APPLIED

COMMUNICATION SKILLS MODULE

FOR
CRAFT STUDENTS IN ZAMBIA

Mwandenga Mphande Martin

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INTRODUCTION
Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share") is the act of conveying intended
meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and
semiotic rules.
The basic steps of communication are:
1. The forming of communicative intent.
2. Message composition.
3. Message encoding and decoding.
4. Transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or
medium.
5. Reception of signals.
6. Reconstruction of the original message.
7. Interpretation and making sense of the reconstructed message.
Communication is about more than just exchanging information. It's about understanding the
emotion and intentions behind the information. Effective communication is also a two-way sys-
tem. It’s not only how you convey a message so that it is received and understood by someone in
exactly the way you intended, it’s also how you listen to gain the full meaning of what’s being
said and to make the other person feel heard and understood.
More than just the words you use, effective communication combines a set of skills including
nonverbal communication, engaged listening, managing stress in the moment, the ability to
communicate assertively, and the capacity to recognize and understand your own emotions and
those of the person you’re communicating with.
Effective communication is the glue that helps you deepen your connections to others and im-
prove teamwork, decision making, and problem solving. It enables you to communicate even
negative or difficult messages without creating conflict or destroying trust.
While effective communication is a learned skill, it is more effective when it’s spontaneous ra-
ther than formulaic. A speech that is read, for example, rarely has the same impact as a speech
that’s delivered (or appears to be delivered) spontaneously. Of course, it takes time and effort to
develop these skills and become an effective communicator. The more effort and practice you put
in, the more instinctive and spontaneous your communication skills will become. (Robinson &
Segal 2016).

UNIT 1 DISCUSSING PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Unit Objectives:
After studying this unit you should be able to:
1. Define communication
2. Explain the nature and purpose of communication
3. Identify and elaborate the characteristics of communication

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 4. Identify functions of communication
Since success in most aspects of living today is directly related to communicative effectiveness,
an understanding of the communication process is a valid concern. Communicating in itself is
complex. Communicating as instructors is even more so because of the variations and complexi-
ties in the teaching-learning process: however, an analysis of the four basic elements in the
communication process – sender, message, receiver, and feedback – should lead to a better un-
derstanding of the communication process. Improvement in communication, therefore, rests, in
large measure, on an understanding of the communication process.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION

Introduction
Communication is a key element in any human activity.
Communication is a learned skill. However, while most people are born with the physical ability
to talk, not all can communicate well unless they make special efforts to develop and refine this
communication skill. Very often, we take the ease with which we communicate with each other
for granted, so much so that we sometimes forget how complex the communication process actu-
ally is. Communication takes place when we are supposedly at the same level of understanding
and comprehension as other interlocutors. Common forms of communication include speaking,
writing, gestures, touch, using pictures and broadcasting. Communication is therefore not what is
said whether verbally or non-verbally, but what is understood.
Communication has been defined by many theorists:
(1) According to W.H. Newman, “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or
emotions by two or more persons.”
(2) Allen Louis says "Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants
to create an understanding in the mind of another it involves a systematic and continuous pro-
cess.
(3) To quote Norman B. Sigband, “Communication is the transmission and reception of ideas,
feelings and attitudes both verbally and non-verbally…
(4) Dalton McFarland says, “Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaning-
ful interaction among human beings.”
(5) George Vardman in his book `Effective communication of ideas' defines effective communi-
cation as "Purposive interchange, resulting in workable understanding and agreement between
the sender and the receiver of the message".

Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting information and common under-
standing from one person to another (Keyton, 2011).

The term "communication" has been derived from the Latin "communis," that means "com-
mon"1.
Thus "to communicate" means "to make common" or "to make known", "to share" and includes
verbal, non-verbal and electronic means of human interaction. Scholars who study communica-
tion analyze the development of communication skills in humans and theorize about how com-
munication can be made more effective.

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It is the meaningful exchange of information between two or a group of people. Communicative
competence designates the capability to install inter-subjective interactions, which means that
communication is an inherent social interaction2.

One definition of communication is "any act by which one person gives to or receives from per-
son information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states.
Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconvention-
al signals, may take linguistic or non-linguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other
modes

Characteristics of Communication
The characteristics of communication include:
1. Communication is a process: Communication is a 2 way process which involves; listening to
others (Receiving) message Asserting/Expressing (Sending).

2. Communication is a dynamic: it is ever changing depending on the variables at play.

3. Communication is a complex a process.
4. Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants
not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning.
5. Communication involves the sharing of information using a code.
6. Communication occurs between people and sometimes animals
7. Communication is irreversible: once one has communicated something it cannot be recalled
back.
8. Communication is a system

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9. Communication must have the elements of communication: Source, receiver, channel, mes-
sage, noise, feedback.
10. Communication can be verbal/ non verbal or visual.
11. Communication can be accidental especially in non-verbal

Functions of communication
Human beings communicate for various reasons. Here are some of the reasons why we must
communicate:

1. To change in behavior

2. To influence others

3. To express our thoughts and emotions through words & actions.

4. It is a tool for controlling and motivating people.

5. It is a social and emotional process.

6. Communication for improving self-confidence

7. Entertain

8. Educate

9. Establish relationships

10. Inform

11. Solve problems

12. Make orders

13. Give directions

UNIT 1.2 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Unit objectives:
After studying this unit you should be able:
1. Explain stages of communication process

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Two common elements in every communication exchange are the sender and the receiver. The sender
initiates the communication. In a school, the sender is a person who has a need or desire to convey an
idea or concept to others. The receiver is the individual to whom the message is sent. The sender en-
codes the idea by selecting words, symbols, or gestures with which to compose a message. The mes-
sage is the outcome of the encoding, which takes the form of verbal, nonverbal, or written language.
The message is sent through a medium or channel, which is the carrier of the communication. The
medium can be a face-to-face conversation, telephone call, e-mail, or written report. The receiver
decodes the received message into meaningful information. Noise is anything that distorts the mes-
sage. Different perceptions of the message, language barriers, interruptions, emotions, and attitudes
are examples of noise. Finally, feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the sender's message
and returns the message to the sender. Feedback allows the sender to determine whether the message
has been received and understood.

The elements in the communication process determine the quality of communication. A problem in
any one of these elements can reduce communication effectiveness (Keyton, 2011). For example,
information must be encoded into a message that can be understood as the sender intended. Selection
of the particular medium for transmitting the message can be critical, because there are many choic-
es.

The progression of transmission and interchange of ideas, facts, feelings or actions is known as
“Process of Communication”. Process of Communication is a full cycle of events from sender to
the receiver and back to the sender. Communication is a two way process

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(1) Sender: The process of communication starts with a sender, the person who has an idea and
wants to convey it to the receiver. In other words, we can say that the person with ideas to share
is called sender. The formation of idea is the first step of communication. So, Communication
process begins with the sender.

(2) Encoding: The conversion of the idea in to message by verbal or nonverbal method is called
encoding. While encoding a message, one needs to consider what will be interpretation of the
message. This process of converting the thought of the sender into message is encoding.

(3) Message: It is an important part of communication. Message is the content that sender wants
to convey. A message could be verbal or non-verbal. The thought, idea, emotion or anything that
the sender wants to convey is called message.

(4) Channel: The way or the medium of sending the message is called channel. Medium or
channel can be oral, written or it can be non-verbal.

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(5) Receiver: The receiver is the person who receives encoded message. In the best way, if it
reaches to the receiver then there is no problem to the receiver to understand the massage proper-
ly. The Receiver is known as Rx

(7) Decoding: It is a process where the received message is being understood. It is not necessary
that the message reached to receiver will be understood by the receiver but decoding is a process
which converts the message in to understanding. There are chances of misinterpretation of the
massage.

(8) Feedback: This is the last part of communication process. After receiving the message, the
receiver reacts or responds to the sender. The response can be based on the perfect understanding
of the message or it can be based on the misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the message.
This reply from receiver to sender is called feedback. Feedback has its own importance as the
success or failure of communication is decided by feedback only.

UNIT 1.3 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Unit objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define barrier
2. Identify and explain different types of barriers
Physical Barriers

Any number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of communication, in-
cluding a telephone call, drop-in visitors, and distances between people, walls, and static on the
radio. People often take physical barriers for granted, but sometimes they can be removed. For
example, an inconveniently positioned wall can be removed. Interruptions such as telephone
calls and drop-in visitors can be removed by issuing instructions to a secretary. An appropriate
choice of media can overcome distance barriers between people.
Semantic Barriers
The words we choose, how we use them, and the meaning we attach to them cause many com-
munication barriers. The problem is semantic, or the meaning of the words we use. The same

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word may mean different things to different people. Words and phrases such as efficiency, in-
creased productivity, management prerogatives, and just cause may mean one thing to a school
administrator, and something entirely different to a staff member. Technology also plays a part in
semantic barriers to communication. Today's complex school systems are highly specialized.
Schools have staff and technical experts developing and using specialized terminology—jargon
that only other similar staff and technical experts can understand. And if people don't understand
the words, they cannot understand the message.
Psychosocial Barriers
Three important concepts are associated with psychological and social barriers: fields of experi-
ence, filtering, and psychological distance (Antos, 2011)). Fields of experience include people's
backgrounds, perceptions, values, biases, needs, and expectations. Senders can encode and re-
ceivers decode messages only in the context of their fields of experience. When the sender's field
of experience overlaps very little with the receiver's, communication becomes difficult. Filtering
means that more often than not we see and hear what we are emotionally tuned in to see and
hear. Filtering is caused by our own needs and interests, which guide our listening. Psychosocial
barriers often involve a psychological distance between people that is similar to actual physical
distance. For example, the school administrator talks down to a staff member, who resents this
attitude, and this resentment separates them, thereby blocking opportunity for effective commu-
nication.
Successful communication by school administrators is the essence of a productive school organi-
zation. However, as discussed previously, communications do break down. Several communica-
tion theorists (Abrell, 2004; Auer, 2011; Larson, 2011; Shettleworth, 2010; Weiss, 2011) have
focused on the major areas where failures in communication most frequently occur. The follow-
ing are the major areas where communication breakdowns most frequently occur in schools:
• Sincerity. Nearly all communication theorists assert that sincerity is the foundation on which all
true communication rests. Without sincerity—honesty, straightforwardness, and authenticity—all
attempts at communication are destined to fail.
• Empathy. Research shows that lack of empathy is one of the major obstacles to effective com-
munication. Empathy is the ability to put one's self into another's shoes. The empathetic person is
able to see the world through the eyes of the other person.

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• Self-perception. How we see ourselves affects our ability to communicate effectively. A healthy
but realistic self-perception is a necessary ingredient in communicating with others.
• Role perception. Unless people know what their role is, the importance of their role, and what
is expected of them, they will not know what to communicate, when to communicate, or to
whom to communicate.
• Efforts to distort the message. Pitfalls in communication often occur in our efforts—both con-
sciously and unconsciously—to distort messages.
• Images. Another obstacle to successful communication is the sender's image of the receiver and
vice versa. For example, on the one hand, school administrators are sometimes viewed as not too
well informed about teaching, seen as out of touch with the classroom, and looked on as paper
shufflers. On the other hand, some school administrators view teachers as lazy, inconsiderate of
administrative problems, and unrealistic about the strengths and weaknesses of their students.
Such views lead to a "we-they" attitude.
• Vehicle for message. The vehicle by which we choose to send messages is important in suc-
cessful communication. In most cases, the vehicle to be used is defined by the situation.
• Ability to communicate. Some of the ways we communicate raise barriers by inhibiting discus-
sion or causing others to feel inferior, angry, hostile, dependent, compliant, or subservient.
• Listening ability. Frequently, people fail to appreciate the importance of listening, do not care
enough to become actively involved with what others are saying, and are not sufficiently moti-
vated to develop the skills necessary to acquire the art of listening.
• Culture. Our cultural heritage, biases, and prejudices often serve as barriers to communication.
The fact that we are African-American or white, young or old, male or female have all proved to
be obstacles in communicating effectively.
• Tradition. Past practice in a school helps determine how, when, and what we send and receive.
For example, a school administrator who has an authoritative style may find that his staff will not
share information readily. If a new administrator with a collaborative style replaces the authori-
tarian one, the new administrator may find that it takes a while for his colleagues to speak out on
important issues.
• Conditioning. The manner in which communication is conditioned by the environment influ-
ences the accuracy of messages sent and received. If we work for administrators who set a cli-

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mate in which we are encouraged to share information, we soon become conditioned to com-
municate accordingly.
• Noise. A major barrier to communication is what communication experts call noise. Noise con-
sists of the external factors in the channels and the internal perceptions and experiences within
the source and the receiver that affect communication.
• Feedback. Faculty and staff tell their leaders that they want feedback. However, feedback im-
properly given can impede communication rather than improve it. Administrators and followers
both need more training in how to use feedback more productively.
3. Cultural Barriers
Culture prescribes behavior. Humans can adapt to different culture once we come to accept it and
appreciate that cultures are different so that we can be recognized from others and that no specif-
ic connotations need to be attached to one culture or the other.
4. Language Barriers
Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are
not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words, and jargon. When we couch our communication
in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global setting the greatest compliment we
can pay another person is to talk in their language.
5. Interpersonal Barriers
Withdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is both refusals to be in touch with others.
6. Psychological Barriers
There are 3 types of psychological barriers would be discussed as they are the most common
ones.
a. Perceptual barriers

b. Emotional Barriers, and

c. Experiential barriers.

Perceptual barriers
The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. A bad expe-
rience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it
and if that is not possible by altering the behaviors i.e., response types in different ways. Similar-
ly, retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are
painful. It is very interesting to note that how our experiences taint or color our perceptions. Per-

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ceptual barriers can significantly alter our understanding and thus affect our communication.
They are deep rooted and work in conjunction with our experiences.
Emotional barriers
One of the other chief psychological barriers to open and free communication is the emotional
barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. As mentioned earlier the roots of
our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be
careful what we said to others.
Experiential barriers
Experiential barriers on the other hand become barriers by virtue of not having experienced them
leading to altered interpretation and comprehension. Our experience shapes our view of the
world. For example, when children experience trauma at the hands of trusted adults (especially
family members) their emotional link with the adult world is severed, creating distrust. They are
left with three companions: guilt, fear and feelings of inferiority.

7. Stereotypes
Stereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions about particular groups. Stereotypes are
usually negative attitudes which people use to justify discrimination of conflict against others.
According to Pennington (1986) “there are two characteristics of stereotypes
1. People are categorized on the basis of very visible characteristics e.g. race, nationality, sex,
dress and bodily appearance;

2. All members of a particular group are assumed to have the same characteristics; and the effects
of stereotyping are seen as gross over simplified and over generalized descriptions. They operate
to overestimate differences existing between groups and under estimate differences within
groups. Stereotypes distort reality since the over estimation between groups and under estimation
within groups bear little relation to the truth. Stereotyping acts as a barrier to communication be-
cause people make pre-conceived judgment about people which are unfounded if their character
does not relate to their appearance. Stereotyping has a halo effect. Halo effect is the use of a sin-
gle attribute to describe a person or object fully. For example, if a person is friendly we may use
this attribute to assume that they are punctual and good at their job. Another important aspect of
stereotyping is perception.

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8. Authority
Barriers to communication for one reason or the other often get neglected. Knowing them is syn-
onymous to knowing about one’s own barriers sprouting out of one’s personality. Barriers to
communication can lead to misunderstanding and confusion.
How to be a good communicator
To be a good communicator, one needs to:
a) Express own reflections and ideas clearly

b) Develop relationships

c) Provide feedback (answers, reacts)

d) Be open to others’ feedback (accept others answer without prejudice, references etc.

e) Respect attitudes and opinions of others

f) Be tolerant to different customs and cultures

g) Give full attention to people while they are talking to you.

h) Encourage other people to talk, and ask appropriate questions.

i) Present your ideas so that others are receptive to your point of view.

j) Treat people fairly and let others know how you want to be treated.

k) Value teamwork and know how to build cooperation and commitment.

l) Strive to understand other people and to be empathetic.

m) Be able to easily win people’s trust and respect.

n) Check to make sure you have understood what other people are trying to communicate.

Elements of Communication
There are models which try to explain the communication process. A model is an explanation of
the occurrences in a phenomenon. Elements of communication have been explained in dif-
ferent models which attempt to explain the communication process. Communication is a
two-way process that results in a shared meaning or common understanding between the
sender and the receiver.

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 An understanding of how communication works can help us to understand and improve our
communication. The elements of communication enable us to understand how communica-
tion works. The basic communication model consists of five elements of communication: the
sender, the receiver, the message, the channel and feedback. These are the elements of com-
munication and are explained below:
Source
This is the originating point of any communication act. It is the source who gets the urge that ne-
cessitates communication for the purpose of satisfying that urge. The stronger the stimulus or the
urge the greater is the need to communicate. The greater the need to communicate, the more the
need is for effectiveness. The source is also referred to as the sender, or encoder.
Encoding is the process of putting ones thoughts into words. Encoder is the person who trans-
lates his/her thoughts into meaningful words.

Receiver
The receiver means the party to whom the sender transmits the message. A receiver can be one
person or an entire audience of people. A receiver is the eventual recipient of the message. The
receiver is also the decoder of the message. Decoding of a message is as integral to communica-
tion as encoding it. Decoding is the process of giving meaning to the encoded message. It can
also be referred to as extracting the embedded meaning or interpreting what was encoded by the
sender. The ability of the receiver in decoding the message correctly is decisive in understanding
the message in its holistic sense.
Noise/ Barriers
Anything that is competing the source’s and the receivers’ attention is called noise. Barriers to
communication are the factors that contribute towards the total or partial loss or failure of the

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communication. In simple terms they can be referred to as those features that act as blocks to the
desired outcome of any communication process. They are many and very multidimensional in
nature. Noise can be internal or external.
a) Internal: Noise that is coming from within the interlocutors such as a headache, anger, stress,
etc.

b) External noise: Noise from the environment such as; cars passing, children shouting, siren
from an ambulance etc.

Message
The message is the most crucial element of effective communication. A message can come in
many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document, an advertisement or just
a comment. The message is not necessarily what the sender intends it to be. Rather, the message
is what the receiver perceives the message to be. As a result, the sender must not only compose
the message carefully, but also evaluate the ways in which the message can be interpreted.

Channel
The message travels from one point to another via a channel of communication. The channel sits
between the sender and receiver. There are many channels, or types, of communication channels
for example, from the spoken word to radio, television, an Internet site or something written, like
a book, letter or magazine. Every channel of communication has its advantages and disad-
vantages. For example, one disadvantage of the written word, on a computer screen or in a book,
is that the receiver cannot evaluate the tone of the message. For this reason, effective communi-
cators word written communications clearly so they don't rely on a specific tone of voice to con-
vey the message accurately. The advantages of television as a channel for communication in-
clude its expansive reach to a wide audience and the sender's ability to further manipulate the
message using editing and special effects.

Feedback
The last element of effective communication is feedback. This is the response from the receiver
and later the source. Feedback is the receiver's response or reaction to the sender's message. The
receiver can transmit feedback through asking questions, making comments or just supporting
the message that was delivered. Feedback helps the sender to determine how the receiver inter-
preted the message and how it can be improved. Without feedback the communication process
breaks down. The feedback given determines the direction the communication process will take.

A communication process that employs all the elements works as follows:

The source has an urge–a need that requires being satisfied encodes the message in verbal and/or
non-verbal language that is considered to best communicate the message according to the intent..
In order to make that happen, it has to be in a form and format that conveys the intent in the best
possible manner.

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This message is encapsulated in the linguistic conventions such as symbols i.e., words besides
signs that can be referred to as non-verbal language.
The message will go through a channel, a means of communication such as e-mail, face to face
or phone conversation, letter, presentation etc.
The receiver will then decode the message using conventions, cultural or contextual background,
and language skills. The message that is received or interpreted might or might not be the same
as the sent one and may not necessarily meet the intent of the messenger.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication models are systematic representations of the process which helps in understand-
ing how communication works can be done. Models show the process metaphorically and in
symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by breaking communication from
complex to simple and keep the components in order. Communication models can sometimes
encourage traditional thinking and stereotyping but can also omit some major aspects of human
communication.
Methods and channels of communication to be used and the purpose of communication, must be
considered before choosing a specific communication model. Models are used by business com-
panies and other firms to foster their communication, explore their options and to evaluate their
own situations. It is also used to understand how the receivers will interpret the message.
The purpose of a “model” is to offer a visual representation of a concept with the intent of facili-
tating its understanding. Models of communication refer to the conceptual model used to explain
the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by
Shannon and Warren Weaver.

Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or
transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).Traditionally speaking,
there are three standard models of the communication process: Linear, Interactive, and
Transactional, and each offers a slightly different perspective on the communication process
UNIT 1.4 STRATEGIES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

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Effective Communication

Although we can all communicate, not all our communication acts are effective. We must all
strive to be effective communicators.

What is effective communication?

This is that communication which produces results. It is communication where the intended
message is delivered clearly, and the desired feedback is achieved. It is communication that does
not give room for misunderstanding. It is the best form of communication.

Communication can be effective or it can be misunderstood leading to ineffectiveness. Meaning

communication must be effective. Ineffective communication is expensive to the participants be-
cause it blocks results. In other words communication is a matter of effectiveness. Effectiveness
is a measure of outcome. Effective communication therefore results in the form of desired out-
come.

Effective Communication is communication that conveys information to another person effi-

ciently and effectively and so achieves desired outcome. It is important to note that not all com-
munication is effective. This course aims to help the learners to become effective communicators
both at the university and later in their professional fields.

Communication is a process that can be marked with error such as with messages muddled (i.e.,
mixed up by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient). Miscommunication is avoidable.
However, if this is not detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, waste efforts and miss op-
portunities. In fact, communication is successful only when both the sender and the receiver
reach a common understanding regarding the same information as a result of the communication
process. Effective communication is about receiving information from others with as little distor-
tion as possible. Communication is a matter of effectiveness, which is dependent on the interloc-
utors’ (speakers’) communication competency. In other words its effectiveness is dependent on
one’s competency in communication. We can therefore say that communication involves intents
and efforts from both the sender of the message and the receiver.

Effective Communication Skills

Effective Communication skills must include: communicating using
 Eye contact & visible mouth
 Body language
 Silence
 Checking for understanding
 Smiling face
 Summarizing what has been said
 Encouragement to continue
 Asking some questions

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The 7 Cs of Communication
The 7 Cs provide a checklist for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls, reports,
and presentations are well constructed and clear so your audience gets your message. According to
the 7Cs, communication needs to be:
 Clear.
 Concise.
 Concrete.
 Correct.
 Coherent.
 Complete.
 Courteous.

1 Clear
When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is your pur-
pose in communicating with this person? If you’re not sure, then your audience won’t be sure
either. To be clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it’s easy
for your reader to understand your meaning. People shouldn’t have to “read between the lines”
and make assumptions on their own to understand what you’re trying to say.
2. Concise
When you are concise in your communication, you stick to the point and keep it brief. Your audi-
ence doesn’t want to read six sentences when you could communicate your message in three.

3. Concrete

When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you’re telling
them. There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts. Your message is solid.
Look at these two examples:
For Example:
a) The Lunch box Wizard will save you time every day.

b) How much time do you spend every day packing your kids’ lunches? No more! Just take a
complete Lunch box Wizard from your refrigerator each day to give your kids a healthy lunch
AND have more time to play or read with them!

4. Correct
When your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct communication is also
error free communication.

5. Coherent

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When your communication is coherent, it’s logical. All points are connected and relevant to the
main topic and the tone and flow of the text is consistent.

6. Complete
In a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if applicable,
take action. Does your message include a “call to action”, so that your audience clearly knows
what you want them to do? Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates,
times, locations, and so on?
7. Courteous/consideration
Courteous communication is friendly, open, and honest and does not illicit emotions. There are
no hidden insults or passive aggressive tones. You keep your reader’s viewpoint in mind, and
you’re empathetic to their needs. You must always put yourself in the shoes of the person you are
talking to and ask yourself how you would feel if you were to be addressed the way you are ad-
dressing your receiver.
Consideration in communication creates a healthy work environment.
Since the individuals involved in this effort may not typically work together or even "speak the
same language," communication is critical to fostering collaboration and achieving technology
objectives. Below are suggestions for effective communication.
1. Know and understand your colleagues.
Communication cannot effectively occur if you and your colleagues are not speaking the same
language. The more you understand about each other's perspectives, responsibilities, and goals,
the more productive your collaborative efforts will be. Collaboration is about sharing knowledge
and expertise for the benefit of all students.
2. Avoid and remove barriers.
Abbreviations, jargon, and extremely technical delivery hinder effective communication. Ad-
dress your audience not yourself. Verbose posturing creates barriers; simple fact and assertion
leads to open, constructive dialogue. Remember that your colleagues, like students, have indi-
vidual needs and preferences that should be considered when presenting information.

3. Ensure your message is both clear and precise.

Know your own point so that you can always get to it. If you litter your message with superflu-
ous information, it becomes confused. Precise brevity ensures that you are saying what you mean
and meaning what you say.
4. Use more than one communication channel.
There are a variety of channels through which you can communicate. Some channels are better
than others, depending on the situation and your goals, but using more than one channel is al-
ways better than using just one. Face-to-face contact, formally at scheduled meetings or infor-
mally in passing, is extremely important, but it is not always practical for busy school leaders. Be
sure to capture these exchanges in well-organized notes that are distributed to all concerned.

19
E-mail is great for introductions, quick updates, or document exchanges. Teleconferencing is
convenient, but not always optimal for exchanging specific detailed information and figures.
Consider creating an online workspace where you and your colleagues can post and exchange
messages and documents related to your collaborative initiatives.
5. Keep channels open in all directions.
Today, communication is more than a two-way street; it's a multi-lane freeway. On every channel
you use to send your messages, you should be prepared to receive replies. If dialogue begins on
multiple channels, keep it going on multiple channels. If dialogue starts on only one channel, try
to develop it on multiple channels that reach all stakeholders.
6. Deliver your messages horizontally.
Messages with dictatorial or condescending undertones undermine collaboration efforts. You will
get the best results if you communicate with others horizontally, or on an equal playing field.
7. Be an active listener.
By being an active listener, you are better able to hear what is really being said. Always be cog-
nizant of the nonverbal messages that you may be sending. It is important to give feedback.
Summarizing, paraphrasing, or asking an open-ended question is a great way to make it clear that
the message was received and understood.
8. Ask questions and ask for questions.
Asking questions and asking your colleagues for questions and feedback ensures that that the
channels of communication stay open. It also strengthens relationships by illustrating that you
have both interest and respect for what your colleagues are saying.

9. Respond, don't react.

Rely on both facts and feelings, not on feelings alone. It is important to be passionate about your
message, but never let your opinions overshadow or replace the facts.
10. Always follow up.
Be sure to attend to every message you receive and every message you send. Let your audience
know you got it or politely remind your audience that you sent it.
11. Avoid communication fatigue.
Because there are so many communications options and because you and your colleagues have
many demands on your time, it is important that everyone involved in a collaborative effort agree
on how communications will be handled and how to avoid redundancy and e-mail overload.
Will there be regularly scheduled meetings? Will routine communications be handled through e-
mail? Who will be responsible for compiling and distributing written notes from face-to-face
meetings?
Clear, consistent communication that productively includes all team members is not easy. But, it
is crucial to your efforts to implementing a technology plan that provides all students with the
tools they need for success.
This article is courtesy of the Consortium for School Networking, www.cosn.org.

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UNIT 2.0 DIFFERENTIATING TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION
There are many different ways and types of communication used, from face-to-face meetings to
written memos, letters, or emails. When communicating, it’s important to use methods and chan-
nels befitting the specific situation and goals of the communication. Depending on these factors,
different types and channels may be better suited than others. For example, a manager whose
goal is to motivate and connect with their subordinates may choose to communicate orally
through the channel of a face-to-face meeting. A manager who needs to communicate a serious
issue to a specific subordinate may choose to use written communication through the channel of
a letter or memo.
Communication comes in many forms:
• Verbal (sounds, language, and tone of voice)
• Aural (listening and hearing)
• Non-verbal (facial expressions, body language, and posture)
• written (journals, emails, blogs, and text messages)
• Visual (signs, symbols, and pictures)

It is important to develop a variety of skills for both communicating TO others and learning how
to interpret the information received FROM others. Knowing our audience and understanding
how they need to receive information is equally important as knowing ourselves.

