‭Kay M - SCH3UI‬ ‭1‬

‭Digitised Chemistry Master‬

T‭ his is all of the paper notes from grade 11 chemistry throughout the semester,‬
‭encompassing all subjects, most lessons, and some examples‬
‭Barzin’s Cheat-Sheet Practice Test Links!!! (Quizlet Account Needed)‬
‭➔‬ ‭Unit 1, 2, 3 Practice Test‬

‭Unit 1‬
‭Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom, Electron Configuration‬
‭Although Bohr's model introduced the idea of energy levels there were many problems with Bohr's model. It could‬
‭ nly explain the line spectrum of hydrogen and not those of other elements. it also wrongly suggested that the electron was a‬
o
‭particle whose exact position and velocity could be specified at any time. Through further experiments the electron was shown‬
‭to also have wavelike behaviours.‬
‭In 1924 Erwin Schrodinger, a German scientist, proposed a series of mathematical equations to calculate the‬
‭probability of finding an electron in a place at a certain time and describe the wavelike properties of the electron. The‬
‭contributions of Bohr, Schrodinger and many others resulted in the introduction of a new highly mathematical atomic model‬
‭called the quantum mechanical model. This model could explain the line Spectra of elements with more than one electron.‬
‭Electrons occupy specific energy levels / shells in an atom. The number of electrons in each level is governed by the‬
‭formula 2n‬‭2‭.‬ Schrödinger proposed that the Adam was‬‭arranged as layers within layers in terms of the electron shells‬
‭Schrodinger also proposed that an electron behaves in wavelike manner rather than just as particles thus electrons are both‬
‭particles and waves at the same time. since electrons are waves they do not remain localised in a 2d orbit. instead of being‬
‭organised in 2D orbits electrons are actually found in a 3D orbital. Each orbital defines an area where the probability of finding‬
‭an electron is high; these orbitals are known as electron clouds.‬
‭Orbits‬ ‭Orbitals‬
‭●‬ ‭ D path‬
2 ‭●‬ ‭ D Path‬
3
‭●‬ ‭Fixed distance from nucleus‬ ‭●‬ ‭Variable distance from nucleus‬
‭●‬ ‭Circular or elliptical path‬ ‭●‬ ‭No path; varied shape of region‬
‭●‬ ‭2n‬‭2‬ ‭electrons per orbit‬ ‭●‬ ‭2 electrons per orbital‬
‭The sublevels and orbitals are called SPD and F. The sublevels hold a maximum number of electrons that consist of a‬
‭certain number of electrons. Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.‬
‭“S” sublevel: spherical. S orbital. 2 electrons total.‬
‭“P” sublevel: perpendicular. P orbital. 6 electrons total.‬
‭“D” sublevel: diffuse. D orbital. 10 electrons total.‬
‭“F” sublevel: fundamental. F orbital. 14 electrons total.‬
‭Rules for Placing electrons‬
‭1.‬ ‭ auli exclusion principle: Each orbital can hold two electrons with‬
P
‭opposite spins; this is also known as the opposite direction rule.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals first this is‬
‭also known as The Lazy tenant rule.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Hund’s rule: Within a sublevel, place one electron per orbital‬
‭before pairing them. This is known as the empty bus seat rule. Do‬
‭not pair up electrons until you have to.‬
‭Quantum Mechanical Diagrams‬
‭ .‬
1 E‭ nergy level diagrams‬
‭2.‬‭Orbital diagrams‬
‭3.‬‭Electron configuration‬
‭a.‬ ‭Longhand configuration‬
‭b.‬ ‭shorthand configuration‬
‭Electrons are allowed to have certain energy values when they are in the atom period; energy of the electron is‬
‭dependent on the wave properties of the electrons and the region around the atom where the electron is most likely to be‬
‭Kay M - SCH3UI‬ ‭2‬

f‭ ound. The region of space where the electron is most likely to be found 95% of the time is called an orbital period; this can‬
‭explain the line Spectra of elements with more than one electron.‬

