AP Psychology Study Guide

MAY 9, 2024

UNIT 1: HISTORY AND APPROACHES

Psychological Approaches

1. The _________________ approach considers observable behaviors, and

seeks to measure and describe actions and activity.

2. _____________________ Psychology considers how the body enables

thinking and behavioral experiences.

3. ____________________ Psychology considers how we encode, process,

store, and retrieve information.

4. ____________________ Psychology considers how natural selection of

traits have promoted the survival of certain genes.

5. ____________________ Psychology considers how we meet our needs for

love and self fulfillment. It also emphasizes personal growth.

6. _____________________ suggests that our cognition and behavior result

from interplay between the conscious and subconscious. This is based on
Freud’s ______________________.

7. The _________-______________ perspective considers culture and societal

norms on psychological phenomena and experiences.

8. The ____________________ approach applies biological, social-cultural, an

cognitive perspectives with special attention to the interaction between them.

Psychological Roots
9. Ancient thinkers formed the foundation of Psychology, such as the
__________, who theorized that sensations and perceptions combine to form
ideas; _____________ who believed in the power of ideas and education,
and the _______________ who linked mind and emotion to the body.

10._____________ and ________ said that the mind and body are separate.
This idea is known as ____________. They also believed that knowledge is
_______________ and that the __________ continues after death.

11. _________________ said that the mind is inseparable from the body, an
idea known as _____________. He also believed in answering questions
with observational data, and said that knowledge grows from
_____________.

12.__________ ____________ introduced ___________ reasoning, or the idea

of building theories using evidence and observations. The problem with this
type of reasoning is that it promotes ________________ ___________.

13. _____________ was interested in how the mind and body are connected. He
introduced the idea of ____________ reasoning, which establishes truths
through logical premises, and uses facts to validate theories. This type of
reasoning is exemplified by the latin phrase Cogito ergo sum, meaning
________________________________.

14.___________ ___________ promoted the idea of __________ _________,

meaning that the mind is a “blank slate” inscribed by _______________. He
believed that scientific knowledge comes from observation and
experimentation, an idea known as ______________.

15._____________ ___________ established Psychology as a science by

introducing ______________ ______________. He suggested that the mind
was not a location, but a measurable and observable process. He also
established the first laboratory for experimental psychology.
 16._______________ ____________ was a student of _________, and sought
to find the building blocks of psychological experience. This idea is called
________________. He also wanted to know how people felt about stimuli,
an idea known as _______________, which is highly subjective and
unreliable.

17.______________ __________, who was influenced by Darwin, argued that

consciousness is an adaptation. He looked at how mental processes promote
genetic fitness, an idea known as ________________.

18._______________ and _________ __________ believed that psychology

should be an objective science rooted in empiricism. They rejected
_______________, and embraced ______________.

19.In the 1960s, the _______________ ____________ introduced the science

of brain activity’s relation to cognition.

20.____________ ___________ and ______________ _____________ rejected

behaviorism and Freudian psychology, and believed that environmental
influence could help or hinder growth.

Domains and Subfields

21.The ______________ ________________ ____________ is the largest

scientific and professional organization of psychologists.

22.____________ psychology focuses on the treatment of patients with

psychological disorders.

23._________________ psychology uses a variety of techniques to assess,

diagnose, and treat people with emotional and mental health issues.

24.The ______________ domain considers the role of knowledge and thinking

processes, and finds scientific ways to measure or assess cognitive abilities.
It may be used in therapy to treat unhealthy or flawed thinking processes.
25.The ______________ domain studies psychological change in humans from
womb to tomb.

26.________________ psychology studies memory, conceptual processes, and

individual differences in how humans learn, using the cognitive approach.

27._________________ psychology uses scientific methodology to test and

measure psychological phenomena in a controlled setting.

28.________________________ psychology uses psychology to help optimize

the workplace.

29.__________________ psychology studies how individuals differ based on

their persistent behaviors or attitudes. _____________ suggests that our
personality is the result of a relationship between the conscious mind and
our unconscious drives and conflicts; based on Freud’s psychoanalytic.

30._______________ is the study of measuring psychological experience.

31._________________ psychology studies traits and behaviors that help

individuals and communities flourish. This is a treatment centered on client
perceptions.

32.___________ research uses science to increase our understanding of

psychology.

33.___________ research aims to solve practical problems.

UNIT 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Write the term that corresponds to each description:

34.Tendency to believe that, after an event, it was predictable:

___________________ ____________.

35.Tendency to think we know more than we do: _____________ __________.

36.Belief that previous results affect likelihood of future outcomes of random

events: _________________ _________________.

37.Renowned skeptic who applied an empirical approach to test psychics:

_______ __________________ ___________.

38.Tendency to perceive ourselves more favorably than

reality.______________-________________ __________.

39.Wording influences responses: _____________ __________.

40.Tendency to respond differently based on qualities of the administrator:

__________________ ___________.

41.Tendency to answer in a way that makes you look good:

____________-_______________ __________.

42.Tendency to agree to statements/questions with a positive connotation:

__________________ _________.

Scientific Methodology

43.Define the following:

fact law hypothesis theory

44.________________ is the process of repeating a research study with new

participants to determine ______________, or consistency of findings.