UNIT 2.1 VERBAL COMMUNICATION

What is verbal communication?
Verbal communication refers to the use of sounds and language to relay a message. It serves as a
vehicle for expressing desires, ideas and concepts and is vital to the processes of learning and
teaching. In combination with nonverbal forms of communication, verbal communication acts as
the primary tool for expression between two or more people.

Meaning of verbal communication

When messages or information is exchanged or communicated through words is called verbal

communication. Verbal communication may be two types: written and oral com-
munication. Verbal communication takes place through face-to-face conversa-
tions, group discussions, counseling, interview, radio, television, calls, memos,
letters, reports, notes, email etc. some definitions of verbal communications are as
follows:
According to Bovee and others: Verbal communication is the expression of information through
language which is composed of words and grammar.”
According to Penrose and others, “Verbal communication consists of sharing thoughts thought
the meaning of words.”So, verbal communication is the process of exchanged of information or
message between two or more persons through written or oral words.

21
When the communication is done with the help of letters or symbols that carry a specific mean-
ing to the receiver then we say that the communication is in verbal form. The main advantage of
it is that it is permanent and easy to understand. When the information is conveyed through
speaking i.e. by voice then the form of communication is called oral communication. It provides
a means of quick feedback and chance of clearing your doubt immediately. If the communication
is done through written format then it is called written communication. Both are the sub catego-
ries of verbal communications
Examples of Verbal Communication:
 Verbal communication can be anything that is represented through words or any com-
municating medium. It can be of two types- oral and written broadly. Oral communica-
tion includes something like speaking, singing or answering and questioning.
 Written communication includes exams, written interviews or translation or something
that requires writing as a medium to communicate. Some special people who are unable
to communicate orally opt for written ones.

Advantages of Verbal Communication:

It saves time: You can give direct orders to your subordinates. Get instructions on a matter with-
in a few minutes. Convey your message at a rapid speed. The verbal form of communication
gives you this facility to quickly send intended message thus saving you time. Also, you won’t
need to grope for sign languages. Just write or say it and you will be understood within fraction
of a second
It saves you money: If most of the information are considered to be verbal then you won’t be
wasting energy and money on explaining things differently. All you need is a medium to speak or
write and your work would be done. Also less chances of getting misinterpreted as everyone re-
ceiving the instructions are able to understand the common language between you.
Feedback quickness: The distinct advantage of verbal communication is in the fact that the re-
ceiver can ask and clarifies his doubt on the spot without any delay. The sender can get a quick
feedback as to whether his intended message is received in its intended form or not and can clari-
fy the receiver, in the case of any doubt. Additionally the difficulty is removed in communica-
tion.
Most convenient method: Yes verbal communication is the most widely adopted means of
communication globally. People prefer more of verbal communication due to the convenience
factor dominating over other types of communication. While communicating verbally, you are
more likely to convey matter simply in plain readable text and understandable language which is
widely preferred.
Persuasion in the act: Managers can use it to their advantage to make their point more powerful
and persuasive. In combination with non-verbal language, a person can peruse the other on any
matter.
Ease of preparation: Oral communication is the easiest way of communication as it does not
have any need of material to convey the message. Therefore casual conversations are usually
easy to conduct.
Maintain secrecy: It can be very useful in case you want to maintain a secrecy about a matter as

22
there is no way to proof what you said. Private conversations can be easily conducted through
one to one discussions and privacy is well maintained if proper instructions regarding this matter
are provided to concerned individuals.
Clarity of message: If the message provided is in written format, the receiver can re-read the
contents and clarify any doubt on the later moment. Therefore sometimes written format can
have an extra edge over oral one in this matter.
Legality of the content: As the documents can be reproduced, the written format has a legal im-
portance. Many people prefer to communicate in written or oral format in case of important dis-
cussion. These conversations can be stored or recorded for future use as evidence to some crime
or as legal documents which can be of very much important in many things.

Disadvantages of Verbal Communication:

Chances of distortion of meaning: Due to the presence of various barriers in effective communi-
cation it happens that the intended meaning of the message changes for the intended person
which causes a lot of problems in the future. There are some instructions provided. If the instruc-
tions are not conveyed properly it may cause its meaning to change and therefore the other per-
son might do the opposite of what you expect, therefore clarity in giving the instructions should
be maintained.
Not convenient for long messages: It is not at all convenient to convey long messages orally as
it may happen that the by the time message is completed the receiver may forget the previously
spoken important points leading to a chance of ineffective communication. As a result written
format can be used which is also a problem since many people don’t like writing too much or
communicate too much through messages or written format.
Irrelevant information: While having an important discussion, a lot of irrelevant information
can creep in during a conversation leading to waste of time and gap in relevant information. This
leads to unnecessary time waste and sometimes omitting or forgetting to converse on what is re-
ally important. Therefore it is always necessary to keep your communication process clear of any
unwanted discussion that may lead to wastage of your precious time and energy.
Create misunderstanding: Usually when two individuals are having deep conversations, they
can have some misunderstandings during the time. Sometimes subtle hints given or some words
spoken with some intention get misinterpreted and a whole new different meaning comes out of
it. Thus it becomes crucial to know that what you have spoken or written has a crystal clear
meaning with no indirect hints that could make a conversation difficult.
The cost of communication: Sometimes verbal communication can be really expensive if you
need to communicate in language that you are not familiar with. You will need another person to
the part for you. Also, paper works and other mediums require expenses to be fulfilled for this
communication purpose.
Too many ways of communicating: There are thousands of languages used all over the world
for the purpose of communication. And it is not possible for one person to know all of them. So

23
inter cultural communications becomes a headache as you will need a third party to understand
and communicate. Therefore verbal communication is at a disadvantage in this point.
No rectification: Sometimes fixing small mistakes becomes a headache while doing the verbal
communication. Errors like typing errors or speaking out wrong thing whether you are in for
some official or personal matter can actually ruin your whole intention of communication. So
while you are communicating verbally, it is very much necessary to do the correct speaking or
writing to avoid unnecessary hostility.
Maintenance cost: Many resources and money are spent in preserving records which includes
speech recordings or records in written format result in additional financial loads. Time and
proper maintenance is required to preserve and protect these records for additional use which
sometimes can cost arms and legs to a particular person.

UNIT 2.2 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Meaning of non-verbal communication

When messages or information is exchanged or communicated without using any spoken or writ-
ten word is known as nonverbal communication. Non-verbal communication (NVC) is usually
understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages.
Non-verbal communication is a powerful arsenal in the face-to-face communication encounters,
expressed consciously in the presence of others and perceived either consciously or unconscious-
ly. Much of non-verbal communication is unintentional people are not even aware that they are
sending messages. Non-verbal communication takes place though gestures, facial expressions,
eye contact, physical proximity, touching etc. some important definitions of non-verbal commu-
nication are as follows:
According to L. C. Bovee and others, “Non-verbal communication is communication that takes
place through non-verbal cues: through such form of non-verbal communication as gesture, eye
contact, facial expression, clothing and space; and through the non-verbal vocal communication
known as Para-language.”
According to Lesikar and Pettit, “Nonverbal communication means all communication that oc-
curs without words (body movements, space, time, touch, voice patterns, color, layout, design of
surroundings.)”
According to Himstreet and Baty, “Non-verbal communication includes any communication oc-
curring without the use of words.”
So, non-verbal communication is the exchanged of information or message between two or
more persons through gestures, facial expressions eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and with-
out using any spoken or written word.

24
Characteristics of non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication is any information that is communicated without using words. The
important characteristics of non-verbal communication are as follows:
 No use of words: Non-verbal communication is a communication without words or lan-
guage like oral or written communication. It uses gestures, facial expressions, eye con-
tact, physical proximity, touching etc. for communicating with others.
 Culturally determined: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to
you by your parents and others with whom you associate. Through this process of grow-
ing up in a particular society, you adopt the taints and mannerisms of your cultural group.
 Different meaning: Non-verbal symbols can many meanings. Cross-culture aspects give
various meanings to same expression in respect of non-verbal communication.
 Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in
this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning
to the receiver.
 May conflict with verbal message: Non-verbal communication is so deeply rooted, so
unconscious, that you can express a verbal message and then directly contradict it with a
nonverbal message.
 Largely unconscious: Non-verbal communication is unconscious in the sense that it is
usually not planned nor rehearsed. It comes almost instantaneously.
 Shows feelings and attitudes: Facial expressions, gestures, body movements, the way
you use your eyes – all communicate your feelings and emotions to others.
 Informality: Non verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure
like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and habitually en-
gaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the body.
 Non verbal communication is the indirect means of communication which usually in-
cludes some gestures and sign languages. Some signs are understood beyond mere words.
There are signs and gestures that do tell us many things about a certain individual and
what he/she is trying to communicate. Some of them are:
 Facial expressions: Include eye contacts, eye movements, eyebrow signs, lip movements
or as a whole expressions from face can communicate widely.
 Hand movements: Also, your hand movements can convey many things like what do
you think of the situation or what should you do. Waving gently is bidding goodbye,
where as waving vigorously can mean to attract attention to something. Placement of
your hand is also important. Placing them on your hips says differently than crossing
them over your chest.
 Leg movements: Direct and indirect leg movements like shaking or twisting can also
communicate different things.
 Sitting posture: This can tell a lot of things about the individual person. The way a per-
son sits and carries him/her is very important.
 Touch: Different types of touches can mean different things like touching lightly can
mean a casual call while grabbing and shaking can define urgency.

25
  Dance: Thousands of culture globally, and each culture has its own dance form. Dancing
is an art of performing various movements using body parts to convey a story or message
non-verbally. Dance forms can be both traditional and modern. Some classical dance
forms give us messages about history through repetitions of movements. At the same time
modern dance can convey various social issues happening globally at present or give us a
romantic appeal.
 It is an everyday and most efficient way of communicating between two personnel or
groups. The verbal communication provides you the mean to handle the everyday task
with ease and helps in getting a quick result as the feedback is quick and the message
conveyed in verbal format is quick and direct to the point. Verbal communication forms a
great chunk of our daily communication. Therefore, it is very important for a person to be
capable of producing good verbal skills that should be flawless in this medium of com-
munication.

UNIT 2:3 FORMS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

By Kendra Cherry
According to experts, a substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. Every day, we
respond to thousands on nonverbal cues and behaviors including postures, facial expression, eye
gaze, gestures and tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles, nonverbal details reveal
who we are and impact how we relate to other people.
Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior began with the 1872 publication
of Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.
Since that time, abundant research on the types, effects, and expressions of unspoken communi-
cation and behavior. While these signals are often so subtle that we are not consciously aware of
them, research has identified several different types of nonverbal communication.
In many cases, we communicate information in nonverbal ways using groups of behaviors. For
example, we might combine a frown with crossed arms and unblinking eye gaze to indicate dis-
approval.
1. Facial Expressions
Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider
how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. The look on a person's face is
often the first thing we see, even before we hear what they have to say. While nonverbal commu-
nication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the for happiness, sadness, facial
expressions anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.
2. Gestures
Gestures may be made with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head,
face and eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling one's eyes. Although the study of gesture is
still in its infancy, some broad categories of gestures have been identified by researchers. The
most familiar are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-
specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the hand wave used in west-
ern cultures for "hello" and "goodbye." A single emblematic gesture can have a very different
significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive. For a

26
list of emblematic gestures, see List of gestures. There are some universal gestures like the
shoulder shrug.
Gestures can also be categorized as either speech independent or speech related. Speech-
independent gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct
verbal translation. A wave or a peace sign are examples of speech-independent gestures. Speech-
related gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal communication is
used to emphasize the message that is being communicated. Speech-related gestures are intended
to provide supplemental information to a verbal message such as pointing to an object of discus-
sion.
Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without
words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric
amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
In courtroom settings, lawyers have been known to utilize different nonverbal signals to attempt
to sway juror opinions.
An attorney might glance at his watch to suggest that the opposing lawyer's argument is tedious
or might even roll his eyes at the testimony offered by a witness in an attempt to undermine his
or her credibility. These nonverbal signals are seen as being so powerful and influential that
some judges even place limits on what type of nonverbal behaviors are allowed in the courtroom.
3. Paralinguistics
Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This in-
cludes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection and pitch. Consider the powerful effect
that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice,
listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of
voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
Consider all the different ways simply changing your tone of voice might change the meaning of
a sentence. A friend might ask you how you are doing, and you might respond with the standard
"I'm fine," but how you actually say those words might reveal a tremendous amount of how you
are really feeling.
A cold tone of voice might suggest that you are actually not fine, but you don't wish to discuss it.
A bright, happy tone of voice will reveal that you are actually doing quite well. A somber, down-
cast tone would indicate that you are the opposite of fine and that perhaps your friend should in-
quire further.
4. Body Language and Posture
Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information. Research on body language
has grown significantly since the 1970's, but popular media have focused on the over-
interpretation of defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing, especially after publishing
Julius Fast's book Body Language. While these nonverbal behaviors can indicate feelings and
attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle and less definitive that previ-
ously believed.
5. Proxemics
People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is also an important type of nonver-
bal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as be-
longing to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, cultural expectations,
situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity. For example, the amount

27
of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another person usually varies
between 18 inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to
a crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.
6. Eye Gaze
The eyes play an important role in nonverbal communication and such things as looking, staring
and blinking are important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter people or things that
they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate
a range of emotions including hostility, interest, and attraction.
Eye contact is the instance when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it is the
primary nonverbal way of indicating engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Some
studies have demonstrated that people use their eyes to indicate interest. This includes frequently
recognized actions of winking and movements of the eyebrows. Disinterest is highly noticeable
when little or no eye contact is made in a social setting. When an individual is interested, howev-
er, the pupils will dilate.
According to Eckman, "Eye contact (also called mutual gaze) is another major channel of non-
verbal communication. The duration of eye contact is its most meaningful aspect." Generally
speaking, the longer there is established eye contact between two people, the greater the intimacy
levels. Gaze comprises the actions of looking while talking and listening. The length of a gaze,
the frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate are all important cues
in nonverbal communication. "Liking generally increases as mutual gazing increases."
Along with the detection of disinterest, deceit can also be observed in a person. Hogan states
"when someone is being deceptive their eyes tend to blink a lot more. Eyes act as leading indica-
tor of truth or deception," Both nonverbal and verbal cues are useful when detecting deception. It
is typical for people who are detecting lies to rely consistently on verbal cues but this can hinder
how well they detect deception. Those who are lying and those who are telling the truth possess
different forms of nonverbal and verbal cues and this is important to keep in mind. In addition, it
is important to note that understanding the cultural background of a person will influence how
easily deception is detectable because nonverbal cues may differ depending on the culture. In
addition to eye contact these nonverbal cues can consist of physiological aspects including pulse
rate as well as levels of perspiration. In addition eye aversion can be predictive of deception. Eye
aversion is the avoidance of eye contact. Eye contact and facial expressions provide important
social and emotional information. Overall, as Pease states, "Give the amount of eye contact that
makes everyone feel comfortable. Unless looking at others is a cultural no-no, lookers gain more
credibility than non-lookers"
In concealing deception, nonverbal communication makes it easier to lie without being revealed.
This is the conclusion of a study where people watched made-up interviews of persons accused
of having stolen a wallet. The interviewees lied in about 50% of the cases. People had access to
either written transcript of the interviews, or audio tape recordings, or video recordings. The
more clues that were available to those watching, the larger was the trend that interviewees who
actually lied were judged to be truthful. That is, people that are clever at lying can use tone of
voice and facial expressions to give the impression that they are truthful. Contrary to popular be-

28
lief, a liar does not always avoid eye contact. In an attempt to be more convincing, liars deliber-
ately made more eye contact with interviewers than those that were telling the truth. However,
there are many cited examples of cues to deceit, delivered via nonverbal (paraverbal and visual)
communication channels, through which deceivers supposedly unwittingly provide clues to their
concealed knowledge or actual opinions. Most studies examining the nonverbal cues to deceit
rely upon human coding of video footage (c.f. Vrij, 2008, although a recent study also demon-
strated bodily movement differences between truth-tellers and liars using an automated body mo-
tion capture system.
People also utilize eye gaze a means to determine if someone is being honest. Normal, steady eye
contact is often taken as a sign that a person is telling the truth and is trustworthy. Shifty eyes and
an inability to maintain eye contact, on the other hand, is frequently seen as an indicator that
someone is lying or being deceptive.
7. Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has been a sub-
stantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood. Harry
Harlow's classic monkey study demonstrated how deprived touch and contact impedes develop-
ment. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behavior and so-
cial interaction. Touch can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy, and other
emotions.
In her book Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, author Julia Wood writes that
touch is also often used as a way to communicate both status and power. Researchers have found
that high-status individuals tend to invade other people's personal space with greater frequency
and intensity than lower-status individuals. Sex differences also play a role in how people utilize
touch to communicate meaning. Women tend to use touch to convey care, concern, and nurtur-
ance. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to use touch to assert power or control over others.
8. Appearance
Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also consid-
ered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on has demonstrated that different colors
can evoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgments, and
interpretations. Just think of all the subtle judgments you quickly make about someone based on
his or her appearance. These first impressions are important, which is why experts suggest that
job seekers dress appropriately for interviews with potential employers.
Researchers have found that appearance can play a role in how people are perceived and even
how much they earn. One 1996 study found that attorneys who were rated as more attractive than
their peers earned nearly 15 percent more than those ranked as less attractive. Culture is an im-
portant influence on how appearances are judged. While thinness tends to be valued in Western
cultures, some African cultures relate full-figured bodies to better health, wealth, and social sta-
tus.

9. Artifacts
Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate nonverbally. On an online
forum, for example, you might select an avatar to represent your identity online and to com-
municate information about who you are and the things you like. People often spend a great deal
of time developing a particular image and surrounding themselves with objects designed to con-

29
vey information about the things that are important to them. Uniforms, for example, can be used
to transmit a tremendous amount of information about a person. A soldier will don fatigues, a
police offers will wear a uniform, and a doctor will wear a white lab coat. At a mere glance, these
outfits tell people what a person does for a living.

Clothing

Clothing is one of the most common forms of non-verbal communication. The study of clothing
and other objects as a means of non-verbal communication is known as artifactics or objectics.
The types of clothing that an individual wears convey nonverbal cues about his or her personali-
ty, background and financial status, and how others will respond to them. An individual's cloth-
ing style can demonstrate their culture, mood, level of confidence, interests, age, authority, and
values/beliefs. For instance, Jewish men may wear a yarmulke to outwardly communicate their
religious belief. Similarly, clothing can communicate what nationality a person or group is, for
example, in traditional festivities Scottish men often wear kilts to specify their culture.
Aside from communicating a person's beliefs and nationality, clothing can be used as a nonverbal
cue to attract others. Men and women may shower themselves with accessories and high-end
fashion in order to attract partners they are interested in. In this case, clothing is used as a form
of self-expression in which people can flaunt their power, wealth, sex appeal, or creativity. A
study of the clothing worn by women attending discothèques, carried out in Vienna, Austria,
showed that in certain groups of women (especially women who were without their partners),
motivation for sex and levels of sexual hormones were correlated with aspects of their clothing,
especially the amount of skin displayed and the presence of sheer clothing.
The way one chooses to dress tells a lot about one's personality. In fact, there was a study done at
the University of North Carolina, which compared the way undergraduate women chose to dress
and their personality types. The study showed that women who dressed "primarily for comfort
and practicality were more self-controlled, dependable, and socially well adjusted" ("Sarasota
Journal" 38). Women who didn't like to stand out in a crowd had typically more conservative and
traditional views and beliefs. Clothing, although non-verbal, tells people what the personality of
the individual is like. The way a person dresses is typically rooted from deeper internal motiva-
tions such as emotions, experiences and culture. Clothing expresses who the person is, or even
who they want to be that day. It shows other people who they want to be associated with, and
where they fit in. Clothing can start relationships, because they clue other people in on what the
wearer is like ("Sarasota Journal" 38).

Displays of emotion

Emotions are a key factor in nonverbal communication. Just as gestures and other hand move-
ments vary across cultures, so does the way people display their emotions. For example, "In
many cultures, such as the Arab and Iranian cultures, people express grief openly. They mourn
out loud, while in Asian cultures, the general belief is that it is unacceptable to show emotion
openly." For people in Westernized countries, laughter is a sign of amusement, but in some parts

30
of Africa it is a sign of wonder or embarrassment. Emotional expression varies with culture. Na-
tive Americans tend to be more reserved and less expressive with emotions. Frequent touches are
common for Chinese people; however, such actions like touching, patting, hugging or kissing in
America are less frequent and not often publicly displayed.
Final Thoughts
Nonverbal communication plays an important role in how we convey meaning and information
to others, as well as how we interpret the actions of those around us. The important thing to re-
member when looking at such nonverbal behaviors is to consider the actions in groups. What a
person actually says along with his or her expressions, appearance, and tone of voice might tell
you a great deal about what that person is really trying to say.

UNIT 2:4 COMMUNICATION FUNCTION IN ORGANISATIONS

The communication functions as the means by which the activities in the organ-
isation are coordinated to achieve the organizational goals. It is also the
means by the behaviour is modified, change is effected, information is made
productive & goals are achieved. Whether it is with a business enterprise, a
family, educational institution or trade exhibition, the transfer of infor-
mation from individual to another is absolutely essential. There are two main
types of communication in every organisation – formal & informal communica-
tion.

Formal Communication
Formal communication refers to official communication which takes place
through a chain of commands. It flows in formally established channels & is
concerned with work related matters. Members of the enterprise and expected to
communication with one another strictly as per channels laid down in the
structure. The formal communication may be divided into three categories which
are given as follows:

a) Downward Communication:
Under this system, the flow of communication from the top management downward
to be operating level. It may also be called a communication from a superior
to a subordinate. It follows the line of authority from the top to the bottom
of the organisation hierarchy. Downward communication consists of plans & pol-
icies, orders and instructions, procedures & rules etc.
Advantages and disadvantages of downward communication or Downward communication is
widely used in almost every organization because of its various advantages. There are also de-
merits of downward communication and Disadvantages of Downward Communication and the

31
Merits of downward communication or advantages of downward communication are discussed
below:

Advantages of Downward Communication

 To inform: Top level management informs the lower level employees of the organization
about the policies and procedures through downward communication.
 Delegation of Authority: Downward communication helps the management to delegate
authority among the employees. It also helps to distribute workload to the workers so that
they can know their area of responsibility as well as authority.
 Explaining Policies: Downward communication is widely sued by the managers to ex-
plain polices and organizational procedures to the lower level employees to make them
acquainted with the organizational culture.
 Maintaining Discipline: In downward communication system, a chain of command is
established that helps to develop a sense of discipline among the employees.
 Increasing Efficiency: Though downward communication top level executives provide
the lower level employees with necessary instructions and suggestions. This instructions
and suggestions system helps the subordinates to perform their job properly that in turn
increases the efficiency in the organization.
 No Bypassing: Downward communication flows very systematically from upward to
downward. Here no superior can send any message to any subordinate by bypassing his
immediate next subordinate.
 Building Good Relationship: In downward communication information flows very sys-
tematically that helps to build and maintain a harmonious relationship at all the levels of
the organization.

Disadvantage of Downward Communication

Though downward communication offers many advantages it also has some advantage. The de-
merits of downward communication are discussed below:
 Under communication and over communication: Downward communication is often
marred by either under communication or over communication. Under communication
occurs when the superior talks too little or gives incomplete instructions to the subordi-
nates. And over communication takes place when the superior talks too much or gives in-
structions repeatedly. Under communication and over communication may lead to the
lack age of confidential information.
 Lack of Feedback: Downward communication lacks in feedback. After getting message
from the superiors the subordinates cannot pass out their feelings to their boss if there is
not any upward communication system. Lack of feedback may result in incomplete un-
derstanding or misunderstanding or unsatisfactory performance.
 Delay in Exchanging Information: If the line of communication in the downward com-
munication system is very long. It takes too much time to transmit information to the
lowest level of tworkers. By the time information reaches them, it may lose its signifi-
cance much.
 Loss of Information: In downward communication, if the message is not fully written,
some of its part may be lost at the time of transmission. It has been experimentally veri-

32
 fied that only 20% of the information sent downward through five levels of management
finally reaches at the workers level.
 Distortion of Information: In the long lines of communication, information may be dis-
torted because of exaggeration, making under statements, giving unconscious twists etc.
Whenever a piece of information passes on from one individual to another, it may lose a
little of its authenticity. By the time it reaches its destination, it may not contain even an
iota of truth.
 Creation of Resentment: Downward communication is widely used by authoritative
management. Here the subordinates don not get any opportunity of participating in the
decision making process. They are expected to receive the policy, decisions and direc-
tives without questioning their validity that creates resentment among the employees.
b) Upward Communication:
It means the flow of information from the lower levels of the organisation to the higher level of
authority. It passes from subordinate to superior as that from worker to foreman, foreman to
manager. From manager to general manager & so on. This communication includes opinions,
ideas, suggestions, complaints, grievances, appeals, reports etc. It is very important as it serves as
the feedback on the effectiveness of downward communication. Management is able to know
how well its policies, plans & objectives are followed by those working at lower levels of the
organisation. It keeps the management informed about the progress of the work & difficulties
faced in performance. On the basis of upward communication, the management revises its plans
& policies & makes further planning.

c) Horizontal Communication:
The transmission of information and understanding between people on the same level of organi-
sation hierarchy is called the horizontal communication. This type of communication is also
known as lateral or sideward or crosswise communication. Usually, it pertains to inter depart-
mental managers working at the same level of organisation or among subordinates working un-
der one boss. Horizontal communication speeds up information and promotes mutual under-
standing. It enables the managers working at the same level to exchange information and co-
ordinate their activities without referring all matters to the higher level of management.
The horizontal communication is generally of an informal nature. Whenever a departmental head
requires some information from another departmental head, he tends to contact him directly.
However, this type of communication can be oral or written.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Horizontal Communication
2. Reducing Misunderstanding: Misunderstanding and conflict among the mangers and
staffs are very common in organizational life. Horizontal communication helps to reduce
possible misunderstanding and conflict though meeting, discussion, face to face conver-
sation etc
3. Strengthening group efforts: Group efforts and teamwork are essential prerequisites for
organizational success. Horizontal communication helps in reducing conflicts, controver-
sies, and differences in opinions and thus establishes consensus among the managers and
workers concerned. This consensus strengthens group efforts and team spirit in the organ-
ization.

33
 4. Performing inter departmental communication: Horizontal communication occurs be-
tween people at the same level in various departments. Therefore interdepartmental
communication occurs smoothly.
5. Gaining benefits of informal communication: Though horizontal communication is
formal in nature, it enjoys some degree of informality in exchanging information as the
senders and the receivers hold same position, status and honor.
6. Distortion free communication: Horizontal communication is usually free form distor-
tion. Since the sender and the receiver of horizontal communication can exchange infor-
mation directly, there is no possibility of distortion of message.
7. Bringing dynamism in workplace: Horizontal communication helps to overcome mis-
understanding and confects among the managers. It creates an environment of coopera-
tion, teamwork and team spirit. This brings dynamism in performing organizational activ-
ities.

Disadvantages of Horizontal Communication

Though horizontal communication is essential for smooth functioning of an organization, it is not

completely free form defects or flaws. Followings are the possible drawbacks of horizontal
communication.
1. Rivaling attitude: Horizontal communication occurs between the people at the same
rank and position. If there exists any hostility or rivalry between them, they will not ex-
change information spontaneously. Moreover, they will conceal their information inten-
tionally to deprive someone from the real news.
2. Interdepartmental conflict: The success of horizontal communication depends on good
relationship between sender and receiver. If there is any conflict, distrust or suspicion be-
tween them, horizontal communication will be ineffective.
3. Discouraging attitude of top management: In some cases, top managers discourage
horizontal communication thinking that workers may become friendly with one another
and may create threat for the management.
4. Ignoring vertical communication: More concentration on horizontal communication
may work as substitute of upward and downward communication. In that case upward
and downward communications are ignored.
Informal Communication
There is also a great deal of informal communication in an organisation. This communication
flows through informal channels and may or may not be work related. Informal communication
cuts through the formal organizational structure. Most of us are familiar with the term ‘grape-
vine’ used to describe a network of informal communication. Grapevines are present in all organ-
isations. In fact, in large organisations, there are many grapevines moving up, down and across
departments.