‭Trends in the Periodic Table‬

‭●‬ ‭The atomic radius.‬
‭○‬ ‭atomic radius is the distance from the centre of an atom to the boundary within which electrons spend 95%‬
‭of the time‬
‭○‬ ‭increases downward, increases to the right.‬
‭○‬ ‭Group: the size increases due to the extra valence shells. Each atom has another energy level so it is bigger.‬
‭○‬ ‭Period: size decreases because the more electrons in the valence shell the higher the forces of attraction are‬
‭there's more nuclear charge and the other most electrons are pulled closer‬
‭●‬ ‭Nuclear shielding‬
‭○‬ ‭the net force experienced by an electron in an atom due to the positively charged nucleus‬
‭○‬ ‭increases as you go down a group constant across‬
‭○‬ ‭group: the nuclear core is farther removed from the valence electrons.‬
‭○‬ ‭Period: the energy level stays the same‬
‭●‬ ‭Ionisation energy‬
‭○‬ ‭The larger the radius, the smaller the amount of energy is required to remove the electron from the‬
‭outermost orbital.‬
‭○‬ ‭Increase as you go op, increases as you go right.‬
‭○‬ ‭Group: increases down because the electron is further away from the attraction of the nucleus.‬
‭○‬ ‭Period: the greater the nuclear charge, the greater the ionisation energy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Electronegativity‬
‭○‬ ‭The ability of an atom to attract bonds (in a bond)‬
‭○‬ ‭Increase up, increase right.‬
‭○‬ ‭Group: down the group, electrons are further from the nucleus, making them more willing to share.‬
‭○‬ ‭Period: since the left of the table lets electrons go easier, they have lower electronegativity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Electron Affinity‬
‭○‬ ‭The energy required of an atom to bond with another nucleus‬
‭○‬ ‭Increases up, increases right‬
‭○‬ ‭Group: energy levels go up due to the fact that those elements need more energy to bond.‬
‭○‬ ‭Period: energy levels go to the left because it takes more energy to bond those elements.‬
‭●‬ ‭Reactivity metals‬
‭○‬ ‭The degree to which metals have a tendency to react with other substances by losing electrons‬
‭○‬ ‭Increases down, increases left.‬
‭○‬ ‭Group: the reactivity in metals is the tendency of the metal reacting with other substances by losing an‬
‭electron. As atomic radius increases the effective nuclear charge decreases, which makes losing electrons‬
‭easier. Atomic radius increases as you go down, meaning the lower the metal, the more reaction.‬
‭○‬ ‭Period: as the atomic radius becomes larger, the electrons get pulled away easier and as they pull away they‬
‭get more reactive‬
‭●‬ ‭Reactivity nonmetals‬
‭○‬ ‭The degree to which nonmetals have tendency to react with other substances by gaining electrons.‬
‭○‬ ‭Increase up, increase right.‬
‭○‬ ‭Group: as electrons are less reactive as they go up, as they hold on to electrons easier.‬
‭○‬ ‭Period: electrons are less reactive as you go right due to the fact that they can hold on to electrons more‬
‭easily.‬

‭1.5 Chemical Bonding: Ionic‬

‭In nature, most elements are found combined with others in compounds. The study of compounds reveals trends that‬
e‭ xplain the nature of chemical bonds and the properties of compounds. This information allows scientists to predict new‬
‭compounds that can be made.‬
‭When atoms of the elements combine to form compounds, they do so by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons in their‬
‭outer shell in order to become isoelectronic (same configuration of electrons) with a Noble Gas. This tendency of the atoms to‬
‭Kay M - SCH3UI‬ ‭3‬