45.An ______________ definition is a carefully worded description of the

exact procedures in a research study, which allows for replication.

46._______________ research is anything that describes and documents

behavior.

47.A __________ ________ analyzes a particular person or group.

48._____________ ____________ involves watching natural behavior, and

does not attempt to explain behavior.

49._______________ measure self-reported attitudes, and responses can often

be biased.

50.The group being studied is called a _________________.

51.A small group from the group being studied is called a _______________.

52.In a ____________ sample, every member of a population has an equal

chance of being selected.

53.A _______________ sample divides population into stratas and samples

proportionately from them.

54.A _______________ sample uses volunteers or those available at the time.

 55.A ________________ _____________ is a statistical measure of the extent
to which two factors vary together. It is a number from ______ to _______.

56.__________________ are experimenters planted in experiments to pose as

subjects.

57._________________ is the degree to which an assessment produces

consistent results, and ___________ is the extent to which the experiment
tests what it intends to test.

58.________________ statistics are those used to measure and describe a

group.

59.________________ statistics is numerical data that allow generalization.

60.A _______________ is a bar graph with no gaps.

61.A _____________ _______________ is a spread of a set of data that looks

like a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, in which ________ fall within one
deviation, _______ fall within two deviations, and ________ fall within
three deviations.

62.______________ ____________ means that it is unlikely the results of an

experiment are by chance.

63.A ___________ ______________ determines that there is no relationship

between variables. When the manipulation has no effect, this is represented
as ________, and when the manipulation has the intended effect it is
represented as _________.

64.If the null hypothesis occurs less than _______ of the time, it can be rejected
because the ____________ hypothesis has statistical significance.

Ethics in Psych
 65.What are the ABCs of animal testing?
a. ___________________
b. ___________________
c. ___________________

UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

Neurons

66.Label the neuron:

A: _______________________
B: _______________________
C: _______________________
D: _______________________
E: _______________________
F: _______________________
 67.The _______________ ___________ of a neuron is the electrical potential
difference between the inside and outside of a neuron (about -70 mV).

68.An _______________ _______________ is a spike of electrical activity that

creates a depolarizing current and moves the neuron closer to 0mV. If the
charge breaches the __________________, the neuron fires.

69.The _______ or _________ principle states that the neuron will either fire or
it won’t.

70.The ______________ ___________ is the time during which a neuron

cannot fire again.

71.__________________ is the formation of new neurons, which happens

primarily during embryonic development.

72._________________ ________ _____________ means that synaptic

connections strengthen with use.

73._________________ ____________ means that during development,

unused connections break and neurons die.

Neurotransmitters

74.Describe Excitatory vs. Inhibitory neurotransmitters:

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Excitatory Inhibitory Other
75.Alertness and 77.Regulates/slows 79.Natural opiate-like
arousal, too little = down bodily neurotransmitter
depressed mood: functions. Too associated with
______________. little causes pain control:
seizures/tremors: ______________.
76.Associated with ______________.
memory, too much 80.Learning, reward,
leads to seizures: 78.Mood, hunger, and anticipation:
______________. sleep, dreaming, ______________.
pain, sexual
arousal, too little
leads to
depression:
_______________.

Drugs

81._________________ are chemically similar to neurotransmitters: they bind

to _____________ _____________ to produce the same biological response.

82.___________________, or “blockers,” block receptor sites.

83.__________________ ______________ inhibit reuptake, leaving

neurotransmitters in receptor sites.

Nervous System

84.Sensory, or _____________ neurons carry incoming information to the brain

and spinal cord.

85.Motor, or _____________ neurons carry instructions from brain and spinal

cord to muscles and glands.
 86._______________ link and communicate afferent and efferent neurons
within the brain and spinal cord.

87.A ___________ _________ is when a message travels from a sensory

neuron to a motor neuron without stopping at the brain.

88.An ___________ is the physical movement receiving motor neural

messages.

Endocrine System

89.The ______________ system secretes substances from skin like sweat,

saliva, and milk.

90.The endocrine system uses _____________ to drive the four F’s:

a. _____________
b. _____________
c. _____________
d. _____________

The Brain

91.____________, or tissue destruction, can be made surgically to determine

functions of brain regions.
 92.________________ imaging shows composition of the brain.

93._________________ imaging shows changes as they occur in the brain.

Write the Term That Matches the Description

94.Series of X-rays taken from different angles, which the computer combines
to make a 3-D image: ___________________________________________.

95.Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce images:

_________________________________________________.

96.Several MRIs taken in quick succession to identify blood flow:

_________________________________________________.

97.Reads electrical signals with an electrode hat:

__________________________.

98.Detects radioactive glucose:

___________________________________________.

Brain Structures

99.__________________ is a pseudoscience claiming personality could be

determined by the shape and size of the skull. It did accurately predict,
however, that different areas of the brain could control different emotions.

100. ________________ _____________ is an index case for brain damage

affecting personality. A rock-blasting accident destroyed much of his left
frontal lobe.

101. The _____ brain sustains basic life functions, the __________ system is
largely responsible for emotion and memory, and the ________ brain is
responsible for complex functions.
Brain Stem

102. The ____________ regulates heartbeat and breathing.

103. The _______ regulates unconscious processes.

104. The ____________ ___________ regulates arousal, state of

consciousness/sleep.