Grapevines flourish because communication is a natural human tendency. People who know each
other in the organisation talk together informally. One thing they have in common is the organi-
sation they work for, so they talk about the happenings in the organisation. Grapevines carry two
types of information: work related and people related. Employees want to know what is going on
in the organisation. When they are not kept informed through formal channels, they seek infor-
mation from the grapevine. Likewise, they are curious about the people they work with.

34
Grapevine carry the type of personnel information not generally communicated through formal
channels. Employees get to know plans, promotions, punishments, etc, much before they are
formally announced. Informality however, reduces uniformity of communication and sometimes
false or distorted news is circulated. Some employees consider the grapevine their main source
of information. It is fast- they get information quickly and more information is given than is
normally included in formal downward communications, which are often written and may origi-
nate from someone they do not know personally. Manager often become frustrated with grape-
vines, particularly when they carry incorrect information. But grapevines exist; managers cannot
stop them. Managers can, however, increase the accuracy of the grapevine by feeding it correct
information. And they can try to reduce the relevance placed on grapevines by making certain
that formal communication is complete and timely.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION

Communication is an indispensable part of the process of management. The suc-

cess of an enterprise depends upon the effective of communication. Every man-
ager must communicate in order to get things done through others. A good com-
munication system offers the following benefits :

Basis of Decision-Making and Planning. Communication is essential for deci-

sion-making and planning. It enables the management to secure information
without which it may be possible to take any decision. The quality of manage-
rial decisions depends upon the quality of communication. Further, the deci-
sions and plans of the management need to be communicated to the subordinates.
Without effective communication, it may not be possible to issue instructions
and orders. Effective communication helps in proper implementation of plans
and policies of the management.

2. Smooth and Efficient Working: Communication makes possible the smooth and
efficient working of an enterprise. It is only through communication that the
management changes and regulates the actions of the subordinates in the de-
sired direction.

3. Facilitates Co-ordination: Management is the art of getting things done

through others and this objective of management cannot be achieved unless
there is unity of purpose and harmony of effort. Communication through ex-
change of ideas and information helps to bring about unity of action in the
pursuit of common purpose. It binds the people together and facilitates co-
ordination.

4. Increases Managerial Efficiency: Effective communication increases manage-

rial efficiency. It is rightly said that nothing happens in management until

35
communication takes place. The efficiency of a manager depends upon his abil-
ity to communicate effectively with the members of his organisation. It is on-
ly through communication that management conveys its goals and desires, issues
instructions and orders, allocates jobs and responsibility and evaluates per-
formance of subordinates.

5. Sound Industrial Relations: Effective communication creates mutual under-

standing and trust among the members of the organisation. It promotes co-
operation between the employer and the employees. Without communication, there
cannot be sound industrial relations and industrial peace. It is only through
communication that workers can put in their grievances, problems and sugges-
tions to the management.

6. Helps in Establishing Effective Leadership:

Communication is the basis of effective leadership. There cannot be any lead-
ership action without the effective communication between the leader and the
led. Communication is absolutely necessary for maintaining man to man rela-
tionship in leadership. It brings the manager (leader) and the subordinates
(led) in close contact with each other and helps in establishing effective
leadership.

7. Motivation and Morale: Communication is the means by which the behaviour

of the subordinates is modified and change is effected in their actions.
Through communication workers are motivated to achieve the goals of the enter-
prise and their morale is boosted. Although motivation comes from within yet
the manager can also motivate people by effective communication, e.g., proper
drafting of message, proper timing of communication and the way of communica-
tion, etc.

8. Effective Control: Communication acts as a tool of effective control. The

plans have to be communicated to the subordinates, the actual performance has
to be measured and communicated to the top management and a corrective action
has to be taken or communicated so as to achieve the desired goals. All this
may not be possible without an efficient system of communication.

9. Job Satisfaction: Effective communication creates job satisfaction among

employees as it increased mutual trust and confidence between management and
the employees. The gap between management and the employees is reduced through
the efficient means of communication and a sense of belongingness is created
among employees. They work with zeal and enthusiasm.

36
10. Democratic Management: Communication is also essential for democratic
management. It helps to achieve workers’ participation in management by in-
volving workers in the process of decision-making. In the absence of an effi-
cient system of communication, there cannot be any delegation and decentrali-
zation of authority.

11. Public Relations: In the present business world, every business enter-
prise has to create and maintain a good corporate image in the society. It is
only through communication that management can present a good corporate image
to the outside world. Effective communication helps management in maintaining
good relations with workers, customers, suppliers, shareholders, government
and community at large

Strategies for Effective Communication in the Workplace:

1. Create an open communication environment – An organization must aim to develop a

communication environment in which all employees of the organization are free to share their
feedback, interesting ideas and even criticism against any specific issue. Organizational leaders
who aim to develop open communication are able to build trust within their employees and are
therefore prone to gain more successful results.
2. Employ the inclusive communication strategy – An inclusive strategy of communication is
one in which all members are invited to become part of a decision taken by the company. Such
decisions are related with day to day working of the company. This encourages employees to de-
liver more productive and creative ideas for the company. As a result, the talent source is not lim-
ited within the company.
3. Make sure that your firm’s communication is two-way – Communication must never be
one way. It is a two way process that can be carried either vertically or horizontally. Not only
senior personnel, but even the members at lower levels must hold the authority to transfer infor-
mation to their respective senior employees.
4. The interaction procedure must be result-oriented – Business communication must be re-
sult-oriented and focus on acquiring fruitful results to the organization. Organizations must un-
derstand and make sure to deliver employees with measures that are necessary to increase their
business productivity.
5. Employ multiple channels to transfer messages – To make sure that each and every member
of your organization receives the message you need to send it through multiple channels. Some
highly effective channels to transmit messages are face to face conversations, meetings, postings,
memos, email, interacting via telephone, faxes, and emails.
6. Try to repeat important messages – Besides using multiple channels to transfer the message,
the organization may also improve communication by repeating an important message a couple
numbers of times. This will ensure that no one leaves out listening to a vital piece of information.

37
7. Focus on listening – Listening is very much important, especially when you are engaged in
one to one communication. Both the employers as well as employees must be active listeners.
Reflective listening abilities can be adopted in this regard. If you find difficult listening to what
other people wants to say, then you can tell yourself that you are going to listen for couple of
minutes now. This is something that may help you a lot!
8. Make sure you deliver your message – Once you have listened to the other person then next
essential thing is to actively deliver your message to him. You must speak out honestly and be
sure that you deliver your message in an open yet gracious manner. Being straightforward is not
an issue, but make sure that you are not acting rude.
9. Communicate objectives and goals with every department – No matter what role an em-
ployee possess, it is essential that he must possess clear understanding of company’s policies and
goals. Even employees must be informed for all important functionalities of the organization.
Only then a company can develop efficient communication system within the organization.
10. Make vital information available to employees all the time – It may happen that one or
other individual may not be available during presentation of an important piece of work. It is
therefore vital for the company to ensure that each and every employee receives information
even if he was not present at that moment. In such situation, companies need to make the infor-
mation always available to their employees through emails, or messages.
11. Keep a check of your communication process – Entities need to make sure that they always
cross check that their communication process works well. Only implementing a communication
strategy is not sufficient. It is also required to timely examine the strategy so that it reaps lucra-
tive gains to the company.
12. Make internal communication friendly for the masses – No matter which form of com-
munication method you adopt, it is essential that you act friendly and responsible towards the
masses. Your communication process must not be outlined within framework of discipline. It
should not be strict and must be delineated in a friendly way. It is vital so that every individual
feels free to communicate with each other.
13. Conduct virtual conferences – This is an excellent way to boost internal communication
within the organization. Entities can organize virtual conferences in which employees from dif-
ferent departments can talk, exchange productive ideas and develop better understanding towards
working for achieving company’s goals.
14. Prepare in advance – Prepare for every meeting and discussion in advance. As the head of
your organization you need to make sure that your communication does not interrupts in be-
tween. This is because it may then create a negative impact on employees. Also some employees
may even loose interest in listening what you wish to say. So, in order to avoid all such incidenc-
es, it is vital that you well prepare for such meetings and discussions in advance.
15. Try managing different sorts of communication problem – It is possible that despite of
following all sorts of strategies and techniques, still a problem within the communication process
may occur. So, the best thing is that to handle all kinds of issues wisely and in absolutely profes-
sional manner. Conflicts, dealing with problematic people, managing differences of opinions are

38
some of such issues that can arise. So, make sure to handle each one of them with patience and
intelligence.
Communication can be internal or external, formal or informal. But within an organization it is
essential to develop a formal, healthy and beneficial internal communication process. This is be-
cause effective communication is the key to achieve long-term success. So make sure to follow
the above outline strategies. As these strategies may help you in building effective communica-
tion within the organization so that the entire employee framework can work towards achieving
company’s goals.

UNIT 2.5 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Definition
Written communication is the sharing and exchanging of written symbols between individuals or
groups. It is also the presentation of ideas in a coherent manner in written form. Written commu-
nication involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written word. Communication is a
key to any endeavor involving more than one person. Communicating through writing is essen-
tial in the modern world and is becoming ever more so as we participate in what is now com-
monly called the information age. In fact, written communication is the most common form of
business communication. It is essential for small business owners and managers to develop effec-
tive written communication skills and to encourage the same in all employees. The information
age has altered the ways in which we communicate and placed an increasing emphasis on written
versus oral communications.

Written communication can take place via:

•Letters;
•Faxes;
•Email;
•Reports;
•Memos; and
•Advertisements.

39
You can acquire good writing skills through extensive reading, note-taking and listening. In order
to communicate effectively via writing, you need to have a sound grounding in grammar and vo-
cabulary so that you can present ideas, together with supporting details, in a unified and coherent
manner.
Written communication is an excellent way of transmitting the information across the organiza-
tional level. The documents that contain the rules and regulations and procedures or the policy
manuals are the example of written communication. Besides, the written communication,
through email or memos or in the form of letters, is used whenever the superiors need to advise
or instruct their subordinates to carry out particular tasks.
Employees need to be well informed about the policies and the procedures of the organization, so
that they may act accordingly. The written communication through policy manual and procedure
written on the related documents, such as, loan application form, leave application form etc.,
serve the purpose.
Written communication serves as an evidence of the events or the actions that have been taken.
Also, there are situations that call for the letters or memos on whose basis certain actions are to
be taken. In this way, written communication is of great importance to clear the discrepancies.
Aside from these, whenever there is a need to convey the important and urgent message to vari-
ous persons in organization, written communication may be of great help and assistance provid-
ing the required information, which can save the time and effort to be taken to conduct a meeting
for that particular purpose. This way written communication provides permanency of records as
well.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

One advantage to using written forms of communication is that written messages do not have to
be delivered on the spur of the moment; instead, they can be edited and revised several times be-
fore they are sent so that the content can be shaped to maximum effect. Another advantage is that
written communication provides a permanent record of the messages and can be saved for later
study. Since they are permanent, written forms of communication also enable recipients to take
more time in reviewing the message and providing appropriate feedback. For these reasons, writ-
ten forms of communication are often considered more appropriate for complex business mes-
sages that include important facts and figures. Other benefits commonly associated with good
writing skills include increased customer/client satisfaction; improved inter-organizational effi-
ciency; and enhanced image in the community and industry.
There are also several potential pitfalls associated with written communication, however. For in-
stance, unlike oral communication, wherein impressions and reactions are exchanged instantane-
ously, the sender of written communication does not generally receive immediate feedback to his
or her message. This can be a source of frustration and uncertainty in business situations in
which a swift response is desired. In addition, written messages often take more time to com-
pose, both because of their information-packed nature and the difficulty that many individuals
have in composing such correspondence. Many companies, however, have taken a proactive
stance in addressing the latter issue. Mindful of the large number of workers who struggle with

40
their writing abilities, some firms have begun to offer on-site writing courses or enrolled em-
ployees in business writing workshops offered by professional training organizations, colleges,
and community education programs.
UNIT 3.0 APPLYING STUDY SKILLS
INTRODUCTION
Being successful in school requires a high level of study skills. Students must first learn these
skills, practice them and develop effective study habits in order to be successful. Very often the
study habits and practices developed and used in high school do not work for students in college.
Good study habits include many different skills: time management, self-discipline, concentration,
memorization, organization, and effort. Desire to succeed is important, too.
In this module you will discover your areas of strength and identify your weaknesses pertaining
to studying. You will learn about your preferred learning channel, tips to organize your studies,
and ways to help you remember what you study. The skills you will learn about in this module
can be applied in other areas of your life as well: your job, your career, or any activity that re-
quires thought, planning, information processing, and self-discipline. You’ll find that once you
develop effective study habits, the job of studying and learning will become easier. Instead of
working harder, you'll be working smarter.

To succeed in your studies at any tertiary institution you must study. Studying is revising the
notes you took during lectures, and reading text books with the aim of understanding better what
you are reading. For better understanding, it is important that you as a student come up with a
study plan that works best for you. We are going to discuss some of the study plans and study
tips that will help you to study better and gain good grades at the end of your undergraduate stud-
ies.
Study tips
Prepare a study timetable
1. Draw up a study timetable (see samples below) and block in all activities, work, lectures,
and any household or other responsibilities you may have. Include meal times and travel time.
Be realistic. This should be an actual timetable, which is possible, not some ideal that can never
be achieved. Make enough copies to cover all the weeks leading up to exams or assessment.
2. Work out your most effective study times. When do you study best? Morning, afternoon or
and evening?
3. Consider: Which subjects need the most study and revision? Estimate how many hours you
think you need for each subject and try to match this with the hours available in your weekly
planner.
4. Block in some study times, preferably 2-4 hours at a time, with 5-10 minutes’ break every 40-
50 minutes.
5. Start at exam periods or due dates for assignments and work backwards, blocking in more
study time in the relevant subject closer to the exam/due date. Make sure that you prepare for
each exam over several days and don’t fill up the last few days too heavily. Also put in any
events which may affect your study times, such as birthdays, social events and work functions.
6. You may want to plan in detail for each study session. Write down which lecture/topic/text you
will be researching/ reviewing. This way, you can ensure that you will cover all the required in-
formation in the times you have allocated. Consider: What do I want to achieve in this session?

41
(eg: summary/ notes / list of definitions/ language exercise/ essay plan/ list of resources/ time-
line). Where will I need to study? Do I need access to a computer/ the internet/ the library?
7. If you have some smaller amounts of time available for study, consider how they could be
used: skim reading an article, proofing a draft, sorting a bibliography, organising reference cards,
etc. Travel time on public transport can also be used for reading.

Start using your study timetable.

See how well it works. What did you leave out? It can be changed as you go, but do this con-
sciously: look at what is not working, which areas you need more time in and change the timeta-
ble. This is much better than just throwing the timetable away. Then you can be sure that you
will still cover all the material you need to.

Establish your prime study time

Your prime study time (PST) is that time when your concentration is at its highest. Everyone has
a PST and they all know it. That is why some people wake up early in the morning to study
(Such people their PST is early morning) while some stay up late to study.
Study the subject you are having trouble with during your PST.
 Find a suitable room with comfortable furniture and good lighting

 Set a regular time to study

 Remove distractions

 Avoid clutter

Clutter is anything that will distract you from reading what you had scheduled to read. Clutter
includes books from other subjects, e.g. if you are studying Literature, then mathematics, Biolo-
gy and other subject books are clutter because they can distract you from reading. Newspapers
and story books are also clutter.
 Record assignments in an assignment book or on a calendar

 Take notes in class and review them regularly

 Make ONE minute act as TWO minutes

Anytime you have to wait for something read your short notes. You will be able to kill two birds
with one stone. You will be able to do two things at the same time: wait as you read for example,
When in the bus going to school, read your short notes. When you are in the restaurant waiting to
be served, read your short notes.

Study for tests

TYPES OF STUDY PLANS

It is important to note that there are other study plans that a student can use, but we are choosing
to focus on these because we feel that they are the most applicable to our students. They can all
be used simultaneously by one student.

42
1. Preview
Preview is reading about the topic you are going to be lectured on before the lecture. You are of-
ten given a course outline beforehand so that it can help you in previewing. Preview gives you an
upper hand because you will be able to follow and understand what the lecturer is talking about.
It enhances your chances of retaining what is taught. Remember knowledge starts from known to
unknown.
You can also preview notes from the previous lecture so that you can understand the link be-
tween the previous lecture and the current lecture.

2. Studying with Breaks

Studying with Breaks also called spaced study is a very good technique for studying. It involves
studying for a period then taking a short break followed by another study session. For example,
you can study for 2 hours then take a 0minute break followed by another 1 hour of study.
Spaced study is good because if used well the student will be able to lock what they are studying
in their long term memory (LTM) during the breaks. The breaks act as a reward. Humans thrive
when they are rewarded. Your mind will also appreciate the reward. During the breaks reflect on
what you have studied. Do not use the breaks negatively.

3. Group Study
Studying with a group of your friends can be both a fun and rewarding study method. For effec-
tive studying, it is important that you choose your group members wisely and follow a few rules.
Study groups should:
 Not be the sole method of study and they are not for everyone

 Be a form of ‘active learning’ – the strongest kind of learning

 Not let one member of the group dominate

 Meet no more than 2-3 times a week

 Establish responsibilities for each group member

 Design rules dealing with respect for each member

 Provide contact information for group members

Importance of study groups

 Help you and your group members:
 See the material from a different perspective

 Stay motivated and commit more time to study

 Share/compare notes and study tips

 Engage in discussions and debates on selected topics

 Pick up new tips and material from your peers

43
  Quiz each other on factual material

Taking Examinations
An examination, commonly known as exam, is a set of questions or exercises evaluating ac-
quired knowledge or skill. It is an assessment intended to measure a student’s knowledge, skills,
aptitude, and creativity among others. Examinations are used as an evaluative tool evaluating
whether ant learning has taken place. Examinations test the student’s ability to recall and re use
the knowledge learnt to create something new. An exam is an official evaluation tool used to test
knowledge or ability in a particular subject. In the university, an exam is used to evaluate both
teaching and learning.

Types of Examination questions

Generally, question types fall into two categories:
1. Objective; which require students to supply a word or short phrase to answer a question or
complete a statement. Objective exams are easy to take and mark. They test the students’ ability
to recall what was learnt. Examples of objective type questions include: multiple choice, true-
false, matching, filling in the gaps, and outlining or stating among others. Objective exams test
the first two levels of Bloom’s taxonomy (Blooms taxonomy is explained below). Objective ex-
ams at the university are given as sit in CATs.
Objective tests are appropriate when:
 The group to be tested is large and the test may be reused.

 Highly reliable scores to be obtained as efficiently as possible.

 Impartiality of evaluation, fairness, test scores which can be measured are required.

 The weight of the questions are a less marks such as 2mk, 5 Mks.

2. Subjective These are those exam questions that require thinking and recreating what was
learnt. Subjective exams questions are essay type questions which permit the student to organize
and present an original answer. Examples: short answer essay, extended-response essay, problem
solving, performance test items. Essay tests are appropriate when:
 The group to be tested is small and the test is not to be reused.

 The teacher wishes to encourage and reward the development of student skill in writing.

 The teacher is more interested in exploring student attitudes than in measuring his/her
achievement.

 When the weight of the exam is great. The awarded marks range from 10mks onward.

Either essay or objective tests can be used to:

 Measure almost any important educational achievement a written test can measure

 Test understanding and ability to apply principles.

44
  Test ability to think critically.

 Test ability to solve problems.

BLOOMS TAXONOMY
Bloom Taxonomy was conceptualized and proposed in the year 1956 by Benjamin Bloom. It was
a framework, classifying educational goals and objectives and levels of knowledge including
how they can be appropriately measured. The terms "taxonomy" and "classification" are synon-
ymous. Bloom's Taxonomy is a multi-tiered model of classifying thinking into six cognitive lev-
els of complexity. The classification’s relevant area of application is in academic understanding
with the classification of thought process in learning and teaching. In 2001 one of the original
team members, David Krathwohl, and a student of Bloom’s, Lorin Anderson, spearheaded an
effort to revise the original cognitive taxonomy. The ideas applying Blooms taxonomy in as-
sessment was taken from this revision of Blooms taxonomy. Testing the students’ cognitive level
is the prime objective of any assessment system.

Different Types of Questions based on Bloom's Taxonomy

Lower Order

Knowledge (Remembering) These types of questions test the students’ ability to memorize and
to recall terms, facts and details without necessarily understanding the concept. Key Words:
Memorize, Define, Identify, Repeat, Recall, State, Write, List & Name.
Comprehension (Understanding) These questions test the students’ ability to summarize and
describe in their own words without necessarily relating it to anything. Key Words: Describe,
Distinguish, Explain, Interpret, Predict, Recognize & Summarize.
Higher Order
Application (Transferring) Application questions encourage students to apply or transfer learn-
ing to their own life or to a context different than one in which it was learned. Key Words: Ap-
ply, Compare, Contrast, Demonstrate, Examine, Relate, Solve & Use.

Analysis (Relating) These questions encourage students to break material into parts, describe
patterns and relationships among parts, to subdivide information and to show how it is put to-
gether. Key Words: Analyze, Differentiate, Distinguish, Explain, Infer, Relate, Research & Sep-
arate.

Synthesis (Creating) These questions encourage students create something new by using a
combination of ideas from different sources to form a new whole. Key Words: Arrange, Com-
bine, Create, Design, Develop Formulate, Integrate & Organize.

Evaluation (Judging) Evaluation questions encourage students to develop opinions and make
value decisions about issues based on specific criteria. Key Words: Assess, Critique, Determine,
Evaluate, Judge, Justify, Measure & Recommend. As students you must be sensitive to identify

45
the level of knowledge being tested in each exam question. This will enable you to map up a
road plan for answering that question. The weight of the exam should also be a guide as to how
much writing is needed.

Test Taking Strategies

Examinations are a fact of life in college. But the only time an exam should be a trial is when
you aren't prepared for it, and the best sign that you aren't prepared is when you have to stay up
all night to "cram." Cramming won't do very much for you (except make you so tired that when
you take the exam you won't be able to think clearly enough to answer the questions you DO
know).

Here are some tips to help you develop test taking skills:

BEFORE THE TEST

1. Start preparing for your exams the first day of class. You can do this by reading your syllabus
carefully to find out when your exams will be, how many there will be, and how much they are
weighed into your grade.

2. Plan reviews as part of your regularly weekly study schedule; consequently, you review over
the whole quarter rather than just at exam time.

3. Reviews are much more than reading and rereading all assignments. You need to read over
your lecture notes and ask yourself questions on the material you don't know well. (If your notes
are relatively complete and well organized, you may find that very little rereading of the text-
book for detail is needed.) You may want to create a study group for these reviews to reinforce
your learning.

4. Review for several short periods rather than one long period. You will find that you retain in-
formation better and get less fatigued.

5. Turn the main points of each topic or heading into questions and check to see if the answers
come to you quickly and correctly. Try to predict examination questions; then outline your an-
swers.

6. It may seem "old-fashioned", but flashcards may be a helpful way to review in courses that
have many unfamiliar terms. Review the card in random order using only those terms that you
have difficulty remembering.

DURING THE TEST

There are also some things to keep in mind when you are TAKING the test.
1. First, read the directions carefully!! Many points have been lost because students didn't follow
the directions.

2. Note start and end times and divide the time you have with the questions you will be answer-
ing.

46
3. Remember to preview the test to see how much time you need to allot for each section. If the
test is all multiple choice questions, it is good to know that immediately.

4. Work on the "easiest" parts first. If your strength is essay questions, answer those first to get
the maximum points. Pace yourself to allow time for the more difficult parts.

5. When answering essay questions use the technique of writing a topical paragraph. Organiza-
tion, clear thinking, and good writing is important, but so is neatness. Be sure to make your writ-
ing legible. Introduce and conclude each point.

6. Save time at the end of the exam to review your test and make sure you haven't left out any
answers or parts of answers. This is difficult to do under the stress of exams, but it often keeps
you from making needless errors.
7. Use your first instinct. As you read a question, attempt to answer it before reading the answers
listed. After doing so, select from the list that most closely matches your answer.

8. It is recommended to bring a watch. This will help you keep track of time in case the clock
is in a location hard for you to see.

9. Take a few deep breaths when you get stuck

If you come across a question you’re not sure how to answer in the exam, stop for a moment and
take a few deep breathes (in for the count of 3 and out for the count of 3). If you are not sure how
to answer it there and then, move on to another question. The worst thing you can do is start to
panic, because as they say ‘stress makes you stupid’. You won’t be able to think clearly.

AFTER THE TEST

If the instructor reviews the exam in class, make sure you attend. Many students choose to skip
class of the day of the review because "nothing is happening" that day. On the contrary, this is an
important class to attend because it helps reinforce the information one more time in long term
memory. Even if you aren't interested in the "learning" aspect of the class, it is an opportunity to
hear what the instructor was looking for in the answers. This can help you on the NEXT exam.
Keep in mind that there are things you can do before, during, and after exams that will help you
succeed in the class. You may want to read and complete the Test Taking Checklist to evaluate
your development as a test-wise student.
PRESENTATION SKILLS

A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking situations,

such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. A presentation can also be
used as a broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking engagements’ such as making a speech at
a wedding, or getting a point across in a video conference. A presentation requires you to get a
message across to the listeners and will often contain a 'persuasive' element. It may, for example,
be a talk about the positive work of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why
you should receive additional funding for a project.

Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging presentations to a
variety of audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the structure of your presenta-
tion, the design of your slides, the tone of your voice and the body language you convey. To be

47
an effective presenter, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting the in-
formation should be carefully considered.

Planning your Presentation

It can be helpful to plan your presentation in terms of key steps, as follows:
a) Set your objective. A simple sentence can be a good means of defining your purpose in giving
the presentation, and will begin to determine the content.

(Objective is a short statement which tells what you plan to achieve. For example, you may plan
that) Try to complete the following sentence:
‘As a result of my presentation, my audience will be able to…..
i) Explain the methods of preventing HIV/AIDS.’

ii) See their role in interdisciplinary learning more clearly,

b) Decide what the main purpose of your talk is e.g.; - -to inform, persuade, motivate or change
things. -What do you want your audience to do as a result of your talk?
c) Understand your audience: Try and have a basic idea of the size of the audience and who they
are. Think about what they will be expecting from the presentation, but be realistic about this.
Find out what level of knowledge and experience those attending will have about your topic, so
that you know where to aim the material. Is the audience likely to have any preconceptions or
misconceptions about the subject that you need to address and put right? How might your audi-
ence use what you have to say?

d) Know your setting: Find out about the equipment –audiovisual aids etc. that will be available.
Check out the location of the presentation; the size of the room (to help you decide on type of
seating arrangements), and other facilities.
e) Write down the ‘central theme’ of the talk.
f) Write your outline: Ask yourself: What are the main points I need to make to get my message
across? What supporting information will I need? Where will I get this? How much time will I
need?
g) Structure your talk.
Structuring Your Presentation
This is one of the most important aspects of the presentation. The structure should be clear to
both you and your audience. Develop your visual aids: For example, will you use a flipchart,
whiteboard power point, overhead projector or data projector etc. to clarify important points and
aid understanding?
NB: Do not use too many slides/points.
Prepare your delivery notes, according to the structured outline.
Different authors advocate different formats for structuring a presentation, each of which has
their merits (Hartley and Bruckman, 2002; Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).
The structure of a presentation should have an introduction, body and conclusion.
i) Introduction:
Through the introduction you should grab your audience’s attention and set the scene.
Ways of getting your audience’s attention include;
• asking a rhetorical or intriguing question,

48
• providing a relevant and interesting fact,

• giving an anecdote,

• outlining the valuable information you hope the audience will gain from the presentation,

• telling them why they need to know the information,

• giving a quote or making a dramatic prediction.

Your theme should be made clear from the start. Start the audience thinking about the subject
matter of your presentation by, for example, a statement of your main objective. It can also be
helpful to present the structure to your talk, by explaining briefly how you plan to proceed with
it.
ii) The Main Body:
Select the main points that support your argument but only include as much detail as your audi-
ence needs. Also, be aware that people will not remember too many points. Once you have de-
cided on the key points, organize them into a sequence that makes sense to you. This sequence
may take various forms, including being chronologically based, problem-solution based, simple-
complex based etc. (Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).
Explain and build your points using supporting information and evidence.
iii) Conclusion:
There are various ways of concluding a presentation including
• changing the pace,

• using a new visual aid,

• summarizing your main points,

• drawing the conclusion and its importance,

• making recommendations,

• asking for questions,

• getting feedback,

• asking for or recommending particular actions,

• getting some sort of commitment from the group to the advocated course of action,

• Finally end by thanking the group for their time and attention.