‭achieve a stable octet in their outer shell is the driving force of chemical reactions. This is called the actress rule.‬
‭The noble gases do not form naturally occurring compounds. except for helium, each of the noble gases has eight‬
‭electrons in the valence shell. This is considered a stable electron configuration (not that is not likely to change). Having eight‬
‭valence electrons is referred to as having a “filled valence shell,” and this configuration is called an octet.‬
‭Compounds are made of elements held together by chemical bonds. All chemical bonds involve the interaction‬
‭between the valence electrons of atoms. The number of valence electrons an atom determines how many other atoms it can‬
‭bond with. The number of bounds it can form is called an atoms’ valence.‬
‭Ionic Bonding‬
‭A chemical bond between oppositely-charged ions that arises from the transfer of valence electrons is called an ionic‬
‭ ond. It usually involves a metallic cation (low ionisation energy) and a non-metallic anion( high electron affinity). Metals lose‬
b
‭electrons to form a positive ion with a stable noble gas electron configuration. Non-metals gain electrons to form a negative ion‬
‭with a stable noble gas electron configuration. The electrostatic attraction of the oppositely-charged ions forms the ionic bonds.‬
‭The combining capacity (valence) is determined by the number of electrons the element can lose or gain. Substances held‬
‭together by ionic bonds are called ionic compounds.‬
‭The number of electrons that a transition metal atom can lose will vary and more than one ion could form. The‬
‭possible charges that an ion can carry is noted in the periodic table.‬
‭Ionic substances are:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Crystalline: ions are arranged in a crystal lattice to maximise attractive forces and minimise repulsive forces.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Conductors of electricity: when in a solution, ions from dissociation conduct electricity.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Non-conductors as solids‬
‭4.‬ ‭High melting and boiling points‬
‭5.‬ ‭Soluble in water‬
‭6.‬ ‭Hard but brittle‬
‭7.‬ ‭Solid at room temperature‬

‭1.6 Chemical Bonding: Covalent‬

‭Some elements do not lose or gain electrons easily. These elements bond by sharing electrons. Since there is no‬
t‭ ransfer of electrons, there are no ions formed. When the nuclei of two atoms are both attracted to one or more pairs of shared‬
‭electrons, the attraction is called a covalent bond and the resulting molecule is called a covalent compound. Unpaired valence‬
‭electrons are most likely to participate in these bonds. However, paired valence electrons can also be shared. Atoms will share‬
‭as many electrons as they need in order to achieve a stable octet.‬
‭In some molecules, there are not enough valence electrons for just two atoms to share electrons and achieve a stable‬
‭octet. Therefore, additional atoms participate in the chemical bonding. In other molecules, more than one pair of electrons is‬
‭shared between atoms.‬
‭●‬ ‭One pair of electrons shared: single bond → one bonding pair (ie. Cl‬‭2‬‭)‬
‭●‬ ‭Two pairs of electrons shared: double bond → two bonding pairs (ie. O‬‭2‬‭)‬
‭●‬ ‭Three pairs of electrons shared: triple bond → three bonding pairs (ie. N‬‭2‬‭)‬
‭Non-bonding pairs are called lone pairs. Water is a covalent compound with two single covalent bonds to hydrogen‬
‭and two nonbonding pairs or lone pairs on oxygen. There are some covalent compounds that do not follow the simple octet‬
‭rule. The non-octet rule applies when the central atom has MORE or LESS than eight electrons. For example, hydrogen (H‬‭2‬‭) only‬
‭needs one covalent bond to be stable. For expanded octets (greater than eight), the central atom will have more than an octet.‬
‭In this case, our octet rule has to be revised to accommodate compounds that can exist chemically. The expanded octet rule is‬
‭limited to elements with an atomic number greater than ten. These elements have energy-accessible empty “d” orbitals.‬
‭Properties of covalent compounds:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Non conductors of electricity: no electron flow or movement to create ions.‬
‭2.‬ ‭State at a room temperature can be any.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Lower to medium melting and boiling points compared to ionic compounds‬
‭4.‬ ‭Low solubility in water: do not break apart when dissolved in water but rather stay as molecules (see solubility based‬
‭on polarity)‬

‭ .7 Bond Polarity, Determining Bond Type‬

1
‭How is bond type determined?‬
‭ .‬
1 F‭ ind the electronegativity difference between the elements involved (ΔEN)‬
‭2.‬ ‭Use the chart/scale to determine the type based on the difference.‬
‭Kay M - SCH3UI‬ ‭4‬