105. The _____________ controls non-verbal learning, memory, and

voluntary movement.

Limbic System

106. The ____________ regulates the endocrine system and some autonomic
nervous system.

107. The ____________ regulates emotion and decision making.

108. The ____________ relays sensation to cortex (except _________).

109. The ________________ converts short term to long term memory, and
connects memory and emotion.

New Brain

110. The ____________ __________ is the gray matter on the outer layer of
the cerebrum, which connects lobes.

111. ___________ are locations.

112. ________________ _________ are areas of the cerebral cortex involved

in higher mental functions.
 113. The _________ cortex, which controls voluntary movement is in the
__________ lobe.

114. The ____________ area, which control’s speech production, is locate in

the _________ ___________ ___________.

115. The _______________ cortex, which registers and processes touch, is

located in the ________________ lobes.

116. The ___________ cortex, which receives information from the visual
field, is located in the _____________ lobes.

117. The ____________ cortex, which processes auditory information, and the
_____________ area, which controls speech comprehension, are located in
the ___________________ lobes.

118. _______________ is the brain’s ability to change, reorganize, and adapt.

119. _________ cells nourish and protect neurons.

120. The brain has a _________ and __________ hemisphere, which are
connected by the _____________ _______________. Severing this part
allows the hemispheres to operate independently.

Genetics

121. ______________ is how environment and heredity affect one another.

122. ______________ looks at how the environment affects expression.

123. _____________ ______________ is the study of how genes affect

specific behavior.

124. ______________ is the extent to which variation in genes explains

variation of traits.
States of Consciousness

125. ________ ___________ __________ says that the unconscious

(______________) and conscious (__________________) mind are working
simultaneously.

126. __________________ is a detachment from reality.

127. ______________ ____________ created a technique in which he

supposedly used magnets to remove fluid from the body, known as
__________________.

128. ________________ is a dissociated state in which the automatic mind

becomes conscious. It is a calm state of heightened concentration and
__________________.

129. ___________________ _____________ is when patients are asked to do

things while under hypnosis which will be carried out after. This is effective
in a lot of cases, but is less effective with ______________ _____________.

Sleep

130. Wakey-time hormone: ______________.

131. Sleepy-time hormone: ______________.

132. __________________ ________________ theory says that, while we

sleep, we reorganize information and sort day’s events, and that dreams are a
result.

133. ________________ ________________ theory says that dreams promote

neural development by stimulating the brain. _____________ ___________
hypothesis suggests that brainstem’s neural activity is interpreted and
experienced as dreams.
 134. The Circadian Rhythm is synchronized to the day/night cycle and
influenced by the hypothalamus’ ___________________ _____________,
which is connected to the optic nerves. Light cues shut off ______________
production.

135. Melatonin is released from the ____________ gland, and cortisol from
the ____________ glands.

136. Each sleep cycle lasts ________ minutes. This was discovered with an
________ in 1952 by ____________ ____________ who taped electrodes to
his kid’s head.

137. _______________ is a sleep disorder that causes uncontrollable “sleep

attacks, ” where a patient lapses directly into REM.

138. _________ ________ is a sleep disorder which causes problems

breathing while sleeping.

139. Night terrors are typically more prominent in ____________ and occur
during __________.

140. ______ ____________ ____________ ____________ is the dysfunction

of typical natural paralysis during sleep, which causes subjects to act out
dreams.

141. _______________ is the study of dreams.

142. _________ suggested that dreams are vehicles of wish fulfillment. He

said that ___________content (the stuff we remember) represents
_________ content (actual meaning).

Drugs
 143. ______________ suppress physiological and neurological function --can
be prescribed to ease anxiety, insomnia.
a. Alcohol increases the amount of _________ agonists in the brain.

144. ______________ bind to the same receptors as endorphins (agonists).

145. ______________ accelerate physiological and neurological functions.

a. ______________ increases norepinephrine and can be ingested in a
variety of ways. It also increases arousal, energy, and alertness.
b. ______________ enhances dopamine and glutamine reception.
c. _______________ enhance dopamine reception and cognitive
performance. Commonly used to treat ADHD.
d. _____________ is a dopamine and serotonin reuptake inhibitor which
can cause erratic or paranoid behavior.

146. ________________heighten sensations and invoke perceptions despite

lack of input.
a. _______ affects a type of serotonin associated with visual perception.
b. _____________ amplifies serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.
c. _____________ affects motivation, pleasure, and hunger.
d. In __________ __________, psilocybin breaks down to a
____________ agonist and reuptake inhibitor. This drives altered
perceptions, increased creativity, and sense of wellbeing and
satisfaction.

UNIT 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

147. ___________ _____________ is the failure to perceive something we are

not looking for.

148. ________________ is the study of the relationship between physical

stimuli and psychological experience.

149. The __________ _________ is an illusion in which visual perception

plays a role in auditory language perception.
 150. The ________________ is a human figure that represents what it would
look like if the size of sensory space in the cerebral cortex matched sensor
organs.

Extra-Sensory Perception

151. ________________ is the study of psychology beyond scientific

understanding.

