Chapter One: Wind Load

1 Wind Loads

1.1 Introduction

The aim of structural design is to ensure that, with an acceptably high probability, a structure
will remain fully functioning during its intended life. The expected life time of a structure is
formally known as its design life and is usually a period of at least 50 years. During its design
life, a structure must be capable of safely sustaining all applied loads and other stress
inducing actions that might reasonably be expected to occur. Thus, it is necessary to identify
and, more importantly, quantify the various types of loads which act on its members.

It is worth pointing out at this stage that in contrast to construction procedures, in which the
structure is erected from the ground upwards, building structures are generally designed from
the top downwards. This is because of the magnitudes of the internal forces in members at
any level depend on the forces being transferred from the levels above as well as the loads
applied directly at that level.

Classification of Loads

The loads that act on a structure can be classified into three categories: dead loads, live loads
and environmental loads. Since the method of analysis is the same for each category of
loading, all loads can be combined before analysis is performed. However, separate analyses
are usually carried out to facilitate the consideration of various load combinations.

EBCS 1-1995 provides guidance for the structural design of buildings and civil engineering
works. It also provides:

 Characteristic values for densities of specific building materials.

 Methods for the assessment of the characteristic values of self-weight of construction
elements.
 Characteristic values of imposed loads on floors and roofs in building structures.

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Chapter One: Wind Load

a) Dead Loads

Dead loads are those that act on structures as a result of the weight of the structure itself and
of components that are permanent fixtures. As a result dead loads have fixed magnitudes and
positions. Examples of dead loads are the weights of the structural members, the weight of
permanent partitions, roof materials, ceilings and of fixed service equipment.
The dead loads on a structure can be determined from the materials and sizes of the various
components. Unit weights of materials are used to compute these dead loads.

b) Live Loads (Movable, Time dependent)

Live loads are those acting on structures during construction and due to use or occupancy of
the structures. These are of temporary nature. These are fixed neither in magnitude nor in
direction.
These loads can further be classified as moving loads, and movable loads and time-dependent
loads.
Moving loads are those whose position changes rapidly. Examples are vehicular loads on
bridges and crane loads in industrial buildings.
Movable loads are those for which change in position take place over an extended period of
time such as people, merchandise, non-fixed furniture and equipment, stored material in a
warehouse and movable partitions in an office building.
Time-dependent loads are those whose magnitude varies as a function of time such as that
due to operation of machinery.

c) Environmental Loads

There are numerous loading conditions that a structure experiences as a result of the
environment in which it exists. Examples are wind loads and earthquake loads in Ethiopia
context.

In this chapter the static effect of wind loads will be discussed and Earthquake loads will be
treated in the next chapter.

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Wind loads

Wind forces are variable loads which act directly on the internal and external surfaces of
structures. The intensity of wind load is related to the square of the wind velocity and the
dimensions of the members that are resisting the wind (frontal area).

The intensity of wind pressure depends on:

 Shape of structure

 Angle of the induced wind

 Velocity of air

 Density of air

 Stiffness of structure

Wind velocity increases with the power of the structural height because of friction effect on
the ground surface. See Fig. 1.1.

Friction between the ground surface and the wind strongly influences the wind velocity. Near
the ground surface, the friction between the air and the ground reduces the velocity, whereas
at higher elevations above ground, friction has little influence and wind velocities are much
higher.

Fig. 1.1 Variation of wind velocity with height

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Chapter One: Wind Load

1.2 Wind Pressure on Structures based on EBCS-1

1.2.1 Wind Pressure

The wind pressure on the external surfaces of a structure W e shall be obtained from:

W e = q ref C e (z e ) C pe

The wind pressure on the internal surfaces of a structure W i shall be obtained from:

W i = q ref C e (z i ) C pi

The net wind pressure across a wall or an element is the difference of the pressures on each
surface taking due account of their signs. (Pressure directed towards the surface is taken as
positive and suction directed away from the surface is negative.)

[
Net pressure = we − wi = q ref C e ( z e )C pe − C e ( z i )C pi ]
Where: q ref is the reference mean wind velocity pressure derived from the reference wind
velocity

C e (z) is exposure coefficient accounting for the terrain and height above ground z

z is reference height (z = z e for external pressure coefficient and z = z i for internal

pressure coefficient)

C pe and C pi are the external and internal pressure coefficients respectively.

