Classification of Steels

Steels are classified on the basis of following criteria :

(1)Carbon content

(2) Content of alloying elements

(3) De-oxidation method employed

(4) Grain Coarsening Characteristics

(5) Manufacturing Method

(6) Depth of Hardening

(7) Applications (form and use)

On the basis of Carbon content:
Plain carbon steels are classified into three groups on the
basis of carbon content as follows:

• Low Carbon Steel (0.008 - 0.3% C)

• Medium Carbon Steel (0.30 - 0.60% C)

• High Carbon Steel (0.60 - 2.00% C)

In general, As the carbon content in the steel increases,

Hardness, strength and fatigue resistance increases while,

Ductility, malleability and toughness decreases.

 Low Carbon Steel (0.008 - 0.30%) :
•They are soft, ductile, malleable and can be easily formed in required
shape.

•They can be easily cold worked for applications such as rolling,forging,

sheet metal, pressing, drawing, etc.

• Steels with 0.2% carbon are also termed as mild steels.

0.02 - 0.10% C : Stampings, fan blades, rivets, wires, bicycle tubes, etc.

0.10-0.20% C : Bolts, structural steels for RCC work, grill, fabrication

work, free cutting steel.

0.20 - 0.30% C : Cams, crankshafts, gears, valves, carburizing steels.

 Medium Carbon Steel (0.30 - 0.60% C):
•They have properties in between low carbon and high carbon steel.
•They are medium hard and tough.
• They are not so ductile and malleable as compared to low carbon steel.
•They are difficult to cold work and hence are used in hardened
condition after heat treatment

0.30 - 0.40% C: Wires, connecting rods, shaft, bolts and nuts, etc.

0.40 - 0.50% C : Axles, shafts, crankshaft, forgings. etc.

0.50-0.60% C : Gears, axles, Die blocks, valve springs, washers, set

screws, etc.
 High carbon steel (0.60 - 2.00% C) :
• Because of higher content of carbon, they are hard and brittle.
• They show better abrasive and wear resistance and can be further
hardened
• Because of lush hardness and wear resistance, they are used as tools
and hence referred as Tool Steels.

0.60-0.90%C : Hand operated tools, wrenches, chisels, agricultural

applications, musical instruments, etc.

0.90 -1.10% C:Dies and tools such as drill bits, cutting blades, milling

cutters etc

1.10-2% C : Heavy cutting tools, Bonus tools, crushing tools, etc.

Classification based on content of alloying elements :
A number of alloying elements such as Ni, Mn, Cr.
Mo, etc. are added to steel to improve some of its properties.

These alloying elements get dissolved in the ferrite or form

complex carbides to improve properties such as hardness,
corrosion resistance, wear resistance, etc.

Such steels are basically classified in two groups:

(i) Low alloy steel (< 10% total alloying elements)

(ii) High alloy steel (> 10% total alloying elements)

Classification based on de-oxidation method employed :

During the extraction of iron, oxygen gets dissolved into iron.

This dissolved oxygen during solidification forms blow holes and

porosity. Hence, it is necessary to remove the oxygen.

Based on the method employed for de-oxidation, steels are

classified as

1. Rimmed steels:

2. Killed Steels

3. Semi-killed steels
 Rimmed steels:
•In rimmed steels, the oxygen is not removed by any de-oxidation
process.

•During solidification, the dissolved oxygen combines with carbon to

form CO (carbon monoxide).

•This CO gas forms blow holes and get collected at the center of the
ingot

•The outer thin layer (rim) of solid iron thus contains less carbon, more
purity and free from blow holes.

•These blow holes get eliminated during cold working

•Rimmed steels are not used for forging operation.

 Killed steels :

•In killed steels, the oxygen is completely removed by addition of

deoxidizing agents such as Al, Si. Mn, etc.

• These de-oxidants remove free oxygen but form oxide inclusions.

•Killed steel is free from blow holes throughout the cross-section of the

ingot.

• These steels can be used for forging. rolling. etc.

 Semi-killed steels :

•In these steels, part of the dissolved oxygen is removed by addition of

de-oxidizers and the rest combines with carbon.

•These steels contain oxygen in the form of CO and oxide inclusions.

•Fewer blowholes are observed as compared to rimmed steels.