152. _________________ _____________ is perception that occurs without

sensory input. This includes, ________________ (foreknowledge),
________________ (knowing something beyond sensory contact), and
___________ ______________ (reading minds).

Selective Attention

153. _________________ is the conversion of environmental energy to neural

signals.

154. The _____________ ______________ occurs when the stimulus

intensity is detectable 50% of the time.

155. The _______________ ____________is the detectable difference

between two stimuli, or the “just noticeable difference.”

156. ___________ _______ says that we can detect the proportion of change
depending on the type of stimulus.

157. ___________ ______________ _________ explains how we decide

between information bearing stimulus and meaningless background stimuli.
 158. ________________ __________ is when constant stimuli results in less
sensitivity.

159. ______________ _____________ uses information to form higher levels

of processing. (Sensations are compiled to form perception).

160. ______________ _____________ uses existing concepts to contextualize

or explain incoming information.

Gestalt Psychology

161. Gestalt School studies the ways our brains default to ________ and
____________.

162. Gestalten rules say that things are grouped by __________ and
______________.

163. ______________ ___________ is the tendency to perceive colors as

being constant, although color can alter perception.

164. Gestaltian ________ of _____________ asserts that our eyes find and
follow continuous lines, shapes, and patterns in an image.

165. ___________ is when we fill in the blanks of an image.

166. _______________ means that stimuli with uniform visual properties are
perceived as related or a singular unit.

167. ________________ _____________ is the tendency to perceive objects

as having consistent features, and ignore the actual stimulus.

Vision
168. On the _______________ spectrum, _________________ determines
hue, and _________________ determines intensity. Typically,
_____________ wavelengths are more harmless.

169. When light hits the eye, it enters through the ________________, the
outermost clear layer of the eye. Then the ___________, which is controlled
by a muscle called the __________, changes size to let in the correct amount
of light. The ________ focuses light by changing the curve with muscles.
The _____________ is the eye’s screen, and the ___________ is the central
area of focus. The eye is also connected to the __________ ___________,
which sends signals to the visual cortex. Your blind spot is the point where
the ___________ __________ enters the ____________, because we have
no receptors there.

170. ___________ are light detectors that control grayscale vision.

171. ___________ are color detectors. There are ______ different types: Red,
Green, and Blue

172. _____________-____________ ________________ __________ asserts

that there are three types of cones that activate in different combinations to
create perceptions of color.

173. _________________ are people with one or no functioning cone types,

so all colors appear as different intensities.

174. _________________ have one malfunctioning cone system, and limits

spectrum to two colors and their combinations.

175. _________________ is a deficiency in red cones, which causes

___________________ color blindness.

176. _________________ is a deficiency in green cones, which causes

__________________ color blindness.
177. _______________ is a deficiency of blue cones, which causes
____________________ color blindness.

178. The ________________ ___________ is when neurons adapt to

overstimulation through movement, so movement becomes the new
baseline, and then you perceive an aftereffect.

179. ________________ ______________-____________ is when groups of

cones fire both excitatory and inhibitory signals, and then in the afterimage,
rods and cones adapt to overstimulation by sending opposite signals.

180. Vision favors ___________________ processing.

181. The ______________ _________ experiment shows that the ability to

perceive __________ is innate.

182. ________________ ___________ are key in judging distance of near

objects.
a. ____________ _________ is when eyes receive slightly different
images which the brain uses to gauge distance.
b. _______________ is when eyes turn inward to focus on closer
objects, and further inward = closer.

183. _______________ _________ are key in judging distance objects.

a. _______________ is when one object blocks another.
b. _______________ __________ means that an object that casts a
smaller image is farther away.
c. _____________ ___________ means that hazy objects are farther
away, and sharp objects closer.
d. ____________-___________ means that further objects appear
smoother.
e. ______________ __________ means that objects higher in our vision
appear farther away.
 f. ______________ _____________/___________ __________ means,
as we move, stable objects appear to move, and near objects move
quicker whereas far objects move slower.
g. ______________ ____________ is when parallel lines converge with
distance.
h. ____________ and ___________ means near objects reflect more
light, and so dimmer objects seem farther away.

184. ________________ ____________ is the brain's ability to analyze

features simultaneously.

185. ________________ is the phenomenon of interpreting stimuli as faces.

186. The ______________ means that facial feature detection becomes

difficult when faces are presented abnormally.

187. ________________ is a condition in which you have trouble recognizing

people’s faces.

Other Senses

188. ___________ determines loudness, as measured by _____________.

189. Two ears give us directional _______________ hearing.

190. Sound hits ___________, vibrates _____________, which hits

___________. The ______________ jiggles the ______________ and
surrounding fluid. This agitates _____________ __________ ________.
This triggers nerves to transduce physical energy into messages to the brain.

191. Smell is a _____________ sense, which is also closely tied to

____________.

192. Odor receptors transduce information to the ____________ bulb, which

is connected to the _____________ system of the brain.
 193. __________-__________ _________________ says that non-painful
sensations close routes to painful input.

194. _________________ is our ability to detect changes in position of body

without other senses.

195. The ___________________ sense monitors head’s position an boy

balance using movement of fluid through canals in the ____________
________.

