Thermodynamics & Heat

Engines

Prof. Dr. Hamada Mohamed Abdelmotalib

Mechanical Power & EnergyEngineering Dep.
Faculty of Engineering, Minia University
Course Syllabus

1. Introduction and basic concepts

2. Properties of pure substance
3. First law of thermodynamics
4. Second law of thermodynamics
5. Thermal Power Plants
6. Rankine Cycle
7. Gas turbines
8. Modification of gas turbine
9. Short Notes on Internal Heat Engines

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Pure substance
 A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure
substance. Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide, for example, are all pure
substances.
 A pure substance does not have to be of a single chemical element or compound,
however. A mixture of various chemical elements or compounds also qualifies as a
pure substance as long as the mixture is homogeneous. Air, for example, is a mixture
of several gases, but it is often considered to be a pure substance because it has a
uniform chemical composition.
 A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as
the chemical composition of all phases is the same. A mixture of ice and liquid water,
for example, is a pure substance because both phases have the same chemical
composition. A mixture of liquid air and gaseous air, however, is not a pure substance
since the composition of liquid air is different from the composition of gaseous air.
 Phases of pure substance
 There are three principal phases-solid, liquid, and gas. A substance may have several
phases within a principal phase, each with a different molecular structure. Carbon, for
example, may exist as graphite or diamond in the solid phase
Phase change process of pure substance
 There are many practical situations where two phases of a pure substance coexist in
equilibrium. Water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in the boiler and the
condenser of a steam power plant. The refrigerant turns from liquid to vapor in the
freezer of a refrigerator.
 Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid
 Consider a piston–cylinder device containing liquid water at 20°C and 1 atm pressure
Under these conditions, water exists in the liquid phase, and it is called a compressed
liquid, or a subcooled liquid, meaning that it is not about to vaporize.
 Heat is now transferred to the water until its temperature rises so the liquid water
expands slightly, and so its specific volume increases. Water is still a compressed liquid
at this state since it has not started to vaporize. As more heat is transferred, the
temperature keeps rising until it reaches100°C (state 2). At this point water is still a
liquid, but any heat addition will cause some of the liquid to vaporize. That is, a
phase-change process from liquid to vapor is about to take place. A liquid that is about
to vaporize is called a saturated liquid.
 Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor
 Once boiling starts, the temperature stops rising until the
liquid is completely vaporized. That is, the temperature
will remain constant.
 Midway about the vaporization line (state 3), the
cylinder contains equal amounts of liquid and vapor. As
we continue transferring heat, the vaporization process
continues until the last drop of liquid is vaporized (state
4). A vapor that is about to condense is called a saturated
vapor. Therefore, state 4 is a saturated vapor state. A
substance at states between 2 and 4 is referred to as a
saturated liquid–vapor mixture since the liquid and
vapor phases coexist in equilibrium at these states.
 Once the phase-change process is completed, we are
back to a single phase region again (this time vapor), and
further transfer of heat results in an increase in both the
temperature and the specific volume. A vapor that is not
about to condense (i.e., not a saturated vapor) is called a
superheated vapor. Therefore, water at state 5 is a
superheated vapor
 The statement “water boils at 100°C” is incorrect. The correct statement is “water
boils at 100°C at 1 atm pressure. If the pressure were raised to 500 kPa, water would
start boiling at 151.8°C.
 At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called
the saturation temperature Tsat. Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at
which a pure substance changes phase is called the saturation pressure Psat. At a
pressure of 101.325 kPa, Tsat is 99.97°C. Conversely, at a temperature of 99.97°C,
Psat is 101.325 kPa.
 It takes a large amount of energy to melt a solid or vaporize a liquid. The amount of
energy absorbed or released during a phase-change process is called the latent heat.
 The amount of energy absorbed during melting is called the latent heat of fusion and
is equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing. Similarly, the amount
of energy absorbed during vaporization is called the latent heat of vaporization and
is equivalent to the energy released during condensation.
 It is clear from that Tsat increases with Psat. Thus, a substance at higher pressures boils
at higher temperatures.
 The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling temperature of water, decreases with
elevation. Therefore, it takes longer to cook at higher altitudes than it does at sea level.
Properties diagrams for phase-change process

The critical point is defined as the point at which the saturated liquid and
saturated vapor states are identical. The critical-point properties of water are
Pcr = 22.06 MPa, Tcr = 373.95C, and vcr = 0.003106 m3/kg.
The triple-point