•Used for sheets, plates and structural shapes

Effect of Alloying Elements

-Solid solution strengthening

-Formation of Carbides

-Formation of Intermediate compounds

-Formation of inclusions (oxides)

-Shifting of critical temperatures

-Lowering of Critical cooling rate

-Changes in volume during transformation

-Other Effects
(1) Solid solution strengthening hardening :
Alloying elements are soluble in ferrite. They form solid solutions with ferrite.
Solid solutions are harder and stronger than pure metals, thereby increasing

the strength and hardness of the steel. E.g. Mn, Cr, W, Mo, V, Ti, Si, Al, Zr ..
(2) Formation of carbides:
Some alloying elements combine with carbon to form its carbides.

The alloy carbides so formed increase the hardness and wear resistance.

E.g : Cr, Ti, W, Mn, V..

(3) Formation of inclusions (oxides):

They may combine with oxygen and form oxides when added to
steel. These elements (de-oxidants) combine with oxygen to form
oxide inclusions.

E.g: Al, Si, Cr, Mn, V, Ti …

(4) Formation of intermediate compounds:
Some alloying elements form intermediate compounds with
Iron. These phases increase the brittleness of steel and hence their
presence is undesirable.

E.g: Cr, V, W, Ni, Si..

(5) Shifting of critical temperature:
Different alloying elements have different critical temperatures.

Ferrite stabilizers raise the eutectoid temperature (A1) while,

Austenite stabilizers lower the eutectoid temperature (A1).

E.g: Mo, Ti - ferrite stabilizers while,

Mn, Ni - austenite stabilizers.

(6) Changes in volume during transformation :

The changes in microstructure result in change in the volume

of unit cell.

Alloys are added to reduce the volume impact.

E.g : Cr, Ni, Si, Mn, Mo, V, Cr, Ni, P, Si, etc.

(7) Other effects:

Besides those mentioned above, alloying elements are added

to improve corrosion resistance, creep strength, etc.
 Classification of Alloying Elements
With respect to the relation with Carbon, all alloying
elements can be classified into 3 groups
1. Carbide forming elements-

Eg. Ti, Zr, V, W, Mo, Cr, Mn

2. Neutral elements-
Eg. Co

3. Graphitizing elements-
Eg. Si, Ni, Cu, Al
 With respect to their effect on temperature intervals

1. Austenite Stabilizers-
The elements from this group raises A4 temperature
and lowers A3 temperature, thus increasing the range of
stability of an austenite.
Beyond certain percentage of an alloying elements, A3
temperature may become less than room temperature and
therefore such alloy show austenitic structure from room
temperature to melting point and called austenitic steels.

E.g. Ni, Mn, Cu

2. Ferrite Stabilizers-
These elements lower the A4 temperature and
raise the A3 temperature, thus increasing the range of
stability of ferrite.

Beyond a certain percentage of alloying elements, A4 and

A3 merge and ferrite exist from room temperature to
melting point with no existence of austenite and are
termed as Ferritic Steels

E.g. Cr, W, Mo, V, Si, Al, B

 Properties and Uses of Alloying Elements
1) Sulphur-
Sulphur combines with iron and forms iron
sulphide(FeS) which is hard and brittle phase having low
melting point and hence freezes last.

It increases brittleness of steel. during hot working,

steel becomes hot short.

These problems can be reduced by limiting amount

of sulphur to maximum 0.05% and addition of manganese(5:1)
which forms MnS
2) Phosphorus-
it dissolves in ferrite and increases its tensile strength and
hardness . It is the most powerful solid solution strengthener.

If added in excess of the solubility limit, it separates as iron

phosphide (Fe3P) which is hard and brittle phase therefore,
addition of P in large amt increases the brittleness and cold
shortness of the steel.

The amount should be kept below 0.05%

3) Silicon-
It is ferrite solid solution strengthener. It dissolves in ferrite
increasing strength, hardness and toughness without loss of
ductility.

it is strong deoxidizer and is added to molten steel (0.1-

0.3%) for deoxidation. It rapidly combines with dissolved oxygen
from steel and reduces its content.

Silicon is added upto 5% to produce magnetically soft

materials for transformer, motor and generator laminations.
4) Manganese-
It dissolves in ferrite and increases yield strength,
tensile strength, toughness and hardness. Since it is least
expensive element so generally added to all structural steel for
strengthening purpose.

It combines with Mn and forms MnS & reduces deleterious

effect of FeS.
It increases machinability of steel and hence free cutting
steel contain Mn upto 1.6%
5) Nickel-
It is ferrite solid solution strengthener. It dissolves in
ferrite and increases hardness, tensile strength and toughness
without decreasing ductility.
Upto 5% Ni is added to steels requiring high tensile strength
and toughness.