Do not end suddenly. Give your audience some idea that you are coming to a close; eg. ‘And
now, before I finish’ or ‘In conclusion’ etc. Try to end on a strong note through the use of tactics
detailed above. Research has long since shown that we tend to remember the opening and closing
parts of a presentation over the detail in the middle.

49
Delivery
DeVito (1990) outlines four main types of delivery:

1. Impromptu: This involves giving a talk with no prior planning, and is often the least pre-
ferred method. Sometimes however, we do not have an opportunity to prepare and are called on
to speak at short notice. Take a few moments to write some key points down on a card to help
give you some structure, and do not panic. Others will be aware that you had only a short time to
prepare. Also keeping the style relaxed and conversational, so that it seems impromptu (even if
this is not the case)can be a very effective style.

2. Extemporaneous: Extemporaneous speech is a “carefully prepared, but delivered without

notes or text.” It is speaking before a group on a topic you are familiar with, using very few
notes. Extemporaneous speeches are presentations that must be given without any notes or slides
and with minimum preparation time, usually less than 30 minutes. This involves cue cards or
slides on which you summarize the main points which you then flesh out.

3. Memorized: This approach involves learning and repeating a manuscript. This is more diffi-
cult when giving longer presentations in that there is a lot of material to be memorized. However,
a useful tip is to memorize the first few lines to get you started.

4. Reading from a manuscript: This involves speaking from a prepared manuscript. However,
while this can feel the safest option, try to use it as a guide as far as possible rather than reading
it word for word, as your delivery could otherwise sound stilted. Practice and rehearse in order to
remember key points. Ultimately, choose the method, or combination of methods, that is least
stressful for you.

Techniques of Delivery
Hargie et al (2004, p. 72) outline a number of features of effective deliveries, summarised as fol-
lows:
• Use appropriate language and avoid jargon. If the audience does not understand most of what is
being talked about, they will become detached.

• Be suitably paced. Inexperienced speakers have a habit of speaking too quickly. On the other
hand, speaking too slowly is a recipe for boredom. Where speed of delivery may be a particular
concern, think about placing an accomplice in the audience primed to signal when you get too
slow or too quick.

• Use visual aids without placing them centre stage. Even the best of these are only aids to assist
the speaker.

• Make use of sub-summaries, signposts and links. Pause at transitional points in the flow of ide-
as to briefly summarize the material covered. Explaining how this ‘chunk’ of information links
with what comes next helps to signpost the path through the presentation and increases its coher-
ence.

• Emphasize key points verbally, non-verbally and vocally. Emphasize verbally through listing
key points (e.g. ‘It is vital that you recognise…’), repeating core elements etc; non-verbally (e.g.

50
Gestures, changes in posture, position); and vocally (e.g. Altering volume, speed of delivery,
tone of voice).

• Be verbally fluent. Effective public speakers do not have to be word perfect. Nevertheless, lots
of ‘umms’ ‘ahhhhs’ and other fillers such as ‘you know’ can be highly distracting.

• Be concrete and precise, rather than appearing vague and indefinite.

• Be varied, e.g. intersperse talk with graphs, slides or pieces of video that the audience can look
at as a break from listening. If appropriate, encourage some discussion or ask the audience to
work on a brief exercise.

• Include carefully chosen examples – as a bridge between what the listener knows and is famil-
iar with and the new material being introduced.

• Avoid distractions, e.g. pacing around, playing with a pen or pointer, over use of certain stock
phrases. Gain control of body language.

• Seem natural and not contrived. This can take some time and practice.

• Rehearse what is going to be said.

Body Language during presentation

Remember the importance of non-verbal communication!
• Behave enthusiastically,

• Make and maintain eye contact,

• Smile,

• act ‘as if’ you are confident and relaxed (even if you do not feel it) and make your introduction
without reading from your notes too much.

• The manner of speech is also important.

• As well as ensuring that your voice can be heard by the furthest member of the group,

• speak clearly and at a conversational,

• Appropriate speed.

Varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features can communicate enthusiasm and can create
a sense of interest in the listener.

• Pause before key points and stress key parts of the sentence by using change in tone.
Techniques to resolve your anxiety include the following:
1. Accept that it is perfectly normal to feel nervous or anxious to some extent.

2. • Prepare well.

51
3. • Be realistic. Are your standards too high? Take off the unnecessary pressure that comes from
negative and unrealistic thoughts by challenging them and seeking the more rational view. That
worst case scenario you imagine is highly improbable, and if a less than positive outcome does
occur, it is unlikely to be the end of the world!

4. • Use relaxation exercises such as deep breathing.

5. • Behave ‘as if’ you are feeling confident; i.e.

i. Enter the presentation in a very deliberate way,

ii. Rehearse your presentation, but also how you will Stand, set out your notes, change your
slides etc,
iii. Use other non-verbal behaviors to appear confident.

UNIT 3.1 LIBRARY, E-LIBRARY AND LOCATING SKILLS

Definition of library:
A library is an organized collection of books and other literary material kept for reading, study
and consultation.
A Library is a collection or group of collections of books and other materials maintained for
reading, study and research, organized to facilitate access by a specific clientele and staffed by
librarians and other staff, trained to meet the needs of its users.
A University student is expected to read study and research in the library. A good student visits
the library often and knows how to access books in the library.
A good student must be information literate. The American Library Association (ALA) presiden-
tial Committee on Information Literacy Final Report (1989) states as follows: “To be infor-
mation literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the abil-
ity to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information”. To realize this goal, it requires
a structuring of the learning process so that students are taught problem solving techniques for
life-long learning. Information literacy in institutions of higher learning is necessary for both
students and staff. The goal of information literacy is to ensure that users are equipped and en-
couraged to learn from the range of information resources available. It includes learning to use
both formal and informal information resources. According to Bruce (1994) information literacy
involves the following:

52
  Understanding the nature of information society; Acquiring values which promoted in-
formation access to use.

Being able to implement the process of identifying an information need locating, retrieving,
evaluating and synthesizing the information required;

 Developing a high level of communication skills, including the ability to communicate

with colleagues and information professionals;

 Developing a sound knowledge of network sources and strategies for using them; and

 Developing the ability to manage the information retrieval through the appropriate use of,
for example word processors, spreadsheet, and bibliographic management software.

Role of information
When well organized and disseminated information can be effective in the following areas:
 Facilitate planning, decision-making and problem solving. Enhancing social economic
cultural scientific and technological development.

 Enable the development of the national economy. Promotion of recreation and leisure.

 Develop a cohesive nation of intelligent people

In Academia, information is required to:

 Facilitate research, study and teaching; and

 Enable success in studies, assignments and the passing of examinations.

Types of information resources

Information resources
These are materials that are used as resources of information for reference, research, study and
recreation. Information resources are found in form of books, newspapers, computer disks/ tapes,
listening (radio), viewing (TV), and speaking (oral).

Books
UNESCO defines a book as a non periodical literary publication consisting of 49 or more pages,
covers not included. A collection of leaves of paper or other material, written of printed, fastened
together in some manner with a cover. In the USA for a publication to be called a book it must
consist of 24 or more pages.

Newspapers
These are serial publications usually printed on newsprint and issues daily, semi weekly or week-
ly containing news, editorial opinion, regular columns, letters to the editor, cartoons, advertise-
ments and other items of current, often local interest to a general readership.
Periodicals These are publications with distinctive titles containing articles, stories or other short
works usually written by different contributors, issued in soft cover more than once, usually at
stated intervals. Periodicals are published by scholarly societies, University presses, government

53
agencies, commercial publishing houses, private corporations, trade and professional associa-
tions and other organizations.
Journals These are periodicals devoted to disseminating current research and commentary on
developments within a specific discipline sub discipline or field of study usually published in
quarterly or bimonthly issues which Libraries bind into continuously paginated volumes. Most
journal articles are longer than five pages and include a bibliography or a list of works cited at
the end. Journal articles in science and social sciences usually include an abstract preceding the
text, which summarizes the content.

Magazines
These are popular periodicals containing articles on various topics written by different authors.
Most magazine are heavily illustrated containing advertisements and are printed on glossy paper.
Articles are usually short (less than five pages) un signed and do not include a bibliography or
list of references. Most magazines are issued monthly of weekly.

Abstracts
An abstract is a short statement of essential content of a book, article, speech, report and disser-
tation. It gives the main points in the same order as the original work.
Index
An index is a list of terminologies arranged alphabetically in the last pages of a book. It has page
numbers which direct the reader to the specific page of a text on which the desired information
can be found.
Archival Sources
This is an organized collection of noncurrent records of an institution, government, organization
or corporate body. Archival sources are managed and maintained by a librarian with special
training known as an archivist.

Serial Publications
A publication in any format issued in successively numbered or dated parts or issues, appearing
at regular or irregular intervals and intended to be continued indefinitely. In our library the serial
or periodical catalogue is known as a Kardex.

Patents
A patent is an official document issued by the government in response to a formal application
process in which the applicant (usually the inventor) is granted the exclusive right to manufac-
ture, use, and sell an invention for a specified number of years the document is assigned a patent
number by the patent office for future reference.

Standards
Standards are any criteria established by law, agreement, or custom, according to which values,
quantities, procedure performance, etc are measured or evaluated and to which manufacturers,
practitioners, researchers, etc seek to conform in order to ensure quality and uniformity of re-
sults.

54
Audio- Visual Materials This is a term used to describe non print materials such as films, film
strips, slides, video recordings, audio recordings, CD-ROMS, machine readable data files and
computer soft ware.
Computerized Sources CD-ROM Compact Disk Read Only Memory. It is a small plastics opti-
cal disk 4.72 inches or 12 centimeters in diameter similar to an audio compact disk. It is used for
storing information in digital format. Once information is stored it can be searched and displayed
on a computer screen. Information stored in a CD-ROM cannot be changed or erased.

Online information resources

These are information resources accessed through the internet. In libraries we have the Online
Public Access Catalogue. It consists of bibliographic records in machine readable format. These
records can be accessed from different computers through the library website.

The Internet
This is a network which inter connects computers of all types through out the world. It enables
users to communicate via email, transfer of data and program files. The internet also enables us-
ers to find information on the World Wide Web and access computer systems such as catalogues
and electronic databases.

The Catalogue an important part of the library:

A Definition
A Catalogue is a list of books periodicals, maps or materials in a specific collection, arranged in
a definite order usually alphabetically, by author, title or subject. The purposes of a library Cata-
logue are: To enable a person to find any intellectual creation whether issued in print or non
print, when one of the following is known;
The Author

 The Title

 The Subject

 To show what the library has

 By a given Author

55
  On a given and related subjects

 In a given kind of literature

 To assist in the choice of a book:

 As to the edition

 As to it’s character ( Literary or character)

Classification of Books in the Library are classified

The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), or Dewey Decimal System, is a method of books
classification used in libraries. It was first published in the United States in 1876 by Melvil Dew-
ey, and has been revised and expanded through 23 major editions, the latest issued in 2011. DCC
is a system made up of ten classes, each divided into ten divisions, each having ten sections. For
example, class 600 ("Technology") includes division 630 ("Agriculture and related technolo-
gies"), which includes section 636 ("Animal husbandry").Practically, there are only 99 of 100
divisions and 908 of 1000 sections in total, as some are no longer in use or have not been as-
signed.

The Decimal Classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index which
allow new books to be added to a library in their appropriate location based on subject. Libraries
previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisi-
tion rather than topic. The classification's notation makes use of three-digit Arabic numerals for
main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. A library assigns a
classification number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to
other books in the library, on the basis of its subject. The number makes it possible to find any
book and to return it to its proper place on the library shelves the classification system is used in
200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries.

56
List of Dewey Classes
 000 – General works, Computer science and Information
 100– Philosophy and psychology
 200– Religion
 300– Social sciences
 400– Language
 500 – Pure Science
 600– Technology
 700– Arts & recreation
 800– Literature
 900– History & geography

Library of Congress Classification

The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a system of library classification developed

by the library of congress. It is used by most research and academic libraries in the U.S. and sev-
eral other countries. The classification was invented by Herbert Putnam in 1897, just before he
assumed the librarianship of Congress. LCC has been criticized for lacking a sound theoretical
basis; many of the classification decisions were driven by the practical needs of that library. Alt-
hough it divides subjects into broad categories, it is essentially enumerative in nature. That is, it
provides a guide to the books actually in one library's collections, not a classification of the
world.

57
LCC Classification Letter Subject area
A General Works The Card
B Philosophy, Psychology and Religion Catalog:
The card cata-
log is a cabinet
LCC Classification Letter Subject area of small draw-
A General Works ers that contain
B Philosophy, Psychology and Religion a file card for
C Auxiliary sciences of History every book in
D General and old world History the library. The
E&F History of America, British, French drawers also
G Geography, Anthropology and Recrea- contain cards
tion for types of
H Social Sciences material, such
J Political Sciences as filmstrips,
K Law tapes and rec-
L Education ords. Each
M Music drawer is la-
N Fine Arts beled to show
P Language and Literature what part of
Q Science the alphabet it
R Medicine covers. There
S Agriculture are three cards
T Technology for each book
U Military Science in the catalog.
V Noval Science You can look
Z General Information up an author
card, a title
card or a subject card to find the book you need.

58
Author Card:
Sometimes you may know the author of the book but not the title. You can look in the card cata-
log under the author’s name. To find the book by Kenneth Kaunda, for example, you look in the
drawer that covers the letter K

Title Card:
Sometimes you may know the title of a book but not the author. You can find the book by look-
ing up the first word in the title, for example to find the book titled the Future of Zambia, look in
the drawer containing the letter F
Subject Card:
When you are looking for books for a report, you will use subject cards more than title or author
cards. If your subject were robots, you would look in the drawer that covers the letter R. There
you would find cards for all the books about robots available in the library.
Steps to follow when finding books in the library:
In order to find books in the library one may use the following steps:
1. Find out if the library has the book you want by finding the author card, the title card, or
the subject card in the card catalog
2. Read the card to see if the book is likely to contain the information you need, by checking
the copyright date to see how current the information is
3. On a strip of paper, copy the call number, the title, and name of the author for each book
you want to find
4. Use the call number to find each book. The first line of the call number tells which sec-
tion of the library to look

DOCUMENTATION
What are documentation styles?A documentation style is a standard approach to the citation of
sources that the author of a paper has consulted, abstracted, or quoted from. It prescribes meth-
ods for citing references within the text, providing a list of works cited at the end of the paper,
and even formatting headings and margins. Using sources in your research paper is an important
part of building and supporting your argument.
Different academic disciplines use different documentation styles. It is important to note that dif-
ferent disciplines use different documentation styles. However the most commonly used docu-
mentation style by most universities is called the American Psychological Association (APA) The
mechanics of citing are complicated, and vary in each format. Amoud University uses APA but
does not restrict its usage to disciplines where APA is not applicable.
 American Psychological Association (APA)

 University of Chicago Press (Chicago Manual of Style)

 Modern Language Association (MLA)

 Council of Science Editors (CSE)

 American Chemical Society (ACS)

What is Citation?

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A citation is both a signpost and an acknowledgement. As a signpost, it signals the location of
your source (Source is the book or internet site or journal you have gotten your information
from). As an acknowledgement, citing reveals that you are indebted to that source.
A citation can appear in different formats: within the text (in-text citation) at the bottom of the
page (footnotes), or at the end of the paper (endnotes).
We cite when we have used other peoples works in our essay.
Why cite
Reasons Why Citation is Important
Citation is important because it is the basis of academics, that is, the pursuit of knowledge. In the
academic endeavour, individuals look at evidence and reason about that evidence in their own
individual ways. That is, taking what is already known, established, or thought, they use their
reasoning power to create new knowledge. In creating this knowledge, they must cite their
sources accurately for three main reasons:

Reason One: Because ideas are the currency of academia

Citing sources is important because the core of academia is ideas. Citing enables us to credit oth-
er writers for their contributions. When a writer cites ideas, that writer honors those who initiated
the ideas.

Reason Two: Because failing to cite is considered as plagiarism (Academic stealing)

Using someone else's idea without giving credit violates that person's ownership of the idea. To
understand this violation, envision the following scenario: You and your friend are discussing
some ideas from class during lunch one day, and you make what you consider to be a particularly
insightful observation. During class discussion that afternoon, your friend brings up your obser-
vation but neglects to point out that it is yours, not his. The professor compliments your friend on
his clear and insightful thinking. You likely to feel that there's something unfair about your
friend’s claim that your idea was his or her own. That sense of violation you feel, the sense that
something valuable has been stolen from you, suggests why failure to cite sources hurts another
person.

Reason Three: Because academics need to be able to trace the genealogy of ideas.

How to cite
According to APA style, there are two ways to communicate to your reader that you’ve used oth-
ers’ work:
1. In your text, you need to show that you’ve paraphrased or directly quoted someone else.

2. At the very end of your paper, you need to provide a list of all the articles, chapters, books, and
websites that you’ve used within the body of your text.

When to Cite
• In-Text: within the text

• When paraphrasing someone else.

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When you paraphrase someone else, you’re putting someone else’s work in your own words. To
make that happen, you need to select only the most important information and do one or both of
the following:
• Completely change the original wording.
• Completely change the order of the ideas and words.
It is important to paraphrase because it shows your readers that you can extract an author’s ideas
into a tight, compact sentence. While it does require more effort than directly quoting an author,
it is an important skill that you have to demonstrate when you’re writing an academic paper.
To signal to your reader that you have paraphrased an author, you need to indicate the au-
thor and the year that the article/ chapter/book/website was published.
• Directly quoting someone else

When you directly quote someone else, you need to keep all or almost all of the original wording
intact. Directly quoting others’ work is effective, especially when the original wording is power-
ful or when there is no way for you to reasonably paraphrase the original wording.
To signal to your reader that you have directly quoted someone, you need to use quotation
marks around the quoted words and you need to indicate the author, the year that the arti-
cle/chapter/book/website was published, and the page number or URL where the quotation
can be found.

How to use direct quotation

1. Use active voice, the use of the personal pronoun “I” instead of “this researcher” is acceptable.
The use of “he” or “she” when presenting the work of other authors is discouraged.

2. Block quotations should be single spaced, not double spaced, and should be indented on the
left (only) by 1/2 inch

APA GUIDELINES
a. Page margins are to be one inch for the top, bottom, and right side. The left margin is 1.5” in
your thesis.

b. Start page numbering on the first page of text (not the title page), with it and each subsequent
page (including the reference list) numbered at the top right margin;

c. Any tables or figures should be inserted into text, close to the place cited (but where they are
not broken by a page break) if possible.

d. Reference lists should be single spaced, with double spacing between citations and arranged
alphabetically

Citation and Referencing

One Author
Williams, J. H. (2008). Employee engagement: Improving participation in safety. Professional
Safety, 53(12), 40-45.

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Two to Seven Authors [List all authors]
Keller, T. E., Cusick, G. R., & Courtney, M. E. (2007). Approaching the transition to adulthood:
Distinctive profiles of adolescents aging out of the child welfare system. Social Services Review,
81, 453-484.

Eight or More Authors [List the first six authors, … and the last author]
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L.,...Griffin, W.
A. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child programs for
children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843- 856.

Magazine Article
Mathews, J., Berrett, D., & Brillman, D. (2005, May 16). Other winning equations. Newsweek,
145(20), 58-59.
UNIT 3.2 INTENSIVE READING
What is READING?
Reading means to CONSTRUCT MEANING FROM TEXT. READING IS A PROCESS
THAT MUST INCLUDE THINKING BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER READING. We
read in order to MEANING and UNDERSTANDING. The correct READING SPEED is the one
that gets you that meaning and understanding.
Reading is an art form and good readers do certain things that get them the meaning that the pro-
cess is designed to extract.

How to improve your comprehension during reading:

1. Begin from what you already know (activating prior knowledge).
2. Always try to make sense of what you are reading (context).
3. Ask yourself questions; before, during and after reading.
4. Predict and think about what will happen next in the text, or how your questions will be an-
swered.
5. Read with a purpose. Know why you are reading and what you are reading to find out.
6. Know that as a good reader you often REREAD parts of, or even, the whole text two or more
times in order to make sense of what you are reading.
The SQ4R Method of reading effectively

SQ4R is a flexible reading strategy because it engages the reader during each phase of the read-
ing process. Readers preview/SURVEY (S) the text material to develop predictions and set the
purpose for the reading by generating QUESTIONS (Q) about the topic. They READ (1R) ac-
tively, searching for answers to those questions. They monitor their comprehension as they sum-
marize WRITE (2R) & RECITE (3R). They evaluate their comprehension through REVIEW
(4R) activities. Two general learning components must be addressed as you begin the reading
process and the SQ4R method will activate them:

First, place the reading in CONTEXT. What is the reading about and do you have any prior
knowledge about this subject to help you extract the meaning that you are looking for? The

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SURVEY and SYSTEMATIC reading puts this process into motion. You get an overview that
will "jog your memory" as you search for prior knowledge on the subject. Ask questions about
what you don't know. Make the questions simple and general if you don't have much prior
knowledge and more specific if this is an area of study that is familiar to you. Using these ques-
tions will GUIDE YOUR SPEED AND COMPREHENSION as you attempt to answer them.
REMEMBER, THE STUDENT THAT IS ENGAGED IN READING IS MOTIVATED, STRA-
TEGIC, KNOWLEDGEABLE, AND SOCIALLY INTERACTIVE.
How to Use SQ4R
1. Survey what you are about to read
• Systematic Reading

• Think about the title: What do you know about this subject?

• What do I want to know?

• Glance over headings and/skim the first sentences of paragraphs.

• Look at illustrations and graphic aids.

• Read the first paragraph.

• Read the last paragraph or summary.

2. Question
Turn the title and sub-titles into wh-element question. This becomes the major purpose for your
reading.
• Write down any questions that come to mind during the survey.

• Turn headings into questions.

• Turn subheadings, illustrations, and graphic aids into questions.

• Write down unfamiliar vocabulary and determine the meaning.

3. Read Actively
• Read to search for answers to the questions set.

• Respond to objectives and use context clues for unfamiliar words.

• React to unclear passages, confusing terms, and questionable statements by generating addi-
tional questions.
4. Recite
• Look away from the answers and the book to recall what was read.
• Recite answers to the questions aloud or in writing.
• Reread text for unanswered questions.

4. Write
• Make "maps" for yourself.
• Reduce the information

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• Reread or skim to locate and prove your points.
• Write down the key terms and ideas in outline form.
• Always read/question/recite before marking or taking down notes.
• Check yourself against the text. Correct and add to your answer.

5. Review
• Answer the major purpose questions.
• Look over answers and all parts of the chapter to organize the information.
• Summarize the information learned by creating a graphic organizer (concept map) that depicts
the main ideas, by drawing a flow chart, by writing a summary,
• You can also summarize by participating in a group discussion, or by writing an explanation of
how this material has changed your perceptions or applies to your life.

UNIT 3.3 WRITING SKILLS

What is writing?
Writing is a process of putting thought, ideas and concepts into words using continuous prose;

A thinking process;

 a form of output/production because it is a demonstration of what we know, implicitly or

explicitly

 Opportunity for negotiation of meaning through peer interaction – at every stage of the
writing process

 a means of building fluency;

 a way of developing accuracy (in grammar, vocabulary, etc.);

 thinking made evident external memory;

 a critical skill for academic or professional success

 is a way to demonstrate proficiency

 helps us discover what we do or do not know

 is more than a paragraph or essay

What are writing skills?

 Ability to put sounds down on graphic form according to the conventional sound-spelling
rules.

64
  Ability to spell English words correctly, including using correct punctuation and capitali-
zation.

 Ability to do writing practice, such as dictation, grammar exercises, constructing dia-

logues according to the model, simple translation exercises.

 Ability to write short compositions, including functional writing skills, such as writing
simple letters, taking notes, writing outlines and summaries.

What a good writing entails

Any writing assignment needs to have:

 Form (letter, email, summary, report, etc.)

 Audience

 Topic

 Purpose (describe, explain, persuade, etc.)

 Clear

 Grammatically correct

 Have variety

 Precise

 Interesting pace

 Not be emotional

 Appropriate: language and audience

 Supported by evidence

Grammar

To be a good writer, one must e conversant with the grammar surrounding the sentence. This is
because writing begins at the sentence level because it is a combination of sentences in a mean-
ingful way. We will begin by outlining/ drawing the hierarchical Scale of English Grammar as
follows:
Sounds are the smallest units in grammar. They combine to make words, words combine to make
phrases, phrases join to make clauses and clauses make sentences. A sentence is the largest unit
in English Grammar.

65
Types of Sentences
Sentences can be categorized based on their structure or based on their function.
Sentence category based on structure includes:

1. Simple sentences
Made up of one main clause
For example:
Mary is going to school.
2. Double sentence

Made up of a main clause and a subordinate clause

For example:
Mary is going to while John is staying at home.

3. Multiple sentences

Made up of a main clause and two or more subordinate clauses

For example
Sentences can be categorized based on their function to include:
1. Declarative statements

Sentences which state things they way they are. They talk about the state of things which are
usually true.
For Example
 The sky is blue.

 Yambio is a peaceful state

2. Interrogative Sentences/ questions

These are those statements which are used to ask questions

For example
 What color is the sky?

 Is Yambio a peaceful county?

3. Exclamative sentences

They express emotions

For example
 Wow! The sky is blue.

 What a peaceful county Yambio is

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4. Imperative sentences/Commands
These are commands
For example
 Shut up!

 Sit down!

A good writer must be able to use variety of sentences in any piece of essay. Variety gives a piece
of writing a fast pace and makes it interesting to read.

Sentence Pattern
English Language has the following sentence patterns
1. S+V+O

John kicked the ball

SVO

A sentence with a subject, verb and one object.

When a verb is followed by one object then the verb is referred to as a TRANSITIVE VERB.
2. S+V

The baby slept

SV
A sentence which has a subject and a verb
When a verb is not followed by an object then the verb is called INTRASITIVE VERB
3. S+V+O+O

4. S+V+O+O

For example
 Mary gave the children sweets

 Mary gave sweets to the children

When a verb is followed by two objects then the verb is called a DI TRANSITIVE VERB
5. S+V+C

For example
John is King
SVO

A sentence where the verb is followed by a complement. The complement tells us more about the
noun.
The verb in such a sentence is called a LINKING VERB
6. S+V+O+A

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An adverbial is that part of the sentence which adds extra information to the sentence. If the ad-
verbial is left out the sentence would still make grammatical sense.
For Example
John went to the market in the morning.
SVOA

Types of Essays
An essay is a written composition of moderate length, exploring a particular issue or subject.
There are 4 types of essays in writing namely:
1. Narrative: Giving an account of events. It is mainly used in Fiction, creative writing, history
and literature review.

2. Descriptive: Describe people, events, places, things e.g. history

3. Expository/Explanatory: This is advanced descriptive writing that describes events and people
in depth. It involves defining explain and expounding on an idea

4. Argumentative/ persuasive also called Academic writing

1. Narrative

Narrative writing involves recounting events in an orderly manner. Narratives are mainly fictions
or creative writing. Narratives are mainly used in Literature, history and writing stories. They
may recount:
(a) A series of events; a report
(b) Biography or autobiography
(c) Historical events
(d) Fiction or nonfiction
Narrative writing is imaginative and subjective or factual and objective.

2. Descriptive writing

This is writing that is used to describe a person, a place or a thing or event. There are different
types of descriptive writing e.g.
 Static description describes something that is still/not moving

 Cause and Effect describes how one thing causes the effect of another

Descriptive writing can be either objective or subjective in content. A description of something

contains full factual and quantifiable information about it. Such information may be personal,
touching or sensory impressions and feelings. Descriptive writing is a domain of arts and history.

3. Expository/Explanatory writing

This is advanced description and focuses on explaining, defining and expounding on an idea.
Such writing explains and analyses:

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(a) A process
(b) An opinion or point of view
(c) Event and phenomena
(d) Instructions and directions

4. Argumentative Essays
Argumentative writing is an academic writing which is also called persuasive writing. It is a ra-
tional effort to defend or refute a claim and does not have place for emotions, or anger.
Most academic writing falls under this category.
Argumentative writing is done argumentatively. The writer collects all his/her points and pre-
sents them logically and constructively. The aim of an argumentative writing is to persuade the
audience and convince them to accept the writers point of view. Argumentative essays are ex-
pected to be clear and coherent. The writer must be clear about his/her argument.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

1. Clarity

2. Complete

3. Accurate

4. Based on sound premises

5. Logical Avoid arguing in circles

6. Reasonable

7. Be based on evidence

8. Must acknowledge opposition

9. Avoid fallacies i.e. unqualified generalizations

The process of writing

1. Planning

Involves gathering ideas and focusing on the topic: Topic selection, gathering ideas, extensive
reading and interpretation. When planning one must ask himself/herself the following questions:

 What is the purpose of my writing?

