Module Title: Analog Electronics 1

(TEE 1206).

Introduction-Lecture 01

Sri Lanka Technological Campus (SLTC)

School of Technology: Electronics Technology.

Year 01 –Semester 2 (2025A:S2)

Conducted by: Dayantha Lankanath.

Email: [email protected]
Lecture Overview.

Subject Introduction and Learning Outcomes(LOs) .

Evaluation Criteria.
Recommended texts.
Today’s Subject Content.
Introduction to Semiconductors.
Types of Semiconductors.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors.
N-type and P-Type Semiconductors.
Introduction to PN-Junction Diodes.
Subject Introduction and Learning Outcomes(LOs) .
Aims of the Course: Acquire knowledge of explaining the operation, operational
characteristics of diodes and BJTs and familiar with practical applications.

Learning Outcomes:

1. Explain the operation of PN junction and the operation of different diode applications.
2. Discuss the characteristics and differences of BJT configurations and analyze simple
circuits for both dc and ac signals.
3. Design simple diode and BJT applications and discuss the operational behaviors.
4. Experiment with simple electronic circuit analysis concepts.
5. Design, assemble and test given electronic circuits.
6. Apply improved practical skills and good laboratory ethics.
7. Prepare professional reports from the experimental results.
Evaluation Criteria.

Typical Criteria:

1. Take-home assignments – 10%

2. Laboratory reports - 20%
3. Mid Semester Examination – 20%
4. Final examination – 50%

** Criteria may vary

 Recommended Texts:

1. Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory, L. Neshishkey & R. Boylstad, 8th Edition, Pearson.
2. Integrated Electronics- Analog and Digital Circuits and Systems, J. Milliman, C. Halkias & C.
Parikh, Mc Graw-Hill.
Introduction to Semiconductors.
What are Semiconductors: Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a
conductivity between that of a good conductor and that of an insulator. They are not good
conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-conductors).

In general, based on the formation semiconductor materials fall into one of two classes:
Semiconductor

Single-Crystal Compounds

Single-crystal semiconductors Compound semiconductors such as gallium

such as germanium (Ge) and arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulfide (CdS), gallium
silicon (Si) have a nitride (GaN), and gallium arsenide phosphide
repetitive crystal structure. (GaAsP) are constructed of two or more
semiconductor materials of different atomic
structures.
 Covalent Bonding.
,

Atomic structure of (a) silicon; (b) germanium; and (c) gallium and arsenic

 Silicon has 14 orbiting electrons, Germanium has 32 electrons.  Gallium has 31 electrons, and Arsenic has 33 orbiting electrons.
 Germanium and silicon have 4 electrons in the outermost shell,  Gallium has 3 valence electrons and Arsenic has 5 valence
which are referred to as valence electrons. electrons.
 Atoms that have 4 valence electrons are called tetravalent.  Atoms with 3 are called trivalent , and those with 5 are called
pentavalent.

 The term “valence" is used to indicate that the potential (ionization potential) required to remove any one of these electrons from the atomic structure is
significantly lower than that required for any other electron in the structure.
 Covalent Bonding .
,

 In a pure silicon or germanium crystal the 4 valence electrons  GaAs is a compound semiconductor, there is sharing between
of one atom form a bonding arrangement with four adjoining the two different atoms.
atoms.  Each atom, Ga or As, is surrounded by atoms of the
 This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of complementary type.
electrons, is called covalent bonding.  There is still a sharing of electrons similar in structure to that
of Ge and Si, but now 5 electrons are provided by the As atom
and 3by the Ga atom.
Semiconductors.
 Although the covalent bond will result in a stronger bond between the valence electrons and their parent
atom, it is still possible for the valence electrons to absorb sufficient kinetic energy from external natural
causes to break the covalent bond and assume the “free” state.

 The term free is applied to any electron that has separated from the fixed lattice structure and is very
sensitive to any applied electric fields such as established by voltage sources or any difference in
potential.

 The external causes include effects such as light energy in the form of photons and thermal energy (heat)
from the surrounding medium.

