Introduction to Principles of Management

Learning Objectives:
 Meaning and definition of management
 Major approaches to management
 Features, nature and scope of management
 Functions of management.
 Managerial skills in the organizational hierarchy
 Management by objectives (MBO)

Meaning and definition of management

Modern business is complex and complicated. It not only requires high degree of technical
and professional abilities, but also managerial abilities. It requires efficient and effective
management to tackle the complex business problems.

Management is a process of making managerial decision and putting them into action. It
determines the objectives of the organization and takes steps to achieve them. It is
concerned with motivation of employees. Management is the brain of any organization
because it makes decision, makes policies, rules and regulations to drive the organization
to attain its planned objectives.

Management deals with five factors of production – MEN, MACHINE, MATIRIALS,

METHODS and MONEY. The success of a management depends on how well these
limited resources have been utilized to obtain the maximum output to the customers’
satisfaction and organization’s growth.

Definition

Management can be defined under two concepts::

 Traditional Concept: According to this concept, management is getting things done

from others.
 Modern Concept: Management is creating an internal environment at work place
where people working together in groups can perform effectively and efficiently
towards the achievement of the group goals.

Harold Koontz defined management as “The art of getting things done through and with
people in formally organized groups. It is the art of creating an environment in which
people can perform as individuals and yet cooperate towards achievement of group goals”

Features, nature and scope of management

Features of management

 Goal orientation: The purpose of management is to achieve certain goals. For

example, if an objective of a company is to earn profits, its activities are managed in
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 such a way that its profit increases. The steps may be taken for reducing cost and / or
improving sales.

 Group activity orientation: Management is considered as group activity. There is no

personal motive. Every objective or goal is a common goal, and efforts are made by
all to achieve it.

 Makes internal environment conductive to work: It creates a suitable internal

environment so that people are able to perform their tasks efficiently. It involves
allocation of funds, appreciations, proper wages etc. However, the created conditions
cannot be expected to remain the same all the time. Whatever conditions may initially
exist, must be adjusted / changed when the external environment changes. For
example, if a company is producing only flat screen coloured TV sets, must change its
technologies when market demands LCD and LED TV sets.

 Establishes relationship among resources: Management activities are meant to

achieve common goals by establishing relationships among resources. Resources
include – men, machine, material, methods and money. Managers apply their
knowledge and experience to get the desired results from the resources.

Nature of management

 Purposive: Management is always aimed at achieving certain specified objectives. It

is a tool which helps efficient use of human and physical resources to accomplish the
predetermined goals.

 Pervasive (primary in nature): Its activities are not restricted to business units alone,
but in every kind of organization. Its presence is compulsory. Wherever more than one
person is required or engaged at work for a common goal, management is required.

 Continuous process: No day can come when organizations can say that they do not
need management. Business it dynamic in nature. Because new problems arise in
day to day business as well as periodically, management is required for managing
those challenges to get to the organizations objectives.

 Universality: It is neither confined to any geographical boundaries nor to any

establishment or business organization.

Scope of management

 Determination of objectives: The objectives of any organization are determined by

the management. Such objectives are formulated, put into writing and communicated
to all employees by the management.

 Efficient use of resources: Since resources are scares and costly, their efficient
allocation and utilization are of utmost importance to the management. By efficient
utilization of resources, management can drive up productivity of the organization.

 Satisfaction of customers: Management attempts to produce products and services

required by the customer. Satisfaction of customers is very important for the survival
and growth of the business. The customer must be satisfied by offering them quality
products and better services.
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 Earning adequate ROI: Management aims at achieving an adequate return on the
invested capital for survival and growth of the organization on behalf of its owners.

 Satisfying workforce: Team spirit is vital for any organization. Management attempts
to build a team of good workforce who are happy and satisfied with the organization.
Satisfied workers put more effort through their motivation to increase productivity.

 Keeping and maintaining good working conditions: Management tries to develop

and maintain good working conditions for the workforce. It includes, but is not limited
to fair wage structure, job security, workers’ health and safety etc. Better working
conditions improve employee satisfaction and productivity.

 Building and maintaining good supplier relationships: Management attempts to

build and maintain good relation with its key suppliers so that those suppliers give
preference to the organization at a cost effective manner and stand by the
organization at times of its difficult situation.