 Who is my audience?

 What are the special requirements of my writing task?

2. Shaping
Considering how best to organize your ideas on pen and paper. Shaping involves:

69
  Determining the tone

 Drafting a thesis statement

 Outlining ideas

3. Drafting

4. Revising

5. Editing

6. Proof reading

Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences that work together in unity to explain an idea.
A paragraph is a group of sentences that work to develop a unit of thought.
A paragraph is a selection of sentence which is related because they are all talking about the
same thing, or are dealing with a single topic.
Paragraphing permits you to subdivide material into parts and arrange those parts into a unified
whole that effectively communicates its message.
Paragraphs can be classified as:
1. Topical

A topical paragraph is basically a paragraph made up of a group of sentences arranged around

one main idea, or one topic. This is the type of paragraph you are most familiar with. Topical
paragraphs are probably the only type most student think of as a paragraph. They are also called
developmental paragraphs or body paragraphs. They are usually found after the introductory par-
agraph and before the concluding paragraph.Topical paragraphs consist of a statement of a main
idea and specific, logical support for that main idea.

Characteristics of a topical Paragraph

i)Must have a topic sentence which should appear early in the first few lines of the paragraph
preferably the 1st, 2nd or3rd line. The topic sentence tells you what the paragraph is about. Be-
cause there's only one topic developed in each paragraph, there should only ever be one topic
sentence. The topic sentence of a paragraph is developed, or built on, by the addition of support-
ing information and details.
ii) Unity
iii) Coherence
iv) Grammatical
v) Order (Direction of Movement)

2. Special: Introductory, concluding and transitory

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Introductions
Introductions or introductory paragraphs perform very important functions. First, they must at-
tract the reader, influencing him/her to read the remainder of the essay. Second, they must not
only introduce readers to the essay topic but they must also limit that topic and identify the writ-
er's attitude toward the topic. Finally, they must provide readers with information regarding what
is to be expected within the remainder of the essay.

Every paper you write should have a main point, a main idea, or central message. The argu-
ment(s) you make in your paper should reflect this main idea. The sentence that captures your
position on this main idea is what we call a thesis statement. The thesis statement comes in the
introductory paragraph and must be concise and well-written.
A thesis statement must come early in your essay, e.g. in the introduction. This will enable your
reader to:
 Establish your position and

 Give your reader a sense of direction.

Your thesis statement should be

 clear

 specific

 Short

 In line with your argument

 Must indicate your position

Types of introduction Paragraphs

1. The introduction must be a road map for the rest of your essay

2. Anecdotal

3. Regular Triangular

4. Inverted Triangle

5. Summary

6. A wise word

7. Provoking question

8. Corrective introduction

9. Historical Review

71
Concluding Paragraph
This should be the last paragraph in the essay. Its purpose is to bring the essay to a graceful end.
The concluding paragraph gives the writer one final chance to leave a lasting impression on the
reader.

Ways of writing a concluding paragraph:

 A brief summary of the paper's main points.

 Restate the main idea of your essay, or your thesis statement

 A provocative question.

 A quotation.

 Evoke a vivid image.

 Call for some sort of action.

 End with a warning.

 Universalize (compare to other situations).

Suggest results or consequences.

It is important to have a strong conclusion, since this is the last chance you have to make an im-
pression on your reader. The goal of your conclusion isn’t to introduce any new ideas, but to sum
up everything you’ve written. Specifically, your conclusion should accomplish three major goals:

Transitional paragraph
The transitional paragraph marks a transition in the paper from one section to another, or from
one thought to another, one sub-topic to another. It indicates to the reader either that there will be
a change in idea or topic or that there will be a movement from a broad topic to a specific one.
These types of paragraphs usually are small and consist of one double or multiple sentences
which begins with a connector or a gerundive.
Example, having explained the general importance of education, this research is now going
to discuss the importance of education as the fourth pillar in humanitarian aid.
A transitional paragraph tends to be a short paragraph in an essay that announces a shift from one
section or idea to another. A transitional paragraph is most commonly used to summarize the ide-
as of one part of a text in preparation for the beginning of another part.

Note Taking
Effective note-taking from lectures and readings is an essential skill for university study. Good
note-taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant points that you can
integrate with your own writing and speaking. Good note-taking reduces the risk of plagiarism. It
also helps you distinguish where your ideas came from and how you think about those ideas.
Note taking is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic way. Note tak-
ing includes the following:

72
  Taking notes in a lecture or a discussion

 Taking notes in a lecture and processing/annotating/rewriting these notes

Effective note-taking requires:

 recognizing the main ideas

 identifying what information is relevant to your task

 having a system of note taking that works for you

 reducing the information to note and diagram format

 where possible, putting the information in your own words

 recording the source of the information

Note making on the other hand is taking notes from reading in some systematic way.

THE FIVE R'S OF NOTE TAKING

Professor Walter Pauk of the Study Center at Cornell University describes five essential aspects
of note taking. He characterized these as the five R's of note taking. Here they are:
1. RECORDING. Get down the main ideas and facts.

2. REDUCING. To reduce is to summarize. Pick out key terms and concepts. You can make
from your notes what students sometimes call "bakhra." ‘mwakenya’. These are sheets that list,
usually in outline form, the bare bones of a course. You will use them in reviewing by using the
key ideas as cues for reciting the details of what you have in your notes. On each page of notes
you take, allow room to write down these cues.

3. RECITING. Review lecture notes as soon after the lecture as possible. But you will also want
to review your notes before an exam and from time to time during the semester to keep them
fresh in your mind. Do so in your own words. That way you will know that you understand.

4. REFLECTING. Something that many students don't grasp is that ideas from college courses
are meant to be thought about. It is easy to fall into the trap of reciting ideas by rote. One of the
main purposes of a college education is to help you think. Then too, if you reflect about what you
are learning, you won't be surprised when ideas turn up on examinations in an unexpected form.

5. REVIEWING. One of the real secrets of successful studying is being sure when, how, and
what to review. But however you do it, reviewing is essential. Even the accomplished performer-
-the pianist or the stage performer knows that a review, no matter how well he or she may know
the material, is essential to a professional performance.

Steps Towards Effective Note taking

73
To take efficient notes that you can use later require that you:

1. Use full-sized 8 1/2"x11" paper. Do not use a small note tablet. You will be using the margin
space provided by the full-sized paper. In addition, on a single page of full-sized paper you will
often see ideas or groups of related ideas that might not be so easily seen when spread over sev-
eral small pages;

2. Use a ballpoint pen. This is in order to write quickly -- something that can't be done as well
with a pencil or a felt-tip pen. Don't worry about mistakes with a pen that makes marks you can't
erase. Just cross out the mistakes!;

3. Keep all the notes from each course together in a separate section of a notebook. Use either a
loose leaf binder with separate sections, or a large spiral notebook that has several sections. The
loose leaf binder, however, allows you to insert course handouts and related materials;

4. Date each day's notes and try to title the notes for each lecture;

5. Take notes on one side of the page only, leaving space at the top and on the left-hand margin.
Using only one side eliminates the bother, when you are studying, of having to flip pages over
and then flip then back to follow the development of an idea or discussion. Leaving wide mar-
gins gives you space to add to your notes later, should you so desire;

6. Write legibly. When you prepare for a test you want to spend the time studying -- not trying to
decipher your own handwriting;

7. To save time when note-taking, abbreviate recurring terms. Place a key for these abbreviate
terms in the top margin of your notes. For example, in a biology class could stand for chromo-
some ; in a sociology class o c could stand for operant conditioning . When the lecture is over,
you may want to go back and fill in the words you have abbreviated (again, for easier reading
when preparing for examinations).
8. Sit Where You'll Be Seen. There is a saying common among teachers that; the further in back
of the class that a student sits, the lower that student's grade. Students who sit in the back of the
classroom, starting on that first day of classes, those students who sit near the door, typically rep-
resent the students who will have a difficult time following lectures, whose minds are not so
much on the class as it is getting through the day, who will present the most problems in terms of
attendance.

9. Make Systematic Notes. When taking notes, you want to do so in an organized, systematic
fashion. There is no "magic" to the student who takes good notes, the student who, at the end of
the semester, is in a position to review effectively and efficiently for examinations and papers
based upon the strength of their notes. They have developed a note-taking system, and have
learned to stay with it.

10. Use an Outline for Your Notes. Try to write down your notes in the following outline form.
Start main points at the margin. Indent secondary ideas and supporting details. Further indent
material that is subordinate to those secondary points. Main points are listed at the margin. Sec-

74
ondary points and supporting details are indented. Material that is subordinate to secondary
points is indented further. Still another organizational aid: when the speaker shifts from one idea
to another, show this shift in concern by skipping a line or two, leaving a clearly visible space.

11. Be Alert for Signals of Importance. As you can see, good listening and note-taking are special
skills. When following lectures, for example, you want to be alert to the "signals" that lecturers
give to indicate that certain material is important, that help you in further organizing your notes
for later study and review.

There are five such signals:

1. Write down whatever your teacher puts on the blackboard..

2. Always write down definitions and enumerations. Most people instinctively will write down
definitions - explanations of key terms in the subject being studied. But people often forget or
ignore enumerations, which are often just as important. An enumeration is simply a list of items
(marked 1,2,3 or with other symbols) that fit under a particular heading. Teachers often use enu-
merations, or lists, to show the relationship among a group of ideas. They are signaled in such
ways as:

3. Your instructor might say, "This is an important concept..."; or "One point that will repeat it-
self in the material..."; or "The primary cause was...."; or "Pay special attention to..."; or "The
basic idea here is..."; or "The thesis being advanced is..."; and so forth. You want to make sure to
write down important statements announced by these and other emphasis words, and mark imp
or some other mark of your own choosing (one that you can quickly and easily make out) to
show their importance;
4. If the lecturer repeats a point, you can usually assume that it is important or relevant. You
might even write R in the margin to indicate that it was repeated in order to know that the in-
structor stressed the idea in class; and finally,

5. A lecturer's voice may slowdown, become louder, or otherwise signal that you are to write
down exactly what is being said, word for word. When this happens, do it!
Write Down Examples. This is so obvious that people sometimes forget to do it, or take it for
granted and then forget to do so. Write down any examples the teacher might provide during the
course of a lecture, and then mark them with ex. These examples help you understand complex,
abstract forms and concepts. If you don't mark them with ex , then you are likely to forget their
purpose when you later review them for study. You do not have to write down every single ex-
ample, but you should do at least one to help clarify the point(s) being made.

Write Down Details That Connect or Explain. Always write down the details that connect or ex-
plain main points. Too many students copy only the major points the teachers puts on the black-
board. These students don't understand that as time passes during the semester, they may (and
will) forget the specifics that serve as connecting bridges between ideas. Make certain, then, to
record the connecting details that the instructor provides. When you do, you are much more like-
ly to remember and recall those relationships among the major points in your notes.

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Leave Some Blank Spaces. Leave some blank spaces for those ideas or items you miss. Immedi-
ately after class, ask another student to help you fill in the blank spaces. A good idea during the
first week of class is to identify someone in the class you can work with. Ask Questions. In a
word, get involved with the subject matter and the instructor. Don't hesitate to ask questions is
certain points are confusing to you. Draw the line, however, at asking too many questions, or
asking questions simply to be heard. Most instructors frown on this type of behavior from stu-
dents. But keep in mind when asking serious, relevant questions that other students in the class
probably have the same questions in mind but are reluctant to ask them. Teachers do look favor-
ably upon students who show interest and curiosity in the subject.

Take Notes during Discussions. Most students miss out on this most valuable of opportunities.
They somehow perceive it in their minds as a sort of "time out" from class. The point is that you
do not want to stop taking notes during discussion periods. There are lots of invaluable ideas that
can and do come up during informal sessions, ideas that your instructor may not present later on.
If your instructor puts notes on the board during a discussion period, you can take that as a good
sign that the material is important. If the instructor pursues a point brought up during the discus-
sion or takes the class in a certain direction based upon a point brought up during the discussion,
then that is a strong bit of evidence that you should be taking notes. And always keep in mind the
note from the first step: when in doubt, write it down.

Take Notes Right Up to the End of Class. Nothing is more irritating to an instructor than to see
students start putting away notebooks and pens when there are 3-4 minutes left in the class. It is
as though the student is saying that nothing important will be said at the end. Keep in mind that
very often, because of time spent on discussions, teachers may have critical points they want to
cover in those closing minutes of class and they will use that time to cram in that last bit of in-
formation which might just be the summary for the entire period. Be ready to write as rapidly as
you can to get down this final rush of ideas.

Review Your Notes Soon. Go over your notes soon after class. While the material is still fresh in
your mind, make your notes as clear as possible. A day later may be too late because forgetting
sets in almost at once. The best time to start studying your notes is within a day after taking
them. Because of the mind's tendency to forget material rapidly, a few minutes at aside for study
soon after class will give you more learning for less time and effort than almost any other tech-
nique you can practice.

After taking notes:

 Maintain a written record.

 Try to Do Advance Reading (Preview) of the notes before the next lesson.

How to Review your notes

Now that you have developed your notes, you need to go over how to study class notes. The fol-
lowing is one effective way to do so:

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a. Use the margin at the side or top of each page. Jot down in the margin a series of key words or
phrases from your notes. These key words or phrases, known as recall words , will help you in
pulling together and remembering the important ideas on the page;
b. To test yourself on the material, turn those recall words in the margin into questions. For in-
stance, you might ask yourself, "What are recall words?" If you follow this approach on a regular
basis, it will certainly help you remember the material covered in your classes. By using this
method, you will not be left with a great deal of material to organize and learn right before an
exam. Instead, you will be able to devote quality time before that examination to a final intensive
review of the subject matter.
UNIT 3.4 LISTENING AND SPEAKING
"We were given two ears but only one mouth, because listening is twice as hard as talking."
Listeners must first hear what is said. Listening skills involve identifying and selecting relevant
points recognised as having meaning; that are understood and held in short-term memory. These
can be related to what has gone before and to what comes after. Any information considered im-
portant is selected and stored for future reference in the long term memory.
Decoding (understanding) a message is generally easier for the listener if a person is speaking
rather than reading something out loud. In addition the speaker's facial expressions, and the
stress placed on words help the listener to understand the message.
Developing effective listening skills involves two specific steps (Hartley & Bruckman, 2002).
These are:
1. To develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents you listening with full
attention.
2. To develop and use behaviors which help you to listen. Such behaviors can also serve to let the
other person know that you are giving them your full attention.
Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the brain. Listening leads
to the understanding of facts and ideas. To listen is to pay attention, or sticking to the task at hand
in spite of distractions. It requires concentration, which is the focusing of your thoughts upon one
particular problem.

A person who incorporates listening with concentration is actively listening. Active listening is a
method of responding to another that encourages communication.
Active listening is composed of six distinct components
 Hearing: The physiological process of receiving sound and/or other stimuli.
 Attending: The conscious and unconscious process of focusing attention on external
stimuli.
 Interpreting: The process of decoding the symbols or behavior attended to.
 Evaluating: The process of deciding the value of the information to the receiver.
 Remembering: The process of placing the appropriate information into short-term or
long-term storage.
 Responding: The process of giving feedback to the source and/or other receivers.

Barriers to Listening
The following list identifies just some possible barriers to effective listening;
1. Sources of noise

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2. Forming a judgment or evaluation before we understand what is being said, or ‘jumping to
conclusions’.

3. Hearing what we want to hear.

4. Tuning out a point of view that differs from our own.

5. Formulating and rehearsing our response.

6. Being inattentive - thinking about something else entirely.

7. Having a closed mind- you do not want to hear what the person has to say.

8. Feeling anxious or self-conscious.

9. Judging the person, either positively or negatively.

10. Subjective biases based on ignorance or prejudice.

11. Cultural issues, e.g. listening to the differences in pronunciation of different accent, rather
than the content of the message.

12. Excessive and incessant talking or interrupting.

It is important that such barriers to listening are recognized and dealt with. With developing
awareness, we can have more control over those barriers that are internal to ourselves, and can
adopt and use more helpful listening behaviors.
Listening effectively is hearing and understanding what a speaker is saying and how it applies to
you, and then remembering it for future use and evaluation. There are ways to improve your lis-
tening skills for lectures. The following is a list of some basic techniques:
1. Recognize how ideas are organized. Lectures usually begin with some type of introduction,
followed by a thesis statement which is supported by additional information. Most professors
bring closure to their lecture by summarizing what they have covered. Learn to identify the lec-
ture style that is used by your professor.
2. Become involved in what is being said. Be an avid listener. Constantly analyze what is being
said.
3. Cut through (or screen out) distractions.
• Background noise

• Unusual accents, dialects, and language mistakes

• Speaker disorganization, emotion, or habits

• Unrelated material

• Your own inner voice

4. Organize statements into main points and supporting reasons. Using an outline form may be
helpful.

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5. Discriminate between relevancies and irrelevancies. Remember that not all information is im-
portant.
6. Maintain an active body state. Keeping alert and having eye-contact with the speaker will help
you listen more effectively.
In order to improve your listening skills, you will need to practice using the suggested techniques
until they become automatic
UNIT 4.0 APPLYING CORRESPONDENCE SKILLS
Introduction
Correspondence means the exchange of information in a written format for the process of busi-
ness activities. Business correspondence can take place between organizations, within organiza-
tions or between the customers and the organization. The correspondence is generally of widely
accepted formats that are followed universally.
According to Business Dictionary, business correspondence is "any written or digital communi-
cation exchanged by two or more parties." Business correspondence comes in the form of letters,
emails or text messages. The method of correspondence depends on the issue being addressed, as
well as on the party receiving the message. Business correspondence is also used to gather a pa-
per trail of events between particular dates.
Meaning of Business Correspondence
Communication through exchange of letters is known as correspondence. We communicate our
feelings, thoughts etc. to our friends and relatives through letters that may be called personal cor-
respondence. A Businessman also writes and receives letters in his day to-day transactions,
which may be called business correspondence. Business correspondence or business letter is a
written communication between two parties. Businessmen may write letters to supplier of goods
and also receive letters from the suppliers. Customers may write letters to businessmen seeking
information about availability of goods, price, quality, sample etc. or place order for purchase of
goods. Thus, business letters may be defined as a media or means through which views are ex-
pressed and ideas or information is communicated in writing in the process of business activities.
Importance of Business Correspondence

Now-a-days business operations are not restricted to any locality, state or nation. Today produc-
tion takes place in one area but consumption takes place everywhere. Since the businessmen as
well as customers live in far off places they don’t have sufficient time to contact each other per-
sonally. Thus, there arises the need for writing letters. In the past the situation was not so. Busi-
ness letters were not essential in olden days. But now the importance of letters has increased be-
cause of vast expansion of business, increase in demand as well as supply of goods. Let us learn
about the importance of business letters.

Help in maintaining proper relationship

Now-a-days business activities are not confined to any one area or locality. The businessmen as
well as customers are scattered throughout the country. Thus, there is a need to maintain proper
relationship among them by using appropriate means of communication. Here business letters
play an important role. The customers can write letters to the businessman seeking information
about products and businessmen also supply various information to customers. This helps them
to carry on business on national and international basis.

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Inexpensive and convenient mode
Though there are other modes of communication like telephone, telex, fax, etc. but business in-
formation can be provided and obtained economically and conveniently through letters.

iii) Create and maintain goodwill

Sometimes business letters are written to create and enhance goodwill. Businessmen at times
send letters to enquire about complaints and suggestions of their customers. They also send let-
ters to inform the customers about the availability of a new product, clearance sale etc. All this
results in cordial relations with the customers, which enhances the goodwill of the business.

iv) Serves as evidence

We cannot expect a trader to memorise all facts and figures in a conversation that normally takes
place among businessmen. Through letters, he can keep a record of all facts. Thus, letters can
serve as evidence in case of dispute between two parties.

v) Help in expansion of business

Business requires information regarding competing products, prevailing prices, promotion, mar-
ket activities, etc. If the trader has to run from place to place to get information, he will end up
doing nothing. It will simply result in loss of time. But through business letters, he can make all
enquiries about the products and the markets. He can also receive orders from different countries
and, thus enhance sales.
UNIT 4.1 LETTERS
Parts of a Business Letter

This resource is organized in the order in which you should write a business letter, starting with
the sender's address if the letter is not written on letterhead.

Sender's Address
The sender's address usually is included in letterhead. If you are not using letterhead, include the
sender's address at the top of the letter one line below the date. Do not write the sender's name or
title, as it is included in the letter's closing. Include only the street address, city, and zip code.

Date
The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. However, if your letter is com-
pleted over a number of days, use the date it was finished in the date line. When writing to com-
panies within the United States, use the American date format. (The United States-based conven-
tion for formatting a date places the month before the day. For example: June 11, 2001. ) Write
out the month, day and year two inches from the top of the page. Depending which format you
are using for your letter, either left justify the date or tab to the center point and type the date.

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Inside Address
The inside address is the recipient's address. It is always best to write to a specific individual at
the firm to which you are writing. If you do not have the person's name, do some research by
calling the company or speaking with employees from the company? Include a personal title
such as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr. Follow a woman's preference in being addressed as Miss, Mrs., or
Ms. If you are unsure of a woman's preference in being addressed, use Ms. If there is a possibil-
ity that the person to whom you are writing is a Dr. or has some other title, use that title. Usually,
people will not mind being addressed by a higher title than they actually possess. To write the
address, use the U.S. Post Office Format. For international addresses, type the name of the coun-
try in all-capital letters on the last line. The inside address begins one line below the sender's ad-
dress or one line below the date. It should be left justified, no matter which format you are using.

Salutation
Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If you know the person and
typically address them by their first name, it is acceptable to use only the first name in the saluta-
tion (for example: Dear Lucy:). In all other cases, however, use the personal title and last/family
name followed by a colon. Leave one line blank after the salutation.
If you don't know a reader's gender, use a nonsexist salutation, such as their job title followed by
the receiver's name. It is also acceptable to use the full name in a salutation if you cannot deter-
mine gender. For example, you might write Dear Chris Harmon: if you were unsure of Chris's
gender.

Body
For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each paragraph within the
body of the letter. Leave a blank line between each paragraph. When writing a business letter, be
careful to remember that conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider a friendly
opening and then a statement of the main point. The next paragraph should begin justifying the
importance of the main point. In the next few paragraphs, continue justification with background
information and supporting details. The closing paragraph should restate the purpose of the letter
and, in some cases, request some type of action.

Closing
The closing begins at the same vertical point as your date and one line after the last body para-
graph. Capitalize the first word only (for example: Thank you) and leave four lines between the
closing and the sender's name for a signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma should
follow the closing; otherwise, there is no punctuation after the closing.

Enclosures
If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume, you indicate this
simply by typing Enclosures one line below the closing. As an option, you may list the name of

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each document you are including in the envelope. For instance, if you have included many doc-
uments and need to ensure that the recipient is aware of each document, it may be a good idea to
list the names.

A Note about Format and Font

Block Format
When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format and font used. The
most common layout of a business letter is known as block format. Using this format, the entire
letter is left justified and single spaced except for a double space between paragraphs.
Modified Block
Another widely utilized format is known as modified block format. In this type, the body of the
letter and the sender's and recipient's addresses are left justified and single-spaced. However, for
the date and closing, tab to the center point and begin to type.
Semi-Block
The final, and least used, style is semi-block. It is much like the modified block style except that
each paragraph is indented instead of left justified.
If your computer is equipped with Microsoft Office 2000, the Letter Wizard can be used to take
much of the guesswork out of formatting business letters. To access the Letter Wizard, click on
the Tools menu and then choose Letter Wizard. The Wizard will present the three styles men-
tioned here and input the date, sender address and recipient address into the selected format. Let-
ter Wizard should only be used if you have a basic understand of how to write a business letter.
Its templates are not applicable in every setting. Therefore, you should consult a business writing
handbook if you have any questions or doubt the accuracy of the Letter Wizard.
Font
Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the font. The generally accepted font is
Times New Roman, size 12, although other fonts such as Arial may be used. When choosing a
font, always consider your audience. If you are writing to a conservative company, you may want
to use Times New Roman. However, if you are writing to a more liberal company, you have a
little more freedom when choosing fonts.
Punctuation
Punctuation after the salutation and closing - use a colon (:) after the salutation (never a comma)
and a comma (,) after the closing. In some circumstances, you may also use a less common for-
mat, known as open punctuation. For this style, punctuation is excluded after the salutation and
the closing.
SALES LETTER
A sales letter is a very important tool in the effective running of a business venture. These letters
are completed by simply writing the name and address of the desired customer. While writing a
sales letter it should be kept in mind that it discusses all the important details and directly comes
to point. The language should be simple and understandable.

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Sales Letter Writing Tips:

 The style and tone of the letter should be simple.

 There should be no confusion and no chance of errors.
 Should be a formal letter.
 Only relevant information should be provided.
 Avoid being clever and funny.
 Do not get diverted from the major point.
1. Be the customer as you write. This is the most important aspect of a good sales letter, but it's
often overlooked. Imagine yourself as the reader of your letter, and write what the customer
wants to know--not what you want to say.
You have one page to attract a customer; you'll lose the opportunity if your sole emphasis is on
your business. Remember, your customer's main concern is fulfilling his or her needs and de-
sires, not increasing the balance in your bank account.
2. Organize your letter. Sales letters, just like high school term papers, need an introduction, a
body and a conclusion. In the introduction, tell why you're sending the letter. The body is your
"sales pitch," where you'll explain why your offer is irresistible. The conclusion wraps it up by
briefly bringing your points together and asking the customer to take advantage of the offer.
3. Make it easy to read. Many sales letters are thrown away without being read simply because
they appear too complicated. Don't let this happen to you. Use the following guidelines:
 Write in a conversational style, just as you would normally speak; formal tones are usual-
ly unnecessary in sales letters.
 Use short sentences. Once you start writing more informally, you'll notice your sentences
will get shorter.
 Compose short paragraphs. People like to have breaks in their reading. If it doesn't flow
smoothly and sound natural, rewrite it.
 Edit and then re-edit your letter. Besides being difficult to read, misspelled words and
grammar errors destroy the credibility and effectiveness of your letter.
4. Capture your reader's attention. Headlines are not limited to ads. They can also be used in
letters to tell readers something they want to know in a bold way that grabs their attention.
You can also use longer headlines--up to three or four sentences--to present important infor-
mation. In either case, always make the headline compelling so customers want to read the rest
of the story.
5. Get your readers interested. Involve the reader in the letter by bringing it to life with a
steady flow of interesting information. Write in an active voice.
Build on your sentences and paragraphs so the reader is encouraged to continue reading. Every
sentence needs to be interesting; a reader can become bored quickly.
June Van Klaveren, owner of Compelling Communications, a copywriting firm in St. Louis, rec-
ommends including a handwritten note or an arrow in a different color ink to highlight an im-
portant fact and retain your reader's interest. "I also include a `P.S.' at the bottom of the letter,"
says Van Klaveren. "You can count on this and your headline being read because you've piqued
the reader's curiosity."
6. Make your readers want your product or service. This is best done by answering the read-
er's question, What's in it for me? People are bombarded daily with billboards, commercials and

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direct mail--all trying to sell something. Your letter can stand out by not selling, but offering
benefits.
People don't buy products or services, they buy the benefits derived from their purchases. Re-
member, you're not selling dining room tables; you're selling a joyous haven where families bond
and friendships flourish. There's a big distinction between the two approaches.
7. Ask your readers to take action. Potential customers won't know what you want unless you
tell them what to do next. If you want them to call you, say that in your letter and provide your
phone number. If you want them to visit your facility, invite them to stop by and give them clear
directions and specific office hours.
It's also important to urge your readers to take action right away. The longer it takes them to re-
spond, the less likely it is you'll hear from them. If you're running a promotion, offer the special
for a limited time. If you only have a few units available, be sure to state that quantities are lim-
ited. This generates urgency to follow up on your letter.
Resignation Letter
What is the Resignation Letter?
The resignation letter falls under the category of a formal letter. It is generally, written by a per-
son who wants to give up a particular title, authority, job, position etc. Definitely, a resignation
letter is written when you want to join the new job but apart from it, you can write it for several
other reasons. These reasons can be like:
 Falling sick
 Due to pregnancy
 Meeting with an accident
 Facing communication issues
 Low salary issues
 Due to strict company policies
 Any kind of personal issues
 Ending of the contract
Informing about the resignation at the right time is essential for an applicant to the concerned
authorities. It is mainly because this can allow the authorities to take the right decision related to
a replacement at the right time. Submitting proper resignation letter at the right time can further
make it easy for you to ask for the reference or acknowledgment letter. The resignation letter also
acts as a document that can be maintained for an official record. If you want to resign in a most
formal way, then it is advisable to send such a letter well in advance.
You can send such a letter through an email, postal mail or can hand deliver it. Most people send
it one month or two weeks in advance.
Resignation letter – Writing tips
Here are the few resignation letter writing tips:
 First, prepare the outline of a letter. Make use of the formal language and add the infor-
mation to the point. You can also add a point that states, you are leaving a job but not an
employer.
 Try to maintain the positive tone throughout the letter. This can allow you to create a
good impression even when you are planning to leave a job. Be thankful for your superi-
ors or an employer for providing all the required assistance throughout the job period.