 The free electrons in a material due only to external causes are referred to as intrinsic carriers.

 At room temperature there are approximately 1.5 × 1010 free carriers in 1 cm3 of intrinsic silicon
material.

 In semiconductors both electrons (e) and holes (h) contribute to electric conductivity, so effect of both
holes and electrons has to be taken in to account when considering current density and conductivity.
Current Density (J) of a Semiconductor Due to Drift of Electrons & Holes .

Drift current density due to holes.

𝑱𝒑/𝒅𝒓𝒇 = 𝒆𝒑 𝑽𝒅𝒑 = 𝒆𝝁𝒑 𝒑𝑬

Drift current density due to electrons.

𝑱𝒏/𝒅𝒓𝒇 = 𝒆𝒏 𝑽𝒅𝒏 = 𝒆𝝁𝒏 𝒏𝑬

Total drift current.

𝑱𝒅𝒓𝒇 = 𝑱𝒑/𝒅𝒓𝒇 + 𝑱𝒏/𝒅𝒓𝒇
𝑱𝒅𝒓𝒇 = 𝒆(𝝁𝒑 𝒑 + 𝝁𝒏 𝒏)𝑬

Where; p= hole concentration, e= charge of electron, 𝑽𝒅𝒑 = drift velocity of holes,

𝝁𝒑 =mobility of holes, E= Electric field, n= electron concentration, 𝑽𝒅𝒏 = drift velocity of electrons, 𝝁𝒏 =
mobility of electrons
(The electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can move through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by
an electric field. In semiconductors, there is an analogous quantity for holes, called hole mobility. The term carrier mobility
refers in general to both electron and hole mobility in semiconductors)
Resistivity and Conductivity of a Semiconductor Due to Drift of Electrons
& Holes.

Conductivity(𝝈)-(Conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct electricity.)

𝝈 = 𝒆(𝝁𝒑 𝒑 + 𝝁𝒏 𝒏)

Resistivity (𝝆)-(A measure of the resisting power of a specified material to the flow of an electric current.)

𝟏 𝟏
𝝆= =
𝝈 𝒆(𝝁𝒑 𝒑 + 𝝁𝒏 𝒏)
 Semiconductors.
Based on the impurity content, semiconductors are categorized under two categories:
Semiconductor

Intrinsic Extrinsic

The term intrinsic is applied to any semiconductor A semiconductor material that has been subjected
material that has been carefully refined to reduce to the doping process is called an extrinsic material.
the number of impurities to a very low level- There are two extrinsic materials of immeasurable
essentially as pure as can be made available importance to semiconductor device fabrication:n -
through modern technology. type and p -type materials.
Intrinsic Semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors, also called an un-doped semiconductors or i-type semiconductor, are pure
semiconductor without any significant dopant species present. The number of charge carriers is therefore
determined by the properties of the material itself instead of the amount of impurities.

In most pure semiconductors at room temperature, the population of thermally excited charge carriers is
very small.

Often the concentration of charge carriers may be orders of magnitude lower than for a metallic conductor.
For example, the number of thermally excited electrons cm–3 in silicon (Si) at 298 K is 1.5 × 1010 and that
number in Cu is n = 8.5 × 1022 per cm3.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, note that the electron concentration and the hole concentration are both
equal to the intrinsic concentration, i.e. n = p = ni

Extremely pure, silicon and other semiconductors have high electrical resistivity, and therefore low
electrical conductivities.
Intrinsic Semiconductors.
A silicon crystal is different from an insulator because at any temperature above absolute zero temperature, there is a
finite probability that an electron in the lattice will be knocked loose from its position, leaving behind an electron
deficiency called a "hole".
Intrinsic Semiconductors.
The conductivity of a semiconductor can be modelled in terms of the band theory of solids.
The band model of a semiconductor suggests that at ordinary temperatures there is a finite possibility that
electrons can reach the conduction band and contribute to electrical conduction.
The current which will flow in an intrinsic semiconductor consists of both electron and hole current. That
is, the electrons which have been freed from their lattice positions into the conduction band can move
through the material.