 Contributing towards national goals: According to Peter Drucker’ ‘Management is

the crucial factor in economic and social development”. It should aim at judicious use
of scarce resources of the country. It should undertake venture which will lead to
employment generation. It is only an efficient management which enables the
developing nations to make the better use of resources for economic development.

Classification and Hierarchy of Management

Classification according to job responsibilities:

a) Top Management Level

b) Middle Management Level
c) Lower Management Level

Top Management Level

The top management level is responsible for entire business organization and includes
the following:

i) Board of Directors (Representatives of Share holders)

ii) Chairman. President, Managing Director
iii) Vice-President and General Manager

Functions of Top Management

i) To determine objectives of the business

ii) To prepare long-term plan
iii) To fix up business policy
iv) To review and approve short-term plan
v) To appoint mid-level managers
vi) To control total activity of the business
vii) To prepare organizational structure
viii) To create a good industrial relation with outside world

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 Middle Management Level

The middle management is the most important level of a business organization,

because it makes a bridge between high level and lower level management. Middle
management is concerned with implementation of policies and plans chalked out by the
top management level.

Middle management level includes department manager like Sales manager,

Production Manager, Finance Manager and Quality Control Manager etc.

Functions of Middle Management Level

i) To look after departmental activities

ii) To provide management information system to high level management
iii) To assist the top level management for preparation of long-term plan
iv) To prepare short-term departmental plan
v) To appoint lower level management staff
vi) Responsible for preparing departmental budget

Lower Management Level

Lower level management is also known as supervisory management, and is directly

responsible for the work of operating employees which includes Foreman, Supervisor,
Office Superintendant, Inspector etc.

Functions of Lower management Level

i) To instruct workers or staff regarding work

ii) To arrange necessary materials, tools and equipment for the workers
iii) To arrange for training to the workers
iv) To provide information regarding progress of work to the middle management
level
v) To provide proper information to the mid-management for preparation of
departmental short-term plan
vi) To create a good industrial relation with the workers

Major approaches to management

 Scientific Management
 General Administrative Theory
 Quantitative Management
 Organizational Behavior
 Systems Approach
 Contingency Approach

Classical theorists’ viewpoint emphasises efficiently managing work and organisations.

It comprises three different management approaches: scientific, administrative and
bureaucratic.

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Scientific management theory

 Fredrick Winslow Taylor, the “father” of scientific management, published ‘Principles

of Scientific Management (1911)’. As an Engineer and inventor, Taylor started
experimenting with new managerial concepts in 1878 while employed at Midwale
Steel Co. In that company, he was promoted to an Engineer from a labourer with a
span of six years, and he was offered an opportunity to tackle the problem of
soldering. According to Taylor, workers indulge in soldering for three main reasons:

o Workers feared that increasing output would cause them lose their jobs
o Faulty wage systems employed by the organization encouraged working at a
slow pace.
o Outdated methods of working, handed down from generation to generation led
to a great deal of wasted efforts.

For eliminating soldering problem, Taylor developed a scientific management based

on principles of management, such as

o Replacing rules of thumb with science

o Obtaining harmony in group action, rather than discord.
o Achieving cooperation of human beings, rather than chaotic individualism
o Developing all workers to the fullest extent possible for their own and their
company’s highest prosperity.

According to Taylor, with the help of the above principles, both entrepreneurs and
workers will be benefitted. Workers will earn more and so will entrepreneurs.

The two major managerial practices that emerged from Taylor’s scientific
management i.e. piece-rate incentive systems and time & motion study.

In summary, Taylor’s theory of scientific management using scientific methods to

define the “one best way” for a job to be done:
o Putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment.
o Having a standardized method of doing the job.
o Providing an economic incentive to the worker.

 Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

Frank B. Gilbreth is considered the father of work study. He started his career as a
brick layer, and ultimately promoted to Chief Engineer position. Finally, he set up his
own contracting business. Wife Lilian Gilbreth, a trained psychologist, assisted Frank
in matters related to fatigue and monotony. Their contributions are as follows:

i) Motion Study
Gilbreth;s most significant contribution to scientific management was the
development of motion study, i.e. study of movements involved in the
performance of operation so as to find the best way of doing a work.

ii) Micro-motion Study

To assist in time study, Frank also developed micro-motion study. A motion
picture camera and a clock marked off in hundredths of seconds were used to
study motions made by workers, as they performed their tasks. He is best
known for his experiments in reducing the number of motions in bricklaying.
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 iii) Study of Fatigue
Frank and Lilian’s experimental work suggested that fatigue can be reduced by
allowing rest period, better sitting arrangements and good working conditions.

