasks, and activities that will be implemented in the classroom and determine the best ways to integrate them. Finally, we should evaluate our program by asking, “How well have our students performed, and to what extent has the program met their needs?” Task-Based Pedagogy (TBP) – Ellis. Ellis proposes that Task-Based Pedagogy (TBP) should meet certain criteria to foster effective language learning. According to Ellis: 1. The first criteria emphasizes that tasks should require learners to produce and understand communicative messages. Importantly, the goal is not perfection in language use but rather the ability to communicate effectively. 2. The second criteria introduces the concept of a gap, which plays a crucial role in task design. There are different types of gaps that can drive communication: 1. An information gap, where one person holds information that the other person needs. 2. An opinion gap, where individuals are encouraged to share differing views. 3. A reasoning gap, where learners are not necessarily required to reach a consensus or agree on a particular point but can still communicate effectively. The third criteria suggests that language learners should be encouraged to use their own resources during communication. This includes both linguistic resources (such as vocabulary and grammar) and non- linguistic resources (like drawings or gestures) to express meaning. The fourth criteria specifies that tasks should lead to a communicative outcome rather than merely focusing on language display. This ensures that learners use language for practical purposes and achieve meaningful communication. Activity vs. Task In language pedagogy, it is essential to distinguish between an activity and a task: 1. An activity typically focuses on the form of language. Here, the language use is guided by the teacher, with exercises designed in sequence to scaffold learning. These activities are often decontextualized, meaning they lack real-life application, and are usually brief. 2. In contrast, a task is meaning-focused. It allows for the free use of language, encouraging students to draw on whatever English they can recall to communicate effectively. Tasks are contextualized, making them relevant to real situations and emphasizing coherence and utility in language use. Classifying Tasks Based on Gap Types: Tasks can also be classified based on the type of gap they address: 1. Information Gap: Tasks that require exchanging information that one person has but the other does not. 2. Opinion Gap: Activities that invite participants to share and discuss different perspectives. 3. Reasoning Gap: Tasks where learners reason or debate but are not obligated to reach an agreement. According to Prabhu and Willis, these tasks can take various forms, such as listing, ordering, problem-solving, sharing, or engaging in creative tasks. Furthermore, it is essential to adjust the difficulty level of tasks based on learners’ demands and gradually increase complexity to foster deeper engagement. Tasks can also be divided into enabling tasks (activities) that prepare learners and communicative tasks that focus on real-life language use. Demands in Tasks Effective tasks should incorporate certain demands to support learning: 1. Cognitive Demands: Tasks should challenge learners intellectually, requiring them to think critically. 2. Instructional Demands: Teachers may direct learners to use specific language forms or structures (e.g., certain vocabulary or grammar points). 3. Meaning Demands: Activities should encourage learners to interpret and make sense of language. 4. Involvement Demands: Tasks should capture students’ attention, making them actively engaged. 5. Physical Demands: Including physical elements, such as movement or games, can enhance engagement, particularly with younger learners. Focusing on the Learner To maximize learning, it is important to focus on the learner, promoting active involvement in their own educational processes. Several strategies can enhance learner autonomy: 1. Teachers should make instructional goals clear to students, allowing them to understand what they are working towards. 2. Students should be encouraged to set goals outside of the classroom, promoting language use beyond structured settings. 3. Teachers can also guide students to become aware of their learning processes, fostering an understanding of their strengths and areas for improvement. 4. Students should be supported in identifying their preferred learning styles and strategies, enhancing their ability to approach tasks in a way that suits them best. 5. Finally, students should be encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning, creating a sense of ownership and accountability. Teaching Sequence In a task-based approach, a teaching sequence is typically divided into three main stages: 1. Pre-Task Stage: This stage involves creating interest in the topic and activating students’ prior knowledge. Teachers introduce key vocabulary and concepts, setting the groundwork for the task. 2. Task Stage: Here, students actively engage in the task, focusing on meaning rather than form. Teachers guide students subtly, allowing natural language use to flourish within a supportive framework. 3. Follow-Up Stage: In this stage, students reflect on the language they used during the task. Teachers provide feedback, guiding learners to extract insights from the experience, which helps consolidate learning. Scaffolding:
Scaffolding is an essential concept in language learning, referring to the
support provided by a more knowledgeable person (such as a teacher, parent, or peer) to help a learner achieve tasks they wouldn’t be able to accomplish independently. Effective scaffolding involves several steps:
1. Breaking Down Complex Tasks: Large tasks are divided into
smaller, manageable parts, making it easier for learners to tackle each step gradually.
2. Providing Appropriate Guidance and Feedback: The teacher or
facilitator offers necessary instructions and corrections, helping students stay on track and reinforcing positive behaviors or language use.
3. Gradually Withdrawing Support: As learners become more
competent and confident in their abilities, the level of assistance is gradually reduced. This process, known as "fading," encourages students to become more autonomous, allowing them to complete tasks independently over time.
The ultimate goal of scaffolding is to enable learners to gain mastery of
a skill or concept. By engaging students in an interesting task, breaking it down into smaller steps, and providing regular feedback, teachers can maintain students' motivation and focus. Scaffolding not only helps students understand the importance of each step in a process but also shows them alternative ways to approach the task, ultimately fostering independence and reducing frustration.
Interlanguage is a linguistic term referring to a unique, evolving
language system created by a learner of a second language. This system reflects elements of both the learner’s native language (L1) and the target language (L2), along with unique characteristics that don’t belong to either. Interlanguage typically develops as learners gain more proficiency and understanding of the new language, going through various stages of development that bring them closer to fluency.
Some key points about interlanguage include:
1. Dynamic and Transitional: Interlanguage is not static; it changes over time as learners encounter new rules and vocabulary in the target language. 2. Influence of L1: Interlanguage often shows interference from the learner’s native language, including grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation patterns 3. Approximation to L2: Over time, as the learner gains more proficiency, their interlanguage comes closer to the norms of the target language. 4. Fossilization: Sometimes, an interlanguage can “fossilize,” meaning certain incorrect or non-standard features become ingrained and are difficult to change, even with further exposure or instruction. Interlanguage theory is crucial in second language acquisition research, as it helps linguists and educators understand how learners progress and where they may face challenges.
Manuel Diaz-Campos (Editor), Sonia Balasch (Editor) - The Handbook of Usage-Based Linguistics (Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics) (2023, Wiley-Blackwell) - Libgen - Li