‭●‬ ‭Pure covalent bond (ΔEN=0)‬

‭○‬ ‭A chemical bond in which electrons are shared equally between atoms‬
‭○‬ ‭When a pair of electrons is shared between atoms of the same elements, the ΔEN will always be zero and‬
‭they form a pure covalent bond. In this arrangement, the electrons are shared equally between the atoms.‬
‭There are only seven such elements that occur naturally, and they‬
‭are called diatomic molecules. (Think: HOFBrINCl the clown)‬
‭●‬ ‭Non-polar covalent bond (0<ΔEN<0.4)‬
‭○‬ ‭When two different atoms have smaller attraction for electrons‬
‭(ΔEN between 0.1 and 0.4, 0.5) then the atoms will also share their‬
‭electrons equally and result in the formation of a nonpolar‬
‭covalent bond. (ie. O and F, ΔEN = 0.5)‬
‭●‬ ‭Polar covalent bond (0.4<ΔEN<1.7)‬
‭○‬ ‭A covalent bond between two atoms that results in an unequal‬
‭sharing of electrons.‬
‭○‬ ‭The atom with the higher EN value attracts the electrons more,‬
‭resulting in a slightly negative region in the bond, ie. a partial‬
‭negative charge shown as 𝛿-‬
‭○‬ ‭The atom with the lower EN value results in a slightly positive‬
‭region in the bond, ie. a partial positive charge on the atom shown‬
‭as 𝛿+.‬
‭○‬ ‭The sharing of electrons between atoms will NOT always be equal. When one atom in the bond pair has a‬
‭stronger attraction for the electrons (higher electronegativity, ΔEN between 0.5 to 1.69) the electrons will‬
‭be pulled closer to one atom than the other (more electronegative). This unequal sharing of electrons‬
‭causes a partial negative charge around the atom the electrons are pulled closer to and a partial positive‬
‭charge around the other atom.‬
‭●‬ ‭Ionic Bond (ΔEN≥1.7)‬
‭○‬ ‭Results in a complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another.‬
‭○‬ ‭The atom with the much higher electronegativity steals the electrons causing one to be negatively charged‬
‭and the other to be positively charged.‬
‭Electronegativity and Bond Formation‬
‭In general, electrons involved in bonding spend more time around the atom with greater electronegativity. An arrow‬
i‭ndicates that the shared electrons are more strongly attracted to the more electronegative atom. This is referred to as a dipole.‬
‭The lowercase Greek letter delta is used to indicate the partial positive and negative charges.‬
‭Molecular shape‬
‭Not only can the covalent bonds between atoms be considered polar and nonpolar, but also a molecule itself can‬
s‭ how these characteristics. The polarity is dependent on the shape of the molecule. Molecular compounds take on a variety of‬
‭shapes depending upon the arrangement of their bonding pairs and their lone pairs. Lone pairs play an especially large role in‬
‭the shape of a molecule.‬

‭1.8 Intermolecular and Intramolecular Forces‬

‭How can we explain the wide variety of properties that covalent compounds have (solids, liquids, gases etc.)? The‬
a‭ nswer is polarity! Ionic compounds are held together through ionic bond interactions that create crystal lattice structures.‬
‭Covalent compounds can be any state at room temperature, meaning there must be something strong that holds these‬
‭molecules together to create such variation. These forces are called intermolecular‬
‭forces and occur in molecules that show covalent bonding.‬
‭●‬ ‭Intramolecular forces (chemical bonds): The force of attraction that bonds‬
‭atoms within a molecule are stronger than intermolecular forces.‬
‭●‬ ‭Intermolecular forces (physical bonds): the forces of attraction that appear‬
‭between molecules.‬
‭There are three types of intermolecular forces‬
‭1.‬ ‭London dispersion forces (LDF)‬
‭a.‬ ‭These forces are the weakest type. They are short-lived, meaning‬
‭the attraction between them continually forms and breaking‬
‭Kay M - SCH3UI‬ ‭5‬