UNIT 5: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

196. _______________ is the stage in which one starts to feel sleepy.

Associated with __________ waves. Then, these waves dissipate into
_____________ waves, a process lasting about ______ minutes. The
______________ __________________ is a falling sensation that occurs
during the period of semi-consciousness. __________________ __________
are brief muscle contractions that jolt us awake.

197. In ________________________, spikes of brainwave activity, known as

____________, are countered by oscillating ____________ ____________,
which keep us asleep. In this stage, you are definitely asleep but easy to
wake. This is also the stage in which ____________ dreaming might occur.
This stage lasts about __________ minutes.

198. __________________ is associated with ________ waves, which have a

_________ amplitude and a _________ frequency. By this stage, you are
hard to wake. This is also the stage in which _____________, or sleep
walking, might occur. This stage lasts about _________ minutes.

199. During ________ sleep, the body is asleep but the brain is awake.
_______ and ________ brain waves are rapid, similar to when you are
awake. This stage is when _________ dreams happen. This stage lasts about
________ to ________ minutes. It is also characterized by _________,
 which is a state of mild paralysis, where the motor cortex is active but the
brainstem blocks messages to the body.

UNIT 6: LEARNING

200. Behaviorism was pioneered by ___________ ____________.

Conditioning

201. ______________ learning links two or more stimuli.

202. ___________________ ______________ means we are more readily

able to form associations that keep us alive.

203. An _______________ stimulus causes a natural response.

204. ______________ occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an

unconditioned stimulus, and an _________________ is formed.

205. _______________ __________ discovered taste aversion.

206. _____________-___________ conditioning is when stimuli are added to

existing associations.

207. _______________ is when the effectiveness of a stimulus is diminished.

208. Stimulus _________________ is how we differentiate between stimuli.

Operant conditioning

209. _________________ __________ of __________ says we repeat

behaviors which have a satisfying effect and limit behaviors which have
discomforting effects.

210. _______ ___________ pioneered operant conditioning.

 211. _______________ _____________ are innately appetitive.

212. _______________ _____________ are non-biological, but may be

associated with primary reinforcers (money, praise, grades, tickets).

213. ______________ rewards a correct sequence of behaviors.

214. _______________ ___________ results from when accidentally or

randomly timed rewards create unintended associations.

Cognitive Influences on Behavior

215. _______________ ______________ is a psychologist who suggested the

idea of _________________ _______________ through an experiment in
which dogs were classically conditioned to associate a tone with an electric
shock.

216. _________________ ________________ ___________ says that light

punishments are more likely to shift intrinsic motivation than heavy
punishments.

Observational learning

217. Observational learning was exemplified by _____________

______________’s Experiment with __________.

218. _____________ ________________ ___________ suggests humans

learn social behaviors through observational learning.

219. ______________ ______________ _________ says that learning can be

done through interaction, imitation, and cognitive processes (social learning
theory + cognition).
 220. _______________ reinforcement and punishment means we copy
behaviors we see rewarded and avoid those we see punished.

221. _____________ learning is learning without trying.

222. _____________ neurons fire when performing certain actions or when

observing others perform certain actions.

UNIT 7: COGNITION

223. ______________ ________ says that our short-term memory can hold 7
+/- 2 bits of information for a brief period, and it decays rapidly if not
rehearsed and stored.

224. The _____________-__________ __________ of _____________

__________ proposed by ____________ ___________ and
__________________ _____________ proposes that we have a
dichotomous memory: short term and long term.

Sensory Memory

225. The _______________ _____________ model compares memory to a

computer: environment inputs stimuli, stimuli is processed by the brain, and
the brain outputs decisions.

226. ___________ __________ is visual information processed by the

__________________ scratch-pad.

227. ______________ ____________ is auditory information processes by

______________ loop.

228. ___________ ______________ focuses auditory and visual-spatial

information and commits information to long term memory.
Processing

229. _____________ processing uses basic input to encode.

a. Level 1: ____________ processing, based on basic appearance of
words.
b. Level 2: ____________ processing, encoding the sounds of a word.

230. ______________ processing is encoded semantically

a. Level 3: _____________ processing, encoding using the meaning of
information when committing it to memory.

231. _____________ memory is one that is easy to state.

232. _____________ memory is one that is impossible to state (like muscle

memory).

233. In _____________ learning, you had to practice first but it eventually

becomes automatic.

234. In ______________ processing is nonconscious encoding of incidental

information.

235. _____________ is when previous experience affects the interpretation of

events.

236. _____________ are memory aids.

237. _________________ memory is tied to an event.

238. _________________ memory is things we remember from our past.

239. _________________ memory is planning to remember to remember,

often triggered by ________.
240. __________________ is organizing items into familiar, manageable
units.

241. __________________ ____________ is encoding that requires attention

and effort.

242. The ___________ _____________ __________ is a tendency to more

accurately recall the first and last items in a list:
a. ______________ effect = first item.
b. _______________effect = last item on the list

243. ____________ interference is when old learning inhibits learning new

information.

244. ____________ interference is when new learning inhibits recalling old

information.

245. _____________ amnesia is loss of access to memories that occurred

before an injury or disease.