How Electrons & Holes are Created?

In an intrinsic semiconductor like silicon at temperatures above absolute zero, there will be some electrons
which are excited across the band gap into the conduction band and which can produce current.
When the electron in pure silicon crosses the gap, it leaves behind an electron vacancy or "hole" in the
regular silicon lattice. Under the influence of an external voltage, both the electron and the hole can move
across the material.
Intrinsic Semiconductor –Silicon (Si) .
If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole can contribute to a small current flow.

How the current flows through a intrinsic

semiconductor?

 The current which will flow in an intrinsic

semiconductor consists of both electron and
hole current.
 That is, the electrons which have been freed
from their lattice positions into the
conduction band can move through the
material.
 In addition, other electrons can hop between
lattice positions to fill the vacancies left by
the freed electrons.

 This additional mechanism is called hole conduction because it is as if the holes are migrating across the
material in the direction opposite to the free electron movement.
Energy Levels.
Within the atomic structure of each and every isolated atom there are specific energy levels associated with
each shell and orbiting electron

The farther an electron is from the nucleus,

the higher is the energy state, and any
electron that has left its parent atom has a
higher energy state than any electron in the
atomic structure.

 The energy levels associated with each shell will be different for
every element.
 Specific energy levels can exist for the electrons in the atomic
structure of an isolated atom.
 The result is a series of gaps between allowed energy levels
where carriers are not permitted.
Energy Levels. At absolute zero temperature intrinsic
semiconductor acts as perfect insulator.
However as the temperature increases  There is a minimum energy
free electrons and holes gets generated.
level associated with
electrons in the conduction
band and a maximum
energy level of electrons
bound to the valence shell of
the atom.

 Between the two is an

energy gap that the electron
in the valence band must
overcome to become a free
carrier.

 That energy gap is different

for Ge, Si, and GaAs; Ge
Has a huge band-gap No band-gap available has the smallest gap and
(> 5 eV) between the between the VB and the GaAs the largest gap.
conduction and the Has a relatively lower CB. VB and CB are
valance band which band-gap compared to overlapped, allowing easy  An electron in the valence
prohibits the electrons insulators. With sufficient electron conduction; thus band of Si must absorb
to bridge the gap and external energy provided become good conducting more energy than one in the
participate in electron larger fraction of the materials. valence band of Ge to
conduction. electrons can bridge this become a free carrier.
gap and participate in
electrical conduction.
Extrinsic Semiconductors.
Si is the material used most frequently as the base (substrate) material in the construction of solid-state
electronic devices.
Extremely pure, silicon and other semiconductors have high electrical resistivity, and therefore low
electrical conductivities.
To enhance qualities like resistivity and conductivity, impurities should be added to intrinsic (pure)
semiconductors.
The semiconductor in which impurities are added is called extrinsic semiconductor. When the impurities
are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, it becomes an extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding
impurities to the semiconductor is called doping.
Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity than intrinsic semiconductor. Hence the extrinsic
semiconductors are used for the manufacturing of electronic devices such as diodes, transistors etc.
Characteristics of a semiconductor material can be altered significantly by the addition of specific impurity
atoms to the relatively pure semiconductor material.
These impurities, although only added at 1 part in 10 million, can alter the band structure sufficiently to
totally change the electrical properties of the material.
Extrinsic Semiconductors.
Extrinsic Semiconductors.

n-type p-type
 An n -type material is created by introducing impurity  The p -type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or
elements that have five valence electrons (pentavalent ), such silicon crystal with impurity atoms having three valence
as antimony (Sb) ,arsenic (As) , and phosphorus (P). electrons.