‭b.‬ L‭ ondon forces result from the attraction of the positively charged nucleus of one atom for the electron cloud‬
‭of an atom in nearby molecules. This induces temporary dipoles in the atoms or the molecules and the‬
‭attraction of these dipoles is the LDF‬
‭c.‬ ‭They exist between atoms or molecules that are not ordinarily attracted to each other by dipole forces and‬
‭are commonly found in non-polar molecules. LDF exists between all molecules.‬
‭d.‬ ‭LDF increases with the size of molecules. When the molecules are large, the more electrons and protons‬
‭there are to attract each other. In polar compounds, however, the LDF forces are insignificant compared to‬
‭dipole-dipole forces.‬
‭e.‬ ‭Nonpolar molecules do not attract each other as much as polar ones and consequently have lower melting‬
‭and boiling points.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Dipole-Dipole‬
‭a.‬ ‭The attraction of the oppositely charged ends of two polar covalent molecules is the intermolecular force‬
‭called a dipole-dipole force. These are relatively strong and occur between all polar molecules. The more‬
‭polar a substance is, the stronger the dipole-dipole force of attraction that exists.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Hydrogen bonding‬
‭a.‬ ‭Hydrogen bonding is a very strong dipole-dipole intermolecular force and falls into a separate category of its‬
‭own. When molecules contain hydrogen bonded to a very electronegative atom such as nitrogen, oxygen, or‬
‭fluorine, an attraction occurs between the slightly positive hydrogen atom of one molecule and the‬
‭electronegative atom of another molecule.‬
‭b.‬ ‭Hydrogen bonds are not really chemical bonds in the formal sense but attractions between highly polar‬
‭molecules. The hydrogen bonds can explain all the properties that water exhibits, such as why water is a‬
‭liquid at room temperature, why it attracts itself, and can account for its high melting and boiling points.‬
‭c.‬ ‭Since water is a polar molecule, it has one end with a partial positive charge and one end with a partial‬
‭negative charge. When two water molecules come into close contact, there will be a strong attraction‬
‭between the partially negative end and the partially positive end of the other. This intermolecular attraction‬
‭is the hydrogen bond.‬
‭d.‬ ‭The main reasons of hydrogen bonding are large differences between electronegativities and the small size‬
‭of hydrogen atoms.‬
‭Intermolecular forces affect properties of nonpolar and polar compounds. For example, why does water have a higher‬
‭boiling point than CO‬‭2‬ ‭and H‬‭2‬‭S even though they all‬‭contain three atoms? The answer is their shape and their intermolecular‬
‭forces. CO‬‭2‬ ‭is linear and non polar, meaning it doesn’t‬‭attract itself well. H‬‭2‭S‬ is bent and polar, but the‬‭hydrogen is bonded to a‬
‭small electronegative atom. H‬‭2‬‭O is bent and polar,‬‭but its hydrogens are bonded to a LARGE electronegative atom. This one‬
‭difference makes water stand out compared to the other two substances.‬
‭Kay M - SCH3UI‬ ‭6‬

‭Unit 2‬
‭2.0 Nomenclature: Naming Diatomic Molecules, Binary Compounds (Ionic and Covalent)‬
‭‬
● ‭ OFBrINCl: H‬‭2‬‭, O‬‭2‬‭, F‬‭2‭,‬ Br‬‭2‬‭, I‬‭2‬‭, N‬‭2‭,‬ Cl‬‭2‬ ‭. The diatomic‬‭gases are named by their atom + gas, ie. H‬‭2‬ ‭= Hydrogen‬‭gas‬
H
‭●‬ ‭Naming binary compounds: Only two elements involved and bonded. Must be a non metal and a metal (ionic). The‬
‭CATION goes first (the metal). This system doesn’t include multivalent metals.‬
‭●‬ ‭Naming two nonmetals: greek prefixes are used to indicate the quantities.‬
‭1.‬ ‭Mono-‬
‭2.‬ ‭Di-‬
‭3.‬ ‭Tri-‬
‭4.‬ ‭Tetra-‬
‭5.‬ ‭Penta-‬
‭6.‬ ‭Hexa-‬
‭7.‬ ‭Hepta-‬
‭8.‬ ‭Octa-‬
‭9.‬ ‭Nona-‬
‭10.‬ ‭Deca-‬

‭2.1 The Stock System, The Ous-Ic Method‬

‭‬
● ‭ hen naming binary compounds with multivalent metals, you have to indicate what the oxidation number is.‬
W
‭●‬ ‭Stock system: using Roman numerals to indicate the valence. (ie. Copper (II) )‬
‭●‬ ‭Ous-Ic: using Latin, you can indicate the type through the name. The suffix OUS refers to the smaller of the two‬
‭valence options, the IC refers to the larger of the two valence options‬
‭○‬ ‭Iron: ferr-‬
‭○‬ ‭Gold: aur-‬
‭○‬ ‭Copper: cupr-‬
‭○‬ ‭Tin: stann-‬
‭○‬ ‭Lead: plumb-‬
‭○‬ ‭Cobalt: cobalt-‬
‭○‬ ‭Nickel: nickel-‬
‭○‬ ‭Mercury: mercur-‬
‭○‬ ‭Platinum: platin-‬