In summary, Gilbreth :

o Focused on increasing worker productivity through the reduction of wasted

motion
o Developed the microchronometer to time worker motions and optimize work
performance

 Henry Gantt focused on

He is remembered for his work on task and bonus system. Under Gantt’s incentive
plan, the workers received a day’s wages even without completing their work. But, if
an worker completed the work in better than the normal standard time, he received a
bonus. He also introduced a bonus for foremen who would be paid for every worker
who made the standard. If all workers under a foreman made it, he would receive an
extra bonus.. Overall, he stressed on
o Paying incentives to increase productivity
o Using Gantt chart to manage work and project

Demerits of Scientific Management

i) The principles of scientific management do not focus on the management of an

organization from the manager’s point of view. They were more relevant from
an engineering point of view rather than management aspects.
ii) Taylor and his followers overlooked the social needs of worker and
overemphasized their economic and physical needs.
iii) Scientific management theorists also ignored human desire for job satisfaction.

Merits of Scientific Management

i) Increase in productivity,
ii) Motivated workers,
iii) Possibility of reducing labour hours,
iv) Increase in quality and reduction in cost of production
v) Increase in industrial relation

General administrative theory

While the proponents of scientific management developed principles that could help
workers in performing their tasks more efficiently, another classical view point theory i.e.
the General Administrative theory focused on the principles that could be used by
managers to coordinate the internal activities of the organization. The most prominent of
this theorists were Henry Fayol and Max Weber.

 Henri Fayol

Henry Fayol, a French Industrialist, is regarded as the ‘Father of Modern Management’.

His management thought can be classified under three broad categories:

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i) Functions of Management:

Management is a process which concerns itself with efficient use of resources

(men, machine, material, method, money) in most efficient way for achieving
the desired result. It includes five primary functions i.e. planning, organizing,
staffing, directing and controlling.

ii) Principles of Management

Fayol distinguished fourteen principles of management which have been widely

used and accepted and have formed the core of most management teachings
and practices. There principles are:

 Division of labour: The more specialization of people, the more

efficiently they can perform their duties
 Authority and responsibility: For good results, responsibilities must be
delegated to the lowest possible level of employees having the ability to
perform them. Responsibility without authority is meaningless.
Employees must have sufficient authority to carry out their assigned
responsibilities.
 Discipline: Members of an organization need to respect the rules and
agreements that govern the organization.
 Unity of command: Each employee must receive instructions about a
particular operation from one person only. Fayol believed that when an
employee reported to more than one supervisor, conflicts in instructions
and confusion of authority would result.
 Unity of direction
 Subordination of individual interest to the common good
 Remuneration: Compensation for work done should be fair to both
employees and employers
 Centralization
 The hierarchy
 Order: Materials and people should be in the right place at the right
time. People in particular should be in jobs or positions most suited for
them.
 Equity: Managers should be both friendly and fair to their subordinates.
 Stability of staff: A high employee’s turnover rate is not good for
efficient functioning of an organization.
 Initiative: Subordinates should be given the freedom to conceive an d
carry out their plans, even though some mistakes may result.
 Esprit Decorps: Promoting team spirit will give the organization a sense
of unity. To Fayol, even small factors could help develop this spirit

iii) Activities which managers should perform

In summary, Fayol

o Believed that the practice of management was distinct from other

organizational functions
o Developed fourteen principles of management that applied to all organizational
situations

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 Max Weber
o Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal type of organization
(bureaucracy). According to Weber, a bureaucracy is a highly structured,
formalized, and impersonal organization. He emphasized rationality,
predictability, impersonality, technical competence, and authoritarianism

Quantitative management theory or modern management approach

This is focused on mathematics, statistics and information aids supporting managerial

decision making and organisational effectiveness. There are 3 types of approaches:

 Management science
o ‘Approach aimed at increasing decision effectiveness through use of
sophisticated mathematical models and statistical methods.’

 Operations management
o ‘Function or field of expertise primarily responsible for managing production
and delivery of an organisation’s products and services.’