246. _____________ amnesia is the inability to create new memories after an

injury or disease.

247. The ______________ __________ _________ is a logic puzzle to

demonstrate deductive reasoning ability in humans.

248. _______________ are mental shortcuts for making judgments.

a. ____________ heuristic is the most readily available answer.
b. ____________ heuristics makes assessments based on how a situation
compares to prototypes.

249. An _________________ heuristic or _________________ is a tendency

to rely on the first piece of information.
 250. ________________ thinking uses one concept as a jumping point for
other associations.

251. ________________ thinking uses information to drive or inform ideas or

theories.

252. ________ _________ means we dislike losing more than we like

gaining/winning.

253. _____________ are the smallest unit of sound.

254. ______________ are the smallest unit of sound with meaning.

255. The __________-___________ Hypothesis says that language influences

our cognition.

256. _____ ____________ is most associated with operant learning.

257. __________ ___________ theorized about inborn universal grammar.

UNIT 8: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

Motivation

258. ______________ __________ says unlearned behavior is common

throughout a species.
a. The criticism of this theory is that it __________ behaviors, but does
not ___________ them.

259. _____________-_______________ __________ of ____________

applies optimal arousal curve to specific tasks.
a. The _____________ level of arousal yields peak focus and
performance.
Hunger, Sex and Belonging

260. Hunger occurs when a drop in blood ___________ causes the stomach
lining to secrete ______________ hormone. This hormone then triggers the
hypothalamus to send appetite signals via ___________.

261. A full belly causes intestines to secrete _______ amino acids, decreasing
hunger.

262. A ______ ________ is the weight to which one’s body naturally

gravitates, which can vary due to genetics.

263. The ___________ ______________ ___________ is the resting rate of

energy expenditure.

264. _________ _________, conducted the ____________ Starvation

Experiment.

265. _______________ and _____________ studied the physiological aspects

of sex by hooking up monitors to subjects having sex with each other.

266. The _________________ _______________ ___________ broke sex

into four phases.
a. _______________ phase is the initial arousal.
b. _______________ phase is full arousal.
c. _______________
d. _______________ phase occurs after orgasm.

Emotion, Stress, and Health

267. _____________ is the mind and body’s response to a given stimulus.

This includes a _________________, _________________, and
___________________ response.
268. The __________-_________ __________ says that emotions result from
the body’s reactions to situations, that ____________ arousal precedes
emotion, and that emotions are _____________ of physiological responses.

269. The ______________-_______ theory of emotion states that a stimulus

simultaneously triggers physiological responses AND emotions separately. It
argued that physiological responses are too similar across “emotions” for
one to cause the other.

270. ___________-__________ _______ _________ theory of emotion said

that emotion is physical arousal + its cognitive interpretation.

271. _____________ ___________ and _____________ ___________

suggested the _______-_______ pathway of emotion, in which emotions
occur before cognition.

272. ______________ ____________ suggested the ______________

_______________ ___________, which claims that complex emotions are
the result of cognitive evaluation. This is also called the ________-_______
pathway of emotion, in which emotions are driven by cognitive processes.

273. __________, __________, and ___________ suggested the __________

____________ hypothesis, which claims that facial movement not only
reacts to emotion, but can influence emotion. For example, smiling makes
you happy.

274. ______________ __________ suggested the ______________

___________ Theory, which said that there are only a handful of emotions,
which are present from infancy, and all other emotions are a combination of
those.

275. _____________ _____ __________ suggested that emotions are some

combination of ___________ (attractiveness or aversiveness) and
_____________ (excited or not excited). This is called the
______-________________ ____________ of ____________.
 276. ___________________ is the study of how psychology, neural, and
endocrine processes affect immunity and health.

277. _____________________ _________ is a stress-related physical illness.

278. The ____________ nervous system controls hormones linked to

gastrointestinal function, meaning that stress disrupts digestion.

279. _____________ _______________ ____________ says that stress

resistance lowers immediately after a stressor, is bolstered after that, and
then drops again. Essentially, the body’s resistance to stress can only last so
long before exhaustion sets in.

280. ______________ and _______________ personality types are:

a. Type ___: driven, competitive, hard-working, anger-prone, correlation
with increased stress and _____________ disease.
b. Type ____: easy-going, relaxed, and less prone to stress-related
illness.

UNIT 9: DEVELOPMENT

281. _________________ is how biological growth leads to changes in

behavior, with little emphasis on experience.

282. ______________ development is how we grow in our abilities to think,

remember, and communicate.

283. A ___________ is a fertilized egg.

284. An ____________ starts to resemble a human at around 2 to 8 weeks.

285. A ___________ has organs that are beginning to function.

 286. ________________ are factors which negatively affect development,
such as infection, drugs, stress, and toxins, which can lead to birth defects
like FAS.

287. ____________ _____________ was the first to systematically study

cognitive development, who came up with the idea of mental frameworks
for interpreting information, called ______________. He also suggested that
there were __________ stages of development:
a. 1: _________________ stage, in which children lack _________
permanence
b. 2: _________________ stage, in which children lack ____________,
or the concept that amounts remain the same no matter how they are
portrayed; and ______________, or the idea that things can return to
their former states. They also have ___________, or fixation on one
aspect of a problem; and ____________, or the failure to consider
others’ perspectives. The _______________ ________ Study found
that this dissipates around 4.
c. 3: ________________ ___________ stage, in which children begin
thinking logically. They experience _____________, where fixation
goes away.
d. In the ______________ ______________ stage, people develop
____________ reasoning.