‭2.2 Binary Gasses and Acids, Exceptions‬

‭●‬ F‭ ive common binary compounds containing hydrogen and other non-metallic elements exist as gases at room‬
‭temperature. Hence they are referred to as binary gases. Dissolving these gases in water yields acid solutions. The‬
‭resulting aqueous solutions are called acids.‬
‭●‬ ‭Naming the binary acids is done by adding the prefix hydro-, the name of the second element ending with “-ic”, and‬
‭ending with adding “acid” at the end.‬
‭○‬ ‭HF (g): hydrogen fluoride gas‬
‭○‬ ‭HF (aq): hydrofluoric acid‬
‭●‬ ‭Ammonium compounds, since ammonium is a cation, acts like a normal ionic binary compound.‬
‭○‬ ‭NH‬‭4‭C ‬ l: Ammonium Chloride‬
‭●‬ ‭A peroxide is a normal oxide (both with metals and non-metals) with ONE extra oxygen. This is indicated by the prefix‬
‭“per-”‬
‭○‬ ‭NaO = Sodium oxide‬
‭○‬ ‭NaO‬‭2‬ ‭= Sodium peroxide.‬
‭●‬ ‭Organic compounds are hydrocarbons (hydrogen + carbon) with a different naming system.‬
‭○‬ ‭CH‬‭4‬ ‭= Methane‬
‭○‬ ‭C‬‭2‭H ‬ ‬‭6‬‭= Ethane‬
‭○‬ ‭C‬‭3‭H‬ ‬‭8‬ ‭= Propane‬
‭○‬ ‭C‬‭4‭H
‬ ‬‭10‬ ‭= Butane‬
‭Kay M - SCH3UI‬ ‭7‬

‭●‬ ‭ ases and acids are compounds that when in a solution yield hydroxide ions. They are not binary compounds even if‬
B
‭they end in the term “ide.”‬

‭2.3 The Oxy-Acid Family‬

‭●‬ ‭Oxyacids are acids made with polyatomic anions. There are also variations to the different oxyacids.‬
‭○‬ ‭Parent oxyacid: ___ic acid (ie. chloric acid, HClO‬‭3‬‭)‬
‭○‬ ‭Add 1 oxygen: per___ic acid (ie. perchloric acid, HClO‬‭4‬‭)‬
‭○‬ ‭Remove 1 oxygen: ___ous acid (ie. chlorous acid, HClO‬‭2‬‭)‬
‭○‬ ‭Remove 2 oxygens: hypo___ous acid (ie. hypochlorous acid, HClO)‬
‭●‬ ‭Oxyacid salts are like oxyacids but the hydrogen is replaced with a metal, so it’s a metal and a polyatomic anion. They‬
‭also have variations.‬
‭○‬ ‭Parent oxyacid salt: metal + ___ate (ie. sodium chlorate, NaClO‬‭3‬‭)‬
‭○‬ ‭Add 1 oxygen: metal + per___ate (ie. sodium perchlorate, NaClO‬‭4‬‭)‬
‭○‬ ‭Remove 1 oxygen: metal + ___ite (ie. sodium chlorite, NaClO‬‭2‬‭)‬
‭○‬ ‭Remove 2 oxygens metal + hypo___ite (ie. sodium perchlorite, NaClO)‬

‭2.4 Hydrates‬
‭●‬ ‭ hydrate is an ionic crystal that has a water molecule trapped inside the structure. The molecule is attached but NOT‬
A
‭BONDED!!!‬
‭●‬ ‭Name the compound normally, but at the end, add‬
‭the word hydrate with a prefix indicating how many‬
‭there are in there.‬
‭○‬ ‭Ie. Copper (II) Sulphate Hexahydride: CuSO‬‭4‬
‭· 6H‬‭2‬‭O‬