 Management information systems

o ‘Field of management focused on designing and implementing computer-based
information systems for use by management.’

Organizational behaviour or behavioural approach

The behavioural school of management emphasized exactly what the classical theory
ignored, i.e. human element. The behavioural approach to management placed much
more emphasis on individual attitude and behaviours, and on group processes and
recognized the significance of behavioural processes in the workplace. The major
contributions to this approach were made by
 Marry Parkar Follet
 Elton Mayo and The Hawthorne Experiment (1927)
 Chester Barnard (1930s – 1960s)
 Herbert Simon (1947)
 MacGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y (1960)

Mary Parkar Follet

She was an early advocate of the behavioural school of management. She became a
modern management pioneer who made important contributions to the field of human
resource management. She strongly believed that organizational participants were
continually influenced by the groups within which they worked. She suggested that
organizations should function on the principle of “power with” rather than “power
over”. Power represents the ability to influence and cause a change. She argued that
power should not be based on hierarchical power, but should be a collectively
developed, cooperative concept, involving superiors and subordinates working
together as a team.

Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne experiment

Elton Mayo, an Australian, recognized as the “Father of Human Relations Approach”.

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He, along with Fritz Roethlisberger, T.N. Whithead and William Dickson conducted
research at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company near Chicago,
1927-1937. The research work were conducted in four phases:

i) Illumination experiments
ii) Relay assembly test room experiments
iii) Interview phase
iv) Bank wiring observation room experiment

Initial study: effects of lighting on worker performance

o The “Hawthorne Effect” was instead identified

 The workers values, desires, and needs may be more important than
physical conditions.
 Workers want to have input.
 Workers want to be respected.

HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS
ELTON MAYO

Over the course of five years, Mayo’s team altered the female worker’s working
conditions and monitored how the change in working conditions affected the workers
morale and productivity. The changes in working conditions included changes in
working hours, rest brakes, lighting, humidity, and temperature. The changes were
explained to the workers prior to implementation.

Hawthorne Experiment Results

At the end of the five year period, the female worker’s working conditions, reverted
back to the conditions before the experiment began. Unexpectedly the workers
morale and productivity rose to levels higher than before and during the experiments.
The combination of results during and after the experiment (ie the increase in the
workers productivity when they were returned to their original working conditions) led
Mayo to conclude that workers were motivated by psychological conditions more than
physical working condition.

Hawthorne Experiment Conclusions

After analysing the results from the Hawthorne experiments Mayo concluded that
workers were motivated by more than self interest and the following had an impact
too:

MacGregor’s theory X and theory Y

Douglas Mc Gregor used two sets of assumptions about human behaviour, which he
labelled as ‘Theory X’ and ‘Theory Y’. According to Douglas, these two theories reflect
two extreme belief sets that different managers have about their workers.

o Theory X: classical theory

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  Most people dislike work and responsibility, they are motivated only by
money and do not care about the job.
 Close supervision is required and people must be carefully controlled and
coerced into working
 Average person prefers direction

o Theory Y: Modern Management Theory

 People often enjoy their work and will exercise self-control at work.
 People are motivated by wanting to do a good job and will do well if the
opportunity is presented
 People have capacity for imagination, ingenuity, and creativity
 People enjoy expending physical and mental effort in work as much as play
and rest

Systems approach

System is defined as a set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner

that produces a unified whole.

 Basic Types of Systems

o Closed systems
 Are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment (all system
input and output is internal).
o Open systems
 Dynamically interact to their environments by taking in inputs and
transforming them into outputs that are distributed into their environments

Contingency approach

 In contingency approach, also, sometimes called the situational approach.

o There is no one universally applicable set of management principles
(rules) by which to manage organizations.
o Organizations are individually different, face different situations
(contingency variables), and require different ways of managing
o Popular contingency variables are:
 Size of the organization
 Routineness in tasks
 Environmental uncertainty
 Individual differences

Functions of management

The process of management can be better understood by breaking it down into five basic
functions of a manager – planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling. All
the management concepts, principles, theory and techniques can be grouped under these
five essential functions. This framework of management functions is time-tested, though
occasionally some management experts prefer to interpret them slightly differently.