Nickel also resist corrosion and oxidation if added in excess

of 5%.

It increases impact resistance of steel at low temperature.

6) Chromium-
Increases hardenability and wear resistance of steel. It
increases corrosion resistance and oxidation resistance.
Small amount of chromium is present in bolts, springs,
gears, ball bearings etc.

7) Tungsten-
Increases hardenability.
It forms carbides and increases wear and abrasion
resistance. It reforms the grain size.
It reduces tendency of decarburization.
8) Cobalt-
it is neither carbide former nor graphitizer.
The only element which reduces hardenabilty.

9) Molybdenum-
similar function to that of Tungsten however, its
tendency of grain coarsening and decarburization
is less as compared to W.

10)Boron-

High surface hardness, wear resistance and

corrosion resistance
11) Titanium-
Strong carbide former.
Acts as Grain refiner. Ti is added to steels to prevent the
precipitation of chromium carbides.

12)Vanadium-
Same properties as like W or Mo but have some distinct
properties like
- Resistance to grain coarsening is excellent
- Improves fatigue and creep resistance
- It is a strong deoxidizer
Various Alloy Steels :
Various alloying elements are added to obtain the specific
properties in steel

The specific properties define the application of steels.

• Free cutting steels

• High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA)

• Maraging steels

• Stainless steels

• Tool steels
Free cutting steels
As the name suggests, these steels can be machined or cut at
fast speeds. It is due to the high machinability.

In regular low carbon steels, a continuous ribbon of metal is

formed during machining, this continuous ribbon offers further
resistance to cutting tool.

But in free cutting steel, the chip formation is not continuous

rather it is in the form of small broken chips.

This is achieved in Low carbon steel by increasing the content

of Sulphur, Phosphorous and Manganese in the steel.
 Manganese combines with Sulphur to form MnS - which helps in
chip formation. Maximum limit of Sulphur is 0.6% and that of
Manganese is about 5 to 8 times that of Sulphur.

Phosphorous combines with Iron to form Fe3P - which also helps

in chip formation. The maximum limit of Phosphorous is 0.12%.

In high carbon steels, due to high hardness and wear resistance,

machining is difficult. This is overcome by addition of lead which is
insoluble in steel.

Lead forms submicroscopic globules in steel and aids in chip

formation without affecting the ductility, toughness and other
properties. The maximum limit of lead is 0.35%.
High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA) :
HSLA steels are also referred to as micro-alloyed steels.

It consists of low carbon content about 0.08 - 0.13% C with low

alloying elements (< 0.5%). Alloying elements include V, Ti and AI.

Low carbon content ensures good ductility, malleability,

toughness and weldability. The alloying elements also form solid
strengthening solution and provide hardness to steel.

The alloying elements added to form carbide, inclusions that

provide strength and hardness to steel.

These steels have better strength to weight ratio.

Maraging steels
They are low carbon steels (< 0.03% C) containing 18 to
25% nickel and other alloying elements in small proportion.

The additional alloying elements include

Mo- 3 to 5%

Co - 3 to 8%

Ti - 0.2 to 1.6% and traces of AI.

Maraging steels are subjected to air hardening followed by aging, hence

the name maraging steels. This treatment induces ultra high strength in
the steel.
 The process involves heating the steel to around 850°C and rapid
cooling in air until room temperature. The micro-structure obtained is
low carbon martensite which is not as hard as the conventional
martensite.

The heat treated steel is then age hardened at about 500 °C for
3-4 hrs. Aging treatment results in precipitation of intermetallic
compounds. They also have excellent fracture toughness and Tensile
Strength

These steels are used for special applications such as rocket

casing, pressure vessels , engine components, injection moulds and dies.
 Stainless Steel
Group A- Martensitic Stainless steel
Surgical Instruments, cutting tools, razor blades, spring, ball bearing etc.

Group B- Ferritic Stainless steel

Juice carrying pipes in sugar industry, food industry etc.

Group C- Austenitic Stainless steel

Sanitary fittings, wrist watches, engine manifold etc.
 Tool Steel
1. Cold Work tool steel
a) Water Hardening Steel
b) Oil Hardening Steel
c) Air Hardening Steel
d) High Carbon High Chromium
2. Hot work tool steel
a) Chromium type
b) Tungsten type
c) Molybdenum type
3. High speed tool steel
a) Tungsten type
b) Molybdenum type