‭2.5 Acid Radicals, Acid Salts‬

‭●‬ ‭ n acid radical is a polyatomic with a single hydrogen‬
A
‭attached that changes the polyatomic ion’s oxidation‬
‭number.‬
‭○‬ ‭Changes CO‬‭3‬‭-2‬ ‭to HCO‬‭3‭-‬ 1‬
‭●‬ ‭This changes the name of the polyatomic to add the‬
‭prefix “hydrogen” or the prefix “bi”‬
‭○‬ ‭Ie. HCO‬‭3‬‭-1‬ ‭Hydrogen Carbonate or‬
‭Bicarbonate‬

‭Balancing Chemical Equations‬

‭Just fuckin’ balance them, what more do you want from me?‬

‭Types of Chemical Reactions‬

‭●‬ ‭Synthesis‬
‭○‬ ‭When 2 or more elements or compounds form one new substance.‬
‭○‬ ‭Ie. 2K + Cl‬‭2‬ → ‭ 2KCL‬
‭●‬ ‭Decomposition‬
‭○‬ ‭When a compound is broken down into 2 or more simpler substances‬
‭○‬ ‭Ie. Na‬‭2‭C‬ O‬‭3‬ →
‭ Na‬‭2‭O
‬ + CO‬‭2‬
‭●‬ ‭Combustion‬
‭○‬ ‭When an organic compound reacts with oxygen‬
‭○‬ ‭Ie. CH‬‭4‬ ‭+ 2O‬‭2‬ →
‭ CO‬‭2‬ ‭+ 2H‬‭2‬‭O‬
‭●‬ ‭Single Displacement‬
‭○‬ ‭When one element in a compound is replaced by another‬
‭○‬ ‭Ie. Cu + AgNO‬‭3‬ → ‭ Ag + CuNO‬‭3‬
‭●‬ ‭Double Displacement‬
‭○‬ ‭When the cation of one compound changes place with the cation of another‬
‭●‬ ‭Neutralisation‬
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‭○‬ ‭A double displacement reaction between an acid and a base that creates an ionic salt and water.‬
‭ ot all compounds react with one another when they’re combined. In a single displacement reaction, if the single item being‬
N
‭added is less reactive than the one in the compound, they won’t react. The reactivity series can be used to determine if a‬
‭reaction would occur.‬
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‭Unit 3‬
‭Avogadro’s Number: The Mole‬
‭Atomic mass is the mass of all isotopes of an element averaged. Atoms of different elements have different masses.‬
T‭ he atomic mass is found by comparing the mass of an atom of an element to the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Carbon-12 is‬
‭assigned an atomic mass of EXACTLY 12.000 u (the “u” stands for “unified atomic mass unit.”) The mass of one atom is‬
‭extremely small.A large number of atoms is required to provide enough mass to actually measure it. A mole is a unit that‬
‭measures the number of atoms that is equivalent to the atomic mass of a particular element, or the molecular mass of a‬
‭molecule.‬
‭1 mole = 6.02214179x10‬‭23‬
‭N = n x N‬‭A‬ ‭(where N = number of particles, n = number of moles, and N‬‭A‬ ‭being‬
‭Avogadro’s number). The abbreviation of the unit is “mol,” not to be confused with‬
‭molecules.‬

‭Molar Mass and Mass with the Mole‬

‭Molar mass is the mass (in g/mol) of one mole of a substance. It is the atomic mass‬
‭off of the periodic table! Molar mass is the link between mass and moles.‬
‭m = n x M‬‭M‬ ‭(where m = mass (g), n = number of moles (mol), an M‬‭M‬ ‭= molar mass‬
‭(g/mol))‬
‭The number of moles connects the variables N and m (connects the number of‬
‭particles to the mass of the substance).‬

‭3.5 Limiting and Excess Reagents‬

‭●‬ L‭ imiting reagent: the reactant that is completely used up in a chemical‬
‭reaction.‬
‭●‬ ‭Excess reagent: the reactant that is present in more than the required amount‬
‭for a complete reaction‬
‭To determine the limiting reagent, use the amount of one reactant to find the‬
‭amount of the other. The amount that is less than what is required is the limiting‬
‭reagent.‬
‭Stupid example: 1 frame + 4 wheels → 1 car‬
‭You have: 4 frames, 20 wheels‬
‭n‬‭frames‬ ‭= 20‬‭wheels‬‭x 1 frame/4‬‭wheels‬
‭= 5 frames‬
‭∴ I have less frames than what I would need.‬
‭∴ Frames are the limiting reagent.‬
‭This can be done with the number of moles needed thru mole ratios, or the coefficients in a balanced equation…‬