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 Planning: According to Koontz et al., ”Planning involves selecting missions and
objectives to achieve them. It requires decision making, that is, choosing future course
of actions from among alternatives. There are various types of plans, ranging from
overall purposes and objectives to the most detailed actions to be taken, such as
ordering special stainless steel bolt for an instrument or hiring and training workers for
an assembly line. No real plan exists until a decision – a commitment of human or
material resources or reputation – has been made. Before a decision is made, there is
no real plan, all that exists is a planning study, an analysis, or a proposal.” In
summary, planning involves:

o Determining the missions and objectives

o Finding alternative course of actions
o Evaluating and comparing all alternative
o Selecting the most suitable course for the organization

 Organizing: Organizing involves establishing a structure of roles for people to fill in

an organization and ensuring that all tasks to accomplish the plan are assigned to
appropriate departments, workgroups and people who can do them best. It is creating
a mechanism to put plans into actions It involves the following steps:

o Division of work
o Grouping of identical jobs
o Granting of authority
o Establishing responsibility
o Creating accountability

 Staffing: It involves the process of filling positions in the organization structure. This
is done by identifying workforce requirements, inventorying the people available; and
recruiting, selecting, placing, promoting, appraising, planning the careers of,
compensating and training or otherwise developing both candidates and current
jobholders to accomplish their tasks effectively and efficiently.

 Directing: It is the process of guiding the subordinates towards the achievement of

the goals and objective of the organization. Predominantly, it is concerned with the
interpersonal aspect of managing. All managers would agree that their most important
problems arise from people – their desires and attitudes, their behaviour as individuals
and in groups – and that their effective managers also need to be effective leaders.

 Controlling: This refers to the process of ensuring that activities of subordinates and
use of resources are in conformance with the goals and plans. Control is the process
through which standards of performance of people and processes are set,
communicated, and applied. Effective control systems use mechanisms to monitor
activities and take corrective actions for any deviation from goals and plan. The
following steps are involved in controlling:

o Setting standards
o Measuring actual performance
o Comparing the actual performance with the standard
o Finding deviations
o Identifying the cause of deviation
o Taking corrective action, if required

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 Relative Importance of Functions of Managements in the Managerial Hierarchy

C
O
Top-level P D O
R
L I N
managers G
A R T
A
N E R
Middle-level N
N C O
managers I
I T L
Z
N I L
I
G N I
First-level N
g G N
supervisor G
G
s g

Managerial skills in the organizational hierarchy

In order to perform the functions of management and to assume multiple roles, managers
must be skilled. Robert Katz identified three managerial skills that are essential to
successful management – technical, human, and conceptual.

 Technical skill: This skill is knowledge of and proficiency in working with tools and
specific techniques on given processes and problems. For example, mechanics work
with tools, and their supervisors should have ability to teach them how to use these
tools. Similarly, accountants apply specific techniques in doing their jobs.

 Human skills: this skill is the ability to work with people; it is cooperative effort; it is
teamwork; it is the creating of an environment in which people feel secure and free to
express their opinions.

 Conceptual skills: It is the ability to see the big picture, to recognize significant
elements in a situation and to understand the relationships among the elements.

Relative Importance of Managerial Skills in the Managerial Hierarchy

 At the supervisory level: Technical skills are of greatest importance at this

level. Human skills are also helpful in frequent interaction with subordinates.
Conceptual skills, on the other hand, are usually not critical for lower level
supervisors.

 At the middle management level: The need for technical skills decreases at
this level. Human skills are still essential; conceptual skills gain in importance.

 At the top management level: Conceptual and human skills are especially
valuable, but there is relatively little need for technical abilities. It is enough if the
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 chief executives are capable of utilizing the technical capabilities of their
subordinates. In smaller firms, however, for chief executives, technical skills may
still be quite important.

Top-level Conceptual
managers Skills

Human Skills
Middle-level
managers

First-level Technical Skills

supervisor
s

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Management by Objectives (MBO) term was first popularized by Peter Drucker in 1954.
MBO is a process of agreeing upon objectives within an organization so that the
management and employees buy in to the objectives and understand what they are.
According to George S. Ordiorne, MBO is

“A process whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an organization jointly

identify its common goals, define each individual’s major areas of responsibility in terms of
result expected of him, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and
assessing the contribution of each of its members”

Core Concepts of MBO

• According to Drucker managers should "avoid the activity trap", getting so involved in
their day to day activities that they forget their main purpose or objective. Instead of
just a few top-managers, all managers should:
• participate in the strategic planning process, in order to improve the implementability
of the plan, and
• implement a range of performance systems, designed to help the organization stay on
the right track.