288. _________ ______________ suggested that culture, guidance, and social

interaction drives cognition. This is called the
_______________-_______________ theory, and emphasizes the fact that
development is scaffolded through instruction by a __________
________________ ____________, and that there is a gap between our
current state and what we can achieve, called the ________ of
_____________ _________________.

Attachment and Parenting

 289. _________ _____________ conducted the ___________ ____________
experiment, in which babies were left with strangers and then returned to by
their parents.

290. In a _________ attachment, a caregiver's quick and consistent responses

result in a trusting baby.

291. In an ______________ ___________ attachment, inconsistent responses

from the caregiver result in anxiety about when to rely on the caregiver.

292. In an ______________ __________ attachment style, the mother’s

distance or disengagement leads to a disconnected baby.

293. In an ______________ ___________ attachment, mother’s abusiveness

or neglect leads to a confused and disengaged baby.

294. _______________ is a process that occurs during an early critical period

where some animals automatically form attachments.

295. ________-____________ is when you realize you’re a person (occurs

around 18 months).

296. _______-_____________ is understanding and evaluating who we are

(around 12 years).

297. ____________ ____________’s ______________ ___________ presents

four different styles of parenting.
a. _______________
b. _______________
c. _______________-____________
d. _______________-____________

Moral Development and Personality

298. _______________ _______________ developed three stages of morality.

 a. 1: _________________ morality, which is based on consequences of
breaking rules.
b. 2: _________________ morality, which emphasizes conformity and
community norms.
c. 3: ________________ morality, which is based on self-chosen
principles.

299. _________ _____________ suggested that there were 8 stages of

______________ development.

300. _____________ _____________ scientifically approached sex when

doing so was still taboo. He created the __________ scale, which suggested
that humans exhibit a spectrum of sexual orientation. Some of his findings
were criticized for ____________ reporting because of ________ samples.

UNIT 10: PERSONALITY

301. There are four basic perspectives on personality:

a. 1:_________________
b. 2: __________
c. 3:_________________
d. 2:___________-____________

Psychoanalytic Perspective

302. Freud theorized that personality was a combination of

_________________ ________________ and _______________
________________.

303. Freud’s ________________ _________ claimed that there is internal

conflict between 3 interacting components of the mind: the _____________
(what we are aware of); the _________________ (what is not conscious,
but can be conjured into consciousness); and the _____________________
(the unaware mind).
304. The _______ is a reservoir of unconscious, primitive energy that seeks to
satisfy sexual and aggressive drives and operates on the ____________
principle.

305. The ___________ represents internalized ideas and provides standards

for judgment and aspirations. It operates on the _______________ principle
(how things ought to be).

306. The ______ is the conscious part of personality, which allows the id to
get what it wants in a reasonable way. It is a mediator between the id and
superego, and operates on the __________ principle.

307. Freud proposed several defense mechanisms such as _______________,

which is justifying behavior in less threatening ways than the actual
explanations; _____________, which is a retreat to an earlier stage of
development; ______________ _____________, which is flipping impulses
to their opposites; _________________ which is acting out impulses
through acceptable forms; _______________, which is banishing
anxiety-causing thoughts; and ________________, which shifts sexual or
aggressive impulses to a more acceptable/less threatening object or person.

308. Freud's psychosexual stages are as follows:

a. 1:___________ stage
b. 2: ___________ stage
c. 3: ___________ stage
d. 4: ___________ stage
e. 5: ___________ stage

309. _________ _________ was a Neo-Freudian, who agreed with Freud’s

idea of a powerful “personal” unconscious, and added that there is a
_____________ unconscious (archetypes).
a. Theorized that girls experience the ___________ complex.
b. Pioneered _______ ____________, to reveal the unconscious.
 310. __________ __________ agreed that personality was driven by
childhood tensions.
a. Suggested that an ______________ complex resulted in
_________________.

311. ______________ __________ rejected Freud’s male-centric perspectives

and heteronormativity.

312. ______________ tests are pioneered by Neo-Freudians, and are designed

to illuminate the unconscious.

313. _____________ ____________ developed the ______________

______________ Test, in which subjects make up stories about scenes.

Humanistic Perspective

314. The ___________-_____________ practice measures personality through

one’s self-perceived identity.

315. _______________ _____________ suggested that development occurs

through achieving principles. He theorized that a healthy self-concept
required three conditions:
a. _________________: parents/adults transparency of feelings.
b. _________________: accepting parents makes children okay with
mistakes.
i. This was related to ________________ _____________
______________.
c. _________________: the ability to share feelings.

Traits

316. _____________ ___________ believed that behaviorism was too

shallow, but psychoanalysis was too deep, and pioneered _________ theory,
which defined personality through behavior patterns and conscious
motivations.
 317. ________________ _____________ is an objective, standardized
assessment of traits.