84
  It is said that drafting a resignation letter is always the second step. Before that, you
should inform the reader about the resignation by making an announcement or via per-
sonal meet. A true gentleman will make use of this approach before drafting a resignation
letter.
 Show your humbleness and sincerity, while writing a resignation letter. It is important to
maintain the courtesy in your letter, then whether you are sending it personally or via
mail.
 Don’t show your irresponsible behavior by quitting the job as and when required. Inform-
ing an employer in advance is essential if you want to maintain your reputation. If you
have signed any contract with an employer, then refer to that contract to know about the
notice period that you need to serve.
 Keep your resignation letter simple and focused. It is important for you to mention the
post from which you are resigning and the reason that can provide backup to your deci-
sion. Also, mention the date of resignation and show the gesture of gratitude towards an
employer.
 If required, you can also praise your employer for providing you with good working op-
portunities. Don’t narrate big stories in this type of a letter.
 Understand one thing that the corporate world is always interconnected. You cannot af-
ford to spoil your relations with an employer. So, it is advisable, to make use of the polite
tone in your resignation letter. Don’t try to add any kind of the negative, nasty or sarcastic
comments.
 It is not always necessary to provide the reason for resigning. If you think that providing
new job details can hamper your aspirations, then don’t provide the reason but this can
also make an employer curious to know about the reason. Some people add reasons like
relocation or changing career path or stating personal reasons, you can also do the same.

Things to avoid adding in your job resignation letter

When you are quitting one job, it should not affect your future career opportunities. This is pos-
sible when you quit your job in a sensible manner. While moving out, don’t try to burn any
bridges. Here are the few things that you can avoid adding in your resignation letter:
 It is not always necessary to tell your old boss about your new job, until and unless you
want to provide a true reason.
 Never ever say few things that you hated about your old job. Mentioning things that you
did not like at the workplace can hamper your relationship with an employer and superi-
ors.
 Even if your boss is horrible in nature, there is no need to add this point in the resignation
letter.
 Don’t try to add some emotional statements because you are writing a formal resignation
letter. Be calm and maintain the professional tone in your letter.
 Strictly say no to the aggressive and emotional letter.
 You can express the positive sentiment of gratitude, but that does not mean you will make
your letter look emotional.
 Don’t show the differences that you had with a supervisor or an employer.
Four basic things that should be the part of your resignation letter

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By far, you know that you should always keep your resignation letter simple and straightforward.
Here are the four basic things that can be the part of your resignation letter:
 In the heading, you should add the date when you are submitting the resignation letter.
 State a formal statement related to the resignation.
 Add your proposed last working date.
 Add your signature.

John Lungu
12 Station Street
HIGHFIELD VIC 3023
Mobile: 0966 766 899
Email: [email protected]

Martin Burn
Human Resources Manager
MUVI Multimedia
HIGHFIELD VIC 3023
EAST PARK MALL

1 May 2015

Dear Mr. Burn,

I am writing to inform you of my decision to resign from my position as Youth Affairs Journalist
for Roving Multimedia. As required by my employment contract I am giving two weeks’ notice,
effective today. My last day at work will be 15 May 2015.

I have given this decision a lot of thought. I have decided that it is time for me to move on and
have accepted a position elsewhere.

Please let me know what I can do to assist with the transfer of my responsibilities before I leave.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank you and Roving Multimedia for having me as part
of your team. I wish you all the best for the future.

Yours sincerely,
John Lungu

Order Letter
What is an Order Letter?
Anyone can write an order letter, and then be it any company or an individual. This type of a let-
ter is written by the concerned authorized person who wants to place an order or place a purchase
request to another company. If you are planning to write an order letter, then first it is important

86
for you to carry out some research work related to desired products or services. Having detail
information can provide you with the clear picture of placing on order via order letter.
It is important for you to know the details about the term “order”. If you are placing an order,
then it is an expense to you and if you are receiving an order, then it is an income to you. There
are lots of commitments involved with this type of a letter and so it is important to draft it care-
fully. There are several things, which can be included in an order letter like order details, quanti-
ty, quality, delivery time, after sales services etc. You should write an order letter, only when the
detailed study is done from your side related to the goods.
Before drafting an order letter, it is important for you to write down the terms and conditions re-
lated to purchases that can be beneficial to both the parties.
Factors to consider while drafting an order letter
Now you know that the order letter is the one that conveys the message for a supply of goods.
The formal request is placed related to the supply of goods, in this type of a letter. It is the formal
way of carrying out the communication between a buyer and the seller. Here are the few factors
that you need to consider while drafting an order letter:
 It is essential for you to include the detail description of the goods that are to be ordered.
 You should be specific while mentioning the delivery time in such a letter.
 You should provide detail information about the product while adding product specifica-
tions.
 The product specification can be related to many things like colour, style. Size, quality
etc.
 What is the mode of transportation you prefer to have? What is the mode of payment you
prefer to have? Give the answers to these questions in your order letter.
 Are there any discount factors involved? If yes, then mention details about it in an order
letter.
 Make a formal request at the end of a letter related to asking for a timely delivery.
 Also, mention the desired receipt date and the shipping location.
When it comes to adding the information about the items, you need to add few things like:
 Name of the product
 Product brand name
 Required quantity
 Catalogue number
 Weight of the product
 Model number of the product
 Add unit price
 Mention size and colour details
Credit Letter
What is the Credit Letter?
The credit letters are used as the financial tool in many situations. Do you think that the letter of
credit verifies your creditworthiness? This is not the case completely but such a letter is a docu-
ment that is issued by the third party in order to provide a guarantee for payment of goods and
services. This happens when the seller provides all the required documents.
Such a letter is generally, issued by the financial institutions and banks. Under few circumstanc-
es, such a letter is issued by the financial institution like insurance companies or mutual funds.

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Three participants are involved in this type of letter.
 The first part is the beneficiary
 The second party is the buyer or an applicant
 The third party is the issuing bank
The letter of credit is mostly used in international trades and there are also many situations when
it can be used.
Claim Letter
What is a claim letter?
Do you know when claims can be made? It can be made when you want to claim for damage to
the property or to the people.
Is the situation severe? If yes, then you can ask for full reimbursement and if no, then you can
ask for partial reimbursement. Wishes of the applicant also play an important role in such a situa-
tion. As soon as the damage occurs, you should send the claim letter to the responsible company.
Claims can only be made when there is a legal agreement drafted between the two parties. In the
claim letter, you should add supporting documents that can give a backup to your argument.
The claim letter is also written when a buyer has any kind of complaints regarding seller prod-
ucts and in such a letter, compensation is demanded. Sometimes in such a scenario, negligence of
transportation authority can also affect the buyer’s product and this can compel him or her to
write a claim letter.
When any customer writes a letter showing displeasure about any product and claiming compen-
sation for the same, then such a letter can be named as a claim letter. Sometimes, such issues can
be solved with a phone call or with a personal meet. It is always advisable to write a claim letter
because such a document can work as a proof. An increase in the business volume of operations
leads to an increase in the frequency of claim letters. In such a scenario, it becomes important for
an organization to revert back in order to maintain its reputation.
Important Elements of a Claim Letter
Here are the few important elements of a claim letter:
 What has gone wrong? It is important to give the right answer that can clearly explain the
things that went wrong. Now be it a defective product or a faulty service, it is important
to give full and quick information in your claim letter.
 If it is a faulty product, then you should add details like date of purchase, date of arrival,
an amount paid, the colour of the product, a size of the product, order number, model
number, etc. Providing such details can make it easy for a supplier to re-check the prod-
uct.
 Is it a defect or is it the mistake? Whatever may be the problem, but it is important for
you to mention the inconvenience caused by adding a statement related to it. You should
also mention the details related to the loss suffered due to the defective product or bad
quality of services.
 It is important on your part, to be honest, and to motivate the reader so that the required
action can be taken easily to rectify the situation.
 Mention the things or the amount of money that you want to claim, in detail. Include a
statement that says, the adjustments you would consider to be fair.
 Always write such a letter to the head of the department, in order to get a quick response.
Writing an Effective Claim Letter

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Now you must know that writing a claim letter is like writing a complaint letter. You can get the
claim granted with some satisfactory adjustments, only when your claim letter is accurately and
tactfully written. Here are the few tips that you need to follow in order to write an effective claim
letter:
 In such a letter there is no scope of giving threatening messages or adding invalid accusa-
tions. What will you do if the matter is not solved? Don’t give the answer to this question
in your claim letter.
 You should always address such a letter to a specific person rather than addressing it to
the entire company.
 Start your letter with the positive attitude because studies have shown that such a letter
created a good impact on a reader even if it is related to some criticism. It is human na-
ture to get defensive when someone complaints. So it is important to mention a complaint
in a good manner.
 What is a specific problem that you are facing? What is a solution to it? Give answers to
these questions in your claim letter.
Mode of claims
You must know now that a claim letter is written to ask for a possible compensation or any kind
of adjustment. Understand one thing that mode of claims asked for, are not always the same and
it may differ depending on the situation and the nature of loss. Below is the different mode of
claims that a buyer can claim:
 You can ask for partial or full refund
 You can ask for a replacement of the defective product
 You ask for the repair of the damaged product
 You can ask to make future delivery of the product with the correct items
 You can ask for further discounts
 You can ask to make the required changes in the bill
 You can ask to credit the amount to your purchase account
 You can cancel your entire order or a portion of the order
 You can ask to reschedule the payment process
How to Write a Claim Letter?
 You need to specify the type of claim you are making in the beginning of the letter itself.
 If it is an insurance claim, then don’t forget to add your policy number.
 If you are using some documents as an evidence for your claim, then mention the details
about the content of your document in your letter to support your claim.
 Mention your contact details that can make it easy for the reader to contact you in the fu-
ture.
 Be thankful to the reader for maintaining patience and reading your letter.
Termination Letter
What is the Termination Letter?
The termination letter is an official letter and can be written for many reasons. It can be written
to:
 End an employment
 End a contract

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  End an agreement
 End any services
 End a lease
The reasons can be many and it is important for you to make use of the business letter format in
order to write such a letter. The most common reason to write such a letter is an employee termi-
nation.
Have you heard about the contract termination letter? It is the common type of termination letter
that is written to end a business relationship with the contracting party. The termination letter is
moreover like the cancellation letter because the objective of both the letters is same. The word
termination sounds more offensive in comparison to the term cancellation.
Many times, people also get confuse with the termination letter and the resignation letter. The
resignation letter is written in order to voluntarily leave the job or a particular post. On the other
hand, the termination letter is more like a penalty given to an individual is he or she is guilty of
anything. If the employment relationship is not based on any kind of contract, then the termina-
tion letter can be issued without providing any adequate reason.
Giving the termination letter is the most daunting task. It is not always easy to say to an employ-
ee that he or she is terminated. Ending a contractual agreement is a painful task but an employer
should do it in a most convincing way.
In other words, you are trying to say a goodbye and it is never easy to express it by means of
words. You have to take care of the integrity of an individual and also maintain the sensitivity
factor while drafting such a letter. You can consider writing such a letter with the sensitive mind
and heart. Don’t make use of the rude words in the termination letter, if you want to ease out the
pain of termination.
Writing a termination letter
Following are the few tips that you need to follow while writing a termination letter:
 Don’t make use of words that can hamper the reputation of an individual. Termination
letter, if written in a bold and rude language, can make the life of the reader hell.
 The reader should not get hurt and so it is important for you to make use of the soft and
good words.
 Write the letter, in such a way that the reader can find it easy to digest the difficult truth
of the life.
 Don’t try to show your aggressive tone in such a letter.
 Try to be polite while being straightforward.
 Strictly say no to the open criticism.
 Give the reason for termination, because the reader has right to know the true reason.
 Add all the termination related information related to date, timeline, final decision etc.
 Make use of the words that can show some professionalism and courtesy.
How to draft a termination letter?
 Are you writing such a letter for the first time? If yes, then drafting it can prove to be the
difficult task for you. For the recipient, it is an embarrassing situation and sees to it that
you don’t make it more embarrassing by drafting a wrong letter or by using bad words or
by showing aggressive behavior.

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  For the unresponsive and irresponsible behavior of an employee, you can terminate him
or her but in an ethical way. There have been many instances when it has been observed
that the applicants take some wrong step after receiving the termination letter. If you
don’t want this to happen, then don’t try to lash your anger on the recipient. Below are
the few points that can help you to draft a successful termination letter:
 Follow the proper procedure
 In certain situations, you may have all possible reasons to terminate an employee but be-
fore doing so ensure that you know the right termination procedure. Go through your
company policies, before drafting such a letter. If you hamper the company policies, then
it can leave a loophole in your termination letter and employee can take benefit out of it.
Go by law!
Examine your decision
 Are you sure about the termination? Analyse the entire situation once again, before taking
the termination decision. Is the termination fair? Are you following the employment poli-
cies? Draft the termination letter, only when you have a full proof reason to do so.
Roughly draft your letter
 Directly, don’t start drafting a termination letter on the letterhead of the company. First,
draft a rough letter and let the management team or a manager review the letter. Try to
find the mistakes, if any. While roughly drafting this letter, it is important for you to pour
out your anger and frustration. The rough draft can make it easy for you to find mistakes
and this can help you to successfully draft a final letter.
Write to the point
 It is important to write such a letter in a straightforward manner but that does not mean
you are allowed to be blunt. Write a letter to the point and in a concise manner. While
mentioning the reason for termination, don’t try to add brief details. Mention the reason
in a short and simple manner, without hurting the ego of a reader.
Don’t get emotional
 While writing such a letter, you don’t have to get emotional. Being sensitive towards the
reader is considerable but getting emotional is not done. Understand that it is a formal let-
ter and should be drafted in a professional manner. Don’t allow the recipient, to take ad-
vantage of your emotions.
Make use of the positive approach
 Make your employee or recipient; realize his or her mistake in a positive manner. Let the
reader know that you don’t have any kind of grudges against him or her. Don’t write such
a letter, in any kind of wrong influence.
Retirement Letter
What is the Retirement Letter?
Do you know what retirement is? It is the time when an employee decides to leave his or her job
position permanently. In other words, it can be said that an employee chooses to quit an em-

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ployment on a permanent basis. After writing a retirement letter, an employee can become eligi-
ble to ask for the company pension, social security, retirement plan benefit etc.
There can be several reasons when it comes to asking for the voluntary retirement and these rea-
sons can be like:
 Low salary
 Accident
 Health issues
 Certain unavoidable circumstances
Reasons can be many, but it is important for an employee to information about the retirement to
the concerned authorities. It is advisable to send such a letter, well in advance. If your company
policy has defined a particular time period, then you can send the letter accordingly. Many organ-
izations have the retirement policies that state the time period of around 2 to 6 weeks. You should
go through the retirement policy appropriately so that it can become easy for you to draft a suc-
cessful letter without creating any kind of misunderstanding.
Writing this letter according to the stated time period can make it easy for an employer to make
arrangements related to your replacement, pension calculation, gratuity calculation, etc. Your this
letter, can also act as an official document.
The retirement letter can also be called as a business letter and so it is always written in a formal
style. Always proofread your letter twice, in order to avoid any kind of mistakes.
What kind of information is needed in your retirement letter?
First, you may consider drafting a rough letter but before doing so it is important for you to know
the information that is to be added in a retirement letter. Different kind of information that you
need to include in your retirement letter is like:
 Reason for an early retirement
 Effective retirement date
 Time span of work
 Retirement plan benefits
 Pre-retirement offered services
Invitation Letter
Invitation letter is usually written to invite someone to events like family celebration, get-
together, party, business or social event. All these types of invitation letters can be divided into
two categories:
 First is, business invitation
 Second is, friendly invitation
In any of the mention categories format and structure almost remains the same. In both the styles,
you need to make use of perfect combination of present and future tense. Whichever type of let-
ter you write, it is important to make use of impressive words.
Why present tense? Present tense represents the given invitation to a person. Why future tense?
Future tense represents that an invitee will definitely attend an event.
In business style invitation letter, you should always make use of formal tone because you gener-
ally write such letters to business associates or clients.
In friendly style invitation letter, you can make use of informal tone because you generally write
such letters to relatives or friends.

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The letter you write should show your anticipation and it can be done by writing it using positive
perspective. Word framing should be done in such way that readers should get smile on their
face. In order to write a letter for an informal occasion you can make use of right phrases or
some poetic lines.
Last basic thing you need to know about an invitation letter is that, always send it two to three
weeks prior to an event.
What to include in your invitation letter? Know some Do’s and Don’ts!
How will you compose a right invitation letter? Writing a correct invitation letter is possible
when you know the occasion for which you are planning to write a letter.
Invitation purpose
 Do include some details related to your occasion
 It can be a wedding invitation or party invitation or any other event
Honouree name should be included
 Write the full name of a honouree
 It can be name of the groom, bride, birthday person etc.
Include day, date and event time
 It can be any week day or weekend
 Don’t forget to view your calendar so that you can mention right day and date
 Enter right event timings and do not forget to mention AM or PM
Include name of the place
 If an event is organised in your home, then specifically mention your home address
 If an event is organised at any particular restaurant or an event hall, then specifically
mention the respective address
 While mentioning details about physical address, you should add street name, city name,
any landmark details etc.
 Key point you need to remember is that zip code is not needed in an invitation letter
Mention dress code details
 It is important to mention appropriate details about the dress code then be it related to any
theme, colour combination, style etc.
Inquiry Letter
What is an inquiry letter?
Any kind of a letter that is written collecting information can be called as an inquiry letter. This
information can be related to anything like product, price, job, contract etc. Employers and busi-
ness owners write this type of a letter to generally obtain the desired information.
How to Write an Inquiry Letter?
Here are few things you need to take into consideration while writing an inquiry letter:
 It is important for you to write such a letter in a courteous manner. Why? It is mainly be-
cause you are asking a reader to impose some time and resources, in order to give an an-
swer to your inquiry.
 Can you find the related information easily? If yes, then don’t bother the concerned per-
son by writing an inquiry letter. If internet search work can give you the required infor-
mation, then there is no need to write this type of an inquiry letter.

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  Adequately, explain the things that you want to inquire about but this does not mean that
you will exaggerate each and every point. Write such a letter to the point, without wasting
the time of a reader.
 Give proper time to the reader, to revert back to your letter. Don’t be in a hurry because
this may not serve your actual purpose of writing an inquiry letter. You should at least
give the time of one week to the reader, to respond to your letter.
 Do you want to keep the information confidential? If yes, then do mention it in your in-
quiry letter.
 How can you make things easy for the third party to respond to your request? It can be
done by mentioning in the letter, that you will make the payment related to the mailing
cost or photocopies if required. In order to make things easy for a reader, you can also
provide questionnaires or related documents.
 Write your contact details carefully, so that the reader can find it easy to get in touch with
you. In contact details, you can add your address, phone number, email address etc.
 Once you receive the response to your inquiry, it is advisable for you to send a quick
thank you note.
How to respond to an inquiry letter?
Have you received any kind of an inquiry letter? If yes, the do you want to revert back to it? If
yes, then here is the guide that can assist you to respond to an inquiry letter:
 Write details about the things that you understood, related to the made inquiries.
 It is always advisable to personally respond to an inquiry letter and show some apprecia-
tion if the situation demands.
 In your response letter against an inquiry letter, you can include different things like re-
ports, brochures, catalogues etc.
 Do you want your reader to take any action? If yes, then mention it in your response to an
inquiry letter.
 You can also offer an advice if needed.
 Can you personally answer the inquiry letter? If no, then you can take help of another
person? Let your reader know that you have taken assistance from someone and he or she
will soon revert back.
 Close your response letter against an inquiry letter, by saying that you would love to help
the reader in future also if required.
Dismissal Letter
What is the Dismissal Letter?
The dismissal letter is generally drafted by an employer to an employee and can be used as a
permissible document. In this letter, content is related to the termination of an employee and to
do so specific reason must also be provided. What are the incidents that contribute to this deci-
sion? Get the answer to this question and mention the specified incidents in your dismissal letter.
It is very important to give the specific reason for termination so that an employee cannot state
that the termination was unfair. If an employee has violated any office policy, then do mention it
in your dismissal letter. Different businesses follow different working policies and so it is very
important to mention the specific reason before terminating an employee.
In certain cases, dismissal letter may not be considered as an absolute and final document. If the
recipient gets an opportunity to appeal against the dismissal, then he or she may revert back by

94
sending an appeal letter. Such a document should always be printed on the letterhead of the com-
pany so that an employee does not take it as some kind of prank. In such a letter, it is very im-
portant for an employer to include the name and designation of an employee.
How to Write a Dismissal Letter?
Here are few things that you need to consider while writing a dismissal letter:
 It is important for you to as an employer to review the situation properly and to take into
account the history of an employee.
 You should clearly state that an employee is terminated by giving all possible reasons.
Don’t forget to express your regret while doing so.
 Give details about the compensation, if any.
 Always include the note of encouragement, in this type of letter.
 Demonstrate the letter in such a way that it can ease the pain of the reader.
 Always be genuine, when it comes to showing your care and concern.
 Make use of words in such a way that it can ease the pain of an employee.
 Show your courtesy and professionalism while writing such a letter.
 Don’t openly accuse your employee because at any point of time circumstances can
change and other authorities may decide to hire back an employee.
Steps to Follow to Write a Dismissal Letter!
 In dismissal letter, it is important to include information related to dates, times and rea-
sons.
 Don’t generalize your statements, but be specific while stating the termination reason.
 Mention right reason in detail can make it easy for you to maintain records for future.
 Make use of the polite tone in order to showcase your professionalism.
 The size of your letter should be concise because long letters do not showcase profes-
sionalism.
 It is formal notification of the dismissal of an employee and so keep your letter simple
and short.
 Don’t forget to sign such a letter before handing it over to an employee.
Interview Letter
What is an interview letter?
An interview letter is a letter that is written by an employer in order to invite job applicants for
facing an interview. This letter is written to the candidates whose job applications have passed
the initial screening stage. In the official letter pad of the company, such a letter can be written.
The importance of an interview letter cannot be ignored by an employer and also by the job
seeker. The candidates whose resume is most convincing can receive such a letter.
Elements of an interview letter
Here are the few elements which your interview letter must possess:
 It is important to mention few details about the candidate related to its name and address.
 Always send such a letter to the present address of a recipient.
 Ensure that the address you enter inside and the one that you enter in an envelope are the
same.
 If required, you can also mention the present and permanent address of a recipient on top
of an interview letter.

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  In such a letter, it is essential for you to clearly mention the time, day and date of an in-
terview.
 Clearly state the place or a venue, where an interview is held.
 What all documents you want an interviewee to submit? Mention details about those
documents in your interview letter.
 These documents can be like experience certificate, academic certificate, photographs,
birth certificate etc.
 Are you going to offer a transporting allowance to an interviewee? If yes, then do men-
tion it in your interview letter.
Complaint Letter
What is a Complaint Letter?
You feel like complaining when you do not receive the things as per your desire. In businesses,
people prefer to write a complaint letter when they feel disconnected towards a particular product
or a company. Some of the people are afraid to write a complaint letter because they don’t feel
good to be argumentative. Understand that in such a letter you don’t have to express your anger
or show any kind of negativity. The complaint letter is a request for an adjustment and so writes
it accordingly. In this letter, you can describe mistakes, errors or any kind of damage that you
have faced in the past.
Today, businesses are expanding overseas to a greater extent. Hence, unintentional mistakes are
bound to happen and so you must know the right way to deal with it. As a buyer, if you are suf-
fering from the bad quality of services or any kind of financial loss, then you have the right to
complaint. The complaint letter is written in such a scenario to the serve the purpose of com-
plaint. It is important for you to make use of the polite tone while writing a complaint letter.
Things to Include in Your Complaint Letter!
When it comes to the complaint letter, here are the few things that you need to include:
 First, it is important for you to describe your problem appropriately.
 Once you are done with describing your problem, your next step will be to state the out-
come that you are expecting out of the complaint letter.
 It is important for you to include dates related to purchases of goods or services.
 You should also include the date when the problem occurred.
 Describe, if any kind of action you have taken from your side to fix the problem.
 Describe the actions that you may take if the problem is not resolved.
 State the time by which you want the concerned authorities to revert back to you.
 If required, you can attach the supporting documents.

Application Letter
What is Application Letter?
In another word, an application letter is also called as a cover letter. It is considered to be the im-
portant document which you can send with your resume. In this document, you can add infor-
mation related to your skills and experiences. This letter basically gives the reason to the em-
ployer to appoint you because it states your qualification for the particular job.

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Have you found the perfect job opportunity? If yes, then definitely you will plan to send your
resume. It is important to send a resume but before that, you also need to submit an application
letter or cover letter.
Many people think it to be the waste of time. Writing tailor made application letter is not the
waste of time but it can add more value to your resume. In this letter, you can explain to your
employer that you can be a great asset to the team in order to perform a particular task. This let-
ter can open the door of employment for you if you perfectly highlight your skills.
In such letter, let the employer know the position for which you are applying. The aim of your
letter should be that you are called for an interview. It is said to be the first correspondence
which you will have with an employer. Employer finds it easy to judge the applicant with the as-
sistance of this letter.
Application Letter Writing Tips
In order to write strong letter of application, it is important for you to follow below-mentioned
tips:
Always write application letter
Yes, it is always advisable to write an application letter until and unless the employer specifically
does not mention details related to not sending such a letter. In the case, when a company does
not ask for application letter but also does not offer any kind of restrictions, then in such scenario
you should definitely send your application letter. Emailing such a letter is also a considerable
option.
Make use of business letter format
If you want to make such letter effective, then make use of business letter format. Friendly letter
format is strictly not allowed. In business letter format, you should always add contact infor-
mation at the top. Don’t forget to add salutation at the beginning and signature at the end.
Mention your skills and abilities
Understand that in such a letter, you are selling yourself. So it is important to mention your skills
and abilities in detail but without exaggerating. See to it that skills you mention can benefit the
company. If required, you can also add numerical values to your accomplishments.
Make use of key phrases or keywords
Have you read the job listing carefully? If yes, then circle the important phrases mentioned in the
job listing. Use those phrases in your application letter in order to create a good impact on an
employer.
Write concise letter
It is important to write a concise letter because the employer will not be interested in reading a
long letter. Your letter should not include more than 4 paragraphs.
Editing is important
Don’t just submit your letter without proofreading it. It is important to edit in order to avoid any
kind of errors. Editing can allow you to get rid of grammar and spelling errors.
Things to Include in Your Application Letter
First Step is Preparing Your Letter

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  It is important for you to get familiar with the requirements of the job application. You
can get familiar when you know the set of requirements and set of your skills. Correlate
requirements as well as your skills and mention them effectively in your job application
letter.
 Don’t forget to add contact information on the top of the letter. This can make it easy for
a prospective employer to get in touch with you when needed. You can include details
like name, address, phone number, email address, LinkedIn profile details etc.
 In this letter, it is important for you to add the company related information. Name of the
employer, job title, company name, address etc. can be added in your job application let-
ter. Writing contact information of the company can allow an employer to now that you
are actually interested in the job offer.
 Never address your letter in a way like, “To Whomsoever It May Concern”. It is im-
portant to address the letter to the right person.
Second Step is Writing Your Letter
 The first paragraph of your letter should always be engaging. You can add strong and de-
clarative statements. In short and specific manner, you can write the reason that attracted
you towards a particular job.
 It is important for you as a candidate to know the details about the post for which you
planning to apply. Inquire about the company and find out if you know anyone in the
company. It is always good to have a reference. It is important for you to mention the
source from where you found the job application in your letter. The source can be any-
thing like newspaper advertisement, job site, any particular employee reference etc.
 State the benefits of hiring you as a new employee for a particular task. Mention the ac-
complishments that you have achieved before but only if it is related to the job that you
are applying now.
 In the second paragraph, you need to mention your skills that can show your strength and
experience. Look at the skills that you have mentioned in your CV and describe briefly
about it in your job application letter.
Third Step is Finishing Your Letter
 End your letter by summarizing, in short, that why you are the perfect candidate for a par-
ticular job position.
 Conclude the letter by thanking your employer or hiring manager and show your interest
in further conversations or interviews.
 Show respect while signing off the letter and it can be shown by writing, ‘Yours sincere-
ly”.
 Don’t forget to write your name underneath and sign a letter.
Hints and Tips Related to Job Application Letter
 Write the letter on a good quality of paper.
 It is suggested to avoid using flowery language.
 Check spelling errors.
 Don’t write a letter that is too long.
 The typed or computer-generated letter is always preferable.
There are two types of application letters that you can you write. A solicited application letter is
one you can send to an announced job opening. Unsolicited application letter, also known as pro-

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specting letter, is one that you can send to an organization or company that has not announced an
opening.
When you send a solicited letter, you usually know in advance what qualifications the organiza-
tion or a company is seeking. The disadvantage of solicited opening is that there is competition
that you have face, because thousands of other people, job seekers will have seen the advertise-
ment and they so will send their applications. Unsolicited application letter stands a better chance
of being read or receiving individualized attention. Whether you’re your application letter is so-
licited or unsolicited, you must present your qualifications in the same manner. The main differ-
ence is in the first opening paragraph. In a solicited letter you are invited to apply but unsolicited
letter you can start by capturing the reader’s attention and interest.
SOLICITED APPLICATION LETTER

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 Jennifer Mulenga
Tute Village
P. O. Box 146
Tabalima, Kasama

28th August, 2016

Ms. Kandiyo Chilufya

Director of Administration
Zanga Zanga Trust School
P. O. Box 90450
Luanshya

Dear Ms. Chilufya

Subject: ADMINISTRATIVE SECRETARY

Your advertisement of 15th August 2009 that appeared in the Times of Zambia for the position of
administrative secretary attracted my attention. I believe that I have the proven skills you are
looking for in administrative secretary. In addition to have previous experience in a variety of
office settings, I am familiar with the computer systems that you use in your office

I just completed my six months course at Lusaka Business and Technical College on operation of
the Microsoft Computer System. I learned how to apply this technology to speed up letter writ-
ing and report writing tasks. A workshop on writing and editing with the Microsoft Processor
gave me experience with other valuable applications.