 Each is a member of a subset group of elements in the Periodic  The elements most frequently used for this purpose are boron
Table of Elements referred to as Group V because each has five (B) ,gallium (Ga) , and indium (In). Each is a member of a
valence electrons. subset group of elements in the periodic table of elements
referred to as Group III because each has three valence
electrons.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors.

n-type p-type

 4 covalent bonds are still present. There is, however, an  There is an insufficient number of electrons to complete the
additional fifth electron due to the impurity atom, which is covalent bonds of the newly formed lattice.
unassociated with any particular covalent bond.  The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is represented by a
 This remaining electron, loosely bound to its parent (Sb) atom, small circle or a plus sign, indicating the absence of a negative
is relatively free to move within the newly formed n –type charge.
material.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors.

n-type p-type
 Since the inserted impurity atom has donated a relatively  Since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a free electron:
“free” electron to the structure: diffused impurities with five the diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called
valence electrons are called donor atoms. acceptor atoms.
 The effect of this doping process can change the relative
conductivity of intrinsic material.
 A discrete energy level (called the donor level) appears in the
forbidden band with an Eg significantly less than that of the
intrinsic material.

 Free electrons due to the added

impurity sit at this energy level.

 So have less difficulty absorbing a

sufficient measure of thermal energy
to move into the conduction band at
room temperature.
 The result is that at room temperature, there are a large
number of carriers (electrons) in the conduction level, and the
conductivity of the material increases significantly.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors- Band Structure.

n-type p-type
 The addition of donor impurities contributes electron energy  The addition of acceptor impurities contributes hole levels low
levels high in the semiconductor band gap so that electrons can in the semiconductor band gap so that electrons can be easily
be easily excited into the conduction band. This shifts the excited from the valence band into these levels, leaving mobile
effective Fermi level to a point about halfway between the holes in the valence band. This shifts the effective Fermi level
donor levels and the conduction band. to a point about halfway between the acceptor levels and the
valence band.
 Electrons can be elevated to the conduction band with the  Electrons can be elevated from the valence band to the holes in
energy provided by an applied voltage and move through the the band gap with the energy provided by an applied voltage.
material. The electrons are said to be the "majority carriers" Since electrons can be exchanged between the holes, the holes
for current flow in a n-type semiconductor. are said to be mobile. The holes are said to be the "majority
carriers" for current flow in a p-type semiconductor.

***The Fermi Level is the energy level which is occupied by the electron orbital at temperature equals 0 K.
Electron versus Hole Flow.
 If a valence electron acquires sufficient kinetic energy to break its covalent bond and fills the void created by a hole, then
a vacancy, or hole, will be created in the covalent bond that released the electron.
Majority and Minority Carriers.
Extrinsic Semiconductors.

n-type p-type

 In an n -type material, the number of holes has not  For the p -type material the number of holes far
changed significantly from this intrinsic level. The
net result, therefore, is that the number of electrons outweighs the number of electrons, .
far outweighs the number of holes.
 In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier
 In an n-type material the electron is called the and the electron is the minority carrier.
majority carrier and the hole the minority carrier.
Electric Current Conduction in n-type Semiconductor:

 Consider an n-type semiconductor as shown in figure. When voltage is applied to n-type

semiconductor; the free electrons moves towards positive terminal of applied voltage. Similarly
holes moves towards negative terminal of applied voltage.
Electric Current Conduction in p-type Semiconductor:

 Consider p-type semiconductor as shown in figure. When voltage is applied to p-type

semiconductor; the holes in valence band moves towards negative terminal of applied voltage.
Similarly free electrons move towards positive terminal of applied voltage
Junction diode: PN Junction Diode.
Basic Structure of the PN Junction.
P-N Junction.
 When p-type and n-type materials are placed in contact with each other, the junction behaves very differently than
either type of material alone.

 Specifically, current will flow readily in one direction (forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased), creating the
basic diode.

 This non-reversing behaviour arises from the nature of the charge transport process in the two types of materials.
Junction Diode
 Basic Structure of the PN Junction.
P-N Junction.  When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor
materials are first joined together a very large density gradient
exists between both sides of the PN junction.

 The result is that some of the free electrons from the donor
impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed
junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material producing
negative ions.

 When the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the
N-type silicon to the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively
charged donor ions (ND) on the negative side.

 Holes from the acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in

the opposite direction into the region where there are large
numbers of free electrons.

 As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is

filled with negatively charged acceptor ions (NA), and the charge
density of the N-type along the junction becomes positive.