Features of MBO

 MBO is concerned with goal setting and planning for individual managers and
their units

 The essence of MBO is a process of joint goal setting between a supervisor

and a subordinate

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 Managers work with their subordinates to establish the performance goals that
are consistent with higher organizational objectives

 Focuses attention on appropriate goals and plans

 Facilitates control through the periodic development and subsequent evaluation

of individual goals and plans

Managerial Focus

MBO managers focus on the result, not the activity. They delegate tasks by
"negotiating a contract of goals" with their subordinates without dictating a detailed
roadmap for implementation. Management by Objectives (MBO) is about setting
yourself objectives and then breaking these down into more specific goals or key
results.

Main Principle of MBO

The principle behind Management by Objectives (MBO) is to make sure that

everybody within the organization has a clear understanding of the aims, or objectives,
of that organization, as well as awareness of their own roles and responsibilities in
achieving those aims. The complete MBO system is to get managers and empowered
employees acting to implement and achieve their plans, which automatically achieve
those of the organization.

Steps in the MBO Process

 Describe roles and mission – “who does what?”

 Define key result areas (KRAs)

 Identify indicators of effectiveness – “what is a good performance?”

 Set objectives with a bottom-up approach – “To (action) (single key result) by
(target date) at (cost, if appropriate)”. Example: “To increase average spot
prices 15% by the end of the third quarter at current expense levels.”

 Decide on task-oriented and process-oriented action plans

 Monitor progress of the team

 Continual communicate of teams to everyone (management included) on the

progress towards achieving its objectives and management must communicate
with everyone how the organization is doing in meeting its objectives

 Manage on a micro level and involve everyone in the process. Everyone must
know what the overall objectives of the organization are and what the
organization’s department and teams’ goals are
 Finally, the objectives in an MBO system must be inextricably linked to an
organization’s mission statement. Every objective must help accomplish the
overall mission and then managers must “manage to the mission”

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 8 Key Result Areas Where Managers Must Pursue Clear Objectives

• Marketing
• Innovation
• Human organization
• Financial resources
• Physical resources
• Productivity
• Social responsibility
• Profit requirements

The Five-Step MBO Process

Organizational objectives
reviewed

MBO for the next Employee objectives set

operating period begins

Achievers rewarded Progress monitored

Performance evaluated

Benefits of MBO

 Improvement of managing an organization: Implementation of MBO results

in greatly improved management MBO forces managers to think about planning
for results, rather than merely planning activities or work. There is no better
incentive for control and no better way to know the standards for control than a
set of clear goals.

 Clarification of organization: MBO forces managers to clarify organizational

roles and structures. To the extent possible, positions should be built around
the key results expected of people occupying them. In the process of MBO
implementation, the deficiencies in the organization get discovered and
appropriate remedial measures can be limited.

 Encouragement of personal commitment: MBO encourages people to

commit themselves to their goals. People in the organization are no longer just
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 doing work, following instructions and waiting for guidance and decisions; they
are now individuals with clearly defined purposes.

 Development of effective controls: In the same way that MBO sparks more
effective planning, it also aids in developing effective control. MBO provides a
clear set of verifiable goals which act as means of effective control.

Weaknesses of MBO

 Failure to teach the philosophy of MBO: Managers must explain to

subordinates what MBO is, how it works, why it is being done, what part it will
play in appraising performance, and above all, how participants can benefit.
Any failure on the manager’s part to teach MBO’s philosophy will derail it.

 Failure to give guidance to goal setters: In the same way as in the previous
point, MBO can get derailed if proper guidelines are not provided to the goal
setters and if the corporate goals and objectives are vague.

 Difficulty of setting goals: Verifiable goals are difficult to set, particularly if

they are to have the right degree of stretch or pull, quarter in and quarter out,
year in and year out. At times, economic results put pressure on individuals and
consequently they may resort to questionable practice.

 Emphasis on short-term goals: In most MBO programmes, managers set

goals for the short-term, seldom for more than a year and often for a quarter or
less. There is clearly a danger of emphasizing the short-run, perhaps at the
expense of the longer range.

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