As a result of this training, I am able to compose many types of finished documents, including
sales letters, financial reports, and presentation slides.

These specialized skills have proven valuable in my work for the past two years as assistant sec-
retary at Mwapona Secondary School. As my curriculum vita indicates, my duties include draft-
ing letters, typing finished correspondence, and handling phone calls.

Because proven skills are best explained in person, I would appreciate an interview with you.
Please phone me any day in afternoon on 0966 45 46 47 to let me know the day and the time
most convenient for you.

Yours Sincerely,

Jennifer Mulenga

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In this letter, the opening paragraph states the reason for writing and links the writer’s experience
to stated qualifications. The middle part of the letter is discussing how her specific skills apply to
the job and the applicant shows that she understands the job’s responsibilities. In closing, the let-
ters asks for an interview and facilitates for action.
UNSOLICITED APPLICATION LETTER

101
 Unsolicited application letter:

Kangwa Kalulu
Galu-wawo Village
Chief Kawaza
Katete

25th August 2009

Mr. Chomwela Chanda

Managing Director
Geza Financial
P. O. Box 3435
Lusaka

Dear Mr. Chanda

Subject: COMPUTERRISED ACCOUNTANT ANALYST:

After reading about your organization’s innovative electronic tax reporting programmes in the
July monthly magazine, I believe my background in computerized accounting methods would
benefit Geza Financial Associates.

My B.A. in accounting and courses in electronic data processing have equipped me to work with
computer-based clients like yours. Training in business writing, Public relations, Sociology and
Psychology should help me achieve solid rapport with them. My advanced studies in tax ac-
counting will enable me to analyze their financial needs from a planning perspective.

Because your company specializes in tax planning, my work experience could also be beneficial.
After working for two years for part-time as an assistant account with Tute Enterprises Ltd. I
was promoted to full-time financial analyst. I analysed and selected specific tax planning pro-
grammes. After four months my accomplishments were acknowledged by a substantial salary
increase.

Gezani Kamwendo the managing director of Tute Enterprises and other references listed on the
enclosed curriculum vitae will confirm my potential for the staff accountant position.
I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss my qualifications at a time convenient for you for
beginning a career with your company. I will phone you on Monday the 31st of August 2009 to
see whether we can arrange a meeting at your convenient.

Yours Sincerely,

Kangwa Kaonde

In this letter, the applicant relates his educational qualifications to the requirements of the posi-
tion as he understands them. The knowledge of the company and specialized capabilities are sure

102
 J.K.Chemicals Ltd
Chingola
Interoffice Memorandum

Date: 24 March, 2016

To: Mr S.D.Kasanda Accountant

From: Mr R.D. Sakala, M.D

Subject: Absence from duty on 20 March, 2016

It came to my notice that you were not present in the office on 20 March, 2013. Your application
for leave has not been received yet.

Will you kindly explain the cause for being the cause for being absent? If your reply does not
reach my office before April 3, 2013, administrative action can be taken against you.

R.D.Sakala
Managing Director

to interest the reader. Mentioning a prominent name, definitely calls attention to the enclosed
curriculum vitae.
UNIT 4.2 MEMORANDUM
A memo is a document written to pass information between people and departments within the
organization. Since memos are written to deal with many official matter, one may be expected to
write a memo to do any of the following in a professional organization:
 To confirm
 To suggest
 To request
 To explain
 To announce
 To report
 To caution or warn

General format:
When writing a memo one needs to follow the general format. Your instructor or company may
have specific requirements that you must follow or use. For instance, a company might have a
particular way of presenting a heading or may even use a specific type of letterhead or logo.
However, usually a memo has a “to”, “from”, “subject” and “date” entry.
Example:
LUSAKA BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL COLLEGE
MEMORANDUM

103
TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:

Format guidelines:
Heading:
A memo’s heading provides information about who will receive the memo, who is sending the
memo, the date and the memo’s subject. This information may be bolded or high lightened in
some way, as showed above. Additionally you may also initial your name in the FROM line to
indicate that you gave the memo a final approval.
Sometimes organizations specify how to fill out the headings. If you are unsure, it may be a good
idea to include your job title and your reader’s. The memo will then be informative to someone
new to the situation, or someone who received the memo after it was passed on from the original
reader.
Message
Memos are reproduced and exchanged rather freely, and it is common for a reader to receive a
memo that only marginally relevant to him or her.
This is why it is important that the first sentence of the memo should answer that question with a
purpose statement. the best purpose statements are concise and direct .
Your memo’s massage should also provide a context for reader’s .In other words; always tell
your readers why you are writing. Consider the following question:
 Is your memo a result of a situation? For instance, “As a result of yesterday meeting…..?
 Is your memo a reminder? For example, ”The proposal is due July 2.”

By proving context for your readers, you avoid being asked to provide that information later;
also you should always include your contact information at the bottom of your message. This
can be your phone number or e-mail.

Finally, consider how your memo looks. If you have nothing but paragraph after paragraph of
text, you might use list to draw attention to specified information. List represents an effective
way to present information. Not only do they breakdown large amounts of text, but they also
provide text in a way that is visually pleasing. List is especially useful for conveying steps, phas-
es, years, procedures, or decision. By avoiding full sentences in a sentence in a list, your infor-
mation is concise and more likely to engage your readers. For example:

“To receive a degree in engineering, you must complete the following:”

 Core courses
 Elective Courses
 Senior Desing

104
List can be bulleted, as in the example, or number. Typically, you should use a numbered list
when you need to stress the order of the listed items.
Length
Memos are generally short, concise documents. However, you may have the to write longer
memos, depending on the topic. For example, a memo might present the new guidelines for a
specific office task.
Obviously, if you have forty guidelines, the memo will be more than a page. Some memos might
even introduce a short report. In this case you might include the report in the memo, or the memo
might be a separate document, introducing the report.
Tone
Since you typically send memos to those working within your company, you can use a more in-
formal tone than you would if you were writing a businee letter.
For example you might refer to your colleagues by their first name so use humor. However, al-
ways keep in mind that you still need to be professional. Ask yourself how the company’s presi-
dent would react to your memo. If you would be embarrassed to have president read your memo,
consider changing or eliminating information.

Directive Memo
A directive memo states a policy or procedure you want the reader or co-work to follow. The
length of the memo depends on how much space is required to properly explain the procedure.
The body of the memo should begin with a clear, concise sentence that states the purpose of the
memo. For example:
“The purpose of this memo is to let all members of the ABC department know that doughnuts
will be every Friday morning at 8am “
You than provide statements that explain the rationale for such a decision or procedure.

LUSAKA BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL COLLEGE

MEMORANDUM

TO: Sale Manager

FROM: Personnel and Training Manager
DATE: 20th March 2010

SUBJECT: Letter Writing Course:

We have budget for three staff from your section to attend an advanced course in letter writing.
Since this is an advanced program, it is very important that all participants have completed a
basic course in letter writing program.

Please let me know by April 20th 2010

1. The name of each person who will be attending
2. What courses each individual has attended on letter writing
3. The date and duration of the course
4. Where the course was held

105
As soon as I have the three names, I will contact each participant personally and pass on the full
details. Thanks

Grace.

Writing a message of appreciation:

An important managerial quality is the ability to see employees and other business associates as
individuals and recognize their contributions. People often value praise more highly than mone-
tary rewards. A message of appreciation may also become an important part of an employee’s
personal life. When you are writing a letter of appreciation, the point of writing comes first. The
reason for congratulating the reader is expressed early and concisely. An additional detail come
out later and clarifies the writer’s purpose. You must end with a personalized expression of con-
fidence.
For example,
Zambia Airways Ltd.
P. O. Box 78780
Lusaka

26th October 2009

Lizard Landscaping Designing Company

P. O. Box 654
Kasama

Dear Mr. Lizard,

Congratulations! We noted in today’s Times of Zambia newspaper that your company has been
chosen by Zambia Airport authority to redesign the landscaping at the airport.
We are delighted to learn that you have been awarded the contract. By beautifying the airport,
you will establish a pleasant atmosphere for our passengers and for our employees.
Judging by your award winning working, we are indeed fortunate that your firm is handling the
project. We are confident that you will make the entrance to the airport more beautiful and con-
venient.
Cordially,

Kamalinso Chilufya
Director
Zambia Airways Ltd.

A letter requesting recommendation:

It is important that before volunteering someone’s name as a referee, you should always ask that
person’s permission. Some people may not want to use their name because they may not know
much about you. Others have a policy of avoiding writing recommendations.
Whatever the case may be, you would like to receive the best recommendation from those who
would write one for you. When you are writing to some to recommend you, your opening para-
graph should clearly state that you are applying for a position and that you want the person to
write a letter of recommendation.

106
Martha Moyenda
Kapatamoyo Village
P. O. Box 510223
Chipata

26th October 2009

Institute for Technical and Commercial Education Ltd.

P. O. Box 38643
Lusaka

Dear Mr. Hachilema.

SUBJECT: RECOMMENDATION LETTER
I write to request a recommendation letter from you. I am being considered for a position with
Toyota Zambia Ltd in Lusaka. I have been asked for a recommendation.

As you may recall, I was a student in Auto-electrical class from 2005 to 2006. You not only
taught me a great deal about auto-electrical but also guided my studies. My average grade in au-
to-electrical was merit as shown on my C.V.

As my C.V. shows, I have been working in auto-electrical department at ZESCO Ltd since grad-
uating in 2007. Although this job has given me good experience, the opportunity to join Toyota
Zambia Ltd means a great deal to me. It would be important step forward for my career and
would involve me in the kind of work I was trained to do so.

During my interview with Mr. Njota, the head of human resources Toyota Zambia Ltd. Said that
he would like your honest opinion of my preparation and abilities in auto-electrical.

Your recommendation will surely enhance my chances of being hired.

Mr. Hichilema, would appreciate your sending a letter of recommendation to: Mr. Njota Benson,
Toyota Zambia Ltd., P. O. Box 4880 Lusaka – Zambia.

If you are applying for a job or scholarship, include a copy of your C.V. to the reader an idea of
the direction your life has taken. After reading your C.V., the reader will know what favourable
qualities to emphasize and will be able to write a recommendation that best support your applica-
tion. If your don’t have a C.V., include any document that has information about you that a read-
er might use to support a recommendation.
Close your letter with an expression and the full name and address of the person to whom the
letter should be sent. For example,
UNIT 4.3 CIRCULARS
Generally, the letter that is used to circulate any special message to a huge member of audiences
at the same time is known as circular letter. It is one of the cost effective means of circulating
information or introducing new products to mass people. However, circular letters are not only
used in business, but also in social, political and personal affairs.

107
Drafting circular letter is purely an art. It should be drafted in such a way that can attract readers’
attention and can serve its purpose.

Importance or advantages of circular letter

Circular letter circulates information relating to a company, its products and services etc. to a
large number of people at a time. It plays an important role in the growth and development of
business. Its importance is briefly discussed below:
1. Easy method of conveying information: Circular letter is the most easy, simple and ef-
fective way to convey any information to a huge number of people.
2. Achieving economy: Circular letter can be used for wide publicity of products. As a re-
sult, organizations can save cost of sending letters to different parties separately and can
gain economy.
3. Saving time: Circular letter transmits information to a large number of people at a time.
It does not require reaching each individual separately. Thus, it saves time.
4. Less effort: Circulating information to each individual separately is a time consuming
and laborious job. Circular letter helps to overcome this problem. Through circular letter,
we can communicate with large number of people at a minimum effort.
5. Creating market: Through circular letter, a company can inform the potential customers
about its products and services. In this way, new market can be created.
6. Increasing consumer’s confidence: Convincing and attractive circular letter can easily
touch the reader’s heart and thus helps to enhance consumer’s confidence on the compa-
ny’s products.
7. Creating public consciousness: In circular letter, information like price, quality, utility,
place of availability etc. are mentioned in details that make people more conscious about
the product.
UNIT 4.4 NOTICES
A notice is a formal means of communication. The purpose of a notice is to announce or display
information to a specific group of people. Notices are generally meant to be pinned up on specif-
ic display boards whether in schools or in public places. Notices issued by the government ap-
pear in newspapers.

Format:
A notice should be written in the following format:
• The name of the organization issuing the notice
• The title ‘NOTICE’
• A heading to introduce the subject of the notice
•The date
• The body of the notice
• The writer’s signature, name (in block letters) and designation

108
Name of organization/office issuing the notice
Date
Notice
Heading
Body of letter
Signature
Name
Designation

Points to remember:
•A well-written notice must inform the readers about the 5 Ws:
—What is going to happen, (that is, the event)
—Where it will take place
—When it will take place (that is, the date and time)
—Who can apply or is eligible for it
—Whom to contact or apply to (that is, the issuing authority)

Only the most important points should be written.

•A.O.D. – that is, any other detail given in the question.
•One is free to add any relevant information not included in the question.
•The sentences should be short and grammatically accurate.
Class assignment:
Write a notice for the college notice board informing the
students about the visit of the Vice President in your College on
20.06.2017. Write the notice asking the students to maintain punc-
tuality, cleanliness and discipline.

The Lusaka Vocational Training Centre Student Union has or-

ganized a boat cruzzy to take place in Siavonga during summer va-
cations for interested students of Power Electrical, Auto-Mech and
Water Operations Classes. As a Union President of the students,
write a notice informing students about the trip and inviting them
to join.

There is going to be an inter-section debate for all the

students of Power Electrical and Water Operation Classes on the
topic ‘Tobacco companies should not sponsor sports events’. As
the cultural secretary, draft a notice providing all relevant in-
formation.

109
UNIT 4.5 MEETINGS:

Meetings are oral methods of communication in business or any situation for the purpose of col-
lecting the views of several people. An effective meeting is an efficient tool in the communica-
tion process because they provide a useful opportunity for conveying, sharing or transmitting in-
formation either by making suggestions and proposals, taking decisions and obtaining quick
feedback, especially when member participation is active. Meetings may be used for different
purposes such as:
1. To give information to a group of people
2. To consult and discuss matters of common interest
3. Negotiate wages
4. To coordinate or arrange activities
5. To inform members of any development
6. To put forward ideas or grievances for discussions
7. To make decisions by democratic means
8. To solve problems by pooling expertise

Types of meeting:
There are different types of meetings of which some are formal and others are informal.
Formal meetings:

110
These are meetings which are prescribed by law, standing orders or constitution and include an-
nual general meetings of share holders if it is in a company and board meetings. The rules of
conduct of the meetings are laid down in a company’s Articles of Association. Minutes of the
meeting are usually kept by the secretary of the company. The meetings are conducted in formal
manner and in accordance with a set agenda, held on specified dates, presided over by a chair-
person and a secretary engaged to record the minutes.
Informal meetings:
Informal meetings may be called at any time for any reason. Informal meetings are not restricted
by the same rule and regulations that apply to formal meetings, but a record may or may not be
kept of the meeting, but where business matters are to be discussed it is important to keep rec-
ords. Executive meetings, staff meetings, advisory committees and working parties meetings will
normally be informal to allow participants to contribute freely without having to adhere to rigid
procedures.
The agenda:
The success of every meeting depends on how well it has been prepared. One important issue in
the preparation of a meeting is to ensure that the documentation is dealt with efficiently. The no-
tice and the agenda are usually combined in one document. The first of the document is normally
a notice which will state the details as where the meeting will be held, the time of the meeting,
the date when the meeting shall take place, and the time when the meeting will start. The second
part of the same document is the agenda which is the list of items or topics to be discussed in the
meeting. An agenda is a programme of details of the business to be discussed at a meeting in the
order in which they are to be taken. The agenda is then sent to all members of the committee or
organization to give them adequate notice and to enable them ponders over, prior to the meeting,
the business items to be discussed. The period of notice to be given is laid down by the constitu-
tion or in the constitution of the organization and is normally seven or fourteen days. It is cus-
tomary at committee meetings to arrange at one meeting the date of the next meeting. The agen-
da is prepared by the secretary in collaboration with the chairperson and the items of the business
dealt with at the previous meeting are taken into consideration. The secretary should make a note
of any matters requiring the attention of the committee, so that these may be included in the
agenda for the next meeting.

INSTITUTE FOR TECHNICAL AND COMMERCIAL EDUCATION Ltd

STAFF WELFARE COMMITTEE
PART A
A meeting of the staff welfare committee will be held in the Boardroom on Friday the 28 th of
August 2009 at 15:00 hrs
PART B
AGENDA:
1. Apologies for absence
2. Minutes of last meeting
3. Matters arising from the minutes
4. Staff canteen

111
5. Car Park
6. Proposals for staff Christmas Dinner
7. Any other business
8. Date of next meeting

Lizard Kanjoka
Secretary
Cmm/Gh
14th August 2009

Minutes:
Minutes are records of the proceedings of a meeting and are kept to preserve a brief, accurate and
clear records of the business transacted. The reasons why minutes are taken are:
1. To record the exact wording of resolutions passed or decisions reached with the names of
proposers and seconders.
2. To note the main arguments for and against the decisions.
3. To write the minutes as possible after the meeting while discussions are fresh in mind.
4. To write the minutes clearly so that there is no possible doubt about the decisions
reached.

Minutes of meeting:
Minutes of a meeting of the Staff Welfare Committee held in the Boardroom on Friday the 28th
of August, 2009 at 15:00 hrs.
Present:
Mrs. Frog Kanjoka – Chairperson
Mr. Lizard Kanjoka – Secretary
Mr. Moyenda Mabonzo – Treasurer
Mrs. Tute Kansima
Mrs. Chiwawa Kandiyo
Mr. Manzi Njota
Mr. Morris Kanyenda
Apologies:
Apologies were received on behalf of Mrs. Kamwala and Mr. Dothi Habenzu.
Minutes:
The minutes of the last meeting, which had been circulated, were taken as read and approved and
signed by the chairperson.
Matters arising:
There were no matters arising out of the minutes.
Staff canteen:
The canteen manager submitted a report outlining the current financial position on the canteen.
Since November last year 2008 when the price of meals was last increased, food costs had risen
by 20% and proposed a similar increase in price of meals in order to meet the extra costs.
It was generally felt that, at a time when salary increases were less than 10%, an increase of 20%
for canteen meals would be unacceptable.

112
There was a suggestion that offering a smaller choice of meals as a possible means of reducing
the costs. Mr. Morris Kanyenda was of the opinion that the college subsidy should be increased
to meet the higher costs.
After much discussion, it was agreed to defer increasing prices until the chairperson and the can-
teen manager had, had a meeting with the Finance and Administrative Manager to seek an in-
crease in the meals subsidy, and canteen manger had considered other means of saving expendi-
ture as reducing the choice of meals offered.

Any other business:

Mr. Morris Kanyenda stated that Thorn Park Campus had adopted flexitime and he considered
that the majority of staff at this college would like to change over it. Members agreed to seek the
view of staff and to report back their findings to the next meeting.
Date of next Meeting:
It was agreed or decided to hold the next meeting of the committee on Friday 30 th of March
2009.
Meeting Personnel
Chairman or Chairperson
The chairman or chairperson is appointed by the meeting to:
1. Manage the proceedings of a meeting and keep order
2. Approve the items to be discussed on the agenda
3. Conduct the business according to the agenda and standing orders or constitution, as well
as keeping the discussion within prescribed limits and allow all points of views to be ex-
pressed.
4. Deal with point of order
5. Guide the discussion and assist the meeting to reach a decision by passing resolutions,
amendments etc.
6. Take a vote or poll and declare the results
7. Sign the minutes and ensure that action is taken, as proved
8. Close, adjourn or postpone a meeting

Secretary:
1. The secretary is responsible for the meeting arrangements
2. Arrange the participants to sign the attendance register
3. Record the details of the decisions reached and the results of any voting which may take
place.
4. Comply with the procedures laid down for the security and confidentiality of information.
5. Taking care of all files
6. Drafting minutes for the approval by the chairman or chairperson
7. Distribution of minutes to the members.

The treasurer:
The treasurer may be involved when a meeting is responsible for the receipt and payment of
money. The duties include:
1. Presentation of financial reports
2. Submission of audited reports

113
 3. Advice to the meeting on financial matters

Meeting terminologies:
Ad hoc: from Latin, meaning 'for the purpose of', as for example, when a sub-committee is set
up specially to organize a works outing.
Adjourn: to hold a meeting over until a later date.
Adopt minutes: minutes are 'adopted' when accepted by members and signed up by the chair-
man.
Advisory: providing advice or suggestion, not taking action
Agenda: a schedule of items drawn up for discussion at a meeting
AGM: Annual General Meeting: all members are usually eligible to attend
Apologies: excuses given in advance for inability to attend a meeting
Articles of Association: rules required by Company law which govern a company's activities

Attendance list: in some committees a list is passed round to be signed as a record of attendance
Bye-laws: rules regulating an organization’s activities
Casting vote: by convention, some committee chairmen may use a 'casting vote' to reach a deci-
sion, if votes are equally divided
Chairman: leader or person given authority to conduct a meeting
Chairman's Agenda: based upon the committee agenda, but containing explanatory notes
Collective Responsibility: a convention by which all committee members agree to abide by a
majority decision
Committee: a group of people usually elected or appointed who meet to conduct agreed business
and report to a senior body
Consensus: agreement by general consent, no formal vote being taken
Constitution: set of rules governing activities of voluntary bodies
Convene: to call a meeting
Decision: resolution minutes are sometimes called 'decision minutes'
Eject: remove someone (by force if necessary) from a meeting
Executive: having the power to act upon taken decisions
Extraordinary Meeting: a meeting called for all members to discuss a serious issue affecting all
is called an Extraordinary General Meeting; otherwise a non-routine meeting called for a specific
purpose
Ex officio: given powers or rights by reason of office
Guillotine: cut short a debate – usually in Parliament
Honorary post: a duty performed without payment, e.g. Honorary Secretary
Attendance list: in some committees a list is passed round to be signed as a record of attendance
Bye-laws: rules regulating an organization’s activities
Casting vote: by convention, some committee chairmen may use a 'casting vote' to reach a deci-
sion, if votes are equally divided
Chairman: leader or person given authority to conduct a meeting
Chairman's Agenda: based upon the committee agenda, but containing explanatory notes
Collective Responsibility: a convention by which all committee members agree to abide by a
majority decision
Committee: a group of people usually elected or appointed who meet to conduct agreed business
and report to a senior body

114
Consensus: agreement by general consent, no formal vote being taken
Constitution: set of rules governing activities of voluntary bodies
Convene: to call a meeting
Decision: resolution minutes are sometimes called 'decision minutes'
Eject: remove someone (by force if necessary) from a meeting
Executive: having the power to act upon taken decisions
Extraordinary Meeting: a meeting called for all members to discuss a serious issue affecting all
is called an Extraordinary General Meeting; otherwise a non-routine meeting called for a specific
purpose
Ex officio: given powers or rights by reason of office
Guillotine: cut short a debate – usually in Parliament
Honorary post: a duty performed without payment, e.g. Honorary Secretary
Information, Point of : the drawing of attention in a meeting to a relevant item of fact
Intra-vires: within the power of the committee or meeting to discuss, carry out
Lie on the table: leave item to be considered instead at the next meeting (see table)
Lobbying: a practice of seeking members' support before a meeting
Minutes: the written record of a meeting; resolution minutes record only decision reached, while
narrative minutes provide a record of the decision-making process
Motion: the name given to a 'proposal' when it is being discussed at a meeting
Mover: one who speaks on behalf of a motion
Nem con: from Latin, literally, 'no one speaking against'
Opposer: one who speaks against a motion
Order, point of: the drawing of attention to a breach of rules or procedures
Other business: either items left over from a previous meeting, or items discussed after the main
business of a meeting
Point of order: proceedings may be interrupted on a 'point of order' if procedures or rules are not
being kept to in a meeting
Proposal: the name given to a submitted item for discussion (usually written) before a meeting
takes place
Proxy: literally 'on behalf of another person' - proxy vote
Quorum: the number of people needed to be in attendance for a meeting to be legitimate and so
commence
Refer back: to pass an item back for further consideration
Resolution: the name given to a 'motion' which has been passed or carried; used after the deci-
sion has been reached
Seconder: one who supports the 'proposer' of a motion or proposal by 'seconding' it
Secretary: committee official responsible for the internal and external administration of a com-
mittee
Secret ballot: a system of voting in secret
Shelve: to drop a motion which has no support
Sine die: from Latin, literally, 'without a day', that is to say indefinitely, e.g. 'adjourned sine die'.
Standing Committee: a committee which has an indefinite term of office
Standing Orders: rules of procedure governing public sector meetings
Table: to introduce a paper or schedule for noting
Taken as read: to save time, it is assumed the members have already read the minutes
Treasurer: committee official responsible for its financial records and transactions

115
Ultra vires: beyond the authority of the meeting to consider
Unanimous: all being in favour

UNIT 4.6 INTERVIEWS:

We may define an interview as:
1. Any planned conversation with specific purpose involving two or more people.
2. Planned conversation with a predetermined purpose that involve asking and answering
questions.
In an interview, the action is controlled by the interviewer, the person who scheduled the session.
Although the interviewer guides conversation, the interviewee may also seek to accomplish a
purpose, perhaps to obtain or provide information to solve a problem or to create goodwill or
persuade the person to take an action.
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS:
Discipline interview: - This aim at resolving a problem that will otherwise would have lead to
dismissal at work. Such interviews are supposed to be treated seriously and try to prevent them
by instructing and counseling the person in the early stages of the problem. Discipline interview
occur in well-developed conflict situations fraught with intense anger and frustrations. One needs
to acknowledge and manage such emotions. There is need to monitor and follow-up the outcome
of the decisions taken on disciplinary issue.
Job interview:- The candidates applying for the jobs want to learn about the position and the
organization whilst the employer wants to learn more about the candidate or the applicant’s abil-
ity or abilities and experiences relating to the position applied.
Persuasive interview: - This type of interview involves one person telling another about a new
idea or product and explains why the other should act. More especially when an organization has
come up with a new product, they use this type of interview to persuade people to buy the prod-
ucts.
Exit interview: - This type of interview is conducted when one is leaving employment or taking
a transfer to another department. The interviewer tries to understand the reasons for leaving the
organization. The interview can provide an insight into whether the business is being handled
efficiently or whether things could be improved.
Counseling interview: - This type of interview takes place when an employee has a personal
problem and the supervisor talks to the employee. In this interview, the interviewer is mainly
concerned with the welfare of both the employee and the organization. The main aim is to estab-
lish the facts, convey the organization’s concern and steer the person towards a source of help
and hope.
Termination interview: - This is an interview in which the supervisor informs the employee of
the reason for the termination of work. The interviewer tries to avoid involving the company in
legal action and tries to maintain a positive relationship with the interviewee.