‭Laws of Chemical Combination (Percentages)‬

‭The law of constant combination states that the composition of a specific compound is constant. Elements in a‬
c‭ hemical compound are always present in the same proportions by mass. The composition of a compound is often expressed in‬
‭terms of its percentage composition by mass. The percent composition of a sample or compound is always the same, regardless‬
‭of the actual amount of the sample. Percentage composition can be found experimentally and then used to help identify a‬
‭compound.‬
‭% element in compound = mass of element/mass of compound x 100%‬
‬ O‬‭2‬ →
‭For example: Tylenol is C‬‭8‬‭H‭9‬ ‭N ‭ 63.6% C, 6.0% H,‬‭9.3% N, 21.2% O‬
‭The two types of problems you would get are A) percentage composition from mass data, and B) percentage‬
‭composition from a chemical formula.‬

‭3.3 Empirical and Molecular Formulas‬

‭The empirical formula is the lowest whole number ratio of elements in a compound. For example, benzene’s empirical‬
f‭ ormula is CH because its molecular formula is C‬‭6‬‭H‭6‬ ‭.‬ ‬‭The molecular formula shows the literal number of atoms of each element‬
‭that make up a molecule of a formula.‬
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K
‭10‬

‭To determine an empirical formula from percent composition,‬

‭1.‬ ‭Convert percentage to mass‬
‭a.‬ ‭Assume that you have 100 g of a substance.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Using mass and molar mass, determine the number of moles of each substance.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Compare the ratios to get the lowest whole number ratio.‬
‭Round decimals between 0.01 to 0.05, and 0.95 to 0.99 to the nearest whole number. Other decimals need to be‬
‭multiplied by different factors to reach whole numbers (ie. 0.5 must be multiplied by 2, 0.67 must be multiplied by 3, 0.20 must‬
‭be multiplied by 5, etc…).‬
‭Ie. The empirical formula of ribose is CH‬‭2‬‭O. The‬‭molar mass of ribose is 150 g/mol. What’s the molecular formula?‬
‭EF = CH‬‭2‬‭O‬
‭M‬‭M‬ ‭= 150 g/mol‬
‭M‬‭ME‬ ‭= 30.03 g/mol‬
‭M‬‭M‬ ‭/ M‬‭ME‬ ‭= 4. 99‬
‭This is the multiplication factor! We can multiply the ratios of the empirical formula by this factor to find the‬
‭molecular formula‬
‭MF = EF x 5.00‬
‭= CH‬‭2‭O ‬ x 5‬
‭= C‬‭5‭H ‬ 0‬‭O‬‭5‬
‬ ‭1

‭Stoichiometry: Mole Ratios‬

‭Stoichiometry is the study of relative amounts of substances involved in a chemical reaction. To begin problems‬
i‭nvolving quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction, the balanced chemical equation must be known and what‬
‭is conveyed by the balanced equation.‬
‭Just do the ratios. Look up a Khan Academy video or some shit. Here, use this:‬
Molecular and empirical formulas | Physical Processes | MCAT | Khan Academy ‭.‬

‭3.6 Percent Yield in a Chemical Reaction‬

‭The theoretical yield is the amount of product that we predict will be abstained, calculated from the balanced‬
c‭ hemical equation. The actual yield is the amount of product that is actually obtained at the end of an experiment. Reactions‬
‭don’t yield 100% because of experimental procedures, impurities in reagents, side reactions, and non-ideal conditions.‬
‭% yield = actual yield/theoretical yield x 100%‬
‭The percent yield is a comparison of the actual yield to the theoretical yield in a percent. The steps are:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Do the balanced chemical equation‬
‭2.‬ ‭Find moles of reactant‬
‭3.‬ ‭Use mole ratios to find moles of the product‬
‭4.‬ ‭Use moles to find mass of theoretical yield‬
‭5.‬ ‭Calculate the percent yield‬