1.2.2 Reference Wind

Reference Wind Pressure

The reference mean wind velocity pressure q ref shall be determined from:

ρVref2
q ref =
2

Where: V ref is the reference wind velocity and ρ is the air density

The air density is affected by altitude and depends on the temperature and pressure to be
expected in the region during wind. A temperature of 20oC has been selected as appropriate
for Ethiopia (Table 3.1).

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Table 3.1 Values of Air Density ρ (EBCS-1, 1995)

Site altitude above

ρ (Kg/m3)
sea level (m)

0 1.20
500 1.12
1000 1.06
1500 1.00
2000 0.94

Reference Wind Velocity

The reference wind velocity v ref is defined as the mean velocity at 10 m above farmland
averaged over a period of 10 minutes with a return period of 50 years. The reference wind
velocity is taken as 22 m/sec.

1.2.3 Roughness Coefficient

The roughness coefficient C r (z), accounts for the variability of mean wind speed velocity at
the site of the structure due to:

 The height above the ground level

 The roughness of the terrain depending on the wind direction

The roughness coefficient at height z is defined by the logarithmic relationship:

C r (z) = K T ln(z/z o ) for z min ≤ z ≤ 200 m

C r (z) = C r (z min ) for z ≤ z min

Where KT is terrain factor

zo is the roughness length
z min is the minimum height
The parameters depend on the terrain category as given in table 3.2 of EBCS-1.

1.2.4 Terrain Categories

The terrain category attempts to take in to account the effect of the land coverage. The terrain
type is classified in to four groups in table 3.2 (EBCS-1).

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Table 3.2 (EBCS-1) Terrain Categories and Related Parameters

Category Terrain KT Z o (m) Z min (m)

Lakes with at least 5km fetch upwind and

I 0.17 0.01 2
smooth flat country without obstacles

Farmland with boundary hedges, occasional

II 0.19 0.05 4
small farm structure, houses or trees

Suburban or industrial areas and permanent

III 0.22 0.3 8
forests

Urban areas in which at least 15% of the

IV surface is covered with buildings and their 0.24 1 16
average height exceeds 15m

If the structure is situated near a change of terrain roughness at a distance:

(a) less than 2km from the smoother category I

(b) less than 1km from the smoother categories II and III, the smoother terrain category in
the upwind direction should be used.

In the above transition zones small areas of different roughness should be ignored (less than
10% of the area under consideration).

When there is any doubt about the choice between two categories in the definition of a given
area, the worse case should be taken.

Table 3.3 (EBCS-1) gives roughness coefficient C r (z) for selected values of height z.

Table 3.3 Roughness Coefficient C r

Terrain Z (m)
Category
2 4 8 16 30 50 100 200

I 0.90 1.02 1.14 1.25 1.36 1.45 1.57 1.68

II 0.83 0.83 0.96 1.10 1.22 1.31 1.44 1.58

III 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.87 1.01 1.13 1.28 1.43

IV 0.67 0.67 067 0.67 0.82 0.94 1.11 1.27

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1.2.5 Topography Coefficient

The topography coefficient C t (z) accounts for the increase of mean wind speed over isolated
hills and escarpments (not undulating and mountainous regions). It is related to the wind
velocity at the base of the hill or escarpment. It should be considered for locations within the
topography affected zone. It is defined by:

Ct = 1 for Φ < 0.05

Ct = 1 + 2 S Φ for 0.05 < Φ < 0.30

C t = 1 + 0.6 S for Φ > 0.30

Where s is the factor to be obtained by interpolation from the value of

s = 1.0 at crest of a hill, ridge or escarpment and the value s = 0 at boundary of the
topography affected zone (See Figs. 3.5 and 3.6). Interpolation shall be linear with
horizontal distance from crest and with height above the local ground level.

Φ = is the upwind slope H/Lu in the wind direction (See Figs. 3.5 and 3.6)

L e = is the effective length of the upwind slope, defined in table 3.4

L u = is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction

L d = is the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind direction

H = is the effective height of the feature

x = is the horizontal distance of the site from the top of the crest

z = the vertical distance from the ground level of the site

Table 3.4 Values of L e

Slope (Φ = H/L u )

Shallow (0.05 < Φ < 0.30) Steep (Φ > 0.30)

Le = Lu L e = H/0.3

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Fig. 3.5 Factor s: Cliffs and Escarpments

Fig. 3.6 Factor s: Hills and Ridges

1.2.6 Exposure Coefficient

The exposure coefficient, C e (z) takes into account the effects of terrain roughness,
topography and height above ground. It is defined by:

 7KT 
C e ( z ) = C r2 ( z )C t2 ( z ) 1 + 
 C r ( z )C t ( z ) 

Where: K T is the terrain factor

C r (z) is the roughness coefficient

C t (z) is the topography coefficient

The exposure coefficient C e (z) is given in Table 3.5 for each terrain category.