-We are all familiar with two phases being in equilibrium, but under
some conditions all three phases of a pure substance coexist in
equilibrium. These triple-phase states form a line called the triple
line.
-The triple line appears as a point on the P-T diagrams and, therefore,
is often called the triple point.
-For water, the triple-point temperature and pressure are 0.01°C and 0.6117
kPa, respectively. That is, all three phases of water coexist in equilibrium only if
the temperature and pressure have precisely these values
- There are two ways a substance can pass from the solid to the vapor phase:
either it melts first into a liquid and subsequently evaporates, or it evaporates
directly without melting first. The latter occurs at pressures below the triple
point value. Passing from the solid phase directly into the vapor phase is called
sublimation.
Property diagrams of a pure substance.
 Property tables
 For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too
complex to be expressed by simple equations. Therefore, properties are frequently
presented in the form of tables. Some thermodynamic properties can be measured
easily, but others cannot and are calculated by using the relations between them and
measurable properties. The results of these measurements and calculations are
presented in tables in a convenient format
Enthalpy
heat content and total heat

Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States

The quantity hfg is called the enthalpy of vaporization

(or latent heat of vaporization). It represents the
amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of
saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure. It
decreases as the temperature or pressure increases and
becomes zero at the critical point.
Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
 During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part
liquid and part vapor. That is, it is a mixture of saturated
liquid and saturated vapor. To analyze this mixture properly,
we need to know the proportions of the liquid and vapor
phases in the mixture. This is done by defining a new
property called the quality x as the ratio of the mass of
vapor to the total mass of the mixture:

Its value is between 0 and 1. The quality of a system that consists of saturated liquid is 0
(or 0percent), and the quality of a system consisting of saturated vapor is 1 (or 100%).
Superheated Vapor Compressed Liquid
 Since the superheated region is a single-phase
 Compressed liquid tables are not as
region (vapor phase only), temperature and
commonly available.
pressure are no longer dependent properties and
 One reason for the lack of compressed
they can conveniently be used as the two
liquid data is the relative independence of
independent properties in the tables.
compressed liquid properties from
pressure. Increasing the pressure 100
times often causes properties to change
less than 1 percent.
 In the absence of compressed liquid data,
a general approximation is to treat
compressed liquid as saturated liquid at
the given temperature.

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The ideal gas equation of state
 Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a substance
is called an equation of state. There are several equations of state, some simple and
others very complex. The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in
the gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of state.
 At low pressures the volume of a gas is proportional to its temperature. That is,

Ideal-gas equation of state

where the constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant. The gas
constant R is different for each gas (Fig. 3–45) and is determined from

where Ru is the universal gas  The molar mass M can simply be defined as
constant and M is the molar mass the mass of one mole (also called a gram-
called molecular weight) of the gas. mole, abbreviated gmol) of a substance in
The constant Ru is the same for all grams.
substances, and its value is  The mass of a system is equal to the product
of its molar mass M and the mole number:

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 The ideal-gas equation of state can be written in several different forms

 An ideal gas is an imaginary substance that obeys the relation Pv=RT. It has been
experimentally observed that the ideal-gas relation given closely approximates the P-v-
T behavior of real gases at low densities.
 In the range of practical interest, many familiar gases such as air, nitrogen, oxygen,
hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, krypton, and even heavier gases such as carbon dioxide
can be treated as ideal gases with negligible error (often less than 1 percent).
 Dense gases such as water vapor in steam power plants and refrigerant vapor in
refrigerators, however, should not be treated as ideal gases. Instead, the property tables
should be used for these substances.

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 Compressibility factor
 Gases deviate from ideal-gas behavior significantly at states near the saturation region
and the critical point. This deviation from ideal-gas behavior can accurately be
accounted for by the introduction of a correction factor called the compressibility
factor Z defined as

 Obviously, Z=1 for ideal gases. For real gases Z can be greater than or less than unity.
The farther away Z is from unity, the more the gas deviates from ideal-gas behavior.
 Gases behave differently at a given temperature and pressure, but they behave very
much the same at temperatures and pressures normalized with respect to their critical
temperatures and pressures. The normalization is done as

Here PR is called the reduced pressure and TR the reduced temperature.

 The Z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the same reduced pressure and
temperature. This is called the principle of corresponding states.

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Other equations of state
 The ideal-gas equation of state is very simple, but its range of applicability is limited.
 It is desirable to have equations of state that represent the P-v-T behavior of substances
accurately over a larger region with no limitations. Such equations are naturally more
complicated
 Van der Waals Equation of State
 it has two constants that are determined from the behavior of a substance at the critical
point. It is given by

 Van der Waals intended to improve the ideal-gas equation of state by including two of
the effects not considered in the ideal-gas model: the intermolecular attraction forces
and the volume occupied by the molecules themselves.
 The term a/v2 accounts for the intermolecular forces, and b accounts for the volume
occupied by the gas molecules.
 The determination of the two constants appearing in this equation is based on the
observation that the critical isotherm on a P-v diagram has a horizontal inflection point
at the critical point.

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