UNIT 5.0 WRITING REPORTS

INTRODUCTION
Definition
We may define a report as account of something:
o Witnessed
o Examined and inspected

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 o Work and carried out
o Investigated, together with findings
o Conclusions and recommendations
Every employee at one time or another has to report to someone whether it is a section head, a
department head, a senior manager or a colleague.
We may as well define a report as a representation of facts and findings from which usually rec-
ommendations formulated, written for specific readership and probably intended to be kept as a
record. From this definition, we can derive the necessary components of any report.
We may as well define a report as an orderly and objective communication of factual information
that serves a business purpose. Factual information is based on events, records, data etc. A
presentation and summation of facts either collated or derived.
A report is:
1. Based on facts and findings
2. For specific group of people (readership)
3. Serving as a record and therefore as a source of information.
In Business, the purpose of business report is that it serves to assist management in decision
making. Therefore, what people look in a report is meaningfulness, conciseness, accuracy, unbi-
asness and substantial evidence to reported facts and findings which require appropriate reme-
dies. A good report must be logical, clear and comprehensive.
Usually there is need that someone or a group needs information for a business purpose. What-
ever the case for the report may be, someone with a need will authorize you to do the work. Usu-
ally the work is authorized orally. It can as well be authorized through a letter or memorandum.
A manager or an employee may be involved in preparing reports for number of reasons. Some
reports are of purely routine nature, like statistics concerning sales, production, purchases, and
finances etc. Other reports concern special matters, outside the normal affairs of the business,
which may require the undertaking of investigations and research. Special reports are written in
response to requests for specific information or made on a special topic after research and inves-
tigation or report regarding a change of policy.
There is an art to the preparation of special reports, as it is important that the report should stimu-
late thought and lead to some positive action. A good report of this kind should contain all the
relevant facts, should present them in logical sequence, should discuss them in clear and simple

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language and should arrive at a conclusion. Before starting work on compiling a special report,
the reason why the report is required must be clearly understood, the aspects on which it is to
concentrate must be defined, it must be determined who will have to consider its contents and
recommendations and it must be known by when is the report required.
Features of a good report:
A good report must be:
1. Factual
2. Objective
3. Orderly, structured in a predetermined fashion
4. Comprehensive (concise and complete)
5. Detailed (all relevant information included)
6. Clear.
A report follows a set pattern that makes it easier for the reader to grasp. Understanding the vari-
ous components in a report and the proper arrangement of the same adds to both aesthetic and
logical appeal. The various parts of a report are:
Section: 1. The Prefatory Parts:
This consists of the following:
 The cover
 The title page
 The letter of authorization
 The letter of acceptance
 Table contents
 List of illustrations
 The executive summary
Section: 2. The Text of the Report:
This section has the following components:
 The introduction of the report
 The body of the report
 Summary
 Conclusions
 Recommendations/suggestions
 Plan of action
 Notes

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Section: 3. The Supplementary Parts:
These are:
 Appendixes
 References Bibliography
 Index/Annexure
Title Page:
The title page contains the title of the report, the receiver’s name and the writer’s name. There is
a standard format for designing the title page. The information provided is as follows:

NAME OF THE ORGANIZATION OR DEPARTMENT

A REPORT ON CELLPHONES IN LUSAKA (Title of the report)
PREPARED FOR NJOTA MWALE – MARKETING DIRECTOR
(Name of the intended reader in full with his designation)
WRITTEN BY: KAMWENDO CHILUFYA – SALES MANAGER
(Name of the writer in full with his designation)
DATE, MONTH and YEAR

Acknowledgments:
Courtesy demands that at least a line of gratitude be expressed for even the smallest
kind of gesture rendered at the time of writing the report. Certain typical statements
that can be made for expressing gratitude are as follows:
o I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Mbuzi
o I am deeply indebted to Mrs. Chiwawa
o My sincere thanks to Dr. Derere
o My thanks are also due to the following; Mr. Tute, Mr. Njoka, Mr. Lizard etc.
o Special thanks to Mr. Snake

This booklet has been written in response to requests from students who wanted an example of
how a report should be laid out. It covers the organisation of a report, indicating areas where
confusion often occurs (as between a summary and introduction), and issues of style. It does not

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give any information on the planning of a report, on the sources of information, nor on how to
collect evidence WRITING A REPORT

2.1 ORGANISATION
The purpose of a report is to inform the reader. It is helpful, both to the reader and to the writer,
if the report is logically organised. Over the years a standard format for reports has been worked
out. Although there may be circumstances when it is advisable to change the format to fit a par-
ticular need, following the format ensures that all the essential information is included and that it
is treated in a logical way. The format usually adopted is that described in a British Standard
(1972). The standard components of a report are as follows: Title; Summary; List of contents;
Introduction; Main body of the report; Conclusions; Recommendations; Appendix; References.

2.1.1 The Title

The title is your readers’ first contact with the report. Its aim is to inform them of the report’s
contents. It should be brief, but it must contain enough information to distinguish it from other,
similar reports. Try to write it using ordinary English grammar, rather than the ‘headline’ style
that is sometimes adopted; for example, a good title might be A comparative survey of computer
programs for business using the PC rather than PC business program comparison survey.

2.1.2 The Summary or Abstract

Executive summary:
It is also called synopsis, it is a report in mini-nature form. The summary gives a concise over-
view of the report. It is generally one page in length. It summarizes the recommendations of the
report and the reasons for the recommendations. To write an executive summary, you must know
the report’s recommendations and support.
1. In the first paragraph, identify the report’s recommendations or major points. Provide
background on the problem only if needed to explain the goal of the recommendations.
2. In the body, identify the major supporting points for your argument. Include all the in-
formation decision makers will need. Make the summary clear as a stand-alone docu-
ment.
3. If you have conducted interviews, briefly describe your methods.

The purpose of the summary is to give a brief overview of the whole report, not just of the con-
clusions and recommendations. Although it is placed immediately after the title, it is written last,
after the rest of the report has been completed. It is not necessary to give detailed information in
the summary - it is sufficient to give an indication of the kind of information that can be found in
the report. For a short report, a summary of about 100-150 words is enough; for a major research
report, a summary may be as long as one page. It certainly should not be longer as the essential

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information is included. Although it must be brief, the summary should be written in complete
sentences, not as notes.

2.1.3 The List of Contents

The list of contents is there to help your reader find specific information in the report quickly. It
is usual to present it as a list of headings with corresponding page numbers. In a long report, or if
the material is complex, it is helpful to split the report into sections which are also presented in
the list of contents. The sections should be given informative subheadings that should be chosen
with as much care as the main title of the report.

2.1.4 The Introduction

In the introduction of the report, you should mention why the report has been authorized, the
purpose, the goal, and the objective of the report. You should also mention the sources and meth-
ods of collecting data or information both primary and secondary sources and explanations, defi-
nitions of terms usages. It must also give a brief description of the organization of the report ma-
terial. It may include the following:
1. Purpose: Identify the organizational problem the report is addressing, the technical inves-
tigation it summarizes, and the rhetorical purpose.
2. Scope: Identify the topics the report covers.
3. Limitations: Limitations make the recommendations less valid or valid only under certain
conditions. Limitations usually arise because time and money constraints have not per-
mitted the full research.
4. Assumptions: Assumption are statements whose truth you may assume and which you
use to support your conclusions and recommendations. If they are wrong, even the con-
clusion will wrong.
5. Methods: Tell how you choose the people for survey, focus groups, or interviews and
how, when and where they were interviewed.

The purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your readers so that they know what to ex-
pect from the report. It is important to remember that the introduction introduces the report. It
does not introduce the subject. You should leave any material facts until the main body of the
report. The introduction answers the questions:
 Why is the report being written?
 What kinds of information does it contain?
 How is the problem being approached?
 For whom is the report being written?

2.1.4.1 Why is the report being written?

It is important to set out your brief for the report. You need to give the circumstances which
made the report necessary and what you hope to achieve by writing it. It may be necessary to
give some background information so that there is a framework into which your readers can fit
the information you are presenting. Of course, you need to use your judgment to decide how
much detail to include, and this will largely depend on your assessment of the people who will be
reading the report.

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2.1.4.2 What kind of information does it contain?
You need to give an indication of the subject matter which you are dealing with. It is often help-
ful to give the scope of the information as well. For example, you could say how detailed or
technical the information is going to be. You might need to say what kinds of information you
are not going to deal with than this. As a general rule, the shorter the summary, the better, as long

Writing an effective business report is a necessary skill for communicating ideas in the business
environment. Reports usually address a specific issue or problem, and are often commissioned
when a decision needs to be made.

They present the author’s findings in relation to the issue or problem and then recommend a
course of action for the organization to take. The key to a good report is in-depth analysis. Good
writers will show their reader how they have interpreted their findings. The reader will under-
stand the basis on which the conclusions are drawn as well as the rationale for the recommenda-
tions.

Report writing uses some of the writing skills you have already acquired. You will structure your
paragraphs and reference your ideas just as you have been doing in your essays and other as-
signments within your program.

2.1.4.3 How is the problem being approached?

You need to say whether you are dealing with the problem from a theoretical or practical stand-
point. Give an outline of the methods you used in your investigations.

2.1.4.4 For whom is the report being written?

It is helpful to state whether you are writing for a technical or general reader - or any other par-
ticular group. This will help your potential readers to decide whether it is worthwhile reading the
report. It will also help you to judge the style, language and degree of difficulty to use in writing
the report.

2.1.5 The main body of the report

This is where the real content of the report is presented. It should be given its own title, which
describes the subject matter. It is usual to present the material in two sections: ‘Methods and ma-
terials’ and ‘Findings’ (or ‘Evidence’).

2.1.5.1 Methods and materials

This section answers the questions ‘What did I do?’, ‘How did I do it?’, and ‘What did I do it
with?’

In a research report, or one based on experiments, this section can be substantial. For other kinds
of report, it can be much shorter. Its purpose is to enable someone else to repeat what you have
done and to check that what you have done is valid, so there must be enough information for
them to do so. On the other hand, there is no need to give detailed descriptions of standard
equipment or techniques. It is sufficient to refer to procedures by name. If you have modified a
piece of equipment or a technique in any way, then you must explain what you have done.

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2.1.5.2 Findings
This is the place where you present your evidence. It should be organized logically so that your
conclusions arise naturally from the facts you have written. It is important to confine yourself to
proven facts here and to resist the temptation to indulge in personal views. It is sometimes help-
ful to use tables, diagrams or graphs to make your information more easily understood.

Always ask yourself if all the detail you have given is necessary to understand the main argu-
ment. If it is, then present it within the text. If its not, then the tables, graphs and so on may be
better placed in an appendix. Do make sure that graphs and diagrams are well constructed and
labelled so that they do, in fact, make the information easier to understand. A badly constructed
diagram or graph can make the information more confusing.

Another point to remember is that it is not enough simply to present a graph or table and expect
your reader to pick out what is important. It is your job to show the reader what the main facts
are and how they relate to the subject you are presenting. You must, therefore, include some dis-
cussion of the facts.

2.1.6 The Conclusions

The conclusions should arise naturally from the evidence that is presented in the previous sec-
tions. You might include, for example, statements on what has happened, what the situation is
and what might happen. You might also consider further action that could be taken, and an analy-
sis of the advantages and disadvantages of various courses of action. If appropriate, you should
give your opinion, in the light of your experience and the evidence that you have presented, what
a preferred course of action would be. If there are any gaps in your knowledge which prevent
you coming to a decision, then you should make that clear and perhaps outline what further in-
vestigations would be necessary to provide fuller information. You should not include any new
information that does not appear in the main body of the report. You should not make statements
that you cannot support from the evidence.

2.1.7 The Recommendations

Recommendations are not always called for in a report, but if they are included, they should fol-
low on logically from the conclusions. Usually a brief statement of what should or should not be
done is sufficient. It helps the reader if the recommendations are set out as brief statements.

2.1.8 The Appendix

The appendix contains peripheral matter which would overload your main argument. Some of
the kinds of material that can be included are considered below.

2.1.8.1 Glossary
If you are presenting a technical report to people who are not experts in the subject, it is some-
times helpful to provide explanations of the technical terms you are using. The neatest way to do
this is to provide a glossary in the Appendix. You list, in alphabetical order, the terms you have
used with a brief definition of their meaning.
UNIT 5.1 TYPES OF REPORTS

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Writing a formal report:
REPORT ON TELEPHONE TECHNIQUE
For the attention of Mr. Njota Mulenga
From: Mr. Geza Chilufya
Date of Submission: 28th August, 2009
1:0. Terms of reference:
1:1. The quality circle team was requested to investigate the problems with the telephone ser-
vice in the insurance claims section.
2:0. Procedures/Methodology
2:1. Telephone technique in the insurance claims section was observed.
2:2. Complaints from the customers and members of staff were looked into.
2:3. Staff in the insurance claims section were interviewed.
3:0. Findings:
3:1. Staffs were slow to answer the telephone and there were not enough staff to deal with the
calls. Telephone etiquette was observed to be inadequate. Staffs frequently failed to identify
themselves and their department, and customers were frequently left on hold for a long of time
while files were being located.
3:2. Staff often promised customers and staff in other sections that the colleagues would return
their calls but they did not. Messages were not often taken and it noted that the section did not
have a stock of telephone message pad.
3:3. Junior members of staff were reluctant to deal with incoming calls because they did not feel
capable of dealing with many of the complicated querries received.

4:0. Conclusions:
4:1. It was evident that the staff in the insurance claims sections are not providing an adequate
telephone service. They are extremely busy and there is an obvious staff shortage. Messages are
not relayed because message pads are not available. Junior staff lacks training to deal with more
complicated queries. All staff needs telephone technique.

5:0. Recommendations:
5:1. Additional staff should be employed in the insurance section.
5:2. All staff should be provided with a stock of telephone message pads
5:3. Junior staff should undergo specialized training, provided by senior staff, on some of the
more incoming enquiries which the section receives.
5:4. All staff should attend a training course on telephone technique.

Writing an informal report:

A REPORT ON NEGOTIATION SKILLS TRAINING COURSE:
FOR THE ATTENTION OF:
NJOTA LUNGU
FROM:
GEZA TEMBO
1:0. Introduction:
This report provides information on the value and effectiveness of the recent negotiation skills
course which Mr. Geza Tembo attended on the 4th to 31st August 2009.
2:0.Findings:

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2:1. Course details:
The course took place at Pamodzi Hotel in Lusaka from the 4th of August to 31st August 2009
and was conducted by the Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply. The cost of the pro-
gramme was K 7, 500, 000 million.
2:2. Course content:
The course was delivered with a mixture of input, case studies and interaction with the audience.
The course was well organized with good supporting materials in the way of handouts and illus-
trative material. The trainer’s delivery was successful as he maintained the interest of the audi-
ence.
The topic of negotiation was dealt with from a buying and selling perspective and provided com-
prehensive coverage of skills, guidelines and tactics.
It would have been improved slightly had there been an opportunity to practice skills learnt. Had
the course been of a longer duration, it would have been possible to use role play stimulation for
participants to demonstrate their skills
3:0.Conclusion:
The course was effectively and well-run. The content was comprehensive but lacked the oppor-
tunity to put newly-learned skill into practice.
4:0.Recommendations:
4:1.Other members of staff who are involved in purchasing materials and supplies should attend
this when it runs again next year in August 2010.
4:2. I recommend that there should be some in-house training so that staff can practice imple-
menting their negotiation skills.

UNIT 5.4 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

Definition of Research
Word ‘Research’ is comprises of two words
= Re+Search
.
It means to search again. So research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new
knowledge of the already existing facts. Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for
bringing to light new knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes, re-
moving existing misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing fund of knowledge.

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized
effort to gain new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from
the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct
of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes
us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the
mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of
whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

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The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this ob-
ject in view are termed as exploratory or formularize research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hy-
pothesis-testing research studies).
UNIT 6.0 EXPLAINING COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
How to give instructions that are clear and get the job done that you want!
1. Don’t assume they know what you mean
You know what they say, that assumption is the mother of all mistakes! Don’t be the fool that
assumes people know what you mean. Whist most people in your office or business will be intui-
tive and switched on, they are not mind readers. An imperative when delivering clear instructions
is to not assume the recipient knows what you mean, and this can be for anything from industry
acronyms to who to contact in different departments or organisations. It will only take you a few
seconds more to explain the details.

2. Be clear and specific

Everyone loves a waffle (dripping in maple syrup please) but no one likes waffle in conversation
and especially not in an email or when it is a set of instructions. Whilst you don’t want to ramble
on in your set of instructions (that would be a waste of your time and to be honest, they’d switch
off after a while) you do want to ensure that your instructions are clear, specific and con-
cise. Personally I prefer not to butter it up, and would rather get straight to be the point on what
needs to be actioned or delivered, rather than making the instructions too flowery, which will on-
ly confuse.

3. Give time frames

Do not confuse matters by not being specific with your time frames and deadlines. What you
consider as “soon” might be very different from your colleagues. If you think “soon” is the next
couple of hours, yet your staff who you have instructed considered it to be in a few days then
this communication is going to have serious implications in any business or project!

4. Give examples

Whenever possible, make sure you give examples. This will be especially beneficial if they are
new to the role, or if they haven’t carried out the task before. This will help to add clarity to
you instructions and help form a clearer picture of what it is you mean and want.

126
For example, if you are asking them to design a customer satisfaction survey for your new prod-
uct then you might want to send them examples of other surveys previously used to give them bit
of an idea.

5. Give alternatives

When delivering your instructions it is worth considering giving some alternatives just in case
your preferred option of instruction is not viable or available.
For example, it could be “I want you to set up a meeting on the 20th of this month for 2 hours
with the Finance Director. If they are not available on the 20th, then the afternoon of the 26th
will be fine, or we can meet with the Commercial Analyst instead”.
By giving alternatives you are empowering your staff to get the job done with minimal fuss and
constant checking back in with yourself. The beauty of tasking someone else to do something is
that you don’t have to do it, which will save you time. By setting alternatives they don’t have to
keep coming back to you, after all it won’t save you time if you have to keep responding to que-
ries.

6. Set boundaries

Personally I am not one for micro managing and because of this I am not one for people to keep
checking in with me whether they should do something or not. Once a task is set, the instructions
should be clear enough that further confirmation and clarification is not needed (however saying
this it is obviously best to seek clarification if unsure!) If this rings true with you then you need
to make sure that your instructions are clear so that they are certain what they are doing and
don’t feel the need to keep coming back with questions. As with tip 5, setting boundaries is very
important; especially if you cannot think of alternatives at the time then boundaries might work.
For example, you might instruct “go to the supplier and order 100 units. If the normal supplier is
out of stock then it is fine to use a new supplier so long as they are no more than 10% more ex-
pensive and can deliver within 3 working days”. Here you haven’t been specific with your alter-
natives but clear enough on boundaries for them to make the call.

7. Get clarification

Before you let your staff loose on the basis of your instruction, it wouldn’t hurt to seek clarifica-
tion from them to ensure that they understand what the task at hand is and what is expected. You
could simply ask at the end if there are any questions but the one issue with that is that it is all
too easy to just simply say “no”. Either they might think they understand or they might even be
too shy to ask! Perhaps ask them to recap on what is required, or what the priorities/objectives
are so that you can ensure what you’ve said is what’s been heard!
Effective Communication in Customer Service
By Leigh Richards
Effective communication is a critical component of customer service for small organizations.
Customer service efforts are designed to ensure the prompt and efficient delivery of quality
products and services to customers, as well as the effective recovery from any service-related

127
issues that may arise. In dealing with customers, communication is essential, whether it is face-
to-face, over the phone, via email or, increasingly, through online channels.

Communication is Critical Skill

For those in customer service positions, strong communication and effective problem-solving
skills are must-haves. Call center representatives must be able to listen well and communicate
effectively verbally. Those who respond to customers via written channels must also have strong
typing, spelling and grammar skills and the ability to convey information effectively in an online
environment. Communication also comes into play when dealing with customers questions and
complaints, a reality of this type of work.

Customer Feedback Can Provide Direction

Effective communication in customer service requires a thorough understanding of the needs and
perspectives of customers--what is important to them and their expectations in terms of service,
product quality, and communication and follow through. Many companies conduct surveys to
determine what customers expect and how well they are doing at meeting those expectations.
This kind of overall feedback can be helpful, but customer service employees also benefit from
the one-on-one feedback they receive from their interactions with customers.

Challenges

Communicating effectively in customer service situations can involve a number of challenges.

Those in these roles need ready access to up-to-date and reliable information about the compa-
ny's products, services and policies. They need to know what level of authority they have to meet
customer demands and resolve problems. Sometimes they are unable to satisfy customer requests
due to company policies and this can be a stressful part of the job. In addition, as customer ser-
vice continues to be an important aspect of just about every business, and as businesses become
more competitive, consumers are coming to expect ever higher levels of service that companies
must be prepared to deliver.

Future

The future of customer service communication will increasingly take advantage of online and
mobile tools to streamline the communication process and provide options for customers to help
themselves through the use of online access to information about common questions, issues and
concerns. According to an article by Sarah Pierce in Entrepreneur magazine, the use of live chat
and instant messaging as communication tools to interact with customers has grown significantly
since 2002, with tools such as Chat Stat and Live Person providing businesses with effective
means of interacting quickly, easily and inexpensively with customers. The newest trend, says
Pierce, is mobile search.

Importance of Communicating and Meeting Customer Requirements

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By Chris Joseph

Focusing on customer communication is important to the long-term success of any business. In

the early stages of the relationship, effective communication ensures your product or service
meets the customer's immediate needs. As time goes on, regular communication with your cus-
tomer base allows you to adapt and grow so you can continue to meet its requirements.

Gaining Clarity

Clarity of communication is important when attempting to understand what the customer truly
needs. Attaining clarity often involves asking key questions to gain a better understanding of the
customer's situation. Providing the customer with a clear understanding of what actions you in-
tend to take the remedy the situation along with a specific time frame leaves little doubt in her
mind of what to expect and eliminates confusion or misunderstandings.

Reinforcing the Sale

Communication can serve as a valuable reinforcement tool to solidify the purchase. For example,
a salesperson that stays in touch with a customer in the period immediately following the sale
can reinforce the benefits of his product or service and how they meet the customer's needs. They
can also quickly address any problems the customer may have, such as attempting to figure out
how to use a new product. In the process, the salesperson can also lay the foundation for a long-
term relationship leading to repeat sales.

Implementing Change

Your customers' requirements are likely to change over time, and the ability to communicate with
them helps you adapt to their changing needs. If you're a distributor of goods, for instance, an
increase in a customer's business may require a corresponding increase in the frequency of your
deliveries. By maintaining regular communication with the customer, you are better prepared to
provide the needed change in delivery schedule quickly and efficiently. In some cases, you may
even be able to anticipate the customer's need for change and make helpful suggestions.

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Staying in Touch

Failure to communicate with customers for extended periods of can cause them to forget about
you or make them think you no longer care about their business. When the time comes where
they need your services again, they may decide to look to your competition instead. Even if a
customer doesn't have a current need for what your business provides, the simple act of staying
in touch with a newsletter, email or even the occasional in-person visit can reassure them you're
still there to assist them whenever they need you.

Ways to Communicate Effectively in the Workplace

1. Open Meeting

It is easier to communicate your passion and how you feel to your team via open meetings. In
this kind of forum, they will not only hear what you are saying, they will also see and feel it.
This approach still remains one of the best approaches to communicate effectively with a team.

2. Emails

In official settings, communication via email remains potent. It will enable you to pass messages
to members of your team without pulling them out of their work stations.

3. One on One

Experts have been able to prove that some people understand better when you take them aside
and talk to them on a one-on-one basis. Ensure that you maintain eye contact with them to enable
the message to sink in.

4. Use Presentations

Some people grasp messages easily when pictures and sounds are involved. Using presentations
like Microsoft Power Point to communicate with your team will give them the opportunity to
refer back to it if they aren’t clear about certain things.

5. Communication via Training

Your training should be tailored towards communicating certain information to your team mem-
bers. Most employees take training serious, especially when it’s part of their appraisal.

6. Display Confidence and Seriousness

Ensure that you display confidence and seriousness to ensure that you will not be taken for
granted. When your team members notice any uncertainty and lack of seriousness when you’re
communicating with them, they are likely to treat the information with disdain or disregard.

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7. Use Simple Words

The truth is that everybody cannot be on same page when it comes to vocabulary. Therefore, to
be effective in your communications with your team members, use words that can be easily un-
derstood. When ambiguous words are used, you can be misunderstood and/or waste precious
time having to explain yourself.

8. Use Visuals

Place visuals at strategic positions around the work stations of your team. They should not just
hear the message, they should also see it. This gives room for better comprehension.

9. Listen to Your Team Members

Communication is intended to be a two way street. Don’t just talk because you are the leader
without listening to anyone else. Encourage them to open up so you can be well guided when
communicating in the future with them. You have two ears and one mouth –so you must listen
more than you speak.

10. Use Body Language

Your body language will pass your message faster and better. Master the art of using body lan-
guage when communicating with your team. Stand/sit up straight, use smiles, handshakes and
eye contact.

11. Act Out Your Message

Someone once said, “Tell me what you want me to do and I might forget it, but do it in front of
me and I will never forget it.” Acting out your message is a very potent way of communicating
with your team. Let them see you do what you want them to do, and watch their excuses disap-
pear.

12. Use The Appropriate Tone of Voice

One word can mean a different thing when said in a different tone of voice. Make sure you use
the appropriate tone of voice to communicate your message to your team so that you won’t be
misunderstood and discourage or demotivate members or cause them to shut down completely
out of fear.

13. Avoid Unnecessary Repetition

If you want your team members to take you serious, never sound like a broken record and don’t
beat a dead horse. Tell your team members what you want them to know or do and ask them if
they are clear about it. If they are not, only then do you repeat what you have said.

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14. Create a Receptive Atmosphere

To effectively communicate with your team, you must create a receptive atmosphere. Avoid a
tense environment at all costs because when you communicate in an overly intense manner, the
message you are trying to share might not be well understood or retained.

15. Be Humorous

Using friendly jokes when communicating with your team members will help pass your message
along in a more relaxed way. This method of communication has been proven to be a highly ef-
fective way of dousing tension. When the atmosphere is unfriendly and intense, being humorous
does the trick. If you must use jokes, please don’t overdo it. Remember, you are not a stand-up
comedian.

16. Be Articulate

Communication is indeed a skill that must be learned by all, especially if you want to lead any
group of people. Being articulate when you communicate to your team members makes it easier
for them to understand your message.

17. Avoid Mumbling

Your team members should be able to hear you clearly. When communicating with them, try as
much as possible to speak clearly and not mumble words. When you mumble words or speak too
quickly, you may assume that they are clear on the subject. But the truth is, they might not be. It
also shows a lack of confidence on your part.

18. Encourage Feedback

Don’t just talk and walk away. Give room for feedback so that you can measure the effectiveness
of your style of communication. It will also afford you the privilege of knowing if your message
was well understood.

19. Gesticulate

Use your hands to demonstrate your message. Make hand motions and signals to establish the
seriousness of your subject matter when communicating with your team members. This shows
that you understand what you are trying to relay to them. Just don’t let your body movement be-
come too exaggerated and intense.

20. Be Appreciative

After every communication session, via whatever means you have decided, always remember to
thank your listeners for their time. It will cost you nothing and it’s a simple courtesy.
Remember that the point of working as a team is to share ideas and boost productivity. When
communication is hampered, it can sidetrack the entire effort.

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You must work hard at these communication tactics and create ground rules to keep everyone up
to date, which helps avoid confusion and ensure the completion of the project with ease.

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