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1.2.7 Pressure Coefficient for Buildings

i) General
(1) The external pressure coefficients C pe for buildings and parts of buildings depend on the
size of the loaded area A, which is the area of the structure that produces the wind action
in the section to be calculated. The external pressure coefficients are given for loaded
areas A of 1 m2 and 10 m2 in the tables for the appropriate building configurations as
C pe,1 , for local coefficients, and C pe,10, for overall coefficients, respectively.
a) Values for C pe,1 are intended for the design of small elements and fixings with an area
per element of 1 m2 or less such as cladding elements and roofing elements. Values for
C pe,10 may be used for the design of the overall load bearing structure of buildings.
b) The recommended procedure for loaded areas up to 10 m2 is given in Figure A-1.

Figure A-1 Variation of External Pressure Coefficient C pe for buildings with a loaded
area A between 1 m2 and 10 m2
(2) The values C pe,10 and C pe,1 in Tables A-1 to A-5 should be used for the orthogonal wind
directions 0°, 90°, 180°. These values represent the most unfavourable values obtained in
a range of wind direction θ = ± 45° either side of the relevant orthogonal direction.
(3) These values are only applicable to buildings.

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Chapter One: Wind Load

ii) Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings

(1) The reference heights, z e , for windward walls of rectangular plan buildings (zone D, see
Figure A-2) depend on the aspect ratio h/b and are always the upper heights of the different
parts of the walls.
They are given in Figure A-2 for the following three cases:
 A building, whose height h is less than b should be considered to be one part.
 A building, whose height h is greater than b, but less than 2b, may be considered to be
two parts, comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal
to b and an upper part consisting of the remainder.
 A building, whose height h is greater than 2b may be considered to be in multiple parts,
comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to b; an
upper part extending downwards from the top by a height equal to b and a middle region,
between the upper and lower parts, which may be divided into horizontal strips with a
height h strip as shown in Figure A-2.
(2) The external pressure coefficients C pe,10 and C pe,1 for zone A, B, C, D and E are defined
in
Figure A-3.

(4) Friction forces should be considered only for long buildings.

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Figure A-2 Reference height, z e , depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity

pressure profile

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Figure A-3 Key for vertical walls

Table A-1 External pressure coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings

Zone A B,B* C D E
d/h C pe,10 C pe,1 C pe,10 C pe,1 C pe,10 C pe,1 C pe,10 C pe,1 C pe,10 C pe,1
≤1 -1.0 -1.3 -0.8 -0.1 -0.5 +0.8 +1.0 -0.3
≥4 -1.0 -1.3 -0.8 -0.1 -0.5 +0.6 +1.0 -0.3

iii) Flat roofs

(1) Flat roofs are defined as having a slope (α) of -4°< α < 4°.
(2) The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure A-4.
(3) The reference height for flat roof and roofs with curved or mansard eaves should be taken
as h. The reference height for flat roofs with parapets should be taken as h + h p .
(4) Pressure coefficients for each zone are given in Table A-2.

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Figure A-4 Key for Flat Roofs

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Table A-2 External Pressure Coefficients for Flat Roofs

i) For roofs with parapets or curved eaves, linear interpolation may be used for
intermediate values of h p /h and r/h.
ii) For roofs with mansard eaves, linear interpolation between α = 30°, 45° and α = 60° may
be used. For α > 60° linear interpolation between the values for α = 60° and the values
for flat roofs with sharp eaves may be used.
iii) In Zone I, where positive and negative values are given, both values shall be considered.
iv) For the mansard eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given in Table A-4
"External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs: wind direction 0°”, Zone F and G,
depending on the pitch angle of the mansard eave.
v) For the curved eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given by linear
interpolation along the curve, between values on the wall and on the roof.

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Chapter One: Wind Load

iv) Monopitch roofs

(1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into zones as shown in Figure A-
5.
(2) The reference height z e should be taken equal to h.
(3) The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are given in Table A-3.

Figure A-5 Key for Monopitch Roofs

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Table A-3 External Pressure Coefficients for Monopitch Roofs

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Chapter One: Wind Load

v) Duopitch roofs
(1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided in zones as shown in Figure A-6.
(2) The reference height z e should be taken as h.
(3) The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are given in Table A-4.

Figure A-6 Key for Duopitch Roofs

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Table A-4 External Pressure Coefficients for Duopitch Roofs

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Notes:
(i) At θ = 0° the pressure changes rapidly between positive and negative values on the
windward face around a pitch angle of α = -5° to +45°, so both positive and negative
values are given. For those roofs, four cases should be considered where the largest or
smallest values of all areas F, G and H are combined with the largest or smallest values
in areas I and J. No mixing of positive and negative values is allowed on the same face.
(ii) Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same sign may be used between
values of the same sign. Do not interpolate between α = +5° and α = -5°, but use the
data for flat roofs.
vi) Hipped roofs
(1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into zones as shown in Figure A-
7.
(2) The reference height z e should be taken as h.
(3) The pressure coefficients that should be used are given in Table A-5.

Figure A-7 Key for Hipped Roofs

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Table A-5 External pressure coefficients for hipped roofs of buildings

vii) Multi-span roofs

(1) Pressure coefficients for wind directions 0°, 90° and 180° for each span of a multispan
roof may be derived from the pressure coefficient for each individual span. Modifying
factors for the pressures (local and global) for wind directions 0° and 180° on each span
should be derived:
 from A.2.4 for monopitch roofs, modified for their position according to Figure
A-8 a and b.
 from A.2.5 for duopitch roofs for α < 0 modified for their position according to
Figure A-8 c and d.
(2) The zones F/G/J used should be considered only for the upwind face. The zones H and I
should be considered for each span of the multispan roof.
(3) The reference height z e should be taken as h.

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Figure A-8 Key to Multispan Roofs

viii) Vaulted roofs and domes

(1) This section applies to circular cylindrical roofs and domes.
(2) The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figs. A-9 and A-10.
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Chapter One: Wind Load

(3) The reference height should be taken as z e = h + f.

Note:
i) for 0 < h/d < 0.5, c pe,10 is obtained by linear interpolation
ii) for 0.2 ≤ f/d ≤ 0.3 and h/d ≥ 0.5, two values of c pe,10 have to be considered the diagram
is not applicable for flat roofs

Figure A-9 External pressure coefficients c pe,10 for vaulted roofs with rectangular base

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Chapter One: Wind Load

Figure A-10 External pressure coefficients c pe,10 for vaulted Domes with circular base

1.2.8 Internal Pressure Coefficients

Internal pressure arises due to openings, such as windows, doors and vents, in the cladding.
In general, if the wind panel has a greater proportion of openings than the leeward panel, then
the interior of the structure is subjected to positive (outward) pressure as illustrated in Fig.
below. Conversely, if the leeward face has more openings, then the interior is subjected to a
negative (inward) pressure.

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Chapter One: Wind Load

(1) The internal pressure coefficient C pi for buildings without internal partitions is given in
Fig. A-11 and is a function of the opening ratio μ, defined as

(2) The reference height z i without internal partition and floors is the mean height of the
openings with homogenous distribution of height of the dominant opening. An opening is
regarded as dominant, if the ratio of its area to that of the remaining openings is larger
than 10.
(3) The reference height z i for buildings without internal partitions but with
compartmentation by internal floors is the mean height of the level considered.
(4) For a homogenous distribution of openings for a nearly square building the value C pi = -
0.25 shall be used.
(5) The worst values have to be considered for any combination of possible openings.
(6) For closed buildings with internal partitions and opening windows the extreme values:
C pi = 0.8 and C pi = -0.5
(7) In the Fig. the most intensive suction is assumed to be C pi = -0.5 (lowest point of the
curve). If one or more dominant openings exist in areas with more intensive suction than -
0.5, then the curve continues down to the lower value.
(8) Internal and external pressures are considered to act at the same time.
(9) The internal pressure coefficient of open silos is:
C pi = -0.8
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 Chapter One: Wind Load

The reference height z i is equal to the height of the silos.

Figure A-11 Internal pressure coefficients c pi for Buildings with Openings in the Walls

1.2.9 Wind force on Structures

The total wind force acting on individual zones of clad structures is proportional to the difference in
pressure between the external and internal forces. That is

F w = (W e - W i ) A ref

Where, F w = total inward force

A ref = the reference area, generally equal to the projected area of the zone
normal to the wind direction.

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