318. The _______________ _________________ ________________

______________ is the most widely used standardized personality test.

319. The “Big 5” Personality Traits are:

a. _________________
b. _________________
c. _________________
d. _________________
e. _________________

Social-Cognitive Perspective

320. The Social-Cognitive Perspective was pioneered by ____________

________________. Suggests we learn behavior through imitation, and then
we think about these interactions.

321. _______________ _____________ says behavior both influences and is

influenced by personal factors and social environment.

322. The _________ self is who we want to be.

323. The _________ self is who we do not want to be.

324. ____________-_____________ is our sense of competence

UNIT 11: INTELLIGENCE AND TESTING

325. _________________ ________________ suggested a ___-factor, which

is a psychometric for general intelligence that underlies all intellectual
abilities.
326. __________________ ____________ _______________ are categories
of intelligence which may vary in level, suggested by _________
____________________. This is a rejection of the idea of ___________
intelligence.

327. The _______________ of ________________ ________________,

proposed by _________________ ______________, states that people have
different ways of thinking and learning.

328. _______________ Intelligences, proposed by ________________,

simplified Gardner’s multiple intelligences into:
a. _________________ intelligence: problem solving
b. _________________ intelligence: adapting to new situations
c. _________________ intelligence: completing everyday tasks

329. Cognitive tests either measure _____________ (what has been learned),
or ________________ (capacity to learn/predict future performance).

330. Cognitive tests should be _________________, _______________, and

_________________.

331. _____________ __________ proposed the idea of mental age.

332. The ________________-_____________ Intelligence Scale measures

five factors both verbally and non-verbally.

333. The _______________ __________ ________________ __________

and the _______________ _______________ ______________ for
___________________ assesses verbal and nonverbal subtests; vocabulary
concepts and patterns. This is the most widely used aptitude/intelligence test
today.

334. ____________-________________ studies give a snapshot of analysis of

a person, group, or groups, and is useful for comparing groups.
 335. __________________ studies are performed over time on individuals or
cohorts. They are useful for assessing development.

336. __________________ intelligence is accumulated knowledge and verbal

skills, which increases with age.

337. ___________ intelligence is perceptual speed and abstract thinking,

which decreases with age.

338. _______________ is how much variation in a trait is attributed to genetic

variation.

339. _______________ ____________ is the degree to which the environment

acts on genes to express traits differently.

340. The ________________ _____________ study found that deprivation

trumps innate intelligence.

UNIT 12: ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

341. Psychological disorders are _____________, ________________, or

_________________ patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

342. _______________ ____________ created the medical model for

psychological disorders.

Anxiety disorders

343. _________________ ______________ is unhealthy behaviors that

reduce anxiety, but also often perpetuate it.

344. _______________ ____________ is avoiding fearful situations.

345. ________________ is learning about, rehearsing, and anticipating

anxiety-causing events.
 346. _____________ _____________ is when you rely on something or
someone to reduce anxiety.

347. ___________ ___________ disorder is when anxiety is triggered by

interacting with others.

348. ___________________ is the fear of being unable to escape stressful

environments.

349. ___________________ is a fear of germs, which has a high comorbidity

with OCD.

350. ___________________ is a fear of public speaking.

351. ______________ ______________ disorder, or _______________, is

persistent and excessive worry about health or health problems.

352. ______________ ______________ ____________ is when favorable

psychological changes occur from processing traumatic events.

Mood disorders

353. Mood disorders include _________________ _______________ disorder

and ________________ disorder.

354. Major depressive disorder is caused by deficiencies in _______________

and/or __________________.

Psychotic disorders

355. Schizophrenia is linked to excessive ______________ receptors that

cause selective attention to assign relevance to irrelevant internal and
external stimuli.
 356. _________________ symptoms include hallucinations and delusions.

357. _________________ symptoms include symptoms like word salad.

358. _________________ symptoms diminish abilities or emotions. These

include the __________ affect, which is a lack of emotional expression, and
_______________, which is a lack of motor activity and speech.

359. ___________________ disorder is a combination of schizophrenia with a

mood disorder.

Dissociative Disorders

360. __________________ ______________ is an episode of involuntary

association during which a new identity takes over.

361. _________________ _______________ is the inability to recall

information due to involuntary dissociation. This is a form of
__________________ amnesia, which can only be diagnosed if
_________________ amnesia is ruled out.

Personality disorders

362. _____-______________ is when an individual is aware and distressed by

symptoms.

363. _____-_______________ is when an individual doesn’t think they have a

problem.

364. ______________ ______ personality disorders are typified by odd or

eccentric personality characteristics, often including social withdrawal.

365. _________________ _____________ disorder is characterized by the

persistent belief that others are trying to harm or take advantage of you.
 366. _____________ personality disorder is characterized by social
detachment or isolation, and little to no interest in forming or maintaining
relationships.

367. _______________ ______ personality disorders are typified by dramatic,

emotional, or impulsive patterns of personality. They may lack empathy or
disregard societal expectations.

368. ______________ personality disorder is characterized by a lack of

empathy or remorse.

369. _______________ personality disorder is characterized by the

engagement in unhealthy or dysfunctional behaviors to meet psychological
needs.

370.

UNIT 13: TREATMENT OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

UNIT 14: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY