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DevelopingCompositionWriting

THE POLYTECHNIC OF WALES LIBRARY

Llantwit Road, Treforest, Pontypridd.

Telephone: Pontypridd 480480

Books are to be returned on or before

the last date below

19. DEGag 2\1 FEB 201 |

06. W

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10, shi 92

16 FEB 1999

25 mar 199f

19NOVI
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 IMH

LONGMAN GROUP UK LIMITED

Longman House, Bumt Mill, Harlow,
Essex CM20 2JE, England
and Associated Companies throughout the world.

© Longman Group Ltd. 1975

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the Publishers.

First published 1975

Thirteenth impression 1989

Produced by Longman Group (FE) Ltd.

Printed in Hong Kong

ISBN O-58e-55e32-X
 Contents

To the Teacher

To the Student

Paragraph development by listing

Paragraph development by examples

Essay development by examples

Paragraph development by comparison

Paragraph development by contrast

Essay development by comparison and

contrast

Paragraph development by definition

Paragraph development by classification

Essay development by definition and

classification

Paragraph development by space and time

Paragraph development by process

description

Essay development by time, space and

process

Paragraph development by cause and effect

14 Paragraph development by generalisation

15 Essay development by various means

Answers to the Exercises

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 Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright

material:
Thames & Hudson Ltd for an extract from “The Pre-Columbian
Civilizations’ from The First Americans by G.H.S. Bushnell. We
regret we have been unable to trace the copyright holder of the extract
from Basic Principles of Chemistry by Harry B. Gray and Gilbert P.
Haight and would appreciate receiving any information that would
enable us to do so.
 To the Teacher

This book instructs students in writing the kind of expository prose

that is required in short essay answers to exam questions, and it
exemplifies methods of paragraph and essay development often used
in longer papers in university course work. But more than anything
else, it demonstrates to the student that he has experiences in life
that are legitimate topics for discussion and exposition.
The teacher should attempt to relate composition, and the methods
of development stressed in the book, to the way students must perform
in other courses in their academic curriculum. It would be extremely
helpful to students if, for example, teachers could get from lecturers
in the university examples of questions typically asked on essay
examinations. Even more beneficial would be samples of what the
lecturers consider good answers. Such samples and consequent activi-
ties might begin after Chapter 2. Similar illustrative material on
the term paper or critical essay might come after Chapter 3. In addition
to the quality of ideas expressed, most university lecturers look for
their clear expression and orderly arrangements. If the student can
see that what he does in the composition course will help him to
meet the expectations of his lecturers throughout the university, this
will be one of the greatest motivational factors in the writing course.
Along with the exercises in this book, and other activities as well,
the teacher could therefore call attention to the academic rewards
that may come to the student who writes well.
We do not mean to imply that success in the university is the final
goal. Quite the contrary. The ability to consciously shape one’s
language, whether written or spoken, gives one a power over one’s
destiny that no other skill can match. With adequate language skills
one can enter into interior dialogue with oneself to reinforce or re-
direct one’s own being, and one can thus often influence the thoughts
and behaviour of others. This distinctly human characteristic enables
mankind to exercise personal and social capabilities far exceeding the
expectations of its artless origins.
Any instructional device is only as successful as the teacher who
uses it. This material is very dependent on the experiences and attitude
the teacher brings, and the ingenuity and empathy with which he
approaches students. Realising that other instructional activities in
addition to the book will be used in the classroom, we hope that a
spirit of co-operative effort and sharing between class and teacher can
Vii
encourage confidence among students. A workshop atmosphere is
desirable, wherein discussion about the model paragraphs and essays
leads to the primary focus of the book, which is an understanding
of the techniques employed in writing about these subjects, and
where answers to exercises are developed co-operatively, with writing
practice being evaluated through group effort and individual self-
criticism.

Sentence-Writing Processes
Students in the course for which you have selected this textbook are
no doubt still plagued with sentence-level writing decisions and
problems. Students may make sentence-level ‘errors.’ Because of
restricted or ineffective traihing in writing academic prose, students
are often immature or unsophisticated writers, relying on simple
prose styles inappropriate in the university. They may still have only
a tenuous control of the mechanics of written English, including
spelling and punctuation.
This. composition book gives little attention to sentence-level
difficulties, for we feel that exercises and activities at the sentence-
level, as appropriate as they are, do not mix well with the paragraph
and essay-level activities presented in this text. Grammar, spelling
and punctuation, and other sentence-level problems can and should
recelve necessary attention between the lessons presented in this
text. Preferably, such attention would come between methods of
development rather than in the midst of a lesson in the book. This
attention could be closely related to the homework assignments
which appear at the end of each chapter.
Unremitting attention to sentence errors leaves the student little
time for the more creative aspects of composition that are likely to
lead to individual growth. We recommend a positive developmental
approach to sentence revision. An understanding of sentence-writing
processes does provide a base for developing mature writing. In the
simplest terms, this understanding would include: (1) constituents
that make up a complete sentence, (2) modification, (3) sentence ex-
pansion through addition, co-ordination, and embedding, and (4)
transition between sentences. Transitional devices are discussed in the
text.

Vocabulary
One of the important marks of a good writer is the effective use of
an expanding vocabulary. Yet vocabulary development is one of the
most elusive aspects of the composition class. It is often relegated
to the reading portion of the student’s English class; or it is assumed
that the student will acquire the necessary vocabulary through other
course work. Sometimes it is totally ignored as an unmanageable task.
Vili
 Many students fail, however, in university reading and writing
tasks through an inadequate or underdeveloped vocabulary. In this
book we have given attention to some one hundred words and con-
cepts. We have selected items on the basis of two criteria: those we
anticipate may cause some confusion for many students, and those
that illustrate a technique of vocabulary expansion. There are doubt-
less many additional vocabulary items which will require attention
in your classroom. Such words can easily be identified by the teacher
who has intimate knowledge of his students. The underlying principle
behind vocabulary study should be the adequate contextualisation of
the concept, so that students may perceive the relationship between
meaning and form. Grammatical and situational (or semantic) con-
texts must be adequate to enable students to understand words.
Dictionary work obviously helps, but it is the understanding of the
communicative function of the words in a written context that leads
to vocabulary growth.

The Textbook and the Classroom

The book provides for a great deal of individualised learning. The

sequencing of the materials is carefully designed and has been tried
out in the classroom, and, hopefully, the directions and explanations
are clear, so that students will experience a minimum of difficulty
in following them, leaving the teacher free to give guidence where it
is needed.
Each lesson in the text should be approached with the view, conveyed
to the class, that mastery of this lesson will have a direct influence
on the students’ performance in other academic work. Specific ex-
amples—of how the methods of development demonstrated and
practised in the textbook relate to the students’ activities in their
other classes—are not spelled out in the book, because the situations
in which it will be used are so varied. It is the teacher’s responsibility
to provide such specific instances for students. For instance, it should
be easy enough to demonstrate how the simple list paragraph, the
first studied in this book, can serve as a good answer in an essay
examination.
In most situations, students will probably not be expected to cover
any of the material at home beyond the specific homework assign-
ments at the end of each chapter. Most students will be able to approach
these homework assignments with confidence, only if the materials
and exercises have received explicit attention during the class periods.
A workshop atmosphere, where this is possible, with the teacher
acting as a discussion leader and resource person during the actual
writing process, can develop a comfortable writing environment,
providing maximum support for the students’ efforts. This is totally
unlike the typical home or hostel environment, in which the student
usually works alone, and is unaided by the stimulation of discussion,
ix
advice, or outside resources.
The textbook is not designed to provide the entire experience for
a composition class. In some situations, it might provide up to half
of the class work; in others, it might provide less. Although it is
extremely hazardous to predict the amount of time required to master
the materials, we can say that many of the lessons can be completed
in one period, with homework and its discussion intervening between
lessons. You will note throughout the book, however, that certain
lessons are a great deal more complex and would require several
periods for their completion. The only guidance we suggest is that
classes should not spend so much time on a lesson that it becomes
tedious for the students, but that they should spend enough time to
be able to approach the homework with confidence and to be able
to achieve reasonable succéss with the assignments.
Generally a three-step process in teaching the model paragraph and
its exercises is effective in the classroom: (1) silent reading of the
model paragraph, (2) discussion of the subject matter, and (3) doing
the exercises.
Students should be encouraged to read each paragraph silently and
carefully, with attention primarily on the method of development.
Some guidance is given in the book prior to the model paragraphs,
to suggest points to keep in mind while reading. Typical students
will be more interested, in the first reading at least, in the subject
matter and will read for the sense or meaning of the paragraph. We
certainly do not wish to discourage this. Model paragraphs have
been especially written to appeal to student interests, but the primary
aim of the models is to illustrate the methods of development of
expository prose. Doubtless, most students will need to read the
models a second time to give fuller attention to the organisation of
the paragraph.
Step two should capitalise on the students’ interest in the subject
matter. Class discussion on the content along with developmental
vocabulary work is certainly an appropriate means to understanding
the communicative function of contemporary prose. The teacher’s
role in these discussions should be one of summarising, emphasising
important points in the discussion, relating the discussion directly to
the model, and calling attention to the stated facts or opinions of
the model when emotions carry the class beyond these facts. Whatever
the discussion of the subject matter involves, the teacher should lead
the class rather quickly to step three. In some lessons, the teacher
will wish to conduct steps two and three simultaneously.
The major emphasis in the class period should be on the exercises.
Some exercises can be done through class discussion, but others
require individual pencil-and-paper work. All exercises should be
discussed and answers mutually agreed on, before further model
paragraphs are attempted. During the written work in class, the
teacher should move around the room, checking over the students’
Xx
work, correcting false starts, suggesting directions or points for the
students to consider, and noting special difficulties which might be
discussed with the class as a whole.

Homework

The completion of homework assignments is extremely important for

the success of these materials. They provide the student with an
opportunity for extended, thoughtful attention to a writing problem,
to which he applies the developmental methods presented in each
chapter.
It is essential that homework compositions be corrected, returned
promptly, and thoroughly discussed before going to the next method
of development. Since this book will probably not be the only re-
source for your course, other activities might intervene between
chapters while you catch up with paper work. The correction of the
compositions will reveal difficulties which the students are having,
and these will influence your plan of operation for subsequent activi-
ties. It is possible, for example, that certain groups of students may
require more writing practice than is provided in the book. Some
students may need more sentence-level work. Still others may require
a slower pace and more thorough discussion of their own writing
before new material is introduced.
Homework assignments turned in by students can be valuable
teaching aids. Student compositions, both good and bad, (projected
with an opaque projector, for instance) can be used with the entire
class, to illustrate alternatives selected by individual student writers.
It is especially helpful, if students are writing about the same subject
but with some freedom of choice in the content, to see the various
strategies, decisions, and choices of others. Students can then develop
a critical sense of writing, arriving at judgements about the merits
of one choice over another in respect to sentence structure, word
choice, transitional devices, method of development in relation to
subject matter, overall effectiveness, and so on. Student compositions
are likely to strike them as interesting and relevant, and are likely
to motivate them more than the tired prose found in some of their
regular textbooks. More importantly, student compositions present
writing at a level with which the class is comfortable, a level which
is a step in their progress toward the writing goals illustrated by the
model paragraphs in this book.
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 To the Student

In some parts of the world, people have lost reverence for the printed
page and have gained an independence from it through the increasing
availability of such non-print media as recordings, films, radio, tele-
vision, and audio and video cassettes. However, despite electronic
advances in the communications field, reading is still very much a
key to your success in acquiring the information and knowledge
essential to formal education, and writing is still the primary tool
for recording and organising your knowledge into useful and re-
usable notes. Writing may also be important for you to demonstrate
to your teachers that you have acquired the information and skills
necessary to join the ranks of the educated. In the general world of
work and pleasure, you may not be asked to do much formal ‘writing,’
but you will be surrounded and sometimes victimised by other people’s
writing all your life. In both secondary school and university the art
of writing (or composition as it is traditionally called) is one aspect
of academic success over which you have a great deal of control.
You should take the opportunity to master it now.
The purpose of this textbook is to help you gain confidence and
skill in writing university-level compositions. A composition is any
organised, self-contained piece of writing written—or ‘composed’—
for a special purpose, often an assignment in class. The term is fre-
quently used for writing assignments in an English or composition
class, where it usually means a self-conscious process in which you
may make thoughtful decisions concerning what to say, how to
organise and develop your ideas, and what words to use.
Writing a good composition requires the mastery of several skills.
It requires grammatical accuracy and acceptability, so that relation-
ships between words are clear, and understanding between reader
and writer is made easier. It requires that the mechanics of punctua-
tion, capitalisation, spelling, footnoting, perhaps even handwriting
follow acceptable conventions. Additionally, it requires vocabulary
appropriate to the subject matter and to the level and tone of writing.
Finally, writing a good composition requires a careful and planned
structuring of ideas. It is this skill—the structuring of ideas—which
receives attention in this book. The book is not intended to teach
you everything you need to know to be a better writer, but it should
be an important part of your resources for writing improvement.
In some classes, personal feelings and self-expression in writing
xiii
may be rewarded; but most teachers require proof that you know
the facts. Your understanding of these facts is most commonly pre-
sented through educated prose—structured, disciplined, thoughtful
composition. We feel we can best show how ideas are structured by
directing your attention to the techniques of writing paragraphs.
This book therefore focuses on the organisational foundation of all
expository writing, the paragraph. Essays, or longer compositions,
are treated as extensions of the techniques shown in writing para-
graphs, which may be about people, events, or ideas.
Let us explain next how we hope to accomplish our aim of enabling
you to write better paragraphs. Specifically, each lesson in the book
gives you a number of model paragraphs to read and study. The
paragraphs in one lesson demonstrate or exemplify one technique of
paragraph development. Exercises that closely follow the organisation
of the model paragraphs provide you with an analysis of the particular
paragraph’s structure; this should be a basis for a general under-
standing of paragraph development. This general understanding 1s
then employed in additional exercises and homework assignments
that require practice of the writing techniques illustrated in the lesson.
The lessons foster a sense of progress because each one enables you
to master a specific technique or skill before you embark on the next
one. Every third lesson in the text extends the techniques learned to
the writing of an essay or long paper.
It may appear in individual lessons that we encourage practice of
a certain type of paragraph development for its own sake. This is not
the case. We have tried to select only a few of the most useful types
of paragraph organisation, but they are useful only if they satisfy
the organisational requirements of your particular writing task. The
writing practice is intended to build up a repertoire of several different
types of paragraph development which, with increasing ease, you can
select and use effectively in your own writing assignments. In Chapter
15 and elsewhere, we show that we have not simply made up these
paragraph types, but rather that they appear with frequency in the
formal writings of others. The ultimate goal we see for you is that
you will be able to approach any subject, feeling confident that you
can develop and express your ideas on that subject through the methods
discussed in this book.
The general subject matter of this book is, of course, writing—a
subject about which you may or may not share our enthusiasm. In
either case, we have tried to make the particular subject matter of
the model paragraphs reflect matters of general interest. Some topics
for model paragraphs were chosen because they are typical of the
writing assignments in history, psychology, sociology, economics,
and so on. Other topics were chosen because they help demonstrate
the techniques of paragraph development which we feel are most
productive. But all were chosen because we consider them legitimate
classroom topics which are frequently ignored in traditional com-
XiV
position texts. We have deliberately included material on educational
alternatives, university examinations, how to succeed in an interview,
on art, sports, film criticism, social change, and on the economic
requirements of modernising nations. A major goal of this book,
then, is to demonstrate that formal methods of organising ideas will
facilitate communication regardless of the topics discussed.
We believe there are a few techniques of paragraph development
that can be learned easily if they are clearly presented and carefully
practiced. The understanding and practice of these techniques should
have the immediate result of enabling you to write simply and effectively
about a variety of topics on which you already have ideas. It should
also encourage you to continue the conscious study of the ways in
which ideas are organised and expressed in the writings of others.
We further believe that the mastery of these techniques will assure
success in this course and most certainly increase the prospect of
success in any course requiring a substantial amount of writing.

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 1
Paragraph
development by
listing

1.1 Read the model paragraph. As you read, pay close attention to
both the meaning and the organisation of the ideas discussed.

SentenceFunctions
inParagraphDevelopment
The sentences in most well written paragraphs may be analysed
into four general functions. First, there are paragraph introducers,
which are sentences that establish the topic focus of the paragraph
as a whole. Second, there are paragraph developers, which
present examples or details of various kinds that support the
ideas set forth by the paragraph introducers. Third, there are
viewpoint or context modulators, which are sentences that
provide a smooth transition between different sets of ideas.
Fourth, there are paragraph terminators, which logically con-
clude the ideas discussed in the paragraph in a psychologically
satisfying manner. Not all pieces of writing will conform to this
analysis; however, most successful paragraphs usually contain
some combination of these four sentence types.
l.la Each sentence in the paragraph contains a key idea. The key
idea can be expressed in a short phrase often using key words ap-
pearing in the sentence. The key words that form the key ideas in
each sentence of the model paragraph are in italics. From each of
the six sentences, write the italicised words on the following lines.
Cou LACM ~¥\I be Rne J f 4 )4

BW
Nn
(
1.1b What function do paragraph developers serve? Identify the four
paragraph developers used in the model paragraph.
1.1c What function do context modulators serve? Do they appear
in every well written paragraph? Does this paragraph contain a
context modulator?

1.1d Is the final sentence in the model paragraph a good terminator?

That is, does it end the paragraph by bringing it to a psychologically
satisfying conclusion?
2 From Paragraph to Essay

1.le The type of paragraph presented on page | is called a list para-

graph. To avoid a ‘shopping list’ appearance, certain words or phrases
are used to help the paragraph proceed smoothly. Point out the words
or devices that are employed to aid the listing of details.
1.2 Read the model paragraph. This time, as you read try to observe
three main parts of paragraph organisation.
Black African Nations

During the decade of the 1960's, most of the European colonies

of Sub-Saharan Africa achieved independence. In the west,
Nigeria (1960), Sierra Leone (1961), and Gambia (1965)—all
former British colonies—joined the family of free and in-
dependent nations. In the,east, Tanzania (1961), Uganda (1962),
Kenya (1963), and Zambia (1964) also became sovereign states
free of British rule. As the African empire of Great Britain
was being dismantled, France, the other major European
coloniser, withdrew from vast areas south of the Sahara. Thirteen
former French colonies gained national status in the single
year 1960: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, Upper
Volta, Togo, Dahomey, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic,
Cameroon, Gabon, and Congo. Although a few European
colonialists still occupy African territory, the 1960’s witnessed
the birth of more than twenty free, black nations. —
1.2a Does this paragraph contain the essential elements of a well
written paragraph—introducer, developers, terminator? Point out the
sentence or sentences that serve as the introducer, the developers, the
terminator.
1.2b In addition to the three types of sentences mentioned in the
previous question, this paragraph contains a viewpoint or context
modulator. That is, a sentence that provides a transition between
different sets of ideas. Identify the sentence that performs this transition
function.
1.2¢ Review (see sentence 5 of paragraph 1.1 and exercise 1.1d) the
function of a paragraph terminator. Is the final sentence of 1.2 an
adequate terminator?
1.3 The following list paragraph gives information about several
island nations. How many of these nations are familiar to you?

Island Nations

Many Americans and Europeans are accustomed to thinking

of a country only as a governmental unit that occupies part of
a large continent, but the fact is that there are some very im-
portant countries—especially in Asian Pacific waters—that are
composed entirely of widely scattered islands. As a first example,
 Paragraph development by listing 3

the Republic of the Philippines has a gross national product

(GNP)! of over $4,856,000,000 and a population of 37,008,419
inhabitants, spread over approximately 3000 islands, the largest
of which are Luzon, Mindanao, and Samar.

On the basis of these three instances (and others could be men-

tioned such as New Zealand, Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), and
Singapore), it may be concluded that some of the island nations
of South-East Asia are among the more prominent governments
in international affairs.

1.3a Does the paragraph meet the requirements of a list paragraph?

What is missing from the paragraph?
1.3b Finish the paragraph by writing in the space provided two
developers, one about Indonesia and one about Japan. In the table
below is some information that you may want to use. Begin your
sentence about Indonesia with Secondly; your sentence about Japan
with Thirdly.
COUNTRY GNP POPULATION NO. OF ISLANDS

Indonesia $11,100,000,000 122,864,000 3,000 approximately

(197 Leste)
Large islands include:
Java,
Sumatra,
Kalimantan,
Sulawesi,
West Irian.

Japan $124,700,000,000 104,649,000 1,000 approximately

(1970)
Four major islands:
Honshu,
Kyushu,
Hokkaido,
Shikoku.

1.4 Read the model paragraph. This time as you read, try to observe
three main parts of paragraph organisation.
Cooking Methods and Some English Colloquialisms
Basic methods of preparing food show great similarity through-
out the world, but English cooking terms sometimes have
' Gross National Product is the total monetary value of all goods and services pro-
duced in a given period of time.
4 From Paragraph to Essay

special meanings. For example, almost all cultures have devised

some means of baking, that is cooking bread or other food in
an oven. Boiling, or cooking food in water or some other liquid,
is another universal practice. A related process, stewing, means
to boil slowly or gently a mixture usually of meat, vegetables,
and water. Still another cooking process, roasting, means to
cook meat in its own juices over an open fire or in an oven.
While the terms to describe the various cooking methods have
a literal meaning in formal English, in informal English they
are sometimes used to describe human behaviour in a colourful
or humorous way. Half-baked, for instance, may refer to a
foolish idea or a stupid person. Boiling or boiling mad means
very angry. Jn a stew means to be worried or to be in a difficult
situation, and to stew in one’s ownjuices means to suffer, especially
from one’s own actions. To roast a person means to criticise
or ridicule him without mercy. In other cases, a person, through
his excessive relish of life, might get pickled and end up in a
jam. This brief list demonstrates the use of cooking terms as
colloquial expressions to picture human conduct more vividly.
1.4a What is the name and function of the first sentence in the model
paragraph of 1.4?
1.4b What is the name and function of sentences 2 to 5 in the
paragraph?

1.4c This paragraph contains a viewpoint or context modulator,

that is, a transition sentence. Remember that this is a sentence that
provides a transition between different sets of ideas. Identify the
sentence that performs this transition function. What two sets of
ideas does it connect?

1.4d In the model paragraph of 1.1, transitional words such as first

and second are used in the development of the paragraph. Find transi-
tional words in paragraph 1.4. For each, explain how it relates one
idea to another.
1.4e What is the name and function of the final sentence?

1.5 As you read the next paragraph, try to make an objective

evaluation of yourself in relation to the points mentioned.

Looking forward to the decade of the 1980’s, one wonders

what personal qualities will be needed for success. Possibly the
four most essential attributes are flexibility, honesty, creativity,
and perseverance. First, our rapidly changing society requires
flexibility—the ability to adapt oneself readily to new ideas
and experiences. Next, honesty, the capacity both to tell and
to face the truth courageously, will be important in all aspects
 Paragraph development by listing 5

of personal and public relations.

Just as these attributes of character are desirable today, so in

the future they will surely continue to be decisive in determining
personal success.
1.5a Although this is also a list paragraph, it differs slightly in form
from the previous ones. Notice that there are two sentences that
function as paragraph introducers. The first is a topic introducer,
which establishes the topic discussion—personal qualities for success.
The second sentence, the topic sentence, more narrowly defines or
delimits the topic. In this case, we know that the discussion will be
limited to four attributes—flexibility, honesty, creativity, perseverance.
Think about the importance of the personal qualities of creativity
and perseverance. Write two additional sentences in the blanks pro-
vided which develop the discussion of these two qualities. You will
need to use connectors, or transition words, to relate your sentences
to the previous developers.
1.5b Write a title in the blank space provided directly above the
paragraph. Look at the titles of other paragraphs in the lesson. The
first word and all important words in a title should be capitalised.
Notice that a good title is brief and gives some indication of the
content or point of view of the paragraph. The topic introducer and
the topic sentence provide the necessary information for you to write
a good title.
1:5c Discuss with your teacher and fellow students the concepts of
flexibility, honesty, creativity, and perseverance. Name some famous
people or personal acquaintances who possess these qualities.
1.6 Remember that a list paragraph has several parts. First, para-
graph introducers—both a topic introducer and a topic sentence or
just a topic sentence—are used to open a paragraph. Next, supporting
examples are listed with the aid of connectors. Sometimes transition
or modulator sentences are used between different sets of ideas.
Finally, a terminator sentence brings the paragraph to a logical
conclusion.
With these ideas in mind, write your own list paragraph. Give your
paragraph a title. You may choose one of the topics given below.
Internationally known artists (or musicians or actors or writers)
Important national or regional handicrafts
Qualities of a good teacher (or leader or friend)
Athletes from a particular continent or block in the last Olympic
Games
Topic of your choice
 2
Paragraph
development by
examples

2.1. This lesson is concerned with the use of examples in the develop-
ment of paragraphs. The example paragraph is a kind of list paragraph,
in which example sentences closely support the topic sentence. There
is, of course, a terminator. Examine the following paragraph.
EffectiveWriting—AMust in Universities
The ability to write well organised, concise paragraphs is es-
sential to a student’s success in almost all university courses.
In preparing scientific reports of laboratory experiments, a
student must present his findings in /ogical order and clear
language in order to receive a favourable evaluation of his
work. To write successful answers to essay questions on history
or anthropology examinations, a student must arrange the
relevant facts and opinions according to some accepted pattern
of paragraph structure. And certainly when a student writes
a book report for English, or a critique for political studies,
or a term paper for sociology, style and organisation are often
as important as content. Clearly, skill in expository writing is
crucial to successful achievement in most university subjects.
2.1a The key words or ideas in the first two sentences of the para-
graph are in italics. Write these words on the first two lines below.
Find the key ideas in the remaining sentences and write short phrases
for each on lines 3 to 5. In writing the short phrases. you may use
words of your own or those in the sentences.

And
WN
=

2.1b Familiarise yourself with the following symbols and definitions

which will be used in analysing paragraph structure:
TS —stands for topic sentence, a sentence that states the main idea
of a paragraph.
E —stands for example sentence, a sentence that presents a specific
example or illustration related to the topic sentence.
R —stands for restatement sentence, a sentence that in essence
repeats or restates the main idea of the topic sentence in
 Paragraph development by examples 7

different words. The restatement gives the effect of rounding

off the paragraph by circling back to the idea of the topic
sentence. The restatement is one kind of paragraph terminator.
2.1¢c Which sentence in the model paragraph of 2.1 expresses the
main idea of the paragraph? Remember that the sentence which
expresses the main idea of a paragraph is called the topic sentence (TS).
2.1d What is the relationship between sentence 2 and sentence 1?
Which sentence expresses a general idea? Which sentence (E) presents
a specific example?
2.le What is the relationship between sentence 3 and sentence 1?
What is the relationship between sentence 3 and sentence 2?

2.1f Does the final sentence function as an adequate terminator?

Why?
2.1g The following symbols describe the structure of paragraph 2.1.
Ssh 2. R
2.2 The sentences listed below are not arranged in the logical
paragraph sequence of topic sentence, examples, and restatement.
Study the list carefully and try to decide which sentence makes a
general statement, which sentences present illustrations, and which
sentence repeats the idea of the general statement. Write a number
before each sentence to show its logical position in a well ordered
paragraph.

___Clearly, in agriculture and in industry, the progress of a country

depends on the busy hands of its working people.
__ Finally, the establishment of efficient transportation and com-
munication systems, essential services in a modernising economy,
relies heavily on a labour force of expert craftsmen who take
pride in their manual skills.
__And of course the manufacture as well as the maintenance of
machines of all kinds demands a large number of trained me-
chanics and technicians.
__ To begin with, ploughing fields, planting and harvesting crops,
and raising livestock are all important to development and all
require people who work with their hands.
___Secondly, mining natural resources, building roads and bridges,
and constructing dams for irrigation and electrical power are
also important to development and also require people who
know how to use their hands skilfully.
__ Manual labour is one of the principal development resources
in any industralising country, as the following examples de-
monstrate.
8 From Paragraph to Essay

2.2a Read the sentences in the arrangement you have established in

order to experience the paragraph as a unified whole.

2.2b What symbols would you use to describe the paragraph struc-
ture?
2.2c Examine closely the sentence which you selected for the topic
sentence. How do the ideas of this sentence relate to the ideas of
the four example sentences?

2.2d In terms of ideas, what do the topic sentence and the restatement
sentence have in common?

2.2e There are four developers—example sentences—in this para-

graph. Give reasons for arranging these in the sequence you used.
2.2f Write a title for the paragraph in the space provided. Recall
that a good title should be short and should tell the reader what the
paragraph is about.

2.3 In the following paragraph two elements are missing—a topic

sentence and a restatement sentence. As you read the example sentences
try to think of a TS and an R which might begin and end the paragraph.

Social Concerns in Modern Literature

For example, many contemporary novels of Africa and India

depict the lives of ordinary people struggling against adversity.
Furthermore, poetry from South America and North America
speaks out against social and economic oppression. In still
another instance, modern European drama enacts the fate of
the working man in his drab confrontation with life. Even films,
popular songs, and folk drama from all around the world, tell
the story of the little man and his battle against the giants of
impersonal corporations, remote governments, or aggressive
neighbouring nations.

2.3a In the space at the beginning of the paragraph write a topic

sentence. The sentence should be a general statement that would cause
a reader to want more information in the form of specific examples.
2.3b At the end of the paragraph write a restatement sentence. This
sentence should do two things: (1) repeat or restate in different words
the ideas of the topic sentence; (2) terminate the listing of examples
so that the reader feels that a satisfactory conclusion has been reached.
 Paragraph development by examples 9

2.3c What symbols would you use to describe the structure of this
paragraph?
2.3d Learn to spell, pronounce, and use all unfamiliar words in the
paragraph.
2.4 In the following paragraph two elements are missing—a topic
sentence and a restatement sentence. As you read the example sentences
try to think ofa TS and an R which might begin and end the paragraph.

For example, in the less populated regions of the world such

as tribal areas, laws or customs may be enforced by a council
of elders or by a strong chief or leader of the tribe much in the
manner of a father who decides what behaviour is best for his
children. As another example, in the sparsely populated great
open land of places like Australia, Canada, Siberia, and Brazil,
a few policemen must travel great distances to enforce laws
made to protect people and property. In countries where most
of the people live in crowded urban areas, on the other hand,
law enforcement is usually in the hands of large numbers of
police who are directly responsible to the chief governmental
official for that area. As still another instance, countries have
cooperated in establishing various organisations and methods,
including military or police action, to enforce the rules and
laws agreed to by a majority of the co-operating nations.

2.4a In the space at the beginning of the paragraph write a topic

sentence. The sentence should be a general statement that would cause
a reader to want more information in the form of specific examples.
2.4b At the end of the paragraph write a restatement sentence. This
sentence should do two things: (1) repeat or restate in different words
the ideas of the topic sentences; (2) terminate the listing of examples
so that the reader feels that a satisfactory conclusion has been reached.

2.4c Write a title in the blank space provided directly above the
paragraph.
2.4d Using symbols, what is the structure of the resulting paragraph?

2.5 As you read the next paragraph, observe the transitional devices
used to move from one example to another.
10 From Paragraph to Essay

In the United States any person who completes elementary and

secondary school (grades | to 12) has a variety of advanced
educational opportunities from which to choose. For those
people interested in a four year general education in prepara-
tion for work or further university study in such professional
schools as law, medicine, or dentistry, there are hundreds of
liberal arts colleges throughout the country with widely varying
curricula. For those who want a four year technical education
in one of the arts or sciences, there are specialised schools in,
for example, music or engineering or architecture. For the person
who wants to enter the labour force in a particular vocation
and with modest preparation in general education, most states
and cities provide two year community colleges. Increasingly
important in recent years are technical institutes sponsored by
various businesses and industries solely for the training of their
own employees. This brief summary of educational opportunities
available to high school graduates in the United States suggests
that organised learning can continue for several years beyond
the basic twelve grades.
2.5a Using symbols, what is the structure of the paragraph?

2.5b Review exercises 1.la and 2.la. In these exercises you made
outlines of the model paragraphs. This is a good way to take notes
on anything you read. Making an outline is also a good way to organise
your thoughts when preparing to write a paragraph or an essay.
Find the key ideas in each sentence of paragraph 2.5 and write short
phrases for each on the lines below.

2.6 Think about the educational alternatives within your country.

N
Write a paragraph about educational alternatives in your country for
people who have completed their basic education. The paragraph
should contain six sentences: a topic sentence, four developers, and
a restatement. The topic sentence might begin with the words Jn my
country....The first developer might begin with the words For those
people interested in a general education. ... The second developer might
begin with the words For those who want a technical education....
 3
Essay
development by
examples

3.1. Read the model paragraph.

The Successful Interview

'To be successful in a job interview (or for that matter in almost

any interview situation), the applicant should demonstrate
certain personal and professional qualities. In as much as the
first and often lasting impression of a person is determined by
the clothes he wears, the job applicant should take care to
appear well-groomed and modestly dressed, avoiding the ex-
tremes of too elaborate or too casual attire. *Besides care for
personal appearance, he should pay close attention to his manner
of speaking, which should be neither ostentatious nor familiar
but rather straightforward, grammatically accurate, and friendly.
4In addition, he should be prepared to talk knowledgeably
about the requirements of the position for which he is applying.
in relation to his own professional experience and interests.
‘And finally, the really impressive applicant must convey a
sense of self-confidence and enthusiasm for work, factors which
all interviewers value highly. “The job seeker who displays
these characteristics, with just a little luck, will certainly succeed
in the typical personnel interview.
3.la Using the symbols that were introduced in lesson two (2.1b)
to describe the functional relationship of sentences in a paragraph,
assign an appropriate symbol to each sentence in this paragraph.
Sentence | Sentence 4a see i
Sentence 2 Sentences 4 > Set VE
Sentence 3_ SeimMiSlee) = Te ee

3.1b What is the function of sentence 1? What role does it play in

the paragraph?

3.1c What contribution to the development of the paragraph do

sentences 2, 3, 4, and 5 make?
3.1d Is sentence 6 necessary to the structure of a well written para-
graph? If so, why? If not, why not?

3.le Discuss in class the meanings of

person personal personnel
12. From Paragraph to Essay

knowledge knowledgeable knowledgeably

succeed SUCCESS successful
ostentatious
3.1f Find the key ideas in each of the sentences of the paragraph
and write short phrases for each on the lines below. You may use
words from the sentences or words of your own to express the key
ideas.
Successful interview requires certain qualities

N
3.2 In the previous exercise (3.la) the symbols that describe the
organisation of the model paragraph were indicated.
TS: El; E2, E3;E4 /R
The plan of the paragraph is very simple; it consists of only three parts:
1 a topic sentence that presents a one-sentence statement of the
main idea of the whole paragraph
2 several example sentences that give details to support the main
idea of the topic sentence
3 a restatement sentence that reaffirms the central idea of the
topic sentence.

The basic TS / E.../ R paragraph plan can be extended to provide

the plan for an essay also consisting of three parts:
1 a topic paragraph (TP) that introduces the main idea of the
whole essay
2 one or more example paragraphs (EP), each one of which
presents a main point with its supporting details
3 a restatement paragraph (RP) that once again focuses attention
on the main idea of the topic paragraph.
As you read the following essay, try to observe its plan of organisation.
The Successful Interview

__ To be successful in a job interview (or for that matter in almost

any interview situation), you should demonstrate certain per-
sonal and professional qualities. You need to create a good
image in the limited time available, usually from 30 to 45 minutes.
Furthermore, you must make a positive impression which the
interviewer will remember while he interviews other applicants.
At all times, you should present your most attractive qualities
during an interview.
 Essay development by examples 13

You should, for example, take care to appear well-groomed

and modestly dressed, avoiding the extremes of too elaborate
or too casual attire. On the positive side, clothes may be a good
leveller, putting you on a par with other applicants and _ re-
quiring the interviewer to consider more important qualifications.
On the other hand, clothes which are too informal may convey
the impression that you are not serious about the job or that
you may be casual about your work as well as your dress. Clothes
which are too elaborate, too colourful, or too expensive suggest
that you do not understand what behaviour is appropriate for
the job or that you are snobbish or frivolous. The right clothes
worn at the right time, however, gain the respect of the inter-
viewer and his confidence in your judgement. It may not be
true that ‘clothes make the man,’ but the first and often lasting
impression of you is determined by the clothes you wear.

Besides care for personal appearance, you should pay close

attention to your manner of speaking. Since speech is a reflection
of personality, you should reflect confidence by speaking in a
clear voice, loud enough to be heard without being aggressive
or overpowering. Your speech should not call attention to
itself, but it should reveal the individuality and ability of the
speaker. Obviously, you must speak without grammatical or
dialect differences for which you might be criticised or which
might cause embarrassment to the employer. Although there are
cultural differences with respect to the formality of the job
interview, your speech must show you to be a oe) and
pleasant person.
Speaking without a subject worth talking about will not
impress anyone. You should be prepared to talk knowledgeably
about the requirements ofthe position for which you are applying
in relation to your own professional experiences and interests.
Knowing something about the position enables you to ask
intelligent questions about the work and the requirements for
the job. The interviewer can decide from the questions asked
whether you are genuinely interested or knowledgeable. You
can comment on your own training, experience, and other
qualifications in relation to the specific tasks of the position.
The interviewer can determine whether your background and
potential seem to fit the position. The position for which you
are applying is not only the safest topic for discussion, it is
essential that you demonstrate your understanding of the re-
quirements and your abilities in meeting these requirements.
Finally, to be really impressive you must convey a sense of
self-confidence and enthusiasm for work. As already indicated,
you demonstrate self-confidence by your manner of speech and
14. From Paragraph to Essay

dress. You further show it by being prepared for the interview

with information and questions about the position. In addition,
the way you enter the room, sit, look at the interviewer, and
fill out application forms and other papers may express self-
confidence. The eagerness with which you discuss the job rather
than the salary may reveal your enthusiasm for work. You
may express it also through your questions and comments about
working conditions and facilities. And, of course, your previous
experience and success will tell the interviewer about your
enthusiasm for work. Both of these qualities—self-confidence
and enthusiasm for work—are valued highly by all interviewers.
___ The appropriately dressed job applicant indicates his sound
judgement. His manner of speaking suggests his friendliness
and competence. His ‘curiosity and information about the posi-
tion he is seeking demonstrate his sincerity and potential in the
job. He exhibits self-confidence through his knowledge, and he
shows his enthusiasm for work. If you display these character-
istics, with just a little luck, you will certainly succeed in the
typical personnel interview.
3.2a Label each paragraph in the model essay using the symbols TP
(for topic paragraph), EP (for example paragraph), and RP (for
restatement paragraph). Since there are several EP’s, number them
consecutively EP1, EP2, EP3, and so on.
3.2b Underline the topic sentence in the TP. Does this sentence also
state the main idea of the whole essay?

3.2¢” Underlifie-the sentence that states the main point in EP]. Does
the main point of this paragraph come first in the paragraph?
3.2d What relationship do the unmarked sentences in EP! have to
the underlined sentence?

3.2e Underline the sentence that states the main point in EP2, in
EP3, and in EP4. Do the main points of these paragraphs come first?

3.2f What relationship do the unmarked sentences in each example

paragraph have to the underlined sentence in that paragraph?
3.2g Underline the restatement sentence in the RP. Does it come
first in the paragraph? What relationship does it have to the unmarked
sentences in this paragraph? Does the restatement sentence also
round off the whole theme by referring back to the topic paragraph?
If so; how?
3.2h Notice that the model paragraph 3.1 uses ‘the applicant, ‘he,’
‘the job applicant,’ and ‘the job seeker’ as subjects of the sentences.
The model essay 3.2, however, uses ‘you’ as the subject of most sen-
tences. What is the effect of this change?
 Essay development by examples 15

Notice also that the final paragraph of the model essay starts with
‘the job applicant’ as subject and continues with ‘he’ as the subject
until the final sentence. What is the effect of this? Why is ‘the job
applicant’ used as subject in the final paragraph? Why does the final
sentence return to ‘you’ as subject?
3.2i Transitional words or phrases are important in writing an essay.
They help connect and show the relationship of the various parts,
or paragraphs, of the essay.
Study the following section on the various transitional devices
used. Notice how the transitional words or phrases move the reader
from one topic to another, from one point of view to another, or
from one example to another.

PARAGRAPH TRANSITION RELATIONSHIP

Aple you...you The most important way to show re-

lationship between sentences is to use
the same subject throughout a para-
graph.
EP, Furthermore... Indicates that an additional point
will follow.
AM
2: At al] times... Moves the reader from specificideas
in sentences 2 and 3 to a general
suminary in sentence 4.
EPI ...for example... Introduces the first example and re-
lates EP1 to the TP.
EPI On the positive side... Indicates that a positive illustration
of EP1 will follow.
ERI On the other hand... Indicates that another illustration of
EP1—a contrasting illustration—will
follow.
EP1 PEO WeVeL ay Changes the point of view from ‘too
casual,’ ‘too elaborate, too colourful
too expensive’ to ‘the right clothes’.

Prepare a chart similar to the one above, listing transitional devices

from EP2, EP3, EP4, and the RP. Say how the transitional words
indicate the relationships between ideas in sentences or paragraphs.
3.2) Now read the model paragraph 3.1 again to discover the relation-
ship between the paragraph and the essay. Notice in the essay that
the sentences you have underlined are exactly like, or nearly like,
the sentences in the model paragraph. The TS in the model paragraph
had been expanded to become the TP in the essay. El] becomes the
topic sentence for EP1. E2 becomes the topic sentence for EP2, and
so on. The R in the model paragraph, of course, becomes the topic
sentence in the RP.
16 From Paragraph to Essay

3.3. Write an essay of six paragraphs with the structure TP / EPI,

EP2, EP3, EP4 / RP. Choose a topic in which you are interested.
Before writing your essay make a short phrase outline of the key
ideas you plan to cover. Use the following short phrase outline of
the essay in exercise 3.2 as a model. Have your teacher approve your
outline before you write the essay.

The Successful Interview

Important personal and professional qualities
A good image in a short time LE
A lasting impression
Attractive qualities
Well-groomed and modestly dressed
Not too elaborates
EP1
Not too casual
Right clothes gain respect
Manner of speaking

ee
eee
Ce)
Lea
Clear and loud enough
EP2
Without grammatical or dialect differences
Friendly and pleasant
Know something about the job
Requirements for the position EP3
Experience and knowledge
Self-confidence and enthusiasm
Be prepared for the interview EP4
Show your interest in the job
Dress
Speech
Sincerity RP
Self-confidence
Succeeding in the interview
 4
Paragraph
development by
comparison

4.1. A comparison paragraph, as its name indicates, compares

similar aspects or qualities of two subjects. In this lesson two pro-
cedures will be followed. In the first procedure, an example related
to one subject—A—alternates with an example related to another
subject—B. In the second procedure, all examples of subject A are
listed together, followed by all examples of subject B.
As you have learned in previous lessons, a well organised paragraph
consists of several types of sentences. We have discussed the function
of the topic sentence (TS), the example sentence (E), and the restate-
ment sentence (R). In writing comparison paragraphs, however, addi-
tional sentence types may be used. In many paragraphs, for example,
a topic introducer (TI) is used. The topic sentence then states more
specifically the basis of comparison. Example sentences are, of course,
still used but in this lesson will be marked as A-El, B-El, A-E2,
B-E2, and so on, depending upon which subject the sentence 1s illus-
trating. Transition sentences (Tr) may be used to change from one
point of view to another, from one set of ideas to another, or from
one subject to another.

From Paragraph to Essay

Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and
the essay are quite similar structurally. For example, the para-
graph is introduced by either a topic sentence or a topic intro-
ducer followed by a topic sentence. In the essay, the first
paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the
topic focus. Next, the sentences in the body of a paragraph
develop the topic sentence. Similarly, the body of an essay
consists of a number of paragraphs that expand and support
the ideas presented in the introductory paragraph. Finally, a
terminator—whether a restatement, conclusion, or observation—
ends the paragraph. The essay, too, has a device which brings
its ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying completion:
the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these general-
isations may be observed in modern creative writing, most
well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable
in structure.
4.1a Does this paragraph include the necessary parts discussed—
topic sentence, developers, terminator? Identify them.
18 From Paragraph to Essay

4.1b Classify the paragraph developers according to subject A or

subject B. Is there a logical alternative?
4.1c Point out transitional devices—either words or phrases—used
in this paragraph.
4.1d Do you think the final sentence is an adequate terminator?
Why?
4.2 Read the following paragraph and notice the relationship be-
tween the subject A examples and the subject B examples.

The folk sculpture of black Africa has influenced many modern

artists. Perhaps the most striking example of this influence is
to be found in the obvious relationship between the African
primitive artists and that Spanish genius, Pablo Picasso. Charac-
terised by a bulkiness of form, the sculptures of the Africans
appear solid and heavy. The characteristics of clay and wood
media and the simplicity of the artists’ tools, coupled with an
imaginative conception of reality, often result in an exaggeration
of human features. Typically associated with such serious events
as reproduction and death, these sculptures nevertheless exhibit
to the beholder a light spirit and a sense of humour. Also stressing
the themes of love and death, Picasso used fantastic and grotesque
shapes and colours to portray both the beauty and cruelty of
human existence. Faces look in two directions; bodies are ‘all
eyes’ or ‘all feet’. Seated figures take on the appearance of
featureless boulders. Consciously or unconsciously, Picasso and
the African artists distort their subjects in similar ways to
present a more intense vision of man.

4.2a Identify the topic introducer (TI) and the topic sentence (TS).
Explain their relationship.
4.2b What form does this comparison paragraph have? That is,
does it alternate examples of subject A and subject B, or does it list
all A examples together, followed by all B examples together?
4.2c The examples describing aspects of African sculpture and
Picasso’s work are similar.
AFRICAN A-EI ‘solid and heavy’ <
E2 ‘exaggeration of human features’
E3 ‘serious events. . .light spirit’ < |
PICASSO _B-E1 ‘beauty and cruelty of human existence’ ——
E2 ‘all eyes’ or ‘all feet’
E3 ‘featureless boulders’
Notice that the first example under Picasso is similar to the last
example under African sculpture. Linking these two examples together
 Paragraph development by comparison 19

makes a smooth transition from subject A to subject B.

The paragraph structure would be represented as follows:
Tp TSW A=E1. E26 B32 B-ElE2R3)/-R
4.2d Write a title for the paragraph.

4.3 The following paragraph has no terminator. As you read, try

to keep the main idea of the paragraph in mind so that you can write
an effective restatement sentence.

Post-war West Germany and Japan

The re-emergence of West Germany and Japan as major world
powers is one of the most remarkable stories of national re-
covery in the post-war period. In 1945, West Germany was
devastated by war and occupied by foreign troops. Similarly,
Japan, West Germany’s far eastern war-time ally, also suffered
great destruction and then occupation by U.S. forces. Yet
within a single generation, through hard work, industrial know-
how, and the co-operative assistance of former enemy countries,
West Germany has experienced rapid economic development,
attaining a degree of affluence as early as the 1960's. Making
maximum use of the same combination of human and natural
resources, in similar fashion Japan quickly achieved the status
of one of the most productive and prosperous nations in the
east or the west. Another factor in West Germany’s progress
has been an extended period of stable government. Japan, too,
has enjoyed the benefit of orderly popular government, under
a new political system which eliminated the old imperial au-
thority. West Germany’s accomplishments have not been
limited to economics or politics; her new cultural importance
was symbolised by the Nobel prize literature award to Heinrich
Boll in 1972. Japanese cultural prominence—from traditional
Kabuki to the art of contemporary film making—has been
universally recognised, including a Nobel prize literature award
to Yasunari Kawabata in 1968.

4.3a What form does this comparison paragraph have? That is,
does it alternate examples of subject A and subject B, or does it list
all A examples together, followed by all B examples together?
4.3b Are both a topic introducer and a topic sentence used?
4.3c In the space provided, supply a terminator to close the para-
graph logically.
4.4 Read the following paragraph. In addition to observing the
structure of the paragraph, pay attention to the kind of vocabulary
used in a discussion of religions.
20 From Paragraph to Essay

Similarities in Christianity and Islam

Two of the major religions of the world are Christianity and
Islam. Although seemingly different, the two faiths share several
fundamental beliefs and practices. Both worship the same deity,
whom the Christians term God and the Muslims call Allah.
For knowledge of his faith and for inspiration, the Christian
turns to his holy book, the Bible. The Muslim, too, has a holy
book, the Koran, which guides his prayers and gives meaning
to his life. The Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the
Mount provide a code of ethics for the lives of all Christians.
Similarly, all Muslims subscribe to the Hadith and the Five
Pillars of Faith for daily guidance. Such basic similarities in
code and conduct illustrate the shared heritage of Christianity
and Islam.
4.4a Discuss the function of each sentence in the paragraph and
assign to each an appropriate symbol: TI, TS, A-E..., Tr, R. (Exclude
sentence number three. Notice that sentence number three is an
example of two subjects compared in a single sentence. This is one
way of writing comparisons, but it is not emphasised in this lesson.
If the sentence were assigned a symbol, it would be labeled as AB.)
4.4b Identify the transitional words or devices used.

4.4c What parallels can you find between the words or phrases of
the restatement sentence and those of the topic sentence?

4.4d What meanings do the following words have for you: faith,
inspiration, ethics, deity, code, heritage, fundamental?
4.5 As you read the following paragraph, pay particular attention
to the example sentences, which constitute the paragraph developers.
The two groups of people discussed in the paragraph represent the
movement of rural populations to urban centres which is taking
place in many parts of the world. Without the skills necessary for
easy adaptation to urban living, these groups find it difficult to settle
to the kind of life which attracted them to the big cities in the first
place.

Problems of New Immigrants to New York City

Over the past decade, Puerto Ricans from the island of Puerto
Rico and blacks from the southern part of the United States
have contributed the most significant immigration populations
to the New York City area. Both groups come from similar
backgrounds and follow similar patterns in trying to adapt to
the complexities of city life. As U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans
have the freedom to move from Puerto Rico to any location
within the United States. Also as citizens, they have the re-
sponsibility of serving in the U.S. armed forces. Set apart from
 Paragraph development by comparison 21

the average New Yorker by physical appearance and language

difference, Puerto Ricans are compelled to cluster in certain
neighbourhoods and thus become ghetto inhabitants. The chil-
dren often arrive educationally disadvantaged due to under-
financed school systems on the island. The adults generally
possess rural skills rather than urban skills. From the rural
South, blacks also arrive in the New York City area with skills
insufficient to compete in urban life. Their children similarly
are educationally handicapped because of separate and inferior
schooling. Frequently sharing the same ghettoes with Puerto
Ricans, the Southern blacks, with their distinctive speech and
obvious physical characteristics, often live together in neighbour-
hoods segregated from those of the white New Yorker. Al-
though they have the rights and responsibilities of U.S. citizen-
ship, including military service, Southern blacks, like Puerto
Ricans, find it extremely difficult to achieve full citizenship in
a hostile urban environment. Both of these groups share similar
socio-economic characteristics and suffer similar problems of
adjustment in a technologically oriented urban setting.
4.5a Classify the paragraph developers according to subject A or
subject B.
4.5b What parallels can you find between the subject A examples
and subject B examples? Notice that the first and second examples
under subject A (As U.S. Citizens,...Also as citizens....) are com-
pressed into a single example sentence under subject B (Although
they have the rights and responsibilities. . .).
4.5c Does the similarity of ideas in sentence 7 and 8 serve as a transi-
tional device from subject A to subject B? What word ties the two
sentences together?
4.5d What symbols would you use to describe the paragraph structure?

4.6 Remember that the purpose of a comparison paragraph is to

point out the similarities between two subjects. There may be obvious
differences between the two subjects, but the similarities are em-
phasised. With this idea in mind, write two comparison paragraphs
on different subjects. The first paragraph should use alternating A
and B examples similar to the structure of the model paragraphs
4.1, 4.3, 4.4. The second paragraph should have a series of Aexamples
followed by a series of B examples similar to the structure of the
model paragraphs 4.2 or 4.5.
 5
Paragraph
development by
contrast

5.1. Unlike the comparison paragraph, which compares similar

aspects of two subjects, the contrast paragraph compares dissimilar
aspects of two subjects. Like the comparison paragraph, however,
two procedures may be followed in writing the contrast paragraph.
The first method alternates examples of subject A with examples of
subject B; the contrasts may be in the same sentence, or they may
be in consecutive sentences. The other method presents all subject
A examples together, then all subject B examples together. The
symbols used in previous lessons—TI, TS, A-E..., B-E..., Tr, R—
will continue to be used in the structural description of contrast
paragraphs.

Where to Study
One major decision which faces the American student ready to
begin higher education is the choice of attending a large univer-
sity or a small college. The large university provides a wide
range of specialised departments, as well as numerous courses
within such departments. The small college, however, generally
provides a limited number of courses and specialisations but
offers a better student-faculty ratio, thus permitting individualised
attention to students. Because of its large, cosmopolitan student
body (often exceeding 20,000) the university exposes its students
to many different cultural, social, and extra-curricular pro-
grammes. On the other hand, the smaller, more homogeneous
student body of the small college affords greater opportunities
for direct involvement and individual participation in such
activities. Finally, the university closely approximates the real
world; it provides a relaxed, impersonal, and sometimes anony-
mous existence. In contrast, the intimate atmosphere of the
small college allows the student four years of structured living
in which to contemplate and prepare for the real world. In
making his choice among educational institutions the student
must, therefore, consider many factors.

5.la In writing comparison paragraphs, transitional words such as

similarly, also, too, both are used. For contrast paragraphs, however,
other transitional words and phrases are employed: unlike, on the
other hand, in contrast. Locate the transitional words and_ phrases
 Paragraph development by contrast 23

used in this paragraph to contrast aspects of the small college and

the large university.
5.1b What procedure is used to contrast elements of the two subjects?
That is, does the paragraph alternate examples of A and B, or does
it list all A examples together, followed by all B examples together?
5.1¢ What symbols represent the structure of the paragraph? (See
exercise 4.4a.)
5.1d Be prepared to discuss in class the meanings of specialisation,
anonymous (adjective), anonymity (noun), approximate (adjective),
approximate (verb), cosmopolitan, homogeneous, and extra-curricular.

5.2 Read the following partial paragraph. As you read, try to

imagine the kind of statement that would be a good topic sentence
for the paragraph. Such a sentence should point out the contrasts
between the two subjects discussed.

English universities and colleges, because of their selective in-

take, are relatively small. American universities, which combine
a number of different colleges and professional schools, are
large, sometimes with 20,000 to 25,000 students on one campus.
Teacher training colleges and polytechnics are alternatives to
the university course for some students in England, being
established for specific purposes. In contrast, virtually all schools
of education, engineering and business studies, are integral parts
of universities in the United States. In England, universities
receive about 70°% of their financial support through Parliament-
ary grants. Similarly, in the United States, public institutions
receive about 75% of their funds from local, state, and federal
sources, but private colleges and universities receive little or no
government support. In England, personal financial aid is
provided by the government to over 80% of the students,
through local education authorities, according to the parents’
income. In the U.S., student aid is administered by the university
or the sponsoring agency and is provided by private organisations
and the state or federal governments. Obviously, British and
American universities have similar educational aims but different
means for achieving these aims.
5.2a The topic sentence of this paragraph has been omitted. From
the three alternatives given, choose the sentence which most effectively
establishes the topic of the paragraph and write it in the space provided
above. Be prepared to discuss your reasons for eliminating the two
other alternatives.
24 From Paragraph to Essay

1 American universities are generally larger than British univer-

sities although the quality may be similar.
2 British and American universities are similar in their pursuit
of knowledge as a goal but are quite different in their organisation
and operation.
3 The organisation, purposes, and operation of universities in
England and the United States are very different.
5.2b In the space provided directly above the paragraph, supply an
appropriate title.
5.2c What procedure has been followed in presenting the examples
in this paragraph?
5.2d Remember that the purpose of a contrast paragraph is to point
out differences between two subjects. There may be obvious similarities
between the two subjects, but the differences are emphasised. List two
similarities between British and American universities. List four
differences.

Similarities between British and American universities

Differences between British and American universities

5.3. Read the model paragraph. Notice that all of the information
related to subject A is presented first followed by contrasting in-
formation related to subject B. Also note that the first and last sentences
of the paragraph express essentially the same main idea.

The Objective Test and the Essay Exam

In college and university courses, the objective test and the
essay exam are two contrasting methods of evaluation commonly
used to measure a student’s grasp of subject matter. The objective
test usually consists of a large number of unrelated questions
that require the student to demonstrate mastery of details. It
often leads to rote memorisation of isolated facts during the
pre-test period of study. Since the questions on the objective
test are presented in true-false or multiple choice form, the
student may be encouraged to guess answers for which he has
no accurate knowledge. The essay exam, on the other hand,
usually consists of a few broadly stated questions that require
the student to organise his responses in essay form. Such ques-
tions force the student to give proof of his ability to handle
 Paragraph development by contrast 25

general concepts. This type of exam also relies on factual in-

formation, but there is far greater necessity for the student to
demonstrate analytical and compositional skills. Mere guessing
at' answers is reduced to a minimum. Although the objective
test and the essay exam have similar goals—the assessment of
a student’s academic achievement—the techniques (and very
often the results) of the two types of examination differ
significantly.
5.3a Discuss the following concepts as they are generally used in
reference to evaluating student achievement: objective test, essay
exam, rote memorisation, true-false, multiple choice, analytical and
compositional skills.
5.3b Re-read the model paragraph. In the space provided, write
short phrases to indicate the main points mentioned to describe the
two types of tests.

SUBJECT A SUBJECT B

THE OBJECTIVE TEST THE ESSAY EXAM

5.4 Both the title and the following model paragraph are incomplete.
Write the name of your country under the word and in the title.

Cultural Differences Between the United States

and

One fascinating benefit of travel to foreign places is learning

how customs differ from country to country. As a case in point,
there are interesting cultural variations among peoples in such
matters as work, play, and education. In the United States,
for example, most businesses and industries operate a forty-hour
week for their individual employees, although a large number
of firms remain open over 100 hours a week by making use of
two or three groups of different workers. For leisure-time enter-
tainment, Americans indulge in a great range of sports (hunting,
fishing, golf, tennis, baseball, football, etc.) as well as other
social and recreational activities participated in by men and
women together. The custom of non-separation of the sexes is
26 From Paragraph to Essay

also the general rule in American schools, from the first grade
all the way through the university.

Continue the model paragraph in the space provided by writing five

sentences :
1 a transitional sentence that indicates your intention to contrast
the American customs discussed in sentences 3-6 above with customs
in your country
2 a sentence on working hours in your country
3 a sentence on leisure-time activities in your country
4 a sentence on mixing or separating the sexes in your country
5 a terminator sentence that makes a general statement about the
customs contrasted in the entire paragraph.

5.5 Read the following paragraph. Notice how the two kinds of
football games are identified so that the reader is not confused about
which game is being discussed.

European Football and American Football

Although European football is the parent of American football,
the two games show several major differences. European foot-
ball, sometimes called association football or soccer, is played
in 80 countries, making it the most widely played sport in the
world. American football, on the other hand, is popular only
in North America (the United States and Canada). Soccer is
played by eleven players with a round ball. Football, also
played by eleven players in somewhat different positions on the
field, is played with an elongated round ball. Soccer has little
body contact between players and therefore requires no special
protective equipment. Football, in which players make maximum
use of body contact to block a running ball-carrier and his
team-mates, requires special headgear and padding. In soccer,
the ball is advanced toward the goal by kicking it or by butting
it with the head. In football, on the other hand, the ball is passed
from hand to hand or carried in the hands across the opponent’s
goal. These are just a few of the features which distinguish
association and American football.
 Paragraph development by contrast 27

5.5a What procedure has been followed in presenting the examples

in the paragraph?
5.5b In this lesson, three paragraphs (5.1, 5.2, 5.5) use one method
of development and two paragraphs (5.3, 5.4) use the other. Which
method do you think points up contrasts better?
5.5¢ What symbols would you use to describe the structure of the
paragraph?

5.6 Write two contrast paragraphs on topics of your choice. The

first paragraph should alternate A and B examples. The second
should list together all examples illustrating subject A, then all
examples illustrating subject B.
 6
Essay
development by
comparison and
contrast

6.1 Carefully study the following model paragraph, which contains

important information about the writing process applicable to all
kinds of writing, regardless of the method of development.
Editing
Getting your thoughts down on paper is not the final stage of
writing a good paragraph or essay. There remains the rewriting
of the first draft so as to shape your ideas into a carefully styled
composition. Ordinarily, editing involves changes at three
points: between sentences, within sentences, and in individual
words. At the word level, spelling and capitalisation are checked,
but more creatively, words are often changed. A different word
may be substituted for the original word because it is easier to
understand, is more colourful, gives a more precise meaning,
or provides variety. At the sentence level, phrases may be put
in a different order, structures of modification revised, different
verb structures selected, or the length of phrases or whole
sentences may be altered. Finally, for smoothness and balance,
changes are made between sentences or paragraphs. Such
changes, designed to clarify relationships between ideas, are
often accomplished by punctuating more adequately, by intro-
ducing more effective transitional devices, or by restating or
removing awkward phrases and sentences. Editing then—the
self-conscious appraisal and revision of your own work—usually
makes the difference between a merely acceptable and a truly
superior piece of writing.

6.la Editing—the rewriting of a first or intermediate draft—may

involve changes at three points. Under the following headings, list
the ways (suggested in the model paragraph) in which a piece of
writing can be improved.
At the word level (sentence 4)
 Essay development by comparison and contrast 29

At the sentence level (sentence 6)

Between sentences or paragraphs (sentence 8)

6.1b Does sentence 5 present ways of making editorial changes or

does it present reasons for editorial changes?
6.lc Perhaps the easiest way to understand the editing process is to
examine several versions of the same paragraph and observe the
changes made in each rewrite.
| The following is an early draft of a paragraph that was satis-
factory in its overall organisation. It included topic introducers, a
topic sentence, three developers (steps in the process), and a terminator.
Education of a ‘Modern’ Man

Every age and country has held views on the appropriate educa-
tion for its young men Education often emphasised much that
is traditional, but it is always translated into contemporary
terms to help prepare the citizen for life in the ‘modern’ world.
Education typically centred on three aspects of the person’s
life: his intellect, his body, his morals. Sometimes, the develop-
ment of ths mind or intellect is stressed to the exclusion of the
other aspecte. We may be in such a period now in most coun-
tries of the world when education in science and technology is
viewed as the primary education of a man. in periods or places
of physical strife, the development of the body is seen as the
primary necessity for survival. The great periods of exploration
and migration emphasised man’s physical nature. On the other
hand, more tranquil times and places encouraged the education
of the citizenry toward the spiritual life. Many of the great re-
ligious movements and writings are the result of such education.
Although education frequently includes much that is traditional
it frequently reinterprets tradition to enable its men and women
to meet the modern world on its own terms.
2 Even though the paragraph organisation was adequate, the
paragraph could be improved by editing. The edited version is on page
30. Read the paragraph line by line. Which changes represent editing
at the word level? The sentence level? Between sentences?
3 The edited version, without editorial marks, appears on page 31.
30 From Paragraph to Essay

Education of a ‘Modern’ Man

every have : ;
Every age and country has held views on the appropriate educa-
heir and women
tion for+ts young men,

to help prepare the citizen for life in the ‘modern’ world. Educa-

S individualsNature —
oD ue centred on three aspects of the -persen*stfe: his

hisaceshishspirit
peelicet Insome
periods
aa Semetimes,ofhdevelopment
the istory ofthy
, intellectis stressedto the exclusionof the other aspectf.
mindor 5
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We may be in such a period new-in most countries of the world,
an intellectual understandingof the prized mark of an
when education science and technology is
educated man. ; and hardship,
-(in periods or places of physical strife(the
and well bein
development, of the body is seen as the primary necessity for
eras 2andmilitaryexploitation
survival! The great -perieds-of exploration, and migration,em-

phasise@man’s physical nature. Ontheotherhandmore tranquil

times and places encouraged the education of the citizenry toward
World's Monuments
the spiritual life. Many of thegreat religious movements|and

writings/are the result, of such education. Although education

usually
includes much that is traditional it frequently reinter-
that instruct Contemporay
pretstraditionto-enableits
menandwomento meetthemedern
world on its own terms.
 Essay development by comparison and contrast 31

Education of a ‘Modern’ Man

Every age and every country have held views on the appropriate
education for their young men and women to help prepare the
citizen for life in the ‘modern’ world. Education typically centres
on three aspects of the individual’s nature: his mind, his body,
his spirit. In some periods of history, the development of the
mind, or intellect, is stressed to the exclusion of the other aspects.
We may be in such a period today in most countries of the
world, when an intellectual understanding of science and techno-
logy is the prized mark of an educated man. The development
and well being of the body is seen as the primary necessity for
survival in periods or places of physical strife and hardship. The
great eras of exploration, migration, and military exploitation
emphasise man’s physical nature. More tranquil times and
places, on the other hand, encourage the education of the
citizenry toward the spiritual life. Many of the world’s great
religious writings and monuments are the results of such educa-
tion. Although education usually includes much that is tradi-
tional, it frequently reinterprets that tradition to instruct men
and women to meet the contemporary world on its own terms.
6.2 Often a writer may want to describe several aspects of two
subjects that have both similarities and differences. For this purpose,
the sentence developers of a paragraph or the paragraph developers
of an essay may employ the combined techniques of comparison and
contrast. As you read the following essay, carefully examine the
various sentences that compare or contrast aspects of the two subjects
being discussed.
In the essay, two paragraphs are in a rough draft. Although all
the necessary information and ideas are included, paragraphs 2 and
3 can be improved through editing. Paragraphs 1, 4, and 5 have
already been edited. Read the essay first for the ideas. You will be
asked to do some editing after you finish reading.

Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King

Two twentieth-century leaders who have continued to influence
non-violent social protest movements internationally are
Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. Of different races
and cultures, born on opposite sides of the world in nations
vastly different in wealth and technology, these two aggressive
men in their later years shared the philosophy of non-violent,
but direct, action and expended their lives in pursuit of peaceful
solutions to social inequities. An examination of their lives,
consequently, reveals both similarities and differences in their
family backgrounds, ideology, and plans for social action.
Gandhi’s and King’s family backgrounds show similarities and
differences. Gandhi was a Hindi of the Baniyu (Trading) Caste;
32 From Paragraph to Essay

his father, nevertheless, was chief minister of the small state of

Kathiawad. Gandhi broke with the tradition of his family and
went to study law in England at the age of 19, where he had
his first contact with western culture. While he read and studied
the Bible with interest, he became more deeply convinced of the
logicality and profundity of the Hindi religion King was a
Black american born into a family of Christian ministers. His
father was the pastor of a church which his father-in-law had
founded many years before. Unlike Gandhi, King decided to
follow in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and study
for the ministry. It was only after studying the philosophic
words of Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Marx, Nietzche, and finally
Gandhi, that he began to formulate his own philosophy, which
was similar in many-respects to Gandhi’s. Early environment,
family tradition, and study of both Gandhi and King, at some
points similar but at most points different, shaped their characters
and formed their expectations for their societies and their people.

Both Gandhi and King believed that their aims could be

achieved through non-violent means. They held a common
ideology of non-violence. This common ideology of non-violence
was not to be understood as a failure to act. It should be under-
stood as direct resistance which is grounded in love force or
agraha. Gandhi said men must resist the evil that men do by
refusing to obey a man-made law which contradicted a higher
moral law. He often reminded them that blood would have to
flow before the Indians attained their ends, but he said the
blood must be their blood, not the opressors. King cried out,
‘I hope no one has to die as a result of our struggle...but if
anyone has to die, let it be me’. King reminded Black Americans
that they must love their enemies even if it means suffering and
death. Similarities in the ideologies of the two men are most
apparent since Gandhi was one of the major influences in the
development of King’s philosophy.

_____ An investigation of the plans for social action of Gandhi and

King yields several points of agreement as well as numerous
divergences. Gandhi’s main concern was to establish India as
an independent nation. He wanted to free the people to build
and govern India for Indians and not for the use and develop-
ment of an external power. On the other hand, King’s conflict
was internal. He sought to achieve justice and equality for
Blacks in accordance with the ideals of American democracy.
Both men saw the necessity for some kind of economic pro-
gramme which would make the masses of the poor self-suppor-
ting. Gandhi tried to encourage the poor villagers in India to
learn to hand-spin cloth as one means of achieving economic
 Essay development by comparison and contrast 33

independence and cultural solidarity. In a like manner, King

urged Blacks to establish transportation and food services which
would be supported by the Black community. The economic
and social programmes, along with the supportive marches and
demonstrations, were important social-action techniques em-
ployed by both Gandhi and King as they struggled to improve
the quality of life for their oppressed peoples.
Both Gandhi and King were highly respected leaders, whose
philosophies were articulated so clearly that they continue to
influence contemporary thought and social movements. Their
family backgrounds, their belief in the dignity and worth of the
individual, and their support of the poor masses led them to
lives of non-violent resistance and final martyrdom. But even
a superficial examination of their lives reveals differences as well
as similarities in their backgrounds and in the development of
their influential ideologies.
6.2a Label each paragraph in the model essay using the symbols
TP (for topic paragraph), CP (for comparison or contrast paragraph),
and RP (for restatement paragraph). Since there are several CP’s,
number them consecutively CP1, CP2, and so on.
6.2b Underline the sentence that states the main point in CP1. Does
the main point of this paragraph come first in the paragraph?
6.2c What form does CP1 have? That is, does it alternate examples
A and B, or does it list all A examples together, followed by all B
examples together?
6.2d What form does CP2 have?

6.2e Underline the sentence that states the main point in CP3. Does
the main point of this paragraph come first?
6.2f What form does CP3 have?

6.2g CPI has been edited for you. Notice that the changes made
follow the suggestions in the model paragraph 6.1 and exercise 6.la.
1 On page 34 is an early draft of the paragraph that needed only
a few editorial changes to make it an acceptable paragraph.
Read through the paragraph carefully and notice the levels at
which the changes have been made.
2 The edited version, without editorial marks, appears on page 35.
34 From Paragraph to Essay

orci ee ofthew
eGendheeenduce omen
_Obvious
show: parall
and
algo
striking
differences.
Gandhi
wasadg oftheBaniyu
(Trading)
ri
his father, nevertheless, was chief minister of the small state of

Kathiawadf$Gandhi broke with the tradition of his family and

went to study law in Englandlat the age of 19) where he had his

first contact with western Fiennes re read and studied the

Bible with interest, hes became more deeply convinced of the

logicality and profundity of the Hindj religion Pale was a Black

american born into a family of Christian ministers. His father

was the pastor of a church which his father-in-law had founded

many years before. Unlike Gandhi, King decided to follow in

the footsteps of his father and grandfather and study for the

ministry. It was only after studying the philosophic works of

Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Marx, Niet ne and finally Gandhi,

thathebegan
toformulate
hisown (0)
philosophy/which-wa
similar
in4mmany
respectsto Gandhrs.Earlyenvironment,familytradition,
and studyof
beth-Gandhiand King, at somepoints similarbut
the ofGlandandKing
at mostpointsdifferent,
shapedtheircharacters
andformedtheir
expectations for their societies and their people.
 Essay development by comparison and contrast 35

The family backgrounds of the two men show obvious parallels

and also striking differences. Gandhi was a Hindu of the Baniyu
(Trading) caste; his father, nevertheless, was chief mirister of
the small state of Kathiawad. At the age of 19, Gandhi broke
with the tradition of his family and went to study law in England,
where he had his first contact with Western culture. Although
he read and studied the Bible with interest, he became more
deeply convinced of the logicality and profundity of the Hindu
religion. King was a Black American born into a family of
Christian ministers. His father was the pastor of a church which
his father-in-law had founded many years before. Unlike Gandhi,
King decided to follow in the footsteps of his father and grand-
father and study for the ministry. It was only after studying the
philosophic words of Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Marx, Nietzsche,
and finally Gandhi, that he began to formulate his own philo-
sophy. Early environment.family tradition, and study, at some
points similar but at most points different, shaped the characters
of Gandhi and King and formed their expectations for their
societies and their people.

6.2h CP3 is still in a rough draft. Edit the paragraph according to

the suggestions in 6.1 and 6.la.

6.3 The homework for this lesson should be done in three steps.

1 Choose a subject on which you plan to write an essay developed

by comparison and contrast. Prepare a short-phrase outline of the
ideas or topics you intend to cover. (Review lesson 3, especially 3.3.)
Show the outline to your teacher and have it approved before you
begin writing your essay.
2 After your outline has been approved, write an essay of from
five to ten paragraphs. Closely follow your approved plan of organisa-
tion as you expand the phrases of your outline into sentences and
paragraphs.
3 After your essay has been read and all points requiring correc-
tion marked by your teacher, rewrite the essay making all necessary
editorial changes.

As a model for your outline, an outline of essay 6.2 is given below.

Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King

Two twentieth-century leaders
Different races and culture
Opposite sides of the world TP
Similar philosophies
Expended their lives in social action
36 From Paragraph to Essay

Family Backgrounds
Gandhi broke with family tradition
Studied in England
Retained Hindu religion CPI
King kept family tradition, became minister
Studied philosophy, including Gandhi
Formed his own philosophy
Ideology of non-violence
Gandhi said refuse to obey immoral law
Must not harm oppressors CP?
King said he hoped no one would die
Love one’s enemies
Plans for social action
Gandhi wanted independent India
King wanted justice in America CRS
Gandhi encouraged economic independence and
cultural solidarity
King encouraged same for Black Americans
Similarities between Gandhi and King
As influential leaders
In family backgrounds RP
In times of non-violent resistance
In service to their people
 7
Paragraph
development by
definition

7.1. Read the model paragraph. As you read, pay close attention to
both the meaning and the organisation of the ideas discussed.

The Definition Paragraph

A definition paragraph describes, explains, or defines an un-
familiar term by relating that which is unknown to that which
is already known. It makes use of the techniques of comparison,
contrast, and synthesis, often in combination. More specifically,
a definition paragraph may be developed by using comparison
sentences that show that an unknown term is the same as or
like some known term. Or it may be developed by using con-
trast sentences that show that an unknown term, though similar
in some respects, is basically unlike some known term. Or it
may be developed by bringing together the appropriate like and
unlike characteristics of two or more terms to form a new
concept, or synthesis. In any case, a given definition paragraph,
whether developed by comparison, contrast, or synthesis, or
some combination of these, normally ends with a sentence that
summarises the distinctive features of the term being defined.
7.1a What three techniques may be used to develop a definition
paragraph? (See sentence 2 in the model paragraph.) Restate the idea
of sentence 2 in your own words.

7.1b Which sentence explains the technique of synthesis?

7.1¢c What meaning of the word synthetic do you know that often
relates to manufactured products?
7.1d What is the function of a terminator in a definition paragraph?

7.2 The definition paragraph is often used at the beginning of a

longer paper or book to define a new subject. A psychology textbook
might open with a definition paragraph explaining the term psychology,
a biology textbook with biology. Definition paragraphs also serve
sometimes as summaries of longer essays or chapters. If the purpose
of a chapter in your biology text is to explain or describe the concept
of photosynthesis, the final paragraph may be a short definition
summarising the major characteristics of photosynthesis.
38 From Paragraph to Essay

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis, which occurs in all land plants and many water
plants, is a food-manufacturing process upon which all living
things depend. The word is made up of two terms—photo-,
meaning light, and -synthesis, in chemistry meaning the combina-
tion of two or more simple elements into a complex chemical
compound. More precisely, photosynthesis is the process by
which plants use the energy of light to produce compounds, such
as sugar and starch, from a number of substances including
water and carbon dioxide. In addition to the organic compounds,
photosynthesis forms oxygen which is released into the air.
In the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, photo-
synthesis is a primary energy-producing process for all plant
and animal life. %
7.2a In paragraph 7.1 the unfamiliar term definition paragraph is
explained or defined in the first sentence. Read it again. Is the un-
familiar term photosynthesis defined in the first sentence of paragraph
7.2? What is the function of sentence 1?
7.2b If the term photosynthesis is defined in the first sentence, what
is the purpose of sentences 2-5?

7.2c What words in the terminator help you refer back to the topic
sentence?

7.2d Notice that photosynthesis is made up of two parts. Many

words in English are formed by combining two root words or a root
word plus a prefix or suffix.
In science there are many such words. They are often formed from
roots from the Greek and Latin languages. Study the following words
in at least two good English dictionaries: photosynthesis, psychology,
biology, dioxide, chemistry, astronaut, cosmonaut, television. How are
the words formed? Can you think of other words in which parts of
these words are used? What language or languages do the words
come from?
7.3 Definition paragraphs are often used to explain a general concept
by using a specific example or occurrence of the concept.

The El Yunque Rain Forest

A rain forest, as the term suggests, is a kind of wooded area,
subject to unusually heavy and frequent rains. Found only in the
tropical or subtropical regions of the Caribbean, Brazil, Africa,
and Asia, rain forests contain a great variety of trees including
bamboo, palm, cedar, ebony, calabash, and whitewood. Many
of these trees grow to a height of more than a hundred feet,
with dense canopies or crowns characteristically forming three
distinguishable storeys. Although ground flora is sparse, climbers
 Paragraph development by definition 39

of all kinds abound, and often exotic flowers appear incon-

spicuously in the thick foliage. This luxuriant growth results
from an annual rainfall in excess of ninety inches, with no dry
season. A rain forest of spectacular beauty covers El Yunque,
a mountain just outside San Juan, Puerto Rico. The El Yunque
rain forest—average rainfall 180 inches per year—is filled with
lush, tropical greenery, millions of tiny wild orchids, thirty-foot
ferns, and hundreds of varieties of trees and plants, all growing
in native splendour.

7.3a The term rain forest, defined in this paragraph, is a compound

of two familiar words. How are the ideas represented by these two
words expanded in the second part of sentence 1?

7.3b Which part of the compound term is developed in sentences

2, 3, and 4? How is this development accomplished?

7.3c Does sentence 5 deal with the same part of the compound term
as sentences 2, 3, and 4? How are the two parts of the compound
term tied together in sentence 5?

7.3d The first five sentences of the paragraph describe some of the
general characteristics of a rain forest. What do sentences 6 and 7
describe?

7.3e In what way does sentence 7 summarise the whole paragraph?

7.3f Previous lessons have made use of special symbols to represent

the functions of sentences within a paragraph, or of paragraphs
within an essay. These symbols help you visualise the structure or
organisation of a paragraph or an essay without longwinded explana-
tions. Symbols make it easier to separate the function of an example
sentence (El, E2, E3, E4), for instance, from the subject matter (educa-
tion, background, ideology, career). In themselves, symbols are of
little importance; the symbol (TS) or the label (topic sentence) merely
gives us a way of discussing the writing process. It is easier to under-
stand the concept topic sentence and to discuss its relationship to
the function of other sentences in a paragraph, apart from the subject
of that sentence. Hopefully, by this time, you are able to think of the
organisation or method of development of a paragraph or an essay
at the same time as you think about the subject matter you are reading.
Although symbols are used sparingly in the remainder of your text-
book, you may find it helpful to continue to write the symbols for
the model paragraphs or essays as you study them.

7.4 Read the model paragraph. Pay close attention to the kind of
developers used.
40 From Paragraph to Essay

Nomads
Nomads are people who have no fixed homes but move regularly
from place to place. Hunting peoples, such as the Bushmen,
Pygmies, and Australian aborigines, move in search of larger
animal populations. Pastoral nomads, in the Middle East and
Central Asia, move with the seasons to find pasture for their
animals. Other pastoral peoples, also dependent on the seasons,
cultivate crops but are nomadic when their crops require no
attention. Some agricultural workers, in the United States
particularly, follow a nomadic life also, migrating northward
during the growing and harvesting season and returning to the
warmer southern regions in the winter.

Generally speaking, the nomads’ movements are regulated by

the seasons and the effects of the seasons on plant and animal
life.
7.4a What are the two main characteristics which define nomad?

7.4b This paragraph develops the definition of nomad through com-

parison and synthesis. Write an additional developer in the space
provided, naming another nomadic group with which you are familiar
and explaining why they are nomadic.
7.4c Is your developer adequately summarised by the terminator?
That is, are the nomads’ movements regulated by the seasons?
7.5 Obsolete words such as charnel house, newly created words such
as astronaut or cosmonaut, or foreign words such as wadi, frequently
require definition by means of another word, a sentence, a paragraph,
or a longer explanation. The six sentences below, which are printed
in a scrambled sequence, if rearranged would constitute a definition
paragraph. In the spaces at the left, write numbers before the sen-
tences to show the sequence in which they would occur in a well-
ordered paragraph. The paragraph will then explain a Spanish word
which has no exact English equivalent.
Machismo
__ The word comes from the Spanish macho meaning male, but it
Suggests greater strength and virility than the English implies.
__The combination of courageous behaviour and earthy sexuality
that characterises Latin American manliness is called machismo.
__In some situations, it carries the underlying, but usually
unstated, notion of masculine charm and even sexual prowess.

__ He is boss in his own home, holds his own in manly con-

versation and activities, defies authority when his individual
masculinity is threatened, is stoic in pain, and meets physical
danger with aggressive bravery.
 Paragraph development by definition 41

__The concept of machismo also suggests the proper leadership

role that a man plays in his family and in his community.
=> lhese traits—rugged individual courage and primitive sexual
energy in a man, from the village boaster to the national folk
hero—are the principal qualities in the concept machismo.
7.5a Discuss with your teacher and your classmates your reasons for
arranging the sentences in the sequence you determined.

7.5b Read the sentences in the arrangement you have established in

order to experience the paragraph as a unified whole.

7.5¢ What are the two main characteristics of machismo? Which

sentence in the model paragraph names them?

7.5d Which sentences relate more to the first characteristic? Which

to the second?

7.5e What is the transitional word that leads you from the first
characteristic to the second characteristic?

7.5 How does the final sentence function as a terminator?

7.5g Discuss the words virility, prowess, stoic, and aggressive bravery.
7.5h Is there a word or concept similar to machismo in your language
and culture? Discuss the similarities and differences between your
word or concept and machismo.

7.6 The techniques of comparison, contrast, and synthesis used in

definition paragraphs may be observed in the table on page 42, which
shows some of the characteristics of a book, a magazine, and a news-
paper. A partial list of defining characteristics is given in the centre
column. This list might serve alone as a satisfactory definition through
synthesis, but additional information could be provided through
comparison and contrast. For instance, a magazine is both similar
to and different from a book and a newspaper. Like qualities are
indicated as + and unlike qualities are indicated as —in the chart.
Study these characteristics and discuss other qualities which could
be added to the list; then write a definition paragraph, using one of
the following topic sentences:
1 A book has some of the characteristics of a magazine or
newspaper, but it is different from both in several important ways.
2 A magazine has some of the characteristics of a book or news-
paper, but it is different from both in several important ways.
3 A newspaper has some of the characteristics of a book or
magazine, but it is different from both in several important ways.
42 From Paragraph to Essay

KNOWN TERM: UNKNOWN TERM: KNOWN TERM:

BOOK MAGAZINE NEWSPAPER

printed pages
smooth, thin paper
cover
bound
use of coloured pictures
advertisements
multiple authorship
published regularly
published weekly
published monthly
 8
Paragraph
development by
classification

8.1 Read the following model paragraph.

The Classification of Paragraphs
Individual paragraphs—the building blocks of essays, articles,
chapters, and other longer papers—may be classified in a variety
of ways. At the essay level, paragraphs may be sorted into
functional groups such as introductory, developmental, transi-
tional, summarising, and the like. Depending upon the purpose
or intent of the writer, particular paragraphs may be thought
of as aiming to persuade, inform, argue, or excite. Paragraphs
may also be classified according: to such techniques of develop-
ment as comparison, contrast, and definition. Another develop-
mental device might also be the classification paragraph, which
organises items or ideas to be discussed into relatively homo-
geneous groups. Such classifications make it possible to talk
about a large number of paragraphs by grouping them into a
small number of classes.
8.la Does this paragraph illustrate the developmental technique of
classification? What is discussed or classified in the paragraph?
8.1b Which sentence in the paragraph best defines a classification
paragraph?
8.lc In sentence 3, one way of classifying paragraphs is mentioned.
What do you think of the approach mentioned in sentence 3 as a
means of teaching and learning concrete writing techniques?
8.1d Have you found the techniques suggested in sentences 4 and 5
helpful to you in improving your own writing skills? In what ways?
8.2 Although the following paragraph is long, it clearly identifies
four classes of words. As you read, observe how the discussion of
each class is developed.

Four Classes of Words

As imprecise or gross as classifications sometimes are, they

usually indicate classes, or categories, and the labels for these
classes that make information more manageable. Frequently,
these labels for classes tell us how we are supposed to feel to-
44 From Paragraph to Essay

wards a certain thing. The older English dictionaries, for example,

classified words and assigned them labels such as vulgar, dialect,
colloquial, and slang. Many commonly used words were labelled
vulgar and in some dictionaries /ow, implying that only the
lowest sort of person used such words. This class of words
included most of the ‘four-letter words’ associated with the
bodily functions of sex and elimination. The class of words
called dialect included expressions commonly used by certain
national groups of people or certain regions of the country.
People often inferred from the word dialect that the English
language was improperly learned or used by these speakers;
certainly one would not use such a word beyond the borders
of that community. Colloquial was a less severe label, but it
identified words and expressions that might be used in informal
educated speech with friends at school, but definitely not in
formal compositions. The huge class named s/ang usually meant
a word understood by only a select group of people, students
for example. Often slang words are quickly forgotten, but they
are occasionally taken up by the whole country and soon lose
their distinction as slang. The greater social freedom of the past
two decades and also the language of public debate have liberated
words from such rigid: classifications. Modern English dic-
tionaries reflect this variety of usage by employing few classifica-
tions that imply social or moral judgment.
8.2a What additional information would you need to write a defini-
tion paragraph about the term colloquial?

8.2b What is the topic sentence in this paragraph?

8.2c How might the use of a great number of words from these
four classes in your writing limit or restrict communication?

8.2d In your native language, are words classified by the same terms
discussed in the model paragraph, or are words classified according
to a different set of categories?
8.3. The following paragraph is written in a very informal style.
Like the other model paragraphs in this lesson, it employs the technique
of paragraph development by classification. Notice that the classifica-
tions are based on a very limited knowledge possessed by the writer.

Politicians and political parties may be different from country

to country, but I know people’s political views fall into only
three categories. First is the conservative. I haven’t travelled
much, but in my experience conversatives are all alike no matter
where they live. They want to be comfortable, but they don’t
want to spend much on anyone else’s comfort or welfare. Second
 Paragraph development by classification 45

is the liberal. From what I’ve read in the newspapers, liberals

seem to want the government to do everything. They usually
don’t have much experience in the real world of hard work.
Third is the ‘middle-of-the-roader’. Middle-of-the-roaders can’t
make up their minds about what side to be on. In my opinion,
most people are in this class. I don’t think I fit any of these
categories, but you can place most people into one of these
three groups.

8.3a The type of writing you have studied and practised so far in
this book is a rather formal style of expository prose. The use of
this style of writing is likely to lead to greater success in school. It
might be characterised as academic prose. Not all expository writing
has such a serious purpose or formal style. The methods of develop-
ment, nonetheless, in both formal and informal writing are often the
same. What makes paragraph 8.3 informal?
8.3b Which sentence tells you that this is going to be a classification
paragraph? How does it tell you?
8.3c In the space provided directly above the paragraph, supply an
appropriate title.
8.3d In a classification paragraph, it is important to set up adequate
categories and equally important to define what goes into these
categories. Classification of people that 1sbased on superficial evidence
and that is too rigid or too general is called stereotyping. What words
or phrases in the model paragraph indicate that the classification is
based on limited or incorrect observation?
8.4 Notice the use of transitional devices in the following model
of a classification paragraph.

Each year the car industry throughout the world produces a

glittering array of different models, designed to appeal to every
age, to every taste, to every pocketbook. For the person who
needs reliable transportation at minimum operating cost, there
is a large selection of small, lightweight cars that travel great
distances on very little petrol. For the young, who demand the
ultimate in appearance and performance, there is a great variety
of sports and speciality models. For the ‘young at heart’—the
middle-aged, middle-class citizen who wants a prestige mix of
style, size, and comfort-—there is a wide range of big, sleek cars
available with all sorts of optional equipment. And finally, for
the truly wealthy, there is a select group of luxury cars, custom-
built to the most fastidious taste. On the basis of just these
four categories, it can be said that the car industry exemplifies
the seller’s slogan, ‘You pay your money, and you take your
choice.’
46 From Paragraph to Essay

8.4a In the blank space on the right in the Table, list the categories of
cars described in the model paragraph in relation to the classes of people
on the left.

CLASSES OF PEOPLE TYPES OF VEHICLES

the economy minded

the young
the middle-aged, middle-class
the rich

8.4b Extend the two classification lists above by adding other groups
of people and cars.
8.4c Write an appropriaté title in the blank space provided.
8.5 The following paragraph is taken from the second edition of a
popular textbook published in several languages besides English. It
classifies the various activities of the psychologist into three major
enterprises.

Psychology, as defined, comprises a number of different kinds

of enterprises, so different that they may seem to have nothing
in common. One psychologist is engaged in vocational guidance;
he spends his day talking to high school students, studying their
academic records and their test scores and from these, in prin-
ciple, showing the student how to clarify his own ideas about
his future training and occupation. Another spends his day
studying delayed reaction in goldfish or the navigation of bats.
Other psychologists are assisting in the diagnosis of neurotic
patients, doing research on the childhood experiences that con-
tribute to neurosis, or taking part in combined research on the
effects of tranquillisers. But all such disparate activities have
this in common, that the methods derive from the same funda-
mental training in the procedures and conceptions of academic
psychology, and that the worker is either putting the conceptions
to practical use or trying to improve on them (or both).!
8.5a Which sentence explains what various psychologists’ activities
have in common?
8.5b The three classes of psychologists’ work are not clearly named
in the paragraph. Discuss the activities of each class to determine
what distinguishes one from another.

8.5¢c Indicate the phrase that relates the topic introducer and the
terminator in this paragraph.
' Hebb, D.O. A Textbook of Psychology, Second Edition, W.B. Saunders Company,
Philadelphia, 1966, page 310.
 Paragraph development by classification 47

8.5d Using a good dictionary, decide what less formal words or

expressions might be substituted for the following words in the model
paragraph: comprises, enterprises, neurosis, disparate, conceptions.
8.6 Remember that the purpose of a classification paragraph is to
group a large number of items or ideas into a small number of classes.
With this in mind, write two classification paragraphs on different
subjects. The first paragraph should use an informal style of first
person observations, such as, ‘I believe there are only three types of
teachers in the world’. (Review 8.3.) The second paragraph should
use a more formal academic style. (Review 8.1, 8.2.)
 9
Essay
development by
definition and
classification
| After reading the following paragraph, write a short phrase
outline noting the key ideas expressed in each of the five sentences.
Subjects in British Universities
The typical academie programme for university students in
Great Britain is composed of a varying number of courses or
subjects within a field of specialisation. The academic obligations
for each subject fall into three broad types. Lectures, at which
attendance is not always compulsory, often outline the general
scope of the subject matter and stress the particular specialisa-
tion of the lecturer. Tutorials, through individual or group
discussion, reading extensively, and writing essays under the
tutor’s direction, ensure focused and in-depth understanding
of the subject. Examinations on each subject require the student
to consolidate his knowledge of the subject, which he has gained
through lectures, discussions and a great deal of independent
study. These three categories of academic activity—lectures,
tutorials and examinations—provide the means by which students
prepare themselves in specialised fields of knowledge in British
universities.
9.2 Edit the following paragraph. Remember that editing usually
involves improvements in punctuation, capitalisation, spelling, word
choice, transitional devices, modification, word or phrase position or
deletion.
Although vastly different, both human beings and animals

S
organise into groups and follow certain fixed behaviour in
carrying out their roles in life. In most human societies for
example behaviour related to sex roles is specific to each culture
with the appropriate behaviuor related to courtship, marriage,
and sexual relations specified by the society. In the animal
world, behaviour varies from species to species but each have
its Own pattern of courtship and mating, some approaching
the complexity and stability of human groups. Human beings
vary in their care of their children, but all human beings take
care of their children for long periods of time, some until
adolesence or marriage, others until education is finished or —
NO
—
jobs are secured. animal groups too have different ways of fom (we)
 Essay development by definition and classification 49

caring for their young with some pushing their young out of 14
the nest early and others keeping their young beside them in 15
the herd for many years. Persons select leaders or leaders 16
emerge from the group and then dominate it through physical 17
intellectual, or spiritual force. Animals too follow the strongest 18
or oldest leader of the pack or the herd. Perhaps the most 19
complex behaviour in human groups is in the division of work 20
to insure that both the intelectual and physical tasks of the 21
society are carried out. Some animal groups divide the work 22
of the community (not always equally, notably bees and some 23
birds) among various members of the group. It should be 24
clear that human beings and animals show simularities in the 25
social organisation of their groups from these limited examples. 26

Make the necessary editorial changes to improve the paragraph. The

line in which the change is to be made is given for your help.
Commas—lines 3, 4, 14, 17 and 26
Capitalisation—line 13
Spelling—lines 5, 12, 21 and 25
Repetitious transitional device—iine 18
Bad position of phrase—line 26
Un-needed word or phrase—lines 10 and 11
Word repetition—lines 14 and 15
Weak modification—line 23 and 24
Poor choice of words—tline 16
Subject-verb agreement—line 7
9.3. Often a writer employs more than one method of development
in an essay. He may, for instance, decide to classify objects, events,
or terms in order to make it easier for the reader to retain a few classes
rather than many specific items. Additionally, he may need to define
the labels he uses in classifying the subject, especially if these labels
are not widely known or are abstract.
The following essay combines the techniques of definition and
classification to discuss one of the problems sometimes encountered
in research papers or other academic and professional writing. After
you have read the essay once, re-read each paragraph carefully to
determine the method of development used.

Plagiarism in the Academic Community

Scholars, writers, and teachers in the modern academic com-
munity have strong feelings about acknowledging the use of
another person’s ideas. In the English-speaking world, the term
plagiarism is used to label the practice of not giving credit for
the source of one’s ideas. Simply stated, plagiarism is ‘the wrong-
ful appropriation or purloining, and publication as one’s own,
of the ideas, or the expression of ideas (literary, artistic, musical,
50 From Paragraph to Essay

mechanical, etc.) of another’.! From an ancient Latin word

meaning to kidnap or steal the child or slave of another, pla-
giarism is universally condemned in the modern academic world.
It is equivalent to stealing the livelihood or savings of a worker,
for it robs the original writer or scholar of the ideas and words
by which he makes a living.
The penalties for plagiarism vary from situation to situation.
In many universities, the punishment may range from failure in
a particular course to expulsion from the university. In the
literary world, where writers are protected from plagiarism by
international copyright laws,’ the penalty may range from a
small fine to imprisonment and a ruined career. Protection of
scholars and writers, through the copyright laws and through
the social pressures of.the academic and literary communities,
is a relatively recent concept. Such social pressures and copy-
right laws require writers to give scrupulous attention to docu-
mentation of their sources.
Students, as inexperienced scholars themselves, must avoid
various types of plagiarism by being self-critical in their use of
other scholars’ ideas and by giving appropriate credit for the
source of borrowed ideas and words. There are at least three
classifications of plagiarism as it is revealed in students” in-
exactness in identifying sources properly. These categories,
which will be discussed in some detail in succeeding paragraphs,
are plagiarism by accident, by ignorance, and by intention.
Plagiarism by accident, or oversight, sometimes is the result
of the writer’s inability to decide or remember where the idea
came from. He may have read it long ago, heard it in a lecture
since forgotten, or acquired it second-hand or third-hand from
discussions with colleagues. He may also have difficulty in decid-
ing whether the idea is such common knowledge that no reference
to the original source is needed. Although this type of plagiarism
is the least serious, it must be guarded against. If the idea, or
the words used to label or express it, is unique, the writer must
make an effort to identify the source.
Plagiarism through ignorance is simply a way of saying that
inexperienced writers often do not know how or when to ac-
knowledge their sources. The techniques for documentation—
note-taking, quoting, footnoting, listing bibliography—are easily
learned and can prevent the writer from making unknowing
mistakes or omissions in his references. Although ‘there is no
copyright in news, or in ideas, only in the expression of them’,
the writer cannot plead ignorance when his sources for ideas
are challenged.
' Oxford English Dictionary, London, 1933.
> See ‘copyright,’ Encyclopedia Britannica, Chicago, 1968.
* “Copyright, The New Caxton Encyclopedia, London, 1969,
 Essay development by definition and classification 5|

The most serious kind of academic thievery is plagiarism by

intention. The writer, limited by his laziness and dullness, copies
the thoughts and language of others and claims them for his
own. He not only steals, he tries to: deceive the reader into be-
lieving the ideas are original. Such words as immoral, dishonest,
offensive, and despicable are used to describe the practice of
plagiarism by intention.
The opposite of plagiarism is acknowledgement. All mature
and trustworthy writers make use of the ideas of others but
they are careful to acknowledge their indebtedness to their
sources. Students, as developing scholars, writers, teachers, and
professional leaders, should recognise and assume their re-
sponsibility to document all sources from which language and
thoughts are borrowed. Other members of the profession will
not only respect the scholarship, they will admire the humility
and honesty.
9.3a What is the function of paragraph 1?
9.3b Which paragraph largely defines the term plagiarism?
9.3c What are the three classifications of plagiarism mentioned in
the essay?
9.3d What is the TS of paragraph 2?
9.3e What method of development is used in paragraph 3?
9.3f What method of development is used in paragraphs 4, 5, 6?
9.3g Which paragraph defines copyright laws? Do you feel it is a
complete explanation? Why?
9.3h What is the opposite of plagiarism? Which paragraph defines
this concept?
9.3i Is the final paragraph an effective terminator for the essay?
Why?
9.3} Read paragraphs | and 7 again (first and last). Can these two
paragraphs stand alone as an essay? What ideas are included in
paragraphs 2 through 6 that make the essay more informative?
9.4 Write an essay of six or seven paragraphs in which you use
the techniques of definition and classification. You may want to
expand one of the topics discussed in 7 or 8 or any of the topics sug-
gested in other lessons ofthe book that lend themselves to development
through definition and classification.
 | 10
Paragraph
development by
space and
time
10.1. The following paragraphs demonstrate the development of
topics according to space arrangements and time sequences. In some
instances, the subject may require the organisation of ideas based on
space or spatial relationships, without reference to time. In discussing
a contemporary topic such as the world population problem, you
might write about events in South America, India, Japan, Europe,
and Africa with no specific reference to the dates of the events. Another
subject may demand an organisation based on the chronology of
events with little or no reference to where the events took place.
The biography of a national political figure might stress a man’s
election to the governing body in 1933, his appointment as a minister
in 1942, a personal scandal in 1956, re-election in 1960, and so on,
irrespective of the place in-which these events occurred, either because
the place is obvious or because it is not significant. Other subjects,
major historical events for example, may require a method of develop-
ment using both space and time relationships.
The first model paragraph demonstrates development through
spatial relationships in a very small area. Try to visualise a painting
of a mountain landscape as you read.
Looking at a Painting
A painting, among other things, is a controlled or confined space,
and our appreciation of a painting partially depends on how
well we perceive the spatial relationships employed by the painter.
To begin with, our vision is restricted or directed by the outer
limits of the painting, a frame in most instances. We may perceive
the painting as a ‘whole,’ but most often our eyes are directed
by the painter to a focal point or centre of interest. The focus
of the picture alone would not hold our attention, however.
We are led to it by the painter because of its significance through
its relation to other objects in the painting. We might, for
example, notice an outstanding face in the background in the
midst of dark clothing and shadows. Or we see figures in the
distance in the painting’s perspective, in contrast to a flat
silhouette in the foreground that frames them. We are compelled
to look at the clouds in the sky because our eyes are lifted up-
ward by the lines of the trees or mountains in the painting.
We observe that a large brown field in the lower left is balanced
 Paragraph development by space and time 53

with a small, colourful cluster of trees on the right. In the end—

especially in traditional or representational painting—we always
return to the centre of interest, which has been intensified for
us by our taking in the details which visually support it.
10.la Before you attempt the following exercises, spend some time
in looking at paintings and discussing with your classmates and
teacher the artist’s organisation of spatial relationships.
10.1b What is the relationship between the main idea of sentence 2
(framing) and the main idea in the first part of sentence 1 (controlled
space)?
10.1c Some of the artist’s techniques are only indirectly suggested
in the paragraph. Which sentence indicates his use of colour? Of
perspective? Of light?
10.1d According to the paragraph, what effect does observation of
the details of spatial organisation in relation to the central focus have
on the viewer?
10.le All of the following words have rather special meanings in a
discussion of painting. Check your dictionary to clarify the meanings
of spatial, perceive, focal point, focus, perspective, silhouette, re-
presentational, background, foreground.
10.2. A common example of paragraph development by time is a
short biography which is best organised according to important
dates. The events of the person’s life are listed sequentially within a
clearly observable time frame.

William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare, the greatest literary genius of the English
language, was born in Stratford-on-Avon in 1564. Although
Shakespeare is principally remembered today as the premier
English dramatist, he early attained widespread popularity in
the 1590’s as a lyric and narrative poet with the publication of
Venus and Adonis (1593) and The Rape of Lucrece (1594). He
first attained success as a playwright after the production of
Henry IV, Part I, in 1592. Over the next two decades he wrote
a succession of widely acclaimed plays which may be categorised
roughly into three groups: histories, comedies, and tragedies or
tragi-comedies. Among the history plays, Richard III in 1592—
93, Richard IT in 1594-95, and Henry V in 1599 were especially
well received and have continued to be produced even until the
present day. Of the comedies, A Midsummer Night's Dream
(1595), The Merchant of Venice (1595-96), and Much Ado About
Nothing (1598), were and are enduring favourites with actors
and audiences alike. But undoubtedly Shakespeare’s world-wide
54 From Paragraph to Essay

reputation as a dramatist rests on the profound exploration of

the human condition portrayed in his great tragedies Romeo and
Juliet (1594-95), Othello (1602), Hamlet (1602), King Lear
(1606) and Anthony and Cleopatra (1607). After having dom-
inated the London theatrical scene for some twenty years,
Shakespeare retired to Stratford, where he lived in relative ease
and comfort until his death in 1616.
10.2a Which two dates indicate the limits of the time frame in this
short biography? In what way are these dates analogous to the frame
of a painting?

10.2b While the dates of the biography are generally listed from early
to later time, four sub-groups of dates are mentioned. What kinds
of literary works are destribed within these four sub-groups? How
does the grouping of dates according to literary types aid the reader?
10.2c Are the dates mentioned in relation to the several literary
genres listed in chronological order? How does such listing aid the
reader?

10.3. Although dates are indicated in the following paragraph, they

are not stressed. Notice as you read that the method of development,
based on geographical space, stresses the movement and wide range
of Alexander’s conquests rather than what happened on what date
in each place.

Alexander the Great

Whether he was moved simply by curiosity or by a thirst for

conquest, one of the most fascinating and controversial figures
in world history was Alexander the Great. From his first battle,
the capture of Athens in 338 B.C., until his death thirty-two
years later from a fever in Babylon, Alexander had personally
led his armies across most of his known world. Like an enormous
harvesting machine, Alexander and his armies moved from his
home in Macedon south into Greece, across the sea to the
lands east of the Mediterranean, and down into Egypt. Con-
suming the wealth and experiences of the East while, at the
same time, spreading the language and culture of Greece, he
crossed the ancient Persian Empire through central Asia and
on into India, his conquests including large portions of the
three continents of Europe, Africa, and Asia. His empire was
so vast that on his death it was divided into five parts, each
under the administration of one of his generals. Alexander is
regarded in legend and history as both hero and ruthless con-
queror, with mothers in central Asia still naming their sons
after him but also using his name, when children misbehave,
to instill fear in their hearts.
 Paragraph development by space and time 55

10.3a Which sentence first indicates that the paragraph is developed

by space? What words or phrases accomplish this?
10.3b What words or phrases in sentence 4 relate to the concept of
harvesting machine in sentence 3?

10.3c Is the final sentence an adequate terminator? Why?

10.3d_ Referring to the map below, discuss the conquests of Alexander
in relation to the sequence of geographical areas mentioned in the
model paragraph. The numbers on the map refer to locations men-
tioned in the paragraph. How does the organisation of the material
presented in the model paragraph reflect a logical spatial relationship?

EUROPE

AFRICA

10.4 The ten sentences below, which are printed in a scrambled

sequence, if rearranged would constitute a paragraph developed by
time. In the spaces at the left, number the sentences in the sequence
in which they would occur in a well ordered paragraph.

The Birth of Writing

__In what is now Iraq, the ancient Sumerian people developed a
writing system called cuneiform. which used a small wedge-
shaped instrument to make marks or impressions in soft clay.
__ Chinese writing began as early as 2000 B.C.
__ The first real alphabet, in which one written symbol stood for
one sound of the language, was developed by the Phoenicians.
56 From Paragraph to Essay

__ Several ancient civilisations developed writing systems.

__ All alphabetic writing has its origin in this Phoenician improve-
ment in writing of about 1100 B.C.
__No matter what language one speaks today, the writing system
probably began with one of these ancient systems for recording
the events of its speakers’ lives.
__ Egyptians used papyrus as far back as 2500 B.C.
__In the Far East, the Chinese invented a system of writing which
used pictograms, that is simplified representations of familiar
objects, people, and animals.
__ The earliest known ,records from the Sumerians date back to
3500B.C.
__In Egypt, writing called hieroglyphics was recorded on a paper-
like material called papyrus.
10.4a Discuss with your teacher and your classmates your reasons
for arranging the sentences in the sequence you determined.

10.4b Give reasons for arranging the developers in the sequence

you used.
10.4c Read the sentences in the arrangement you have established
in order to experience the paragraph as a unified whole.

10.5 Read the following model paragraph. Notice that the para-
graph is developed by the use of both time and space.

Grape Cultivation
The history of grape cultivation is as old as the history of man.
Fossilised grape leaves, stems, and seeds have been taken from
Tertiary deposits of perhaps 30,000,000 years ago. In man’s
recorded history, we have details of grape and wine production
depicted in Egyptian mosaics of 2400 B.C. It is theorised that
cultivation of the grape originated in the area around the Caspian
Sea and from there grape growing spread to Asia Minor and
Greece. In Homer’s time, about 1000 B.C., wine was a common
feature of Greek life. From Greece, grape culture spread to
Sicily. The Phoenicians took the grape to France as early as
600 B.C.. Pliny, writing before A.D. 100, described ninety-one
varieties of grapes and fifty kinds of wine. The Romans planted
grapes along the River Rhine in Germany by A.D. 200 and
probably took them to England as well. Columbus, and later
the colonists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, brought
the European grape to America, where it was crossed with the
disease-resistant, native, wild American varieties. In modern
 Paragraph development by space and time 57

times, the grape is cultivated in the temperate zones on every

continent, and grapes or their products are consumed throughout
the world.
10.5a Which sentence first indicates that the paragraph includes
information based on space?
10.5b Look up the meanings of the following words: fossilised,
Tertiary, mosaics, theorised.
10.5c Ina simple tabular form, list in the blanks below all places with
corresponding dates mentioned either directly or indirectly in the
paragraph. Notice there are more places than dates mentioned. Even
though both time and space are useful methods of development in
this paragraph, they do not receive equal emphasis.

GRAPE CULTIVATION

PLACE YEAR

10.5d Read the following paragraph and compare it with your chart
in 10.Sc.

One theory is that cultivation of the grape originated in the area

around the Caspian Sea. From there grape growing spread to
neighbouring areas of Asia Minor, then to Greece, and from
Greece to Sicily. The Phoenicians took the grape into France,
and the Romans planted grapes in Germany and England. At
the same time as grape cultivation spread into the West, grapes
were carried into the East by way of India. Everywhere that
new lands were settled, people took the grape along. Columbus
and later colonists brought the European grape to America,
where it had little success until it was crossed with tne native
American varieties.
1 What is the method of development, time or space?
58 From Paragraph to Essay

2 What kind of information in your table in 10.5Scis largely

omitted in the developmental technique in paragraph 10.5d?
10.5e Read the following paragraph and compare it with your table
in 10.5c.

The history of the grape is as old as man, and older. In fact,

fossilised grape leaves, stems, and seeds have been taken from
Tertiary deposits of perhaps 30,000,000 years ago. But in man’s
recorded history, we have details of grape and wine production
depicted in mosaics of 2400 B.C. during the Fourth Dynasty of
Egypt. In Homer’s time, about 1000 B.C., wine was a common
feature of Greek life. By 600 B.C., grapes were known in France,
and no later than A.D. 200 they were introduced into Germany.
The writer Pliny, before A.D. 100, described ninety-one varieties
of grapes and fifty kinds of wine. Columbus, and later the
colonists, brought European grapes to America, where they
found native varieties already growing in a wild state.
1 What is the method of development?
2 What kind of information in your table in 10.5c is largely
omitted in the developmental technique in the paragraph in 10.Se?
10.5f Which of the three paragraphs about the cultivation of grapes
(10.5, 10.5d, 10.5e) do you feel is most successful? Why?

10.6 A paragraph developed by space is an attempt to create in

words a visual sense of an area. It cannot duplicate what one could
actually see if one were on the spot, but, nevertheless, it has certain
advantages. It can indicate a point of view, direct the reader’s atten-
tion, and restrict his vision in a certain direction or in a special sequence.
In a paragraph describing your university, you might develop the
paragraph by space in several different ways:
1 You might use some important landmark, for example the
Administration Building, and describe other locations in relation to
it. The order in which you discuss each location is not as important
as its relationship to the landmark.

Administration Building
 Paragraph development by process description 59

2 You might use an important landmark as the starting point

and move from it to the next location, on to another, and so on,
perhaps ending back at the original landmark.

Administration
Building
(1)

comesoeeae
3 Another type of development by space might stress the boun-
daries of an area. The order in which these are listed is not necessarily
important so long as there is a logical progression from location to
location.

High Street

Ave.
York

4 Still another spatial development might stress the inter-relation-

ships between locations. The order is not necessarily important.
60 From Paragraph to Essay

Write a paragraph developed by space. Use one of the methods

just described to develop your paragraph. Try to visualise the spatial
organisation before you write. A diagram or drawing might help you
organise your ideas more clearly. Possible writing topics might include:
Exploits or conquests of a historical figure
Migration or movement of a group of people
Description of the arrangement of a room (a house, a city, a geo-
graphical area)
Dissemination over a geographical area of a discovery (a religion,
a food, an idea, a social practice)

10.7 A paragraph developed by time is often like a list paragraph,

a natural chronology providing the order in which the list of events
is given. Still other organisations of time can be employed in writing.
Some fiction and many contemporary movies alternate from present
to past to future with little regard for natural chronological order.
Since this method of development is more difficult and is used in-
frequently in academic prose, it has not been given any attention in
your book.
Write a paragraph developed by time. Use a natural chronological
order for the events you select. Possible writing topics might include:
Important events of the day (week, month, year, decade)
Development of an industry (an institution, a state, a sport, a
movement or cause)
Biography or autobiography
 11
Paragraph
development by
process description

11.1. Process description is similar to the procedures followed in

conducting a scientific experiment. It describes definite steps in a
necessary order. Keep this comparison in mind as you read the model
paragraph.

Water Purification

The provision of safe water necessitates one of the major ex-

penditures of manpower and revenue in our modern cities. The
purification of water is basically a two-step or three-step process
carried out under the strict supervision of public health scientists
and engineers. As the first step, natural water from the least
contaminated source is allowed to stand in large reservoirs,
where most of the mud, clay, and silt settle out; this is called
‘sedimentation’. Often in water with high mud content, lime
and aluminium sulphate are added to the water in the settling
reservoirs. These chemicals react in the water to form aluminium
hydroxide, which settles slowly and carries much of the suspended
material, including most of the bacteria, to the bottom of the
reservoirs. As the second step, the water is filtered through beds
of sand and gravel, which remove other impurities and chemicals
in it. During or after filtration, chemicals are ordinarily added
to the water to kill any remaining harmful bacteria. Chlorine is
one of the most common chemicals used for this purpose. A
third step taken by some municipalities is adding to the water
other beneficial chemicals such as fluoride to make tooth
enamel hard, and soda ash to make the water itself soft. The
water purification process, carried out with little variation from
one large city to another, is perhaps the biggest factor in the
prevention of major outbreaks of disease in this country.
11.la What is the function of sentence 1? If you had read only sen-
tence 1 and stopped, without knowing the content of the rest of the
paragraph, what are several different ways of continuing the para-
graph? If this were a simple list paragraph, you might proceed as
follows:
The provision of safe water results in one of the major expendi-
tures js¢
62 From Paragraph to Essay

Another major expenditure is allocated to the maintenance of

good roads...
11.1b What is the function of sentence 2? How does this sentence
rule out most of the possibilities for continuing the paragraph dis-
cussed in 11.1a? What key words in the sentence determine the content
and development procedure of the paragraph?
11.1c Sentences 3, 6, and 9 introduce the different steps in the water-
purification process. What function do the intervening sentences
serve that distinguishes the process paragraph from the simple list
paragraph?
11.1d What words or phrases in the terminator relate it to the topic
sentence? 2

11.le In the model paragraphs of lessons 1 and 2, the points or

examples used as developers have no necessary order or sequence.
With very slight changes of transitional devices, points or examples
might be presented in a very different order with no essential change
of meaning in the paragraph as a whole. Can the same be said of
the process paragraph? Why?

11.2. The organisation of the following paragraph is somewhat

different from most of the models in this book. It does, however,
have all of the requirements of a good paragraph including a topic
sentence.

Industrialisation

The first stage in the process of industrialisation for most coun-

tries is the discovery of new sources of raw materials and fuel.
The second is the reorganisation of the labour force from one
that is rural and agricultural to one that is urban and industrial.
Concurrent or subsequent to the development of industries and
factories, the third step is the creation or expansion of com-
munication and transportation systems. Many socio-economic-
cultural changes follow quickly behind the technological changes,
and must be considered a part of the industrialisation process.
One of the first social changes is the shift of population from
rural areas to the cities where the factories are located. Tech-
nology is then applied to agriculture, resulting in greater produc-
tion of food for the urban populations but requiring fewer
agricultural workers. These changes often result in a redistribu-
tion of wealth, especially the decline of land as the sole source
of wealth, and new economic and political power based on
industry. Finally, there are changes that effect the world com-
munity as it tries to contain or control the aspirations and needs
of individuals and nations. Industrialisation is a complex tech-
 Paragraph development by process description 63
nological and cultural process that shows remarkable simi-
larities no matter where or when it takes place.

11.2a In most of the paragraphs you have studied, the topic sentence
has appeared at or near the beginning of the paragraph. Which sentence
in this paragraph is the topic sentence?
11.2b The three steps in the process of water purification described
in 11.1 are clearly marked by obvious enumerative phrases. How
many distinct steps are described in the process of industrialisation?
What are the enumerative or transitional phrases that move the
reader from one step in the process to another?

11.2c What is the function of sentence 4?

11.2d Since the topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph,
what additional function does it serve besides being the topic sentence?
11.3. Read the following excerpt adapted from a popular chemistry
textbook. It describes the process of scientific investigation.
The Scientific Method

The heart of any study of the physical universe lies in observation

and generalisation. The observed phenomena are organised into
coherent patterns or generalised statements. The intellectual
steps or processes involved in this study have traditionally been
placed in an ‘ideal’ order and called the scientific method.
(1) Observations, often in the form of experiments, are made
on the physical system being studied.
(2) An attempt is made to find a pattern of consistency in all
observations of the physical system under study. If it is
possible to formulate a verbal or mathematical statement
which relates the observations, that statement is called a
law.
(3) An imagined picture or model of the system is constructed
mentally with the stipulation that the behaviour of the
imagined model conforms to the observed law. Such a
model and its suggested behaviour constitute a hypothesis.
(4) A good hypothesis often suggests other behaviour of the
system which may be tested by further observation. A
hypothesis whose predictions conform to observations, or
which has been moulded and modified by testing, evolves
into a theory of the behaviour of the system in question. '

1 ‘The Scientific Method’ was adapted from Harry B. Gray and Gilbert P. Haight, Jr.
Basic Principles of Chemistry, W.A. Benjamin, Inc., New York, 1967, page 2.
64 From Paragraph to Essay

11.3a Often a process paragraph in a technical or scientific textbook

uses numbers to indicate the steps of a process. Some writers feel
that the numbering technique makes the process clearer. Others prefer
to use phrasal transitions from step to step. Re-read the model para-
graph inserting in place of the numbers at the beginning of each
step the following transitional words.
As the first step,
Using the data of the first step,
Next,
And finally,
11.3b Which procedure—numbers or transitional words—makes the
material easier to understand for you? Why?
11.3c Since the paragraph does not have a terminator, in the space
provided write one that satisfactorily concludes the discussion. The
terminator in a process paragraph is frequently a summary statement.
In this case, observation, law, hypothesis, theory might appear in the
terminator.
11.3d The forms of the following nouns are plural and require
plural verbs. Look up the singular forms in your dictionary.
phenomena
data
processes
~sfiypotheses
11.4 Read the following paragraph. Which sentence tells you the
method of development will be process-description?

Cheesemaking
Hundreds of different names for cheese are used throughout the
world, but the general principles of making cheese from milk
have changed little for nearly 3000 years. The aroma, texture,
and taste of cheese depend on slight variations of the process
used to produce it, but all methods consist of two to four basic
steps. The first step consists of the coagulation of the protein
‘casein’ by adding acid or enzyme to the milk, usually cow’s
milk, but sometimes the milk of the sheep, goat, mare, ass,
reindeer, llama, yak, camel, or buffalo. Next the liquid, called
whey, is drained, leaving a semi-solid cheese, called curds, which
may be eaten in this form or processed further. All soft or cream
cheeses are of this type. Hard cheese undergoes two additional
steps in the process. The semi-solid cheese is matured until it
reaches the required level of acidity, at which time it is salted
and pressed into forms or moulds to give it the distinctive shape
and size of a particular cheese. The final step is the aging process
during which the world’s most famous cheeses acquire their
 Paragraph development by process description 65
unique flavours from the place and length of storage. Changes
in the manufacture and storage produce different kinds of
cheese, but cheese is one of the universal foods from the regions
of the world where milk-producing mammals live and varies
only slightly in the basic manufacturing process.
11.4a What is the function of sentence 2?

11.4b What is the function of sentence 5? How does it refer back

to sentences 2 to 4?

11.4c What is the function of sentence 6? How does it refer back to

sentences 2 to 4?

11.4d Slight variations of the process used in cheesemaking may

change the taste of the cheese. What might happen if the steps de-
scribed in the paragraph were completely changed or done in a different
order?
11.4e What words or phrases in the terminator relate it to the TI
and TS?

11.5 In a well constructed process description, the topic sentence

establishes the context of the process developed in succeeding sentences.
Notice that the process of preparing for examinations is divided into
two major stages although there are several steps in the process.

Preparing for Final Examinations

The process of preparing for end of year examinations involves
both long-range and short-range planning. Basic long-range
considerations are regular class attendance and consistent, week-
by-week completion of all reading assignments. Of course,
systematic notes or outlines of major points raised in the class
discussions or in the assigned readings provide a condensed
record of the essential facts and concepts. To keep outlines and
notes up to date, they should be reviewed and revised from time
to time throughout the college year. Short-range planning
should include collecting copies of previous examinations or
suggested study questions at least three weeks prior to the
examination date. These can be used as guides in an intensive
review of the ideas that teachers have considered important.
Self-confidence in analytical and compositional skill can be
increased by actually writing out and checking practice answers
to typical examination questions. Finaily, in addition to preparing
the mind, care should be taken to ensure that the body is well-
rested and nerves calm at the actual time of examination. From
the foregoing, it should be clear that effective preparation for
final examinations is really a year-long process requiring the
continuous use of appropriate study techniques.
66 From Paragraph to Essay

11.5a Why does the author divide the process into long-range and
short-range planning?
11.5b What is the function of sentence 2? How does it refer back to
the TS?

11.5¢c What is the function of sentence 3? How does it refer back to

sentence 2?

11.5d What is the function of sentence 4? How does it refer back to

the TS?

11.5e Is the final sentence an adequate terminator?

11.6 Write a process-description paragraph employing the tech-

niques illustrated in this lesson. Write a first draft of your paragraph.
After a period of time, perhaps a day, write an edited final version
of your paragraph. Turn in both versions of this writing exercise.
The following topics may help you get started.
Preparing a speech (a lesson, a demonstration)
Teaching someone to swim (ride a bicycle, play an indoor or outdoor
game, drive, cook)
The modernisation of areas (schools, laws)
 12
Essay
development by
time, space and
process
In lesson 9 you studied an essay that employed two major
methods of development. The following essay combines the techniques
of time, space, and process, as well as definition, to discuss a historical
event. The complexity of the various elements and influences making
up the subject matter requires a combination of developmental
techniques. After you have read the essay once, re-read each paragraph
carefully to determine the method of development used.

Pre-Columbian Settlement of the Americas

Europeans are usually given credit for the discovery of the

New World, that is, the Western Hemisphere. We now believe,
however, that it was ‘discovered’ a number of times by European,
Mediterranean, and African adventurers. We use the term New
World—newly discovered and unsettled—in contrast with Old
World—meaning the then known world of written historical
records and literatures. In the period immediately after
Columbus’ accidental discovery, the major influences on the
American continents were European, and for the people in
Europe, America was a new world. For the people who lived
in America at the time, however, it was the only world in their
memory.
Before Columbus, the most noted ‘discoverer’ of America,
arrived in the New World, several flourishing civilisations had
existed for centuries. The earliest inhabitants of America may
have arrived over 25,000 years before Columbus. It is certain
that men lived in what is now Nevada by 9,000 B.C. Beginning
in 8,000 B.C., when the climate began to warm up, hunters
ranged over portions of the entire New World in search of
animals and other food. Between 3,000 and 2,000 B.C., men
had begun to settle in communities where they carried on some
farming and fishing. Remains from the first large building pro-
jects, from 500 B.C. to 500 A.D., consist of large ceremonial
earthworks or mounds. By the time Columbus reached the New
World in 1492, the American civilisations had reached a level
of culture which included personal wealth, fine buildings, expert
craftsmanship, and religions which structured the daily lives of
the people.
68 From Paragraph to Essay

Continuing archeological excavations tell us what little we

know about the extent of these earliest immigrants. The most
advanced cultures developed in what is now Mexico and Peru.
Many of the surrounding peoples in Central America, South
America, and North America also reached complex states of
civilisation, but were largely isolated from each other and from
the greater civilisations of the continents. Widely separated
peoples reached similar stages of development independently but
during the same periods of time. For instance, the mound
builders made burial and ceremonial sites in several places in
the eastern U.S., central Mexico, and on the Gulf of Mexico,
all at about the same time. Men settled down to plant crops,
especially maize, in Peru, Central America, and the eastern
U.S., again during the same period. But from the earliest archeo-
logical evidence of men in America, we know that they ranged
over the entire hemisphere, from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego.
___ The most popular theory regarding the origins of the first
settlers of the New World is that they crossed over from Asia
to Alaska, which was connected by land at that time. Pushed out
of Asia by some unknown natural or social forces, these hardy
emigrants peopled the New World and started it on a path of
cultural development independent of anything in Asia or Europe
of the same periods. The search for a more hospitable climate
and necessary food forced many of the new arrivals to continue
their walk to the opposite end of the hemisphere. Along the
way, groups of people stopped or split off to continue in separate
directions, leaving isolated groups, or tribes, throughout North
and South America.
____ The dispersal of the original people is one of the most interest-
ing areas for speculation. Although there are few facts, we can
reconstruct what might have happened. There were, no doubt,
small numbers of people. When groups separated from one
another, they quickly became isolated, lost in the vast wilder-
nesses of empty continents. The small bands looked for food
and for a less hostile environment, moving frequently during
the early centuries. Enough of them adapted to their cruel
surroundings to populate even the most severe climate and
terrain of the new lands, but many moved on. Internal strife
within tribes probably forced others to seek new domains. The
first several millennia, then, were characterised by the continual
shifting of peoples in search of a better life.

By the time the Spanish, led by Hernando Cortes, destroyed

the Aztec empire in 1521, some cultures of America equalled
the landmarks of European civilisations. These Pre-Columbian
civilisations, independent ofthe technological and social develop-
 Essay development by time, space and process 69

ments of other continents and quite unlike the European cultures

who conquered them, were a ‘new world’ for their discoverers.
It should be remembered, however, that this new world was
already peopled throughout by groups whose personal achieve-
ments and cultural history were vigorous, rich, and peculiar to
the Americas. !
12.1a Label each paragraph in the model essay using the terms
studied so far to describe methods of development and structural
function. For example, process, time, space, classification, definition,
comparison, contrast, and so on; or topic paragraph, restatement
paragraph, and so on.
12.1b Which paragraph defines New Wurld? After reading the essay,
do you feel this is a good term? Why?
12.1¢ The term Pre-Columbian is not defined in the essay. Can you
explain its meaning?

12.1d Review 10.6. Which type of spatial relationship is used in

paragraph 3 of 12.1?
12.le The method of development in paragraphs 4 and 5 1s the
same—process. On what environmental conditions is the process
based?

12.2 Write an essay of five to ten paragraphs in which you use the
techniques of space, time, process, and any other method of develop-
ment thus far discussed in this book. The essay should convey an
overall sense of movement through time or space or a progression
through the steps of a process description. Individual paragraphs
may support this overall development by definition, classification,
comparison, and so on. Avoid mixing too many methods of develop-
ment, however, for the essay may then lack focus. You may want
to use a topic of your own choice, or one of the topics suggested in
10.7 and 11.6, or any of the topics mentioned in other lessons of the
book that lend themselves to development through space, time, and
process. Before you write your essay you may find it helpful to make
an outline of the ideas you intend to cover.

! Information from Bushnell, G.H.S. The First Americans: The Pre-Columbian Civiliza-
tions, Thames and Hudson, 1968.
 13
Paragraph
development by
cause and
effect
13.1 The stating of facts and the giving of reasons to explain why
or how the facts came about is the basic procedure in paragraph
development by cause and effect. Observe the procedure as you read
the following paragraph.
Slaughter
ontheHighways
During the past five years, the number of Americans killed
annually in car accidents has climbed to more than 55,000.
This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be attributed
to three general causes. Mechanical failures, especially those
related to faulty brakes and bald tyres, account for a significant
number of fatal accidents. Environmental conditions such as
blind corners, narrow: streets, heavy fog, intermittent rain or
snow resulting in slippery roads also contribute to the grisly
accident statistics. But without doubt the most frequently re-
ported factors in car accidents are errors of human judgment—
all the way from such follies as excessive speed and drunken
driving to such momentary lapses as failure to signal a turn or
a change from one lane to another. The man behind the wheel
is often his own worst enemy.
13.la In which sentences do you find the causes in this paragraph?

13.1b In which sentence do you find the effect?

13.1c What is the function of sentence 2?

13.1d The last sentence in the paragraph neither states a cause nor
an effect. What is its function?

13.2. The next model paragraph demonstrates a rather straight-

forward development, listing three causes of language change.

Language Change
There are many reasons why languages change, but three major
causes help illustrate the concept. Initially, various languages
that started from the same parent developed their own unique-
ness after groups of speakers drifted away from one another
to establish isolated, independent communities. Another major
cause of language change is the influence of and interaction with
 Paragraph development by cause and effect 71

foreign cultures, often as a result of military conquest. A con-

tinuing cause for change is rapidly expanding technology and
new systems of communication that bring all cultures and
languages into closer contact, with borrowing between languages
a common phenomenon in the contemporary world. All langu-
ages change as the experiences of their speakers change.
13.2a What is the function of sentence 1? Do you feel it is effective?
Why?

13.2b The three causes of language change mentioned in the model

paragraph are not introduced by such repetitious introductory phrases
as ‘one cause...another cause is....’ Can you list each cause in a
few words?

13.2c In the last sentence, how does ‘the experiences of their speakers’
summarise the causes?
13.2d How does the terminator refer back to sentence |?

13.3. The following fragment has the basic structure of a cause and
effect paragraph. Read it and plan an appropriate completion of the
causal relationships suggested in the last sentence.
Causes of Student Failure

Thirty-six per cent of the freshmen entering a large New York

university are dismissed during or at the end of the first year.
Studies indicate that this alarming rate of failure is due to a
variety of causes, some of which are beyond the control of the
student. Among these are inadequate academic and personal
counselling services, inferior quality of instruction in very large
freshman classes, and the computerised anonymity of most
administrative procedures. But many of the causes of early
student failure can be traced to non-adaptive behaviour on the
part of the student himself.

13.3a In the space provided, write three sentences that give reasons
for student failure in the first year of college. Remember that these
reasons must be factors within the students’ control.
72 From Paragraph to Essay

13.3b Write an appropriate terminator for this paragraph.

13.3c Which sentences in the paragraph state the causes? Which
state the effect?

13.3d What is the function of sentences 2 and 4?

13.4 The technique of cause and effect has great flexibility, for the
relationships between causes and effects are not always as clear-cut
as the two terms seem to suggest. Causes may not all carry the same
weight, for example. Several contributing causes may be grouped
together to form one important cause. There may be one effect to a
cause, or there may be many. Effects may be less important than
causes. And so on. The next few model paragraphs, selected from
textbooks, further demonstrate cause and effect in the kind of academic
writing you are likely to read. They show considerable variety in their
methods of indicating the relationships between causes and effects.
Because the paragraphs are taken out of context, the method of
paragraph development may seem less obvious; as you learned in
the model essays, one paragraph in a longer paper builds on the
previous paragraphs and anticipates the next. Exercises are therefore
kept to a minimum, discussing only the most obvious features of the
paragraph.

Several factors cause fatigue, but in general, they come down

to two main causes: lack of fuel or food, and the excessive
accumulation of by-products of activity. Muscle activity uses up
stores of glycogen or sugar. It also must have oxygen, for a
muscle deprived of it will soon cease to contract. Lactic acid
and carbon dioxide are the chief by-products of muscle activity,
but there are also toxins from other sources which may help
produce fatigue. Some of these toxins may come from bodily
infections and some may be absorbed from breathing or from
the digestive process. But in addition to these factors, there are
certain causes of fatigue which are more or less obscure. Some
of these are less physiological than psychological, such as lack
of interest in what you are doing. When you do something that
bores you, you tire easily; if you are interested in your work,
you forget the amount of energy you put into it. You also tire
more quickly when standing than when you are walking, for
in walking, each leg rests half of the time. !
13.4a The topic sentence indicates there are two main causes of
fatigue. Which sentence indicates that still other causes are going to
be discussed ?
13.4b Does the paragraph have an effective terminator?

' Hickman, C.P. Health for College Students, Second Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1963,
page 126.
 Paragraph development by cause and effect 73

13.4c Although this paragraph is clearly organised, it also seems to

suffer from fatigue. Can you explain why the paragraph seems ‘tired’?
13.5. The method of development in the following paragraph de-
monstrates another variation of the cause-and-effect relationship.
Read the paragraph carefully.

There has been an emphasis, recently, on the possibility that

society itself, or the group culture, may be producing the dis-
tortions of personality, mental illness, and emotional instability
which apparently are widespread. Various writers have pointed
out that man’s basic needs are being extensively thwarted by
the demands of society. According to this view, man no longer
may be an individual or develop his imagination, reason, and
creative powers; and he is prevented, because of society’s com-
partmentalising, from achieving feelings of relatedness—of loving
and being loved. Because of the competitive demands of civilisa-
tion, man now strives for ‘things’ rather than for his own
development. He feels himself to be merely a pawn rather than
a contributing member of society. If he rebels, he is subject to
punishment by society, or if, on the other hand, he submits,
he may become simply a stereotyped, pedestrian member of
society and thus lose much of his urge toward creativity and
individuality. As an example, Fromm suggests that society
produces in its members what he calls ‘a socially patterned
defect’. '
13.5a In which sentence is the cause-and-effect relationship first
indicated? Is it the topic sentence?

13.5b Explain how the phrase ‘socially patterned defect’ summarises

the whole paragraph and refers back to the topic sentence.
13.6 The subject of the following paragraph, the growth of the
labour force in the nineteenth century, is not specifically mentioned
until near the end of the paragraph. Does it seem to be a cause or an
effect?

With the beginning of the factory system, labour needs could

be met in part by long working hours. In an economy where
agriculture prevailed, it was not unusual that factory operators
should insist upon sunrise to sunset as a normal working day.
Factory labour was at first recruited from the women and
children in the towns and villages surrounding the factory areas.
The first persons employed in the Slater (textile) mills, for
example, were seven boys and two girls between the ages of
seven and twelve. In the Massachusetts mills, the general policy
Thorpe, L.P. The Psychologyof Mental Health, Second Edition, The Ronald Press
Company, New York, 1960,page 18.
74 From Paragraph to Essay

was to employ female operatives who were boarded at company

houses and subjected to considerable company control in so far
as conduct was concerned. Such employments, significant as
they might have been, were a ‘drop in the bucket’ in terms of
labour requirements. The explanation of labour force growth
in the nineteenth century is closely related to the history of the
population growth that occurred. An important element in the
population growth was the tide of immigrants who came to the
United States in increasing numbers until government policy
discouraged large-scale immigration after the first world war.!
13.6a List the three causes for the growth of the labour force dis-
cussed in the model paragraph.
*

13.6b Do the three causes seem to receive equal emphasis?

13.6c What is the function of sentence 6?

13.7 Cause and effect is an extremely advantageous developmental

technique in longer papers. The model paragraph in 4.5 discussed
the migration of Southern blacks and Puerto Ricans to New York
City. This subject could be given greater scope by indicating several
of the causes for the migration. Paragraph 11.2 discussed the process
of industrialisation resulting in greater urbanisation. This subject
could be enlarged upon by a discussion of the many causes for urbanisa-
tion in modern societies.
As you have seen in the model paragraphs in lesson 13, cause and
effect can be used in developing individual paragraphs on a variety
of subjects. This technique is appropriate for subject matter ranging
from the rather trivial ‘Why I Like Sports’ to more serious topics
such as “The Causes of Influenza as a World Health Problem’.
Write two cause-and-effect paragraphs on any two of the following
topics or others of your own choice:
Major causes of crime (or poverty, or pollution) in my city
Success in college
The rise and fall of skirt lengths

' Cohen, S. Labor in the United States, Second Edition, Charles E. Merrill Books,
Inc., 1966, page 11.
 14
Paragraph
development by
generalisation

14.1 Paragraph development by generalisation is very much like

paragraph development by examples (see lesson 2). Both make use
of developers, which are examples supporting an idea or point of view.
One common difference is that the generalisation is stated as a con-
clusion based on several examples, given as facts or opinions, which
lead the reader to make the same conclusion. The focus of the reader’s
attention is on the generalisation. It is less like telling the reader
‘This is true because of this and this and this’ and more like saying
‘If this is true, and this and this, then we can make the following
general conclusion, cant we?’
Following is a slightly adapted version of the model paragraph in
2.1. Compare this version, which illustrates development by generalisa-
tion, with the original in lesson 2.

Effective Writing—A Must in Universities

In preparing scientific reports of laboratory experiments, a
student must present his findings in logical order and clear
language if he wants to receive a favourable evaluation of his
work. Similarly, in order to write successful answers to essay
questions on history or anthropology examinations, a student
must arrange the relevant facts and opinions according to some
accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly when a
student writes a book report for English, or a critique for political
studies, or a term paper for sociology, style and organisation
are often as important as content. Clearly, the ability to write
well organised, concise paragraphs and essays is essential to a
student’s success in almost ail university courses.
Examine the next paragraph which also uses examples to lead =to

a generalisation.

Impact of Science on Agriculture

Science and technology have contributed in several important
ways to the improvement ofagricultural production. Scientifically
compounded fertilisers make the land more productive. Chemica!
insecticides and pesticides, applied periodically to growing
crops, selectively destroy a wide range of detrimental insects
and pests. The numerous herbicides now available eliminate
76 From Paragraph to Essay

unwanted grasses and weeds, freeing field crops for more abun-
dant growth. Research in plant sciences has created hybrids
which provide higher-yielding plant strains and seeds. Moreover,
technology has developed various kinds of machines such as
tractors and combines, which perform many time-consuming
tasks that once required a great deal of manual labour. Hydro-
electric installations supply water for advanced irrigation tech-
niques and power for the complex needs of the modern farm.
Plainly, large scale agricultural production in the 1970’s depends
heavily on developments in science and technology.
14.2 The following paragraph describes the effects of large industries
in an urban setting on small owner-operated shops.
The Decline of Small Businesses
Each year, countless small businesses close their doors and go
into bankruptcy. The corner grocer, the little dress shop, the
locally owned sandwich shop, the baker, the dancing school,
the beauty salon, all are victims of the constantly shifting
economy. They are, at times, replaced by other small businesses
that temporarily fill the needs of the neighbourhood but fre-
quently end up sharing the same fate of dissolution. More often,
the market served by the small business is taken over by a large
store or plant, frequently from a more distant place of opera-
tion. Typically, the corner grocer’s and baker’s business has
already gone to the nationally owned supermarket down the
street. The woman who runs the dress shop chooses fashions
out of tune with the times and gets too old to keep the store
open during the most convenient hours for shoppers, who then
go off to the big department stores. It is increasingly difficult,
apparently, for small businesses to succeed in our complex
economic structure based, as it iS, on small profit margins and
tremendous sales volume.
14.2a What is the function of sentence 1?

14.2b Sentence | is a statement of observable fact that could be

supported with statistics from cities and countries throughout the
world. Compare sentence | with the final sentence. How do they
differ? What factors are stated in the generalisation that do not appear
in sentence |?

14.2c What kind of information do the developers provide that

leads to the generalisations?
14.2d Point out words or phrases in sentences 2 to 6 that lead you
to accept the generalisation, especially the final phrase of the generalisa-
tion: *...complex economic structure based, as it is, on small profit
margins and tremendous sales volume’.
 Paragraph development by generalisation 77

14.3. The following incomplete paragraph leads you to make your

own generalisation. On the basis of the causal examples given in the
paragraph and other observations of your own, what would you
conclude about news?
The News Broadcast
Turn on the world news broadcast any evening, and the pre-
dominant mood is one of gloom. Maybe Brazil and Peru haven’t
gone to war, but the news is that some other countries have.
Thousands of people have been left homeless by earthquakes,
floods, and fires, but nobody reports on the millions of people
unharmed by natural disasters. In the cities, men and women
go about the daily affairs of earning a living, quietly and calmly,
without making the news, but crime, greed, and corruption seem
to be on every street corner according to the latest news report.

14.3a Notice that each developer includes one item of what might
be considered good news and one item of bad news. In the space
provided, add one more sentence that contrasts bad news and good
news.

14.3b Which news—good or bad—dominates in the paragraph and,

apparently, in news broadcasts generally?
14.3c Complete the paragraph with an appropriate generalisation.
Since the major generalisation in this paragraph, as in 14.1, comes
at the end, remember that it should also be an effective terminator.
14.3d What words or phrases in your final sentence refer back to
sentence 1?

14.4 Paragraph development by generalisation is employed for a

variety of reasons. It may be used to gently persuade and lead the
reader to the writer’s point of view. It may establish rapport by stating
a conclusion that is rather obvious and already agreeable to both
reader and writer. It may point out a foregone conclusion or generalisa-
tion upon which the writer wishes to build additional information
and opinions. For these purposes, and others as well, authors of the
type of material you will be reading in your academic course work
often use generalisations. The following model paragraphs are ex-
cerpts from popular textbooks in such subjects as geography, English
language, and sociology. They exemplify a wide variety of generalisa-
tions, and as in lesson 13, exercises are kept to a minimum.
78 From Paragraph to Essay

The surface of the earth is chiefly water—something that we, as

dwellers on the land, are apt to ignore or completely forget. As
noted earlier, the Pacific Ocean alone covers nearly one third of
the globe. The combined areas of all water bodies, including
oceans, seas, and lakes, add up to nearly two and one-half
times that of all the land of the earth. In other words, about
71 per cent of the earth’s surface is water. In addition to the
large expanses just mentioned, there are small ponds, waters
that run as streams on top of the land, and other waters that
lie or move within the upper portion of the earth’s crust. And
there is water in vapour and condensed forms in the atmosphere.
Thus, water is an important and practically all-pervasive element
in man’s habitat.!

14.4a Which sentence states the generalisation in this model para-

graph?

14.4b The structure of this paragraph is very similar to the model

paragraph in 14.1. Sentence | begins with a statement of observable
fact. Compare sentence | with the final sentence. How do the two
sentences differ? How is the relationship between the two indicated?

14.5 The following paragraph contains three related generalisations.

As you read the paragraph, try to discover the way in which these
generalisations are interrelated.

When most of us think about language, we think first about

words. Thus, the hardest part of learning a foreign language
may seem to be memorising its vocabulary; when we observe
a child first acquiring speech, we talk of his progress as a matter
of learning new words. We are also likely to feel that the adult
speaker with the largest vocabulary has the best command of
English. To think of a language as just a stock of words is,
however, quite wrong. Words alone do not make a language;
a grammar is needed to combine them in some intelligible way.
Moreover, words are relatively easy to learn, and indeed all of
us go on learning them all our lives. They are also the least
stable part of language. Words come into being, change their
pronunciations and meanings, and disappear completely—all
with comparative ease. Yet it is true that the vocabulary is the
focus of language. It is in words that sounds and meanings
interlock to allow us to communicate with one another, and it
is words that we arrange together to make sentences, conversa-
tions, and discourse of all kinds. Thus we have a paradox in
that the most ephemeral part of language is also the centre
' Kendall, H.W., Glendinning, R.H. and MacFadden, C.H. Introduction to Physical
Geography, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1970, page 96.
 Paragraph development by generalisation 79

where meaning, pronunciation, and grammar come together. !

14.5a Which sentence states the first generalisation?
14.5b Which sentence provides a transition from the first generalisa-
tion toward the second?
14.5¢ Which sentence states the second generalisation?

14.5d In what way does the third generalisation make use of the
first two?

14.5e This paragraph exemplifies a very persuasive technique using

generalisations. Notice that the first generalisation, which, as the
authors indicate, everyone believes, is stated initially so that the
authors can knock it down later with a second generalisation. The
second states a different point of view although it is still incomplete.
The authors are able, in the final sentence, to make the defensible
third statement that clearly represents the authors’ views. As you
can observe in the paragraph, it is an interesting and effective technique
for leading the reader to a modified point of view or a new under-
standing of the subject.

14.6 The following model paragraph is taken out of context from

a sociology textbook. The generalisation is about education as a
means of social control. Notice that there are two aspects of the
generalisation stated in the first sentence.

Education in a broad sense, from infancy to adulthood, is thus

a vital means of social control, and its significance has been
greatly enhanced in the last two decades by the rapid expansion
of education at all levels in the developing countries, and by
the equally rapid growth of secondary and higher education in
the industrial countries. Through education new generations
learn the social norms and the penalties for infringing them;
they are instructed also in their ‘station and its duties’ within
the system of social differentiation and stratification. In modern
societies, where formal education becomes predominant, and
where an important occupational group of teachers comes into
existence, education is also a major type of social control (as
the source of scientific knowledge) which is in competition and
sometimes in conflict with other types of control. This conflict
may become particularly acute with the extension of higher
education to a much larger proportion of the population, as
the experience of the last few years has shown in Europe and
North America; and the educational system may increasingly

' Pyles, T. and Algeo, J. English: An Introduction to Language, Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich, Inc., 1970, page 96.
80 From Paragraph to Essay

provide one of the main sources of change and innovation in

the social norms.!

14.642 What are the two aspects of the generalisation in sentence |?

14.6b In sentence 3, point out words or phrases which refer to social

control.

14.7. Generalisations, as we have pointed out in this lesson, are

based on several examples or instances that lead the writer and reader
to form a conclusion. You could write a generalisation based on only
one example, but the conclusion would be less convincing unless it
were already self-evident or were some universal truth. The sentence
containing the generalisation may appear at the beginning or the end
of a paragraph, but in the planning stage you normally think of the
generalisation first. Then you develop the examples that can effectively
lead up to the generalisation. Remember that the main purpose of
the generalisation paragraph is to convince the reader that your
conclusion is the only logical one.
Write two generalisation paragraphs on two different topics selected
from the following or on other topics of your choice.
Social (or economic, or educational) problems in my country
(in developing countries, in industrial countries)
Life in the 1980’s (the twentieth century, the city)
On being twenty years old (young, old)
Woman’s role (in the future, in marriage)

' Bottomore, T.B. Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Second Edition,
George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971.
 15
Essay
development by
various means

The exercises included in this lesson are intended to summarise the

methods of paragraph and essay development illustrated throughout
this book and to illustrate the manner by which several methods may
be combined in one essay. The organisational techniques of com-
parison, contrast, definition, time and space, process, etc., that you
have studied and practised in individual lessons, do indeed appear
regularly in the formal prose of educated writers. This lesson provides
an opportunity to observe various developmental procedures as they
are employed naturally by mature writers.

15.1. The following short essay was written with two purposes in
view: (1) to supply some interesting information about the growth
and spread of the English language, and (2) to review some of the
paragraph development techniques presented in earlier lessons. At
the end of each paragraph, write the term that best describes the
predominant method of development used.

Speech Communities
There is no denying that English is a useful language. The
people who speak English today make up the largest speech
community in the world with the exception of speakers of
Mandarin Chinese. Originally they were small tribes of people
living in northern Europe who left their homelands and settled
in England. Isolated in their island community, the various
tribes used languages which became more and more similar to
each other and less and less like the other languages of Europe.
Eventually, the language had enough uniformity to be used by
all speakers in England. The people were united into a speech
community through their shared language. In time, people
moved from the small island to many parts of the world, taking
their language with them and thus still remaining members of
the English speech community wherever they settled.__
A speech community is similar to other kinds of communities.
The people who make up the community share a common
language. Often they live side by side as they do in a neighbour-
hood, a village, or a city. More often they form a whole country.
Many nations are composed of a single major speech community,
for example, Italy, Sweden, and Japan. National boundaries,
82 From Paragraph to Essay

however, are not always the same as the boundaries of a speech

community. Some nations (for example, Russia and India) are
made up of many speech communities. Some speech communi-
ties (for example, Arabic, Spanish, and English) extend across
national boundaries. A speech community, then, is any group
of people who speak the same language no matter where they
happen to live.
We may say that anyone who speaks English belongs to the
English speech community. For convenience, we may classify
the speakers into two groups: one in which the speakers use
English as their native language, the other in which the speakers
learn English as a second language for the purposes of educa-
tion, commerce, and so on. In the former group we, obviously,
would include England, Canada, the United States, Australia
and New Zealand. Naturally, not all people in these countries
speak English natively, but a large majority do. In the latter
groups we would include, among many others, India, Denmark,
Kenya, Burma, Turkey, Ethiopia, and the Philippines. Not all
these countries use English for the same purpose or to the same
extent, but each uses English for important social and com-
mercial activities.
English serves as a functional alternative language in several
areas of public activity for the many nations of the world which
use it as an international second language. Because of its wide-
spread use geographically, and because of the large number of
people who speak it, it has been adopted as the language of
aviation and air traffic. English has continued as one of the
important languages of commerce, as the sphere of political and
economic influence of the English-speaking nations has extended
beyond the boundaries of England. The use of English in inter-
national diplomacy is strengthened by its acceptance as one of
the official languages of the United Nations. And as a final
example, English is the language of the majority of published
materials in the world so that education, especially specialised
higher education, has come to rely on an understanding of
English very heavily. In no sense does English replace the cultural
heritage and emotional ties of the first language, but for many
speakers throughout the world, it provides a means of com-
municating with people of similar training and interests who
would otherwise not comprehend them.
Learning a second language extends one’s vision and expands
the mind. Looking at the world or oneself through a different
language system shows the limits of one’s own perception and
adds new dimensions to familiar objects or events. A second
language teaches us different ways of labelling and organising
our experiences. The history and literature of a second language
record the real and fictional lives of a people and their culture:
 Essay development by various means 83

a knowledge of them adds to our ability to understand and to

feel as they feel. Learning English as a second language provides
another means of communication through which the window
of the entire English speech community becomes a part of your
heritage.

15.2 Select a short article from an English language news or com-

mentary magazine.
1 Does the article follow one predominant method of develop-
ment? That is, does it mainly compare, or give examples or define, etc?
2 Can you identify individual paragraphs which follow the
methods studied in this book?
3 Do some methods seem to carry on over more than one para-
graph? Give an example.
4 Is the terminator a restatement? How does it conclude the
article?

15.3. Choose one of your textbooks written in English or a book

in your field of interest from the library. Select a chapter you have
already read or would like to read. Choose every fourth paragraph
for analysis.
1 Identify the method of development used in each paragraph,
if possible.
2 Describe how each paragraph is related to the paragraph
immediately preceeding it and following it.
3 Do some paragraphs use more than one method of develop-
ment?
4 Are there some paragraphs that do not seem to follow the
methods of development studied? Can you explain how they are
developed?
5 Copy the paragraph that you think is organised best. Bring
it to the class for discussion.

15.4 Read a feature story in an English language newspaper, a

Sunday newspaper or magazine, or a popular magazine about general
subjects. Choose something which interests you.
1 What method of development does the author use in the first
paragraph? :
2 Howdoestheauthorcatchyourinterestinthefirstparagraph?
3 Does the first paragraph tell you what the remainder of the
article is going to be about? é
4 Does it show you what method of development will be followed
in the remainder of the article? '
5 In what way does the subject matter of the article determine
which method of development is used? For example, a biography of
84 From Paragraph to Essay

a famous person would include some paragraphs using time as a

method of development.

15.5 Read an article from a technical journal (for example, science,

engineering, medicine, education, etc.).
1 Does the article follow one predominant method of develop-
ment?
2 How does the method (or methods) seem to relate to the
subject matter?
3 Copy the paragraph that you think is organised best. Bring
it to the class for discussion.
4 Are there some paragraphs that do not seem to follow the
methods of development studied? If there are, bring one example to
the class for discussion.
5 Do some paragraphs use more than one method of develop-
ment? If so, bring one example to the class for discussion.

15.6 Write a short essay about the place you would most like to
visit. Your essay might include paragraphs on the following topics
among others:
Identify the place by type or category. CLASSIFICATION
Tell how you became interested in it. PROCESS
Give a brief history. TIME
Mention something about its physical
characteristics or boundaries. SPACE
State reasons for your interest. CAUSE Or LIST
State reasons for its present or historical
importance. CAUSE,EFFECTOr EXAMPLE
Tell how it compares with other places
you know about. COMPARISON Or CONTRAST

15.7. Write a short essay about one aspect of your chosen field of
study. Your essay might include paragraphs of the following types:
DEFINITION of the field or your area of interest within the field.
LIsT the various branches or divisions which make up the field.
EXAMPLES of the contributions of the field.
COMPARE Or CONTRAST your field with another or others.
Explain an important PROCESS or method in your field.
List CAUSES for interest in the field.
List EFFECTS of studying in your field.
 Answers to the Exercises

Specific answers are given for most questions in the text. Example
answers are given for questions for which there may be a variety of
answers depending on the readers’ experiences. No answers are given
where the answer is totally dependent upon information only the reader
can supply.

l.la sentences in paragraphs four functions |

introducers establish topic focus i)

developers present details 3

modulators provide transition 4

terminators conclude ideas Ss

paragraphs four sentence types 6

They present details. Numbers 2, 3, 4. and 5 in the outline above.

They provide transition. No. No.
Yes. It refers to the first sentence—the introducer—by mention-
ing four sentence types and by oo successful, that is
well written paragraphs.
Transitional words first, second, third, and fourth. it is noted
later that this technique provides rather uninteresting transitions.

Yes. Introducer—sentence | ; developers—sentences 2, 3, 5; and

terminator—sentence 6.
Sentence 4.
Yes. It refers to the 1960’s, European colonialists, and the birth
of African nations.

1.3a No. Only one developer is not sufficient to support the

paragraph introducer.
1.3b Example: Secondly, Indonesia has a GNP of $11,100,000,000
and a population of 122,864,000 inhabitants scattered over
approximately 3,000 islands including Java, Sumatra, Kaliman-
tan, Sulawesi, and West Irian. Thirdly, Japan has a GNP of
$124,700,000,000 and a population of 104,649,000 living on
approximately 1,000 islands the largest of which are Honshu,
Kyushu, Hokkaido, and Shikoku.
86 From Paragraph to Essay

1.4a Introducer. It establishes the topic focus or idea of the whole

paragraph.
1.4b Developers. They present details that support or give additional
information.
1.4c Sentence 6. It connects terms for cooking methods and terms
for behaviour.
1.4d For example begins a list of cooking terms
another lists a second example
A related process lists another example and refers back to the
previous ones
Still another lists a fourth example.
1.4e Terminator. It rounds off the paragraph by referring back to
cooking terms and special meanings.

1.5a Example: In addition, creativity will be required to meet the

constantly changing world around us. Finally, perseverance,
the ability to hold on at all costs, will be required in a society
where competition for space, food, and shelter will increase with
a growing population.
1.5b Examples: Essential Qualities for the 1980’s
Personal Qualities for Success in the 1980's
Personal: Success in the 1980’s

2.1la ability to write essential l

reports logical order clear language Z
answers accepted pattern of structure
style and organisation
skill in writing crucial
important
W
&
n
Sentence |.
Sentence 2 is a specific example of the general idea expressed in
sentence |.
2.le Sentence 3 is a specific example of the general idea expressed in
sentence |. Sentences 2 and 3 are both specific examples.
Yes. Key words in the terminator are successful achievement. . .
university subjects which refer to the introducer student’s success
.. university courses.

All the example sentences list types of manual labour.

2.2d The development or progress of a country depends on manual
labour.
2.2e To begin with indicates the first example. Secondly comes next.
Since finally introduces the last example, the third example must
 Answers to the Exercises 87

be the sentence beginning And of course...

2.21 Example: National Development and Manual Labour
Manual Labour and Industrial Development

23a Example: Modern literature in most countries deals with real

social issues.
2.3b Example: It is clear from these limited examples that contem-
porary literature in many parts of the world deals with the social
issues of the day.
2.3¢ PSP EIVE2P RSF E4/R!

2.4a Example: Most societies have some means of law enforcement.

2.4b Example: Although vastly different in form and in circum-
stances, most cultures have ways of enforcing laws agreed upon
by the society.
2.4¢ Example: Law Enforcement
Universal Law Enforcement
2.4d S79 El, 22, E3; B4y R:z

2.5a TS) EL, E2ABSsEaR!

2.5b US advanced educational opportunities l
general education liberal arts colleges 2

technical education specialised schools 3

two-year community colleges 4
technical institutes by businesses and industries 5
educational opportunities continue for years 6

ime lor eo 4 bt Sa RAS Oo.Re

Topic sentence. It introduces the subject of qualities important
in the successful job interview.
They provide specific examples of the important qualities.
Yes. It provides a satisfying conclusion to the paragraph by
referring back to the topic introduced in sentence I.
successful interview requires certain qualities l
well-groomed and modestly dressed 2
manner of speaking _ 3
talk knowledgeably about position 4
self-confidence and enthusiasm 5
these characteristics make successful interview ws

Samet e Pl. P3.EP4, RP.

88 From Paragraph to Essay

3.2b Underline sentence | in the TP. Yes.

3.2¢ Underline sentence | in EP1. Yes.
3.2d They state specific examples to support the main idea expressed
in the topic sentence of EP1.
3.2e Underline sentence 1 in EP2. Underline sentence 2 in EP3.
Underline sentence | in EP4. In EP3, the topic sentence follows
a topic introducer.
2k They state specific examples to support the topic sentences.
3.2g Underline the final sentence in the final paragraph. No, it comes
last. It summarises the other sentences in the paragraph. Yes, it
refers back to the topic paragraph by mentioning success in
interview.
3.2h It makes the essay more personal for the reader. It generalises
the ideas, that is, Jt makes the qualities refer to all successful
job applicants. The final sentence again reminds the reader that
the qualities mentioned in the essay refer to himself and all other
job applicants.

4.la Yes. Sentence | serves as topic sentence. Sentences 2-7 are

developers, the final sentence is a terminator.
4.1b Sentence 2 is A (paragraph)—El. Sentence 3 is B (essay)-El.
Sentence 4 is A-E2; sentence 5 is B-E2. Sentence 6 is A-E3;
sentence 7 is B—E3. There is logical alternation.
4.1c A-E1—For example, the paragraph...
B—-E1—In the essay...
A-E2—Next...
B-E2—Similarly...
A-E3—Finally...the paragraph.
B—-E3—The essay, too...
4.1d Yes. The key phrases are comparable in structure and similar
structurally.

4.2a TI—sentence |; TS—sentence 2. The TI introduces the general

subject of black African sculpture and modern artists. The TS
states the specific subject of African primitive artists and Picasso.
4.2b It lists all A (African) together and then all B (Picasso) together.
4.2d Example: African Folk Sculpture and Pablo Picasso.

4.3a It alternates A(West Germany) and B (Japan).

4.3b No.
4.3¢ Example: In many areas of social and industrial development,
West Germany and Japan have made remarkable progress since
World War II.

4.4a TI—Introduces the general subject of Christianity and Islam

TS—Specifies sharing of beliefs and practices
AB—Combined example of both religions
 Answers to the Exercises 89

A-E1—Christianity
B-E1—Islam
A-E2—Christianity
B-E2—Islam
R—Restates the subject of shared beliefs between Christianity
and Islam
4.4b Both Christian ~ and Muslims
Christian holy book
Muslim holy book
code of ethics Christians
Musiim daily guidance
4.4c TS—...two faiths share...
R—...shared heritage of Christianity and Islam.

4.5a It alternates A (Puerto Rican) and B (Southern Blacks).

4.5b The comparisons are stated in reverse order for subject B.
4.5¢ Yes. The key word 1s skills.
4.5d TI, TS / A-El, A-E2, A-E3, A-E4, A-E5;B-E1, B—E2, B—E3,
B-E4, B-E5/ R.

5.la however; On the other hand: In contrast.

5.1b It alternates A (large university) and B (small college).
Sle TS / A-E1],
B-El, A-E2,B-E2, A-E3, B-E3/ R.

5.2a (2) is best. (1) is too general and points out only one of the
differences. (3) suggests that the purposes are different, but the
paragraph states that the purposes are similar.
5.2b Example: British and American Universities.
5.2¢c It alternates A (British) and B (American).
5.2d Similarities: aims

federal support
Differences: size

specialised studies
support of private schools
support of students

5.3b THE OBJECTIVE TEST THE ESSAY EXAM

large number of questions a few questions

true-false or multiple choice essay form
detailed information general concepts
unrelated questions analytical and compositiona! skills
encourages guessing guessing is reduced
90 From Paragraph to Essay

5.5a It alternates A and B examples.

5.5b This is a matter of opinion. It frequently depends on the subject
matter being discussed.
5.5¢ TS / A-E1, B-E1, A-E2, B-E2, A-E3, B—E3, A-E4, B-E4 / R.

6.la Word level: spelling and capitalisation

words are changed
Sentence level: phrases put in different order
modification revised
different verb structures chosen

length of phrases or sentences revised

Between sentences punctuation
or paragraphs: transitional devices
rewriting awkward phrases or sentences
Reasons for editorial change.

TP OCR CED CRS RE.

Underline sentence | in the TP. Yes.
It lists all A (Gandhi) examples together, followed by all B
(King) examples.
It lists all Aexamples, followed by all B examples.
Underline sentence | in CP3. Yes.
It alternates A and B.

Comparison, contrast, and synthesis.

Example: A definition paragraph explains by comparing, con-
trasting, or synthesising.
Sentence 5.
Products made from man-made materials, as synthetic rubber.
It summarises the main points which define a term.

Yes, but to a limited extent. It is the topic sentence.

They add detail to the definition.
Energy-producing process and all plant and animal life.

wooded area... unusually heavy and frequent rains.

Wooded area. The sentences discuss the places where these
wooded areas exist, the kinds of trees in them, additional
characteristics of the trees and other growth in the areas.
7.3¢ No, not only wooded area. The sentence ties the two ideas
together through the use of /uxuriant growth and rainfall.
7.3d They discuss a particular rain forest, El Yunque.
 Answers to the Exercises 91]

7.3e Through such phrases as average rainfall 180 inches per year
and trees, plants, greenery, etc.

74a No fixed homes and move regularly.

7.4b Gypsies might be another example for some countries.
7.4¢ For the terminator to be effective, it must also fit your developer.
Ths oe te Vogler"
75a Sentence | introduces the term; no other sentence does, but all
refer to it. Sentence 2 tells where the word comes from and
indicates in a general way how it differs from any English
equivalent. Sentence 3 gives one special quality conveyed by the
term. Sentence 4 adds another quality which because of the also
must follow 3. Sentence 5 expands on 4. Sentence 6 is the only
sentence which summarises all the qualities.
Teste Courageous behaviour and earthy sexuality. Sentence 1.
7.5d Sentences 2 and 3 to sexuality; 4 and 5 to courageous behaviour.
7.5e also.
TShi Summarises principal qualities in the concept.
8.la Yes. Paragraphs.
8.1b Sentence 5.
8.1¢ Our feeling is that the emphasis on purpose makes it difficult for
students to concentrate on organisation. It is very difficult to
generalise about what is exciting or persuasive; what interests
one person may not excite another.
8.1d We hope so.
8.2a Examples.
8.2b Sentence 3.
8.2¢ They are likely to offend persons or cause them to evaluate you
negatively if they consider them inappropriate to the situation
in which they are used. There is some social consensus about
when one can use language of this type even though such
decisions are very arbitrary.
8.3a Use of first person. Style which sounds more spoken than
written, e.g., use of contractions, direct quotations, ete.
8.3b Sentence |. Fall into three categories.
8.3c Example: Types of Politicians
Three Kinds of Politicians

8.4a
CLASSES OF PEOPLE TYPES OF VEHICLES

the economy minded small, lightweight cars

the young sports models
the middle-aged, middle class big, sleek cars
the rich luxury cars
92 From Paragraph to Essay

8.4b Examples:
service men vans
oil delivery men tankers
8.4¢ Example: The Car Industry and the Buyer

8.5a The final sentence.

8.5b Vocational guidance; laboratory experiments involving animals;
human neurosis.
8.5¢ in common.

Jak British university academic obligations of 3 types ]

lectures 2
tutorials 3
examinations 4
students prepare themselves by means of lectures, tutorials,
and examinations 5

93a It introduces the main subject—plagiarism—and defines it.

9.3b Paragraph 1.
9.3¢ Plagiarism by accident, by ignorance, and by intention.
9.3d Sentence 1.
9.3e Classification.
9.3f Definition.
9.3¢ Paragraph 2. Probably not. It is not very specific.
93h Acknowledgement. The final paragraph.
9.3) Yes. It refers back to the first paragraph with reference to the
importance of giving proper credit for ideas.
9.3) Yes. Discussion ofthe various types of plagiarism and definitions
of these types.

10.1b A frame controls or confines space.

10.1¢ Sentence 9, colour; 7, perspective; 6, light.
10.1d It intensifies his vision, and enables him to see the significance
of the focus more clearly.

10.2a 1564 and 1616. They control or confine the events discussed in
the paragraph.
10.2b Lyric and narrative poetry; historical drama; comedies, and
tragedies or tragi-comedies. It gives relationships between dates
and literary types, which aids the reader’s memory.
10.2c Yes. A chronological listing is easier to remember than a
random order.

10.3a Sentence 2. Athens... Babylon. ..led...across.

10.3b Consuming. . .spreading.
 Answers to the Exercises 93

10.3c Yes, it refers back to controversial figure through such key words
as conqueror and hero, and naming children after him but also
instilling fear through his name.
10.3d Primarily, it presents movement in geographical space.

10.4 2 ee alee, Uae Oe:

10.4b The developers follow a pattern of identifying the country first,
followed by a sentence giving a date for writing in that country.
To reverse that order would make the transitions very awkward.

10.5a Perhaps sentence 3, but sentence 4 makes it clear.

10.5¢ Egypt 2400 B.c.
Caspian Sea
Asia Minor
Greece 1000 B.c.
Sicily
France 600 B.c.
Rome 100 A.D.
Germany 200 A.D.
England
America 17th and 18th centuries
10.5d (1) Space
(2) Although the chronology of the paragraph is the same, no
dates are given. There is a much clearer sense of space.
10.5e (1) Time
(2) Although places are mentioned or indirectly indicated, the
dates become much more important in this paragraph.
10.5f We feel the first is perhaps most interesting, but any one of them
might serve useful purposes.

Il.la Introduces the subject of safe water for modern cities. You might
think that the subject of the paragraph is expenditures.
11.1b Further specifies that the subject is water. Indicates that the
paragraph will discuss a two-step or three-step process for water
purification.
11.1c The additional sentences expand, clarify, and illustrate the steps
in the process.
11.1d Water purification. . . city.
I1.le No. If the order of the steps in the process were changed,
something quite different might result. The main purpose of a
process paragraph is to present steps in precisely the order
necessary to bring about the desired result, in this example pure
water.

11.2a The final sentence. F att)

11.2b Seven. The first part of the paragraph, first, second, third; in the
second part of the paragraph first, then, These. . .result, Finally.
94 From Paragraph to Essay

11.2¢ It is a modulator or transition sentence. Moves the reader from

technological changes to socio-economic-cultural changes.
11.2d It summarises the process of industrialisation and brings the
paragraph to a satisfying conclusion.

I1.4a It is the topic sentence.

11.4b It summarises the steps in the process.
11.4¢ It refers to what is to follow; it is a transition sentence. It
indicates that additional steps in the process sometimes take
place as suggested in sentence 2.
11.4d Cheese would probably not be produced.
11.4e universal foods, varies only slightly.

11.5a It is easier to keep several points in mind by grouping, or classify-

ing them.
11.5b It is the first step in the process. It is an example of long-range
planning.
11.5¢ It is an additional step in the process. Assigned readings.
11.5d It is an additional step in the process. Throughout the year refers
back to end of year examinations.
11.5e Yes. Key words are final examinations and year-long process.

12.1a TP, time, space, process, process, RP.

12.1b Paragraph |. Probably not. Because people had been living in
the ‘new world’ 25,000 years before Columbus.
12.1c Pre- meaning before; Columbian is the adjective form of Colum-
bus. It means before Columbus arrived.
12.1d Similar to type 4.
12.le Climate and search for food.

13.1la Sentences 3, 4, and S.

13.1b Sentence |.
Sse It is a topic sentence which-indicates that the paragraph is
going to give causes for the number of Americans killed in car
accidents.
13.1d It is a terminator which restates in a dramatic way the final cause
listed in sentence 5. It concludes the paragraph effectively by
making the reader think of the implications of the statement.

13.2a It introduces the subject and indicates that three causes will be
discussed.
13.2b Groups of people became separated from each other; interaction
with foreign cultures; rapidly expanding technology and com-
munications.
13.2¢ The phrase covers the three reasons listed in the paragraph.
13.2d Key words are all languages change.
 Answers to the Exercises 95

13.3a Examples: poor study habits

too much social life
poor budgeting of time
poor class attendance
failure to hand in assignments on time
ineffective written assignments
13.3b An effective terminator would include reference to causes of
dismissal from college, especially those within the student’s
control.
13.3¢ Sentence | states the effect. Sentence 3 states one cause. The
student is expected to write additional causes.
13.3d Sentences 2 and 4 are transitional sentences suggesting the types
of causes mentioned in sentences 3, 5, 6, and 7.

13.4a Sentence 6: But in addition to these factors...

13.4b We think not. In fact, it is difficult to take the paragraph seriously,
for the sentence refers to little that has been discussed. It relates
most to fatigue as a cause, but the reference is not clear enough
to be a good terminator.
13.4c It seems to lack a conclusion and gives quite a lot of information
that is already known to the reader.

13.5a Sentence |. Yes.

13.5b It refers back to sentence 1: society itself...producing...
distortions... .illness.. .instability.

13.6a working available people long hours

use of women and children
population growth, especially immigration.
13.6b No. Immigration receives more emphasis.
13.6c Transition between lesser causes to most important cause.

14.2a It introduces the subject of small businesses and bankruptcy.

14.2b The final, sentence generalises on the examples given in the
paragraph and reaches a conclusion beyond what is possible
from the observable facts.
14.2¢ They provide examples illustrating the complexity and change
characteristic of modern business, and examples of small
businesses being driven out by large concerns.
14.2d Key phrases might include: ... victims. . .shifting economy,...
fate of dissolution; taken over by a large store...more distant
locations;...corner grocer’s...gone to the nationally owned
supermarket;...large chain; etc.
14.3b Bad.
14.3d Key words might include evening news, news broadcast, gloom,
war, violence, etc.
96 From Paragraph to Essay

14.4a The final sentence.

14.4b The final sentence generalises about the importance of water to
man, the first merely indicates that there is a lot of water on
earth. The final sentence refers back to the first through water,
of course, but also to man—dweller on the land.

14.5a Sentence 1.
14.5b Sentence 4.
14.5¢ Sentence 5.
14.5d It combines both elements—words and grammar—into a final
or revised generalisation.

14.6a Education as a means of social control and its rapid growth in

the past two decades.
14.6b Formal education becomes predominant and an occupational
group of teachers comes into existence.

15.1 Time,space,Definition,Classification,Example,